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{{Short description|American agribusiness corporation (1901–2018)}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}} | |||
{{Other uses}} | |||
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2019}} | |||
{{Infobox company | {{Infobox company | ||
| |
| name = Monsanto Company | ||
| |
| logo = Monsanto logo.svg | ||
| |
| type = ] | ||
| traded_as |
| traded_as = {{NYSE was|MON}} | ||
| industry = ] | |||
| foundation = ], U.S. (1901) | |||
| fate = Acquired by ] | |||
| founder = ] | |||
| foundation = {{start date and age|1901|09|26}}<br/>Reformed in 2000 (spun off from ]) | |||
| location = ], U.S. | |||
| founder = ] | |||
| key_people = ]<br><small>(Chairman, President and CEO)</small> | |||
| defunct = {{end date and age|2018|06|07}} | |||
| industry = ] | |||
| location = ], U.S. | |||
| products = ]s, ]s, ] | |||
| key_people = {{ubl|class=nowrap | |||
| revenue = {{nowrap|{{increase}} US$ 11.822 billion <small>(FY 2011)</small><ref name=secdatabase.com_EDGAR_10-K-A>{{cite web|url=http://pdf.secdatabase.com/2347/0000950123-11-101537.pdf|title=2011 Annual Report, Form 10-K/A, Monsanto Company, Filing Date December 1, 2011 |publisher=secdatabase.com |accessdate =15 May 2010}}</ref>}} | |||
| ] | {{small|(Chairman, President, & CEO)}} | |||
| operating_income = {{increase}} US$ 2.502 billion <small>(FY 2011)</small><ref name=secdatabase.com_EDGAR_10-K-A/> | |||
| Pierre Courduroux | {{small|(Vice President & CFO)}}}} | |||
| net_income = {{increase}} US$ 1.659 billion <small>(FY 2011)</small><ref name=secdatabase.com_EDGAR_10-K-A/> | |||
| products = {{ubl|class=nowrap|]s|]|]s}} | |||
| assets = {{increase}} US$ 19.844 billion <small>(FY 2011)</small><ref name=secdatabase.com_EDGAR_10-K-A/> | |||
| parent = ] (1999–2000) | |||
| equity = {{increase}} US$ 11.716 billion <small>(FY 2011)</small><ref name=secdatabase.com_EDGAR_10-K-A/> | |||
| |
| footnotes = <ref name=10KAUG2017>{{cite web |url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1110783/000111078317000187/mon-20170831x10k.htm |title=US SEC: Form 10-K Monsanto Company |publisher=] |access-date=January 11, 2018}}</ref> | ||
}} | |||
| homepage = }} | |||
] | |||
The '''Monsanto Company''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ɒ|n|ˈ|s|æ|n|t|oʊ}}) was an American ] and ] corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in ]. Monsanto's best-known product is ], a ]-based ], developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of ] crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the ] of the largest United States corporations by revenue.<ref name="Fortune 500 Companies 2018">{{cite web|title=Fortune 500 Companies 2018|url=http://fortune.com/fortune500/list/|access-date=March 18, 2019|publisher=fortune.com|archive-date=January 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115060417/http://fortune.com/fortune500/list/}}</ref> | |||
'''Monsanto Company''' ({{nyse|MON}}) is a publicly traded American ] ] corporation headquartered in ].<ref>"." '']''. Wednesday 12 August 2009. Retrieved on 19 August 2009.</ref><ref></ref> It is a leading producer of ] (GE) ] and of the ] ], which it markets under the ] brand.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304458604577490600217020934.html | work=Wall Street Journal | first=Ian | last=Berry | title=Monsanto Digs Into Seeds | date=26 June 2012}}</ref> Founded in 1901 by ], by the 1940s it was a major producer of plastics, including ] and ]. Notable achievements by Monsanto and its scientists as a chemical company included breakthrough research on ] ] and being the first company to mass-produce ] (LEDs). The company also manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide ], ], ], and ] ]. | |||
Monsanto was among the first to ] a plant cell, along with three academic teams, announced in 1983,<ref></ref> and was among the first to conduct field trials of ], which it did in 1987. It remained one of the top 10 U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on ]. | |||
Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983,<ref name="pbn">{{cite web |url=http://www.vib.be/en/about-vib/plant-biotech-news/Pages/The-race-towards-the-first-genetically-modified-plant.aspx |title=The race towards the first genetically modified plant |publisher=Plant Biotech News |date=June 19, 2013 |access-date=April 30, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317075858/http://www.vib.be/en/about-vib/plant-biotech-news/Pages/The-race-towards-the-first-genetically-modified-plant.aspx|archive-date=March 17, 2017 }}</ref> and was among the first to conduct field trials of ] in 1987. It was one of the top-ten U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on ]. | |||
Monsanto was a pioneer in applying the ] business model, developed by ] and other biotech drug companies in the late 1970s in California,<ref> | |||
International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering, Inc., San Francisco/Bay Area Chapter Newsletter, Volume 13, No. 4 [www.ispe.org/san-francisco/sf-newsletter-vol13-no4.pdf A Brief History of Biotechnology | |||
Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the ] business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies.<ref>Dorothy Leonard-Barton, Gary P. Pisano. January 29, 1990. Harvard Business Review: Case Studies. </ref>{{rp|2–6}} In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting ]s.<ref name="Moschini">{{cite web |url=http://www.choicesmagazine.org/magazine/print.php?article=120 |title=Competition Issues in the Seed Industry and the Role of Intellectual Property |publisher=Choicesmagazine.org |date=November 21, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302160548/http://www.choicesmagazine.org/magazine/print.php?article=120 |archive-date=March 2, 2013}}</ref><ref>Schneider, Keith (June 10, 1990) . ''The New York Times''.</ref><ref>Burrone, Esteban (2006) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024234945/http://www.wipo.int/sme/en/documents/patents_biotech_fulltext.html |date=October 24, 2016 }}. ]</ref><ref>Economic Research Service/USDA {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109090402/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib-agricultural-information-bulletin/aib786.aspx |date=November 9, 2012}}</ref> | |||
Vandana Shiva , 06 Feb 2012, ].</ref><ref name="Parsai">{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2861063.ece | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | first=Gargi | last=Parsai | title=Opposition to Monsanto patent on Indian melons | date=5 February 2012}}</ref> Monsanto's role in these changes in agriculture (which include its litigation and its seed commercialization practices<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{Cite news| url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/12/14/business/main5978152.shtml | title = AP: Monsanto Strong-Arms Seed Industry | work=] | date = 14 December 2009 | accessdate =15 June 2010}}</ref>), its current and former agbiotech products, its lobbying of government agencies, and its history as a chemical company, have made Monsanto controversial. | |||
Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as a chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as the ] ], ], ], and ] ]. | |||
In September 2016, German chemical company ] announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$66 billion in an all-cash deal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2016/09/14/bayer-monsanto-acquisition/90346412/|title=Big deal: Bayer getting Monsanto for $66B|first=Nathan|last=Bomey|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> After gaining U.S. and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name ''Monsanto'' was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-06-07/bayer-closes-monsanto-deal-to-cap-63-billion-transformation|title=Bayer Closes Monsanto Deal to Cap $63 Billion Transformation |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=June 7, 2018 |access-date=2018-11-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-monsanto-m-a-bayer-closing/with-deal-to-close-this-week-bayer-to-retire-monsanto-name-idUSKCN1J00IZ |title=With deal to close this week, Bayer to retire Monsanto name |publisher=] |date=June 4, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2018/06/04/monsanto-bayer-name/668418002/|title=Monsanto shedding name: Bayer acquisition leads to change for environmental lightning rod|first=Nathan|last=Bomey|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products ], ] and ].<ref name="bayerpays" /> Owing to the massive financial and reputational blows caused by ongoing litigation concerning Monsanto's herbicide Roundup, the Bayer-Monsanto merger is considered one of the worst corporate mergers in history.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Sherman |first=Ruth Bender {{!}} Graphics by Merrill |date=28 August 2019 |title=How Bayer-Monsanto Became One of the Worst Corporate Deals—in 12 Charts |language=en-US |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-bayer-monsanto-became-one-of-the-worst-corporate-dealsin-12-charts-11567001577 |access-date=2019-09-23}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |date=29 August 2019 |title=Worst deal ever? Bayer's market cap now close to the total cost it paid for Monsanto |url=https://www.fiercepharma.com/pharma/worst-deal-ever-bayer-s-market-cap-now-close-to-total-cost-it-paid-for-monsanto |access-date=2019-09-23 |website=FiercePharma |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite news |last=Randazzo |first=Sara |date=2021-02-03 |title=Bayer Tries Again to Limit Roundup Liability |language=en-US |work=] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/bayer-tries-again-to-limit-roundup-liability-11612388834 |access-date=2021-02-04 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Farrell |first=Maureen |date=2023-12-06 |title=Years After Monsanto Deal, Bayer's Roundup Bills Keep Piling Up |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/06/business/monsanto-bayer-roundup-lawsuit-settlements.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-12-06}}</ref> | |||
{{toclimit|3}} | |||
==History== | ==History== | ||
{{Further|Timeline of Monsanto}} | |||
{{farming}} | |||
Monsanto was founded in ], in 1901, by ], a 30‑year veteran of the pharmaceutical industry. He funded the start-up with his own money and capital from a ] distributor and gave the company his wife's maiden name. His father-in-law was Emmanuel Mendes de Monsanto, a wealthy financier of a sugar company active in ], and based in St. Thomas in the ]. The company's first product was the ] ], which was sold to the ]. | |||
==="Pre-Pharmacia" Monsanto=== | |||
In 1919 Monsanto expanded to Europe by entering a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at ] near ], Wales to produce ], ] and its raw ingredient ], and later ] processing chemicals. This site was later sold and closed in 2010. In the 1920s Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals like ] and ], and Queeny's son ] took over the company in 1928. | |||
==== 1901 to WWII ==== | |||
In 1901, Monsanto was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url = http://www.genengnews.com/gen-articles/biotech-firms-need-innovation-strategies/5563/ |title=Biotech Firms Need Innovation Strategies |last = Glick |first=J. Leslie |date=September 1, 2015 |work=] |access-date=September 29, 2015 |page = 11}}{{Open access}}</ref> The founder was ], who, at age 42, was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry.<ref> brief bio from Junior Achievement {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206123651/http://www.ja.org/nested/stlouis/John_Queeny.pdf|date=February 6, 2009}}</ref> He funded the firm with his own money and capital from a ] distributor. He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Ehrlich|1997|p=3}}</ref> | |||
The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as the ] ], ] and ].<ref>Erik Simani, World Resources Institute. 2001. </ref>{{rp|6}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Our history – Early years|url=http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/Pages/monsanto-history.aspx|publisher=Monsanto official website|access-date=September 27, 2013}}</ref><ref>Marc S. Reisch for Chemical & Engineering News. January 12, 1998 </ref><ref>Robert Ancuceanu. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515182436/http://practica-farmaceutica.medica.ro/reviste_med/download/practica_farmaceutica/2011.2/PF_Nr-2_2011_Art-1.pdf |date=May 15, 2014 }} Practica Farmaceutică 2011 4(2):69–72</ref><ref>{{cite book |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=uVq_AAAAQBAJ}} |title=Sweet Stuff: An American History of Sweeteners from Sugar to Sucralose | publisher=Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press |author=Warner, Deborah Jean |year=2011 |pages=182–190 |isbn=978-1-935623-05-2}}</ref> | |||
In 1946 it developed "All" laundry detergent and began to market it; they sold the product line to Lever Brothers in 1957.<ref>{{cite web|author=Published: 15 September 2003 |url=http://adage.com/article/adage-encyclopedia/unilever-lever-brothers/98749/ |title=Unilever (Lever Brothers Co.) | AdAge Encyclopedia of Advertising - Advertising Age |publisher=Adage.com |date=15 September 2003 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> Also in the 1940s, Monsanto operated the ], and later ] in Miamisburg, Ohio, for the ], the development of the first ] and, after 1947, the ]. In 1947 one of its factories was destroyed in the ].<ref></ref> Monsanto acquired American Viscose from England's Courtauld family in 1949. In 1954 Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant ] to form ] and market ]s in the United States. | |||
Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at ], Wales. The venture produced vanillin, ] and its raw ingredient ], and later ] processing chemicals. | |||
Monsanto began manufacturing ] in 1944, along with some 15 other companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/corp/tokaronwar120902.cfm |title=Agribusiness, Biotechnology and War |publisher=Organicconsumers.org |date= |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> This insecticide was much welcomed in the fight against malaria-transmitting mosquitoes. Due to DDT's toxicity, its use in the United States was banned in 1972. In 1977 Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; the US Congress banned domestic PCB production two years later.<ref></ref><ref name = "ATSDR"/> In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was also one of the most important producers of ] for ] operations in ]. | |||
In the 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as ] and ]. Queeny's son ] took over the company in 1928. | |||
In the mid‑1960s, ] and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize ] via ]. This was an important advancement because it was the first method for the ] production of pure ] compounds.<ref>http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2001/knowles-lecture.pdf</ref> Using this method, Knowles' team designed the "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound" - ], which is currently the main drug used to treat ].<ref>{{cite pmid|16286647}}</ref> In 2001 Knowles and ] won the ]. In the mid-60's chemists at Monsanto developed the ] for making ] which until 2000 was the method most widely used to make this important industrial chemical. In 1965 Monsanto chemists invented ] which the company then commercialized. | |||
In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in ] (now known as ]). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of the responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB115984289083380869|title=Yes, in My Backyard: Tiny Sauget, Illinois, Likes Business Misfits|last=Spain|first=William|date=2006-10-03|work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=2017-12-22|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> | |||
In 1968 they became the first company to start mass production of (visible) ] (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide. This ushered in the era of solid-state lights. From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became the standards of industry. The primary markets then were electronic calculators, digital watches, and digital clocks.<ref name="Schubert">{{Cite book|author=E. Fred Schubert|title=Light-Emitting Diodes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|chapter=1|isbn=0-8194-3956-8}}</ref> Monsanto was a pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s. | |||
In 1935, Monsanto bought the ] in ], and thereby entered the business of producing ].<ref name="CIA1">{{cite web|title=Poisoned by PCBs: 'A Lack of Control'|url=http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/anniston/2.asp|website=Chemical Industry Archives|access-date=November 30, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210110457/http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/anniston/2.asp|archive-date=December 10, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Head">{{cite journal |last1=Head|first1=Thomas R. III|title=PCBs—The Rise and Fall of an Industrial Miracle|journal=Natural Resources & Environment|date=Spring 2005|page=18|url=http://www.americanbar.org/tools/digitalassetabstract.html/content/dam/aba/publishing/natural_resources_environment/environ_mo_premium_nr_nre_spring05_Head.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208230006/http://www.americanbar.org/tools/digitalassetabstract.html/content/dam/aba/publishing/natural_resources_environment/environ_mo_premium_nr_nre_spring05_Head.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-08 |url-status=live|access-date=November 30, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Montague">{{cite web |last1=Montague|first1=Peter|title=How We Got Here – Part 1: The History of Chlorinated Diphenyl (PCB's)|url=http://www.hudsonwatch.net/rachels01.html|website=HudsonWatch.net}}</ref> | |||
In 1979 Monsanto established the Edgar Monsanto Queeny safety award in honor of its former CEO (1928‑1960), an annual $2,000 prize given to a member of the ] to encourage accident prevention.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asse.org/practicespecialties/interviews/SPYAward.php |title=SPY Award Interview |publisher=Asse.org |date=16 April 1947 |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> | |||
In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in ], to acquire the expertise of ] and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department.<ref name="Landau">Ralph Landau, , vol. 2, National Academy of Engineering</ref>{{rp|340–341}} Thomas spent the rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970.<ref name="Bird">David Bird, , ''The New York Times'', March 31, 1982.</ref> In 1943, Thomas was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with ], commander of the ], and ], president of ] and chairman of the ] (NDRC).<ref name="Building">''Dayton Daily News''. September 18, 1983 .</ref> They urged Thomas to become co-director of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with ], but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto.<ref name="Building" /> He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research.<ref>Harvey V. Moyer, ed., , Atomic Energy Commission U.S.A., July 1956</ref>{{rp|vii}} To that end, Monsanto operated the ], and later ], and assisted in the development of the first ].<ref name="Building" /> | |||
Monsanto scientists became the first to ] a plant cell in 1982. Five years later, Monsanto conducted the first field tests of genetically engineered crops. | |||
==== Post-WWII ==== | |||
In 1985 Monsanto acquired ], a ] company focusing on pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and animal health. In 1993 Monsanto's Searle division filed a patent application for ],<ref>http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/ob/docs/patexclnew.cfm?Appl_No=020998&Product_No=003&table1=OB_Rx</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/patents/US5466823 |title=Patent US5466823 - Substituted pyrazolyl benzenesulfonamides - Google Patents |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> which in 1998 became the first selective ] to be approved by the U.S. FDA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/98/20998.cfm |title=Drug Approval Package: Celebrex (Celecoxib) NDA# 20-998 |publisher=Accessdata.fda.gov |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> Celebrex became a ] and was often mentioned as a key reason for ]'s acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/0,,SB1026684057282753560.djm,00.html | work=The Wall Street Journal | first1=Robert | last1=Frank | first2=Scott | last2=Hensley | title=Pfizer to Buy Pharmacia For $60 Billion in Stock | date=15 July 2002}}</ref> | |||
In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which it sold to ] in 1957.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://adage.com/article/adage-encyclopedia/unilever-lever-brothers/98749/ |title=Unilever (Lever Brothers Co.) | AdAge Encyclopedia of Advertising – Advertising Age |publisher=Adage.com |date=September 15, 2003}}</ref> In 1947, its ] factory was destroyed in the ].<ref>{{cite web| title=Fire on the Grandcamp| url=http://www.texascity-library.org/disaster/first.php| publisher=Moore Memorial Public Library| location=Texas City, TX| date=n.d.| access-date=October 21, 2015| archive-date=June 24, 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624233433/http://www.texascity-library.org/disaster/first.php}}</ref> In 1949, Monsanto acquired ] from ]. In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant ] to form ] and market ]s in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wallace|first1=Cynthia Day|title=Legal control of the multinational enterprise: national regulatory techniques and the prospects for international controls|date=1982|publisher=Nijhoff|location=The Hague|isbn=978-90-247-2668-4|page=188}}</ref> | |||
Monsanto began manufacturing ] in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill ]-transmitting mosquitoes, but it was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts. | |||
In 1994 Monsanto introduced a ] version of ], brand-named Posilac.<ref name = MG>{{cite web | url = http://www.monsantodairy.com/about/general_info/index.html | title = General information - Posilac | accessdate =16 January 2008 | year = 2007 | publisher = Monsanto | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080101123956/http://www.monsantodairy.com/about/general_info/index.html| archivedate = 1 January 2008}}</ref> Monsanto later sold this business off to ]. | |||
In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later.<ref>. EPA.gov (June 28, 2006).</ref><ref name="ATSDR" /> | |||
In 1996 Monsanto purchased ], the biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic varieties of cotton, soybeans, peanuts, and other crops, and which Monsanto had already been licencing technology from since 1991.<ref>http://www.biotechprofiles.com/companyfiles/madisonnetwork/c81a944349224f0984a586f89719edb6.pdf</ref> Monsanto first entered the maize seed business when it purchased 40% of ] in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998.<ref></ref> In 1998 Monsanto purchased ]'s seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries.<ref></ref> In 2005, it finalized the purchase of ], a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $1.4 billion.<ref>St. Louis Business Journal, 23 March 2005. </ref> This made it the world's largest conventional seed company at the time. | |||
====1960s and 1970s==== | |||
In 2007 Monsanto and ] announced a long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://monsanto.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=27632&item=76826 |title=Monsanto Press Room |publisher=Monsanto.mediaroom.com |date=21 March 2007 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corporate.basf.com/de/investor/veranstaltungen/termine/070321_interview.htm?id=V00-Eq3z_CNjlbcp.*0 |title=BASF-Gruppe: Interview Dr. Jürgen Hambrecht zur Zusammenarbeit mit Monsanto |publisher=Corporate.basf.com |date=21 March 2007 |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> | |||
In the mid‑1960s, ] and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize ] via ]. This was the first method for the ] production of pure ] compounds.<ref>William S. Knowles. . Nobel Lecture, December 8, 2001</ref> Knowles' team designed the "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"—], which is used to treat ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yun |first=O. |date=November 22, 2005 |title=Profile of William S. Knowles |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |pages=16913–16915 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0507546102 |pmc=1287994 |pmid=16286647 |issue=47|bibcode=2005PNAS..10216913Y |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 2001, Knowles and ] won the ]. In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed the ] for making ], which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented ] (initially ChemGrass).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astroturf.com/1964/06/|title=June – 1964 – AstroTurf|access-date=June 15, 2015|archive-date=July 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714075949/http://www.astroturf.com/1964/06/}}</ref> | |||
In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of ] for ] operations in ], and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984.<ref name="EncNatSec">"Agent Orange" entry in Encyclopedia of United States National Security, edited by Richard J. Samuel. SAGE Publications, 2005. {{ISBN|9781452265353}}</ref>{{rp|6}} In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) ]s (LEDs), using ] ]. From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were ], ] and digital clocks.<ref name="Schubert">{{Cite book|author=E. Fred Schubert|title=Light-Emitting Diodes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|chapter=1|isbn=978-0-8194-3956-7}}</ref> Monsanto became a pioneer of ] in the 1970s. | |||
In October 2008, the company's Canadian division, Monsanto Canada Inc., was named one of ] by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in '']'' news magazine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eluta.ca/top-employer-monsanto|title=Reasons for Selection, 2009 Canada's Top 100 Employers Competition}}</ref> | |||
Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the ] event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the ]. | |||
===Spin-offs and mergers=== | |||
Through a series of transactions, the Monsanto that existed from 1901 to 2000 and the current Monsanto are legally two distinct corporations. Although they share the same name and corporate headquarters, many of the same executives and other employees, and responsibility for liabilities arising out of activities in the industrial chemical business, the agricultural chemicals business is the only segment carried forward from the pre-1997 Monsanto Company to the current Monsanto Company. This was accomplished beginning in the 1980s: | |||
In 1974, ] and Monsanto signed a 10-year ] to support the cancer research of ], which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were the first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit ].<ref name=NASbio>]. National Academy of Sciences, 2014</ref><ref name=HarvardBIo>Harvard Medical School </ref> | |||
* 1985: Monsanto purchased ] for $2.7 billion in cash.<ref></ref><ref></ref> In this merger, Searle's aspartame business became a separate Monsanto subsidiary, the ] Company. CEO of NutraSweet, ], became CEO of Monsanto from 1995 to 2000. | |||
* 1996: Acquired ], a majority interest in Calgene, creators of the ] tomato, and 40% of ]. It purchased the remainder of Dekalb in 1998.<ref name=Troyer>Troyer, A. Forrest. ''Development of Hybrid Corn and the Seed Corn Industry.'' '''''In:''''' Handbook of Maize Genetics and Genomics. Bennetzen, Jeff L.; Hake, Sarah (Eds.) Springer, 2009, pages 87–114.</ref><ref></ref> | |||
* 1997: Monsanto spun off its industrial chemical and fiber divisions into ].<ref></ref> This transferred the financial liability related to the production and contamination with ] at the Illinois and Alabama plants. In January, Monsanto announced the purchase of Holden's Foundations Seeds, a privately held seed business. By acquiring Holden's, Monsanto became the biggest American producer of foundation corn, the parent seed from which hybrids are made.<ref></ref> The combined purchase price was $925 million. Also, in April, Monsanto purchased the remaining shares of Calgene. | |||
* 1999: Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co. and two other companies. | |||
* 2000 (spring): Monsanto merged with ], and the agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of the "new" Pharmacia; the medical research divisions, which included products such as ], remained in Pharmacia.<ref></ref> | |||
* 2000 (October): Pharmacia spun off its Monsanto subsidiary into a new company, the "new Monsanto".<ref>{{cite news |title = Monsanto Raises $700 Million in IPO | |||
| date = 18 October 2000 | url = http://articles.latimes.com/2000/oct/18/business/fi-38228 | accessdate =25 November 2011 | work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> As part of the deal, Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against any liabilities that might be incurred from judgments against Solutia. As a result, the new Monsanto continues to be a party to numerous lawsuits that relate to operations of the old Monsanto. | |||
* 2005: Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent was the third largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12 percent of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seedtoday.com/articles/monsanto_to_acquire_emergent_genetics__stoneville_and_nexgen_cotton_brands-25250.html |title=Monsanto to Acquire Emergent Genetics, Stoneville and NexGen Cotton Brands |publisher=Seed Today |date=17 February 2005 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
* 2007: In June, Monsanto completed its purchase of Delta and Pine Land Company, a major cotton seed breeder, for $1.5 billion.<ref>{{cite web | title = Monsanto Company Completes Acquisition of Delta and Pine Land Company, Seeks Approval of Related Divestitures | date = 1 June 2007 | url = http://news.thomasnet.com/companystory/524921 | accessdate =10 October 2009}}</ref> As a condition for approval of the purchase from the ], Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer, and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpj.com/archives/2007/jun07/jun11/Monsantoreachesagreementwit.cfm |title=Monsanto reaches agreement with Department of Justice to acqui |publisher=Hpj.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> Monsanto also exited the pig breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property".<ref>{{cite web | title = Monsanto – Pig Patent | date = 16 July 2009 | url = http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/pig-patent.aspx | accessdate =10 October 2009}}</ref> | |||
* 2008: Monsanto purchased the Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million,<ref>{{cite web | title = De Ruiter Seeds Acquisition | date = 31 March 2008 | url = http://in.reuters.com/article/2008/03/31/deruiter-monsanto-idINWNAS636420080331 | accessdate =10 October 2012}}</ref> and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly in August for $300 million plus "additional contingent consideration".<ref>{{cite web | title = Eli Lilly and Company to Acquire Monsanto's POSILAC Brand Dairy Product and Related Business | date = 20 August 2008 | url = http://monsanto.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=629 | accessdate =10 October 2009}}</ref> | |||
====1980 to 1989: Becoming an agribiotech company==== | |||
==Corporate governance== | |||
Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983.<ref name=pbn/> Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of ]. Increasing involvement in ] dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's ] in 1983.<ref name=":0" /> This involvement increased under the leadership of ], appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
Current members of the board of directors of Monsanto are: ], president of ]; Hugh Grant, the president and CEO of Monsanto; Arthur H. Harper, managing partner of GenNx360 Capital Partners; ], president of Podium Prose, a speakers bureau; Laura K. Ipsen, senior VP and general manager of Connected Energy Networks at ], C. Steven McMillan, former chairman and CEO of the ]; William U. Parfet, chief executive officer of MPI Research Inc.; Janice L. Fields, president of ]; ], chief executive of Health Technology Networks; and Jon R. Moeller, chief financial officer of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/Pages/board-of-directors.aspx |title=Board of Directors |publisher=Monsanto}}</ref><ref></ref> | |||
In 1985, Monsanto acquired ], a ] company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for ],<ref>. accessdata.fda.gov</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US5466823A/en|title=Substituted pyrazolyl benzenesulfonamides}}</ref> which in 1998 became the first selective ] to be approved by the U.S. ] (FDA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/98/20998.cfm |title=Drug Approval Package: Celebrex (Celecoxib) NDA# 20-998 |publisher=Accessdata.fda.gov}}</ref> Celebrex became a ] and was often mentioned as a key reason for ]'s acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Frank, Robert |author2=Hensley, Scott |name-list-style=amp |title=Pfizer to Buy Pharmacia For $60 Billion in Stock|url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB1026684057282753560|work=The Wall Street Journal |date=July 16, 2002}}</ref> | |||
==Products and associated issues== | |||
====1990 to 1999: Moving into the seed market & industry consolidation==== | |||
===Current products=== | |||
In 1994, Monsanto introduced a ] version of ], brand-named Posilac.<ref name = MG>{{cite web | url = http://www.monsantodairy.com/about/general_info/index.html | title = General information – Posilac| year = 2007 | publisher = Monsanto | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080101123956/http://www.monsantodairy.com/about/general_info/index.html| archive-date = January 1, 2008}}</ref> Monsanto later sold this business to ]. | |||
In 1996, Monsanto purchased ], the biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991.<ref>{{Cite press release|title = WR Grace Sells Agracetus to Monsanto for $150M|url = http://www.biotechprofiles.com/companyfiles/madisonnetwork/c81a944349224f0984a586f89719edb6.pdf|date = April 8, 1996|publisher = W. R. Grace|via = BiotechProfiles<!--http://www.biotechprofiles.com/companyprofile/Monsanto.aspx--><!--found in archive.org-->|access-date = August 11, 2012|archive-date = November 5, 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111105040555/http://biotechprofiles.com/companyfiles/madisonnetwork/c81a944349224f0984a586f89719edb6.pdf}}</ref> | |||
====Glyphosate herbicides==== | |||
{{see also|Glyphosate}} | |||
In 1997, Monsanto divested ], a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production. | |||
Monsanto chemist ] invented ] in 1970.<ref></ref> Monsanto is the largest producer of ] ] in the United States through its Roundup product line, which is used to kill ]s, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with commercial crops. Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent on glyphosate expired in 2000 and it is now produced by many companies in the US and around the world. As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's yearly revenue.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14904184|title=The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint|date=19 November 2009|work=The Economist|accessdate=20 November 2009}}</ref> | |||
Monsanto first entered the ] seed business when it purchased 40% of ] in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998.<ref name=":1">{{cite press release |title=Justice Department Approves Monsanto's Acquisition of Dekalb Genetics Corporation |date=November 30, 1998 |url=https://www.justice.gov/atr/public/press_releases/1998/2103.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040218013852/http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/press_releases/1998/2103.htm |archive-date=February 18, 2004 |publisher=United States Department of Justice}}</ref> In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on ], indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian ] company '''Calgene''' was acquired.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=25968 |title = Stocks|website = ]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://money.cnn.com/1997/04/01/deals/monsanto/|title=Monsanto buys Calgene - Apr. 1, 1997 |website=money.cnn.com}}</ref> In 1998, Monsanto purchased ]'s international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries.<ref name=":1" /> In 2005, it finalized the purchase of ], a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $1.4 billion.<ref>{{cite news |title=Monsanto closes $1.4 billion buy of Seminis |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/stories/2005/03/21/daily37.html |access-date=2018-01-06 |work=St. Louis Business Journal |date=March 23, 2005}}</ref> This made it the world's largest conventional seed company. | |||
In 2007 glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the US agricultural sector, with 180 to 185 million pounds ({{convert|180000000|to|185000000|lb|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}}) applied, and the 2nd most used in home and garden market where users applied 5 to 8 million pounds ({{convert|5000000|to|8000000|lb|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}}); additionally industry, commerce and government applied 13 to 15 million pounds ({{convert|13000000|to|15000000|lb|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}}).<ref name="EPAusage">US EPA 2007 Pesticide Market Estimates , </ref> While glyphosate has been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide and is less toxic than all the herbicides it replaced,<ref>Stephen O Duke and Stephen B Powles (2008) Pest Management Science Pest Manag Sci 64:319–325</ref> concerns about its effects on humans and the environment persist.<ref name="huffingtonpost defects">{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/24/roundup-scientists-birth-defects_n_883578.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Lucia | last=Graves | title=Roundup: Birth Defects Caused By World's Top-Selling Weedkiller, Scientists Say | date=24 June 2011}}</ref> | |||
In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co.<ref name=":0" /> In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with ], in a deal valuing the transaction at $27 billion.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Deogun |first1=Nikhil |last2=Langreth |first2=Robert |last3=Burton |first3=Thomas M. |title=Pharmacia & Upjohn, Monsanto Boards Approve $27 Billion Merger of Equals |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB945650774971796642 |access-date=2018-01-06 |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=December 20, 1999}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Barboza |first=David |date=December 20, 1999 |title=Monsanto and Pharmacia to Join, Creating a Pharmaceutical Giant |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/20/business/monsanto-and-pharmacia-to-join-creating-a-pharmaceutical-giant.html?ref=monsantocompany |access-date=2018-06-15 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}</ref> The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of the "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Barboza |first1=David |title=Monsanto and Pharmacia to Join, Creating a Pharmaceutical Giant |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/20/business/monsanto-and-pharmacia-to-join-creating-a-pharmaceutical-giant.html |access-date=2018-01-06 |work=The New York Times |date=December 20, 1999}}</ref> | |||
====Seeds==== | |||
{{Main|Genetically modified crops|Genetically modified food|Genetically modified food controversies}} | |||
===="Pre-Pharmacia" Monsanto overview==== | |||
As of 2012, Monsanto's line of seed products includes agricultural seeds and vegetable seeds. | |||
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%; border:solid 1px #aaa" | |||
Many of Monsanto's agricultural seed products are genetically modified for resistance to herbicides, such as ], which Monsanto sells under the brand, "Roundup" - Monsanto calls these seeds "Roundup Ready". Monsanto's introduction of this system (planting glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged) provided farmers with an opportunity to dramatically increase the yield from a given plot of land, since this allowed them to plant rows closer together.<ref name=HighPlainsJ>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpj.com/archives/2010/aug10/aug2/0716SeedMACOAug2sr.cfm |title=Roundup Ready soybean trait patent nears expiration in 2014 |publisher=Hpj.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to control post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage.<ref name=HighPlainsJ /> Farmers have widely adopted the technology - for example over 90% of maize (]), ] (MON-Ø4Ø32-6), cotton, ], and ] planted in the United States are glyphosate-resistant, as described in the ] article. Monsanto has also developed a Roundup Ready ] (MON 71800). | |||
|- | |||
! style="background:#F0F2F5" | Illustration of the company's mergers, acquisitions, ] and historical predecessors: | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
{{cladeR | style=font-size:90%;line-height:110% |thickness=0 | |||
|label1='''Pharmacia Corp.'''<br/><small>Acquired by ], 2002</small> | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|label1=] | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|label1=]<br/><small>(Merged 1995)</small> | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|label1=Kabi Pharmacia | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|label1=Pharmacia Biotech | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|2=LKB-produkter AB<br/><small>(Acq 1968)</small> | |||
|1=PL Laboratories | |||
}} | |||
|2=Kabi Vitrum<br/><small>(Acq 1990)</small> | |||
}} | |||
|2=]<br/><small>(Acq 1993)</small> | |||
}} | |||
|2=]<br/><small>(Merged 1995)</small> | |||
}} | |||
|label2=Monsanto | |||
|2={{clade sequential |reverse=yes |inverse=yes | |||
|8=]<br/><small>(Seed div, Acq 1998)</small> | |||
|7=]<br/><small>(Acq 1998)</small> | |||
|6=]<br/><small>(Acq 1996)</small> | |||
|5=]<br/><small>(Acq 1985)</small> | |||
|4=American Viscose<br/><small>(Acq 1949)</small> | |||
|3=Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories<br/><small>(Acq 1936)</small> | |||
|2=]<br/><small>(Acq 1935)</small> | |||
|1=Monsanto<br/><small>(Est 1901)</small> | |||
}} | |||
}} | |||
}} | |||
|} | |||
As of 2009, the overall Roundup line of products including the GM seeds represented about 50% of Monsanto's business.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html|title=The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play|last=Cavallaro|first=Matt|date=26 June 2009|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=11 July 2009}}</ref> The patent on the first type of ''Roundup Ready'' crop that Monsanto produced (soybeans) expires in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_05/b4165019364939.htm|title=Monsanto Will Let Bio-Crop Patents Expire|date=21 January 2010|work=Business Week|accessdate=25 January 2010}}</ref> Monsanto has broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include the glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/Pages/seed-licensing.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Licensing |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=3 November 2008 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> About 150 companies have licensed the technology,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=122498255 |title=Monsanto GMO Ignites Big Seed War |publisher=NPR |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> including Syngenta<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syngenta.com/country/us/en/Seeds/Traits/SoybeanTraits/Pages/content_authoring_RR_detail_page.aspx |title=Syngenta US | Corn and Soybean Seed - Garst, Golden Harvest, NK, Agrisure |publisher=Syngenta.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> and Dupont/Pioneer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/template.CONTENT/guid.80D8C28A-31F7-C434-64D9-D61AAF9D661C/ |title=Agronomy Library - Pioneer Hi-Bred Agronomy Library |publisher=Pioneer.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
==="Post-Pharmacia" Monsanto=== | |||
In addition, Monsanto invented and sells agricultural seeds that are genetically modified to make a crystalline insecticidal protein from '']'', known as Bt. In 1995 Monsanto's potato plants producing Bt toxin were approved for sale by the ], after having approved by the ], making it the first pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the United States.<ref> | |||
====2000 to 2009: Birth of the "new" Monsanto==== | |||
Lawrence Journal-World - 6 May 1995</ref> Monsanto has subsequently developed ] (], ], ], ]), ],<ref>{{cite web|author=Crop Biotech Update |url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/article/default.asp?ID=6565 |title=Monsanto's Bt Roundup Ready 2 Yield Soybeans Approved for Planting in Brazil - Crop Biotech Update (8/27/2010) | ISAAA.org/KC |publisher=Isaaa.org |date=27 August 2010 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> and ]. | |||
In 2000, Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into a new company,<ref name=":0" /> the "new Monsanto",<ref>{{cite news |title=Monsanto Raises $700 Million in IPO |date=October 18, 2000 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-oct-18-fi-38228-story.html |work=] |agency=Bloomberg News}}</ref> focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton.<ref name="economist-new-monsanto">{{cite magazine |title=Genetically modified company |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2002/08/15/genetically-modified-company |access-date=September 26, 2018 |magazine=] |date=August 15, 2002}}</ref> Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against ]. As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by ] in 2003.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/15/business/pfizer-said-to-buy-large-drug-rival-in-60-billion-deal.html|title=Pfizer Said to Buy Large Drug Rival in $60 Billion Deal |last=Sorkin |first=Andrew Ross |date=2002-07-15 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-12-22 |language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>Staff, CNN/Money. April 16, 2003 </ref> | |||
In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seedtoday.com/articles/monsanto_to_acquire_emergent_genetics__stoneville_and_nexgen_cotton_brands-25250.html |title=Monsanto to Acquire Emergent Genetics, Stoneville and NexGen Cotton Brands |publisher=Seed Today |date=February 17, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015161004/http://www.seedtoday.com/articles/monsanto_to_acquire_emergent_genetics__stoneville_and_nexgen_cotton_brands-25250.html |archive-date=October 15, 2013}}</ref> | |||
Monsanto also produces seed that has multiple modifications, also known as "stacked traits" —for instance, cotton that make one or more Bt proteins and is resistant to glyphosate. One of these, created in collaboration with ], is called ]. In 2011 Monsanto launched the Genuity brand for its stacked-trait products.<ref></ref> | |||
Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased ], the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $1.4 billion.<ref name=wsj0612>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304458604577490600217020934|title=Monsanto Digs Into Seeds|publisher=The Wall Street|author=Ian Berry Journal|date=2012-06-26}}</ref> Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in the longer term.<ref name="economist-seminis">{{cite magazine |title=Lord of the seeds |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2005/01/27/lord-of-the-seeds |access-date=September 26, 2018 |magazine=The Economist |date=January 27, 2005}}</ref> | |||
As of 2012 the agricultural seed lineup includes Roundup Ready alfalfa; Roundup Ready canola; cotton with Bt, Roundup Ready, or both traits; sorghum hybrids; soybeans with various oil profiles, most with the Roundup Ready trait; Roundup Ready sugarbeet; and a wide range of wheat products, many of which incorporate the nontransgenic "clearfield" imazamox-tolerant<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agproducts.basf.us/products/clearfield-wheat.html |title=BASF | |publisher=Agproducts.basf.us |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> trait from BASF.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/monsanto-agricultural-seeds.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Agricultural Seeds |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=3 November 2008 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
In June 2007, Monsanto purchased ], a major cotton seed breeder, for $1.5 billion.<ref>{{cite web | title = Monsanto Company Completes Acquisition of Delta and Pine Land Company, Seeks Approval of Related Divestitures | date = June 1, 2007 | url = http://news.thomasnet.com/companystory/524921}}</ref> As a condition for approval from the ], Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to ], and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hpj.com/archives/2007/jun07/jun11/Monsantoreachesagreementwit.cfm |title=Monsanto reaches agreement with Department of Justice to acqui |publisher=Hpj.com |date=June 7, 2007 |access-date=August 14, 2012 |archive-date=October 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015100816/http://www.hpj.com/archives/2007/jun07/jun11/Monsantoreachesagreementwit.cfm }}</ref> Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to ] LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property".<ref name=r1>{{cite book|last=Twine|first=Richard|title=Animals As Biotechnology: Ethics, Sustainability and Critical Animal Studies |url={{Google books |plainurl=y |id=C6osZJLbJ3cC|page=108}} |publisher=Earthscan |year=2010 |pages=108– |isbn=978-1-84977-635-6}}</ref>{{rp|108}} In 2007, Monsanto and ] announced a long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.corporate.basf.com/de/investor/veranstaltungen/termine/070321_interview.htm?id=V00-Eq3z_CNjlbcp.*0 |title=BASF-Gruppe: Interview Dr. Jürgen Hambrecht zur Zusammenarbeit mit Monsanto |publisher=Corporate.basf.com |date=March 21, 2007 |access-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124043448/http://www.corporate.basf.com/de/investor/veranstaltungen/termine/070321_interview.htm?id=V00-Eq3z_CNjlbcp.*0 |archive-date=November 24, 2012 }}</ref> | |||
Along with other ag-biotech companies, Monsanto has been working on developing drought-resistant GM crops.<ref>Carey Gillam for Reuters. 13 January 2008 </ref> | |||
In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company ] Seeds for €546 million,<ref>{{cite news |title=De Ruiter Seeds Acquisition |date=March 31, 2008 |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/deruiter-monsanto-idINWNAS636420080331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306172450/http://in.reuters.com/article/deruiter-monsanto-idINWNAS636420080331 |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 6, 2016 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref> and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to ] Animal Health, a division of ], in August for $300 million plus "additional contingent consideration".<ref>{{cite web |title=Eli Lilly and Company to Acquire Monsanto's POSILAC Brand Dairy Product and Related Business |date=August 20, 2008 |url=http://monsanto.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=629 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603213428/http://monsanto.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=629 |archive-date=June 3, 2010 }}</ref> | |||
Monsanto's vegetable seed lineup includes "4,000 distinct seed varieties representing more than 20 species" that are created through breeding, not through genetic engineering.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/vegetable-seeds.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Monsanto Vegetable Seeds |publisher=Monsanto.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
====2010 to 2017: Further growth, Syngenta==== | |||
===Former products=== | |||
In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $210 million ], a company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting.<ref>Berry, Ian (May 23, 2012) ''The Wall Street Journal'', Retrieved July 16, 2014</ref> | |||
Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based ] for $930 million in 2013.<ref name=gillam2013>{{cite news |title=Monsanto posts deeper fourth-quarter loss, unveils acquisition |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-monsanto-results-idUSBRE9910J520131002 <!--Internet Archive holds versions--> |publisher=Reuters |date=October 2, 2013 |author=Gillam, Carey |access-date=July 1, 2017 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924185532/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/02/us-monsanto-results-idUSBRE9910J520131002 |url-status=live }}</ref> Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated.<ref name = BloombergVance>Vance, Ashlee (October 2, 2013) Bloomberg Business Week, Technology, Retrieved July 16, 2014</ref> | |||
====Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)==== | |||
Until it stopped production in 1977, Monsanto was the source of 99% of the ] (PCBs) used by U.S. industry.<ref name = "ATSDR"/> PCBs are a ], and cause cancer in animals and likely in humans as well, among other health effects;<ref name="EPA Health Effects">, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 26 August 2012.</ref> PCBs were initially widely welcomed due to the electrical industry's need for durable, safer (than flammable ]) cooling and insulating fluid for industrial transformers and capacitors. PCBs were also commonly used as stabilizing additives in the manufacture of flexible PVC coatings for electrical wiring and electronic components to enhance the heat and fire resistance of the PVC.<ref>{{cite book | title = Health Concerns and Environmental Issues with PVC-Containing Building Materials in Green Buildings | author = Karlyn Black Kaley, Jim Carlisle, David Siegel, Julio Salinas | publisher = Integrated Waste Management Board, California Environmental Protection Agency, USA | month = October | year = 2006 | pages = 11 | format = pdf | url=http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/publications/GreenBuilding/43106016.pdf | accessdate =3 August 2007}}</ref> They were known to be highly toxic from the beginning, but it was assumed that they would be contained in the products in which they were used. However, as leaks of transformers occurred, and toxicity problems arose near factories, their durability and toxicity became widely recognized as serious problems. PCB production was banned by the U.S. Congress in 1979 and by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001.<ref name="ATSDR">, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, at 467. Retrieved 26 August 2012.</ref><ref name="EPA2">, Region 2, ]. Retrieved 26 August 2012.</ref><ref name="EPA">, Pesticides: International Activities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 26 August 2012.</ref> | |||
In May 2013, a worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called ], was held in over 400 cities.<ref>Associated Press. May 25, 2013, . '']''. Retrieved May 25, 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/28/science/a-race-to-save-the-orange-by-altering-its-dna.html?pagewanted=all |title=A Race to Save the Orange by Altering Its DNA |last=Harmon |first=Amy |date=2013-07-27 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-12-22 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> A second protest took place in May 2014. | |||
=====United States===== | |||
Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival ] for US$46.5 billion in 2015, but failed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/antoinegara/2015/08/26/monsanto-drops-46-5-billion-offer-for-syngenta-stock-buyback-double-earnings-market-rout/#1b56f8803894|title=Monsanto Drops $46.5B Bid For Syngenta, Paving Way For Stock Buyback Amid Market Rout|last=Gara|first=Antoine|website=Forbes|access-date=May 23, 2016}}</ref> In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fwi.co.uk/arable/dow-dupont-merger-could-create-global-farm-supply-giant.htm |title=Dow-DuPont merger could create global farm supply giant |last=Jones |first=David |date=2015-12-10 |website=Farmers Weekly |language=en-GB |access-date=2016-09-07}}</ref> Monsanto was the only manufacturer of ] for military use in the US.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fbo.gov/utils/view?id=aa766891fe32cf9ae7f87f3c7d3611a3|title=Department of the Army Justification and Approval for Other Than Full and Open Competition |website= www.fbo.gov |language=en-US |date= January 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220080213/https://www.fbo.gov/utils/view?id=aa766891fe32cf9ae7f87f3c7d3611a3|archive-date=2016-12-20}}</ref> | |||
In 1926, Monsanto founded and incorporated a ] named Monsanto, later renamed ]. In the late 1960s, the Monsanto plant in Sauget was the nation's largest producer of PCBs, which remain in the water along Dead Creek in Sauget. An EPA official referred to Sauget as "one of the most polluted communities in the region" and "a soup of different chemicals"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06276/727066-28.stm |title=Tiny Sauget, Illinois, likes business misfits |publisher=Post-gazette.com |date=3 October 2006 |accessdate=28 October 2011 |first=William |last=Spain}}</ref> | |||
===="Post-Pharmacia" Monsanto overview==== | |||
In 2002, the '']'' carried a front page report on Monsanto's legacy of environmental damage in ], related to its legal production of PCBs. Plaintiffs in a lawsuit pending at that time provided documentation showing that the local Monsanto factory knowingly discharged both ] and ]-laden waste into local creeks for over 40 years.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Monsanto Hid Decades Of Pollution|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A46648-2001Dec31|work=Washington Post|accessdate=11 October 2009| first=Michael| last=Grunwald| date=1 January 2002}}</ref> In another story published in 2002, the '']'' reported that during 1969 alone Monsanto had dumped 45 tons of PCBs into Snow Creek, a feeder for Choccolocco Creek which supplies much of the area's drinking water and that the company buried millions of pounds of PCB in open-pit landfills located on hillsides above the plant and surrounding neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite news|title= PCB Pollution Suits Have Day in Court in Alabama |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04EED7143AF934A15752C0A9649C8B63|work=The New York Times|accessdate=1 October 2008 | first=Kevin | last=Sack | date=27 January 2002}}</ref> In August 2003, ] and Monsanto agreed to pay plaintiffs $700 million to settle claims by over 20,000 Anniston residents related to PCB contamination.<ref>{{Cite news|title=$700 million deal announced in Anniston PCBs cases|date=19 August 2003|url=http://www.ewg.org/node/15673|agency=Associated Press|accessdate=11 October 2009}}</ref> | |||
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%; border:solid 1px #aaa" | |||
As of 2012, Monsanto is associated with 11 "active" ] sites and 20 "archived" sites in the US, in the EPA's Superfund database.<ref> Seach for "Monsanto" in "Alias/Alternative Site Name" field, first in "active" sites, then "archived" sites, 20 October 2012)</ref> Monsanto has been sued, and has settled, multiple times for damaging the health of its employees or residents near its Superfund sites through pollution and poisoning.<ref name="washingtonpost">{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A54914-2002Feb22?language=printer |title=Monsanto Held Liable For PCB Dumping | work=The Washington Post | accessdate=5 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://consumerlawpage.com/article/truelies.shtml |title=The Politics Behind the Scientific Debate on Dioxin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/annistonindepth/toxicity.asp |title=Monsanto knew about PCB toxicity for decades }}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
! style="background:#F0F2F5" | Chart of Monsanto's mergers, acquisitions, ] and historical predecessors: | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
{{cladeR | style=font-size:90%;line-height:110% |thickness=0 | |||
|label1='''Monsanto Inc.'''<!-- LEVEL 1--> | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|1={{clade sequential |inverse=yes |reverse=yes | |||
|1=Monsanto<br/><small>(Spun off from ] 2000)</small> | |||
|2=Emergent Genetics<br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|3=]<br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|4=Icoria, Inc.<br /><small>(Selected assets, Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|5=]<br /><small>(Acq 2007)</small> | |||
|6=Monsanto's Asia subsidiaries<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/devgen-acquire-rice-sunflower-sorghum-and-pearl-millet-businesses-india-and-other-asia|title=Devgen to Acquire Rice, Sunflower, Sorghum and Pearl Millet Businesses in India and Other Asian Countries From Monsanto|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043048/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/devgen-acquire-rice-sunflower-sorghum-and-pearl-millet-businesses-india-and-other-asia|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Sold to Devgen, 2007)</small> | |||
|7=Monsanto Choice Genetics<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/newsham-genetics-acquiring-monsanto-choice-genetics|title=Newsham Genetics Acquiring Monsanto Choice Genetics|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521211934/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/newsham-genetics-acquiring-monsanto-choice-genetics|archive-date=May 21, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Sold to Newsham Genetics, 2007)</small> | |||
|8=De Ruiter Seeds<br /><small>(Acq 2008)</small> | |||
|9=Agroeste Sementes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-company-acquires-agroeste-sementes-brazilian-corn-seed-company|title=Monsanto Company Acquires Agroeste Sementes, a Brazilian Corn Seed Company|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101508/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-company-acquires-agroeste-sementes-brazilian-corn-seed-company|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2008)</small> | |||
|10=Monsanto's Dairy Product Business<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/eli-lilly-and-company-acquire-monsantos-posilac-brand-dairy-product-and-related-busine|title=Eli Lilly and Company to Acquire Monsanto's POSILAC Brand Dairy Product and Related Business|work=monsanto.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701071236/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/eli-lilly-and-company-acquire-monsantos-posilac-brand-dairy-product-and-related-busine|archive-date=July 1, 2017}}</ref><br /><small>(Sold to ], 2008)</small> | |||
|11={{clade sequential |reverse=yes | |||
|1=Aly Participacoes Ltda<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-company-invest-technologies-sugarcane-acquisitions-canavialis-and-alellyx|title=Monsanto Company to Invest in Technologies for Sugarcane With Acquisitions of CanaVialis and Alellyx|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105524/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-company-invest-technologies-sugarcane-acquisitions-canavialis-and-alellyx|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2008)</small> | |||
|2=CanaVialis S.A. | |||
|3=Alellyx S.A. | |||
}} | |||
|12=Monsanto's Global Sunflower Assets<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/syngenta-acquire-monsantos-global-sunflower-assets|title=Syngenta to Acquire Monsanto's Global Sunflower Assets|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103914/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/syngenta-acquire-monsantos-global-sunflower-assets|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Sold to ], 2009)</small> | |||
|13=Divergence, Inc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-acquires-agricultural-technology-leader-divergence-inc|title=Monsanto Acquires Agricultural Technology Leader Divergence, Inc.|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027014432/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-acquires-agricultural-technology-leader-divergence-inc|archive-date=October 27, 2015}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2011)</small> | |||
|14=Beeologics<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-acquires-targeted-pest-control-technology-start|title=Monsanto Acquires Targeted-Pest Control Technology Start-Up|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070435/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-acquires-targeted-pest-control-technology-start|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2011)</small> | |||
|15=Precision Planting Inc.<br /><small>(Acq 2012)</small> | |||
|16={{cladeR | |||
|1=]<br /><small>(Acq 2013)</small> | |||
|2=640 Labs<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/climate/climate-corporation-acquires-640-labs-team-bolster-industry-leading-data-scien|title=The Climate Corporation Acquires 640 Labs, Team to Bolster Industry-Leading Data Science Capabilities|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130313/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/climate/climate-corporation-acquires-640-labs-team-bolster-industry-leading-data-scien|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2014)</small> | |||
}} | |||
|17=Agradis, Inc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/corporate/monsanto-acquires-select-assets-agradis-inc-support-work-agricultural-biolog|title=Monsanto Acquires Select Assets of Agradis, Inc. to Support Work in Agricultural Biologicals|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016115328/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/corporate/monsanto-acquires-select-assets-agradis-inc-support-work-agricultural-biolog|archive-date=October 16, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Select assets, Acq 2013)</small> | |||
|18=Rosetta Green Ltd<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/corporate/monsanto-acquires-plant-trait-developer-rosetta-green|title=Monsanto Acquires Plant Trait Developer Rosetta Green|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304072243/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/corporate/monsanto-acquires-plant-trait-developer-rosetta-green|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2013)</small> | |||
}} | |||
|label2=American Seeds, Inc. | |||
=====United Kingdom===== | |||
|2={{clade sequential |inverse=yes |reverse=yes | |||
A ] report showed that 67 chemicals, including ] derivatives, dioxins and ]s exclusively made by Monsanto, are leaking from the Brofiscin quarry, near Groesfaen in ], an unlined porous quarry that was not authorized to take chemical wastes. It emerged that the ] had been polluted since the 1970s.<ref name='EA'>{{Cite news| title=Brofiscin Quarry | url =http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/publications/33833.aspx | work=] | accessdate =31 March 2009 }}</ref><ref name='Dump'>{{Cite news| title=The wasteland: how years of secret chemical dumping left a toxic legacy | date= 12 February 2007| url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/feb/12/uknews.pollution1 |work=The Guardian |location=UK | accessdate =27 September 2007 | first=John | last=Vidal }}</ref> The government was criticised for failing to publish information about the scale and exact nature of this contamination. The UK ] estimated that it would cost £100m to ] the site, called "one of the most contaminated" in the UK.<ref name='Dump2'>{{Cite news| title=Monsanto dumped toxic waste in UK | date= 12 February 2007| url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/feb/12/uknews.pollution1 | work=Guardian | accessdate =31 March 2009 | location=London | first=John | last=Vidal }}</ref> | |||
|10=Diener Seeds<ref name="monsanto.com">{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsantos-american-seeds-inc-announces-five-acquisitions-support-locally-oriented-busi|title=Monsanto's American Seeds, Inc. Announces Five Acquisitions to Support Locally-Oriented Business Model|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904005219/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsantos-american-seeds-inc-announces-five-acquisitions-support-locally-oriented-busi|archive-date=September 4, 2015}}</ref><br /><small>(Seed marketing and sales businesses, Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|9=Sieben Hybrids<ref name="monsanto.com"/><br /><small>(Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|8=Kruger Seed Company<ref name="monsanto.com"/><br /><small>(Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|7=Trisler Seed Farms<ref name="monsanto.com"/><br /><small>(Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|6=Campbell Seed<br /><small>(Seed marketing and sales business, Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|5=Gold Country Seed, Inc.<ref name="monsanto.com1">{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsantos-american-seeds-inc-announces-two-strategic-acquisitions-support-locally-orie|title=Monsanto's American Seeds, Inc. Announces Two Strategic Acquisitions to Support Locally-Oriented Business Model|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101519/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsantos-american-seeds-inc-announces-two-strategic-acquisitions-support-locally-orie|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|4=Heritage Seeds<ref name="monsanto.com1"/><br /><small>(Acq 2006)</small> | |||
|3=NC+ Hybrids, Inc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-adds-nc-hybrids-american-seeds-inc-bolstering-regional-seed-company-approach-|title=Monsanto Adds NC+ Hybrids to American Seeds, Inc., Bolstering Regional Seed Company Approach to Serve Farmers|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104304/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-adds-nc-hybrids-american-seeds-inc-bolstering-regional-seed-company-approach-|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|2=Specialty Hybrids<ref name="monsanto.com2">{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/new-additions-american-seeds-inc-accelerate-growth-monsantos-regional-seed-company-app|title=New Additions to American Seeds, Inc. Accelerate Growth in Monsanto's Regional Seed Company Approach|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121153712/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/new-additions-american-seeds-inc-accelerate-growth-monsantos-regional-seed-company-app|archive-date=January 21, 2017}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|1={{cladeR | |||
|5=Fontanelle Hybrids<ref name="monsanto.com2"/><br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|4=Stewart Seeds<ref name="monsanto.com2"/><br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|3=Trelay Seeds<ref name="monsanto.com2"/><br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|2=Stone Seeds<ref name="monsanto.com2"/><br /><small>(Acq 2005)</small> | |||
|1=Channel Bio Corp<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-forms-american-seeds-inc-investment-vehicle-regional-seed-companies|title=Monsanto Forms American Seeds, Inc., an Investment Vehicle for Regional Seed Companies|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105817/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-forms-american-seeds-inc-investment-vehicle-regional-seed-companies|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2004)</small> | |||
}} | |||
}} | |||
|label3=International Seed Group, Inc. | |||
====rBGH (recombinant bovine growth hormone)==== | |||
|3={{cladeR | |||
{{Main|Bovine somatotropin}} | |||
|1=Poloni Semences<ref name="monsanto.com3">{{cite web|url=http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-forms-holding-company-invest-international-fruit-and-vegetable-seed-companies|title=Monsanto Forms Holding Company to Invest in International Fruit and Vegetable Seed Companies|work=monsanto.com|access-date=July 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105827/http://news.monsanto.com/press-release/monsanto-forms-holding-company-invest-international-fruit-and-vegetable-seed-companies|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><br /><small>(Acq 2007)</small> | |||
|2=Charentais melon breeding company<ref name="monsanto.com3"/><br /><small>(Acq 2007)</small> | |||
Monsanto developed and sold ] ] (also known as ] and ]), a synthetic ] that increases milk production by 11-16% when injected into cows.<ref name=Dohoo2003>{{cite journal | author = Dohoo, I. | coauthors = Leslie, K.; Descôteaux, L.; Shewfelt, W. | date=1 October 2003| title = A meta-analysis review of the effects of recombinant bovine somatotropin: 1. Methodology and effects on production | journal = Can J Vet Res | volume = 67 | issue = 4 | pages = 241–251 | pmid = 14620860 | pmc = 280708 }}</ref><ref name="Dohoo2003b">{{cite journal |author=Dohoo IR, DesCôteaux L, Leslie K, ''et al.'' |title=A meta-analysis review of the effects of recombinant bovine somatotropin: 2. Effects on animal health, reproductive performance, and culling |journal=Can. J. Vet. Res. |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=252–64 |year=2003 |pmid=14620861 |doi= |pmc=280709}}</ref> In October 2008, Monsanto sold this business, in full, to ] for a price of $300 million plus additional consideration.<ref name="urlEli Lilly to Buy Monsanto's Dairy Cow Hormone for $300 million - DealBook Blog - NYTimes.com">{{Cite news|url=http://dealbook.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/eli-lilly-to-buy-monsantos-dairy-cow-hormone-for-300-million/ |title=Eli Lilly to Buy Monsanto's Dairy Cow Hormone for $300 million - DealBook Blog |work=The New York Times| date=20 August 2008}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
}} | |||
}} | |||
|} | |||
=== Sale to Bayer === | |||
The use of rBST has been controversial, as described on the ] page. | |||
In September 2016, Monsanto agreed to be acquired by ] for US$66 billion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/bayers-all-cash-offer-values-monsanto-at-62-billion-1463981986|title=Bayer Makes $62 Billion Bid for Monsanto|last=Alessi|first=Christopher|date=May 23, 2016 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |issn=0099-9660|access-date=May 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-37361556|title=Bayer confirms $66bn Monsanto takeover|date=September 14, 2016|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=June 5, 2018}}</ref> In an effort to receive regulatory clearance for the deal, Bayer announced the sale of significant portions of its current agriculture businesses, including its seed and herbicide businesses, to ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/bayer-to-sell-assets-to-basf-for-7-billion-subject-to-monsanto-acquisition-1507877275|title=Bayer to Sell Assets to BASF for $7 Billion Amid Scrutiny of Monsanto Megadeal|last1=Shevlin|first1=Anthony|date=2017-10-13|work=]|access-date=2018-06-05|last2=Drozdiak|first2=Natalia|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/article-competition-bureau-asks-bayer-to-divest-some-canadian-assets-to-win/|title=Competition Bureau asks Bayer to divest some Canadian assets to win Monsanto deal approval|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=2018-06-05}}</ref> | |||
The deal was approved by the European Union on March 21, 2018,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-21/bayer-clears-eu-hurdle-for-monsanto-deal-with-basf-sale-pledge|title=Bayer Clears EU Hurdle for Monsanto Deal With BASF Sale|first=Aoife|last=White|work=]|publisher=]|location=]|date=March 21, 2018|access-date=March 21, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/8c3d51d0-6349-11e8-90c2-9563a0613e56 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8c3d51d0-6349-11e8-90c2-9563a0613e56 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=US set to approve Bayer-Monsanto deal with divestures|website=Financial Times|date=May 29, 2018|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-06-05|last1=Dye|first1=Jessica|last2=Shubber|first2=Kadhim}}{{subscription required}}</ref> and approved in the United States on May 29, 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-05-29/bayer-wins-u-s-nod-for-monsanto-nearing-end-of-two-year-quest|title=Bayer Wins U.S. Approval for Monsanto After Two-Year Quest|date=2018-05-29|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-06-05|language=en}}</ref> The sale closed on June 7, 2018; Bayer announced its intent to discontinue the Monsanto name, with the combined company operating solely under the Bayer brand.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/agribusiness-and-food/bayer-to-ditch-monsanto-name-after-closing-54bn-deal-1.3519972|title=Bayer to ditch Monsanto name after closing €54bn deal|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=2018-06-05|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/06/07/germanys-bayer-closes-monsanto-deal-plans-to-drop-us-companys-name.html|title=Germany's Bayer closes $63 billion Monsanto takeover, plans to drop US company's name|last=Daniels|first=Jeff|date=2018-06-07|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-06-19}}</ref> | |||
In some markets, milk from cows that are not treated with rBST is sold with labels indicating it is rBST-free; this milk has proved popular with consumers.<ref name = "nytimes milk label"> from '']''</ref> In reaction to this, in early 2008 a pro-rBST advocacy group called "American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology" (AFACT),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://itisafact.org/ |title=AFACT: American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology |publisher=Itisafact.org |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> made up of dairies and originally affiliated with Monsanto, formed and began lobbying to ban such labels. AFACT stated that "absence" labels can be misleading and imply that milk from cows treated with rBST is inferior.<ref name = "nytimes milk label" /> The organization was dissolved in 2011 but its website is still accessible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://itisafact.org/category/news/ |title=News | AFACT: American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology |publisher=Itisafact.org |date=14 April 2011 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
Under the terms of merger, Bayer promised to maintain Monsanto's more than 9,000 U.S. jobs and add 3,000 new U.S. high-tech positions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bayer-monsanto-idINF9N0ZM02D|title=Bayer, Monsanto pledge U.S. R&D spending, jobs after merger|newspaper=Reuters |date=January 17, 2017|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref> | |||
===Potential products=== | |||
The prospective merger parties said at the time the combined agriculture business planned to spend $16 billion on research and development over the next six years and at least $8 billion on research and development in United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/monsanto-shares-up-on-bayer-trump-promise-for-billions-in-u-s-investment-jobs|title = Monsanto Shares up on Bayer-Trump Promise for Billions in U.S. Investment, Jobs|website = ]|date = January 13, 2017}}</ref> | |||
====''Terminator'' seeds==== | |||
{{Main|Genetic use restriction technology}} | |||
Bayer would also establish its new global Seeds & Traits and North American commercial headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.missouripartnership.com/bayer-monsanto-complete-merger-establish-global-seeds-traits-north-american-headquarters-missouri/|title=Missouri Partnership | Economic Development | Bayer & Monsanto Complete Merger, Establish Global Seeds & Traits and North American Headquarters In Missouri|date=June 11, 2018|website=Missouri Partnership}}</ref> | |||
Genetic use restriction technology, colloquially known as "terminator technology", produces plants that have sterile seeds. If put into use, it would prevent the spread of those seeds into the wild. It also would prevent farmers from planting seeds they harvest, requiring them to repurchase seed for every planting, although they also need to do this for ]s, because second-generation seeds are inferior, and in cases of patented transgenic seeds, where patent-holders like Monsanto enter into contracts with farmers who agree not to plant harvested seeds as a condition of purchase. | |||
The Bayer-Monsanto merger is widely considered to be one of the worst mergers in history, mostly due to the exposure to ] litigation.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Farrell |first=Maureen |date=2023-12-06 |title=Years After Monsanto Deal, Bayer's Roundup Bills Keep Piling Up |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/06/business/monsanto-bayer-roundup-lawsuit-settlements.html |access-date=2023-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231206112824/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/06/business/monsanto-bayer-roundup-lawsuit-settlements.html |archive-date=December 6, 2023}}</ref><ref name=":02"/><ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/> By 2023, Bayer's market value had declined by over 60% since its 2016 merger, leaving the company's overall worth at less than half of what it paid to acquire Monsanto.<ref name=":4" /> | |||
Terminator technology has been developed by governmental labs, university researchers, and companies, sometimes in collaboration and sometimes independently.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngin.tripod.com/353.htm |title=RAFI on new Terminator patent |publisher=Ngin.tripod.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=gm-104#gm-104 |title=Context of 'July 20, 1999: USDA and Delta & Pine Land Secure New Patent for Improvements in Terminator Genetic Seed Sterilization Technology' |publisher=Historycommons.org |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Warwick Terminator">{{Cite journal|first = Hugh|last = Warwick|editor-last = Wijeratna|editor-first = Alex|editor2-last = Meienberg|editor2-first = François|editor3-last = Meienberg|title = Syngenta – Switching off farmers' rights?|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date = October 2000|url = http://www.fao.org/righttofood/KC/downloads/vl/docs/AH428.pdf|format = PDF|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref> The technology has never been known to have been used commercially.<ref name="monsanto pledge">{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/terminator-seeds.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Is Monsanto Going to Develop or Sell "Terminator" Seeds? |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=3 November 2008 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.banterminator.org/The-Issues/Introduction |title=Introduction / The Issues / |publisher=Ban Terminator |date=1 June 2007 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> Rumors that Monsanto and other companies intended to introduce terminator technology have caused protests, for example in India.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/465969.stm | work=BBC News | title=Farmers welcome halt of 'terminator' | date=5 October 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~sr793/doc/RHerring.pdf |title=CAS 38-4 24 Oct 2006.vp |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
==Products and associated issues== | |||
In 1999, Monsanto pledged not to commercialize terminator technology, and has kept that pledge on its website to the present day.<ref name="monsanto pledge" /><ref>{{cite news|author=John Vidal |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/1999/oct/06/gm.food2 |title=World braced for terminator 2 |publisher=Guardian |date= 5 October 1999|accessdate=28 October 2011 |location=London}}</ref> The Delta and Pine Land Company intended to commercialize the technology,<ref name="Warwick Terminator" /> but D&PL was acquired by Monsanto in 2007.<ref>. Retrieved on 5 May 2010</ref> | |||
== |
===Current products=== | ||
Monsanto is notable for its involvement in high profile lawsuits, as both plaintiff and defendant. It has been involved in a number of ] suits, where fines and damages have run into the hundreds of millions of dollars, usually over health issues related to its products. Monsanto has also made frequent use of the courts to defend its patents, particularly in the area of agricultural ], as have other companies in the field, such as ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/93431968/Pioneer-Hi-Bred-International-v-Does-1-5 |title=Pioneer Hi Bred International v. Does 1-5 |publisher=Scribd.com |date=14 May 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2001/2001_99_1996/ |title=J.E.M. Supply v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International | The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law |publisher=Oyez.org |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpj.com/archives/2002/Syngentasuestostopillegalsa.cfm |title=Syngenta sues to stop illegal sales of COKER seed varieties |publisher=Hpj.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
====Glyphosate herbicides==== | |||
===Patent applications and Patents - Filings and Litigation=== | |||
{{See also|Glyphosate}} | |||
Following its 1970 introduction, Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent on the herbicide glyphosate (brand name RoundUp) expired in 2000. Glyphosate has since been marketed by many ] companies, in various solution strengths and with various ], under dozens of tradenames.<ref>Farm Chemicals International </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caes.uga.edu/commodities/fruits/gapeach/pdf/mirror.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614082039/http://www.caes.uga.edu/commodities/fruits/gapeach/pdf/mirror.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-14 |url-status=live |title=Mirror or Mirror on the Wall Show Me the Best Glyphosate Formulation of All |author=Mitchem W |publisher=North Carolina State University Extension |access-date=July 23, 2013}}</ref><ref name="urlISU Weed Science Online - Glyphosate - A Review">{{cite web |url=http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2001/glyphosate%20review.htm#Glyphosate%20Products |title=ISU Weed Science Online – Glyphosate – A Review |author=Hartzler B |publisher=Iowa State University Extension |access-date=August 5, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518051215/http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2001/glyphosate%20review.htm#Glyphosate%20Products |archive-date=May 18, 2018 }}</ref><ref name="Weed Handbook Glyphosate">{{cite web |url=http://www.invasive.org/gist/products/handbook/14.Glyphosate.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021002518/http://www.invasive.org/gist/products/handbook/14.Glyphosate.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-21 |url-status=live |title=Glyphosate |vauthors=Tu M, Hurd C, Robison R, Randall JM |date=November 1, 2001 |work=Weed Control Methods Handbook |publisher=The Nature Conservancy}}</ref> As of 2009, glyphosate represented about 10% of Monsanto's revenue.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14904184 |title=The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint |date=November 19, 2009 |magazine=The Economist |access-date=November 20, 2009}}</ref> Roundup-related products (which include genetically modified seeds) represented about half of Monsanto's ].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html |title=The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play |author= Cavallaro M |date=June 26, 2009 |magazine=Forbes |access-date=July 11, 2009}}</ref> | |||
====Filings==== | |||
In 2003 Monsanto filed patent applications with claims on breeding techniques for pigs. ] claimed that Monsanto was trying to claim ownership on ordinary breeding techniques <ref>], 2 August 2005, </ref> and the filings became the target for demonstrations in Germany.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8002503.stm |work=BBC News | title=Germans protest over pig patent | date=16 April 2009 | accessdate=5 April 2010 | first=Laurence | last=Peter}}</ref> A UK news article indicated that "the practices it (Monsanto) wants to protect involve identifying genes that result in desirable traits, breeding pigs to achieve those traits and using a specialised device to inseminate sows deeply in a way that uses less sperm than is typically required".<ref>{{Cite news|author=Stephanie Condron |title=GM crop giant wants to patent a super-pig |date=11 August 2005 |work=] | location=London |page=18 |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-358902/GM-crop-giant-wants-patent-super-pig.html }}</ref> In Europe, the ] rejected some claims as relating to an essentially biological process excluded from patent protection,<ref>{{EPO Register|appno=04757318|patno=1651030}}</ref> but an application with claims from this set of filings was granted in 2008 and was later revoked.<ref>{{EPO Register|appno=04778518|patno=1651777|patent=yes}}</ref> In 2007 Monsanto sold Monsanto Choice Genetics (the Monsanto entity driving these patent filings) to Newsham Genetics LC of West Des Moines, Iowa. The transaction was completed in November 2007, and Monsanto is no longer in the swine breeding business nor interested in patent filings on pigs or pig breeding.<ref> Pigs and Patents</ref> | |||
==== |
====Crop seed==== | ||
{{See also|Hybrid seed|Genetically modified crops|Genetically modified food|Genetically modified food controversies}} | |||
As of 2015, Monsanto's line of seed products included corn, cotton, soy and vegetable seeds. | |||
=====As plaintiff===== | |||
Since the mid‑1990s, Monsanto indicates that it has sued 145 individual U.S. farmers for ] and/or ] in connection with its genetically engineered seed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/saved-seed-farmer-lawsuits.aspx|author=Monsanto Company|title=Saved Seed and Farmer Lawsuits|accessdate=23 October 2010}}</ref> The ] has listed 112 lawsuits by Monsanto against farmers for claims of seed patent violations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/pubs/CFSMOnsantovsFarmerReport1.13.05.pdf |title=TCFS-Report/comp1 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The usual claim involves violation of a technology agreement that prohibits farmers from saving seed from one season's crop to plant the next, a common farming practice.<ref>{{cite web | title = The World Trade Organization at Cancún – Agriculture and the Environment | publisher=Sierra Club of/du Canada | url = http://www.sierraclub.ca/national/programs/sustainable-economy/trade-environment/wto-cancun-agriculture-env.html | accessdate =Saturda, 23 October 2010}}</ref> One farmer received an eight-month prison sentence for conspiracy to commit fraud during litigation with Monsanto<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gene.ch/genet/2003/May/msg00044.html|author=Peter Shinkle, St. Louis Post-Dispatch|title=Farmer who lied in dispute with Monsanto will go to prison|date=7 May 2003|accessdate=20 August 2009}}</ref> in addition to having to pay damages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.memphisdailynews.com/editorial/Article.aspx?id=30496|author=Andy Meek, Memphis Daily News|title=Down and Out in Covington – Farmer struggles to re-emerge after $3 million judgment, prison term in Monsanto case|date=22 June 2006|publisher=]|accessdate=20 August 2009}}</ref> | |||
==== Row crops ==== | |||
Monsanto sued the Pilot Grove Cooperative Elevator in ], on the grounds that by cleaning harvested seeds covered by Monsanto's patents so that farmers could replant them, the elevator was ] Monsanto's patents. The Pilot Grove Cooperative Elevator had been cleaning conventional seeds for decades before the development of genetic engineering and developments in patent law led to the existence of issued patents that cover seeds.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest">{{cite web|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2008/05/monsanto200805 |title=Monsanto's Harvest of Fear }}</ref> | |||
Many of Monsanto's agricultural seed products are genetically modified, such as for resistance to ]s, including glyphosate and ]. Monsanto calls glyphosate-tolerant seeds ''Roundup Ready''. Monsanto's introduction of this system (planting a glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged) allowed farmers to increase yield by planting rows closer together.<ref name=HighPlainsJ>{{cite web |url=http://www.hpj.com/archives/roundup-ready-soybean-trait-patent-nears-expiration-in/article_8c7a83b7-2a37-5291-9204-2633eb3e4c0d.html |title=Roundup Ready soybean trait patent nears expiration in 2014 |publisher=High Plains Journal |date=August 10, 2010 |author=Latzke, Jennifer M. |access-date=March 23, 2015 |archive-date=January 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107122725/https://www.hpj.com/archives/roundup-ready-soybean-trait-patent-nears-expiration-in/article_8c7a83b7-2a37-5291-9204-2633eb3e4c0d.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to allow the control of post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage.<ref name=HighPlainsJ /> Farmers widely adopted the technology—for example over 80% of maize (]), ] (MON-Ø4Ø32-6), cotton, ] and ] planted in the United States are ]-tolerant. Monsanto developed a Roundup Ready ] (]) but ended development in 2004 due to concerns from wheat exporters about the rejection of genetically modified (GM) wheat by foreign markets.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Person|first1=Daniel|title=Sale could change wheat industry: WestBred's owner Monsanto looks to develop 'genetically modified' varieties|url=http://missoulian.com/business/agriculture/sale-could-change-wheat-industry-westbred-s-owner-monsanto-looks/article_1db27912-ac3b-11de-8024-001cc4c002e0.html|website=Missoulian|date=September 28, 2009|access-date=May 4, 2016}}</ref> | |||
Two patents were critical to Monsanto's GM soybean business; one expired in 2011 and the other in 2014.<ref>Patently-O Blog, September 26, 2011. </ref> The second expiration meant that glyphosate resistant soybeans became "generic".<ref name="HighPlainsJ" /><ref>Andrew Pollack, , ''The New York Times''. December 17, 2009.</ref><ref>Illinois Soybean Association {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402154825/http://www.ilsoy.org/sites/default/files/documents/1105.pdf |date=April 2, 2015 }}</ref><ref>Monsanto Official Website {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122132343/http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/roundup-ready-patent-expiration.aspx |date=January 22, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_05/b4165019364939.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127202826/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_05/b4165019364939.htm|archive-date=January 27, 2010|title=Monsanto Will Let Bio-Crop Patents Expire|date=January 21, 2010|work=Business Week}}</ref> The first harvest of generic glyphosate-tolerant soybeans came in 2015.<ref>Monsanto. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208222145/http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/pages/roundup-ready-patent-expiration.aspx |date=February 8, 2015 }}</ref> Monsanto broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/Pages/seed-licensing.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Licensing |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=November 3, 2008 }}</ref> About 150 companies have licensed the technology,<ref>. NPR.</ref> including competitors Syngenta<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syngenta-us.com/legal/useragreement.html |title=User Agreement and Legal Information|publisher=Syngenta.com}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/template.CONTENT/guid.80D8C28A-31F7-C434-64D9-D61AAF9D661C/ |title=Agronomy Library – Pioneer Hi-Bred Agronomy Library |publisher=Pioneer.com |access-date=August 30, 2012 |archive-date=October 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017162512/https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/library/template.CONTENT/guid.80D8C28A-31F7-C434-64D9-D61AAF9D661C/ }}</ref> | |||
In one case in 2002, Monsanto mistakenly sued Gary Rinehart of ] for patent violation. Rinehart was not a farmer or seed dealer, but sharecropped land with his brother and nephew, who were violating the patent. Monsanto dropped the lawsuit against him when it discovered the mistake.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/> | |||
Monsanto invented and sells genetically modified seeds that make a crystalline insecticidal protein from '']'', known as Bt. In 1995 Monsanto's potato plants producing Bt toxin were approved by the ], following approval by the FDA, making it the first pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the United States.<ref> | |||
In 1997 ] discovered that ] growing on his farm was Roundup resistant. He had initially discovered that some canola growing by a roadside along one of his fields was Roundup resistant when he was killing weeds along the road; this led him to spray a 3- to 4‑acre section of his adjacent field and 60% of the canola survived. Schmeiser harvested the seed from the surviving, Roundup resistant plants, and planted the seed in 1998. Monsanto sued Schmeiser for patent infringement for the 1998 planting (the suit is known as '']''). Schmeiser claimed that because the 1997 plants grew from seed that was blown into his field from neighboring fields, that he owned the harvest and was entitled to do with it whatever he wished, including saving the seeds from the 1997 harvest and planting them in 1998. The initial Canadian Federal Court rejected Schmeiser's defense and held for Monsanto, finding that in 1998 Schmeiser had intentionally planted the seeds he had harvested from the wind-seeded crops in 1997, and so patent infringement had indeed occurred.<ref name="2001FCT256">{{cite web|url=http://decisions.fct-cf.gc.ca/en/2001/2001fct256/2001fct256.html |title=''Monsanto Canada v. Schmeiser'', 2001 FCT 256 |publisher=Decisions.fct-cf.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> Schmeiser appealed and lost again.<ref name=FedAppealDecision>Federal Court of Appeal of Canada. . Retrieved 25 March 2006.</ref> Schmeiser appealed to the ] which took the case and held for Monsanto by a 5‑4 vote in late May 2004.<ref></ref> With this ruling, the Canadian courts followed the U.S. Supreme Court in its decision on patent issues involving plants and genes. Schmeiser won a partial victory, as the Supreme Court reversed on damages, finding that because Schmeiser did not gain any profit from the infringement, he did not owe Monsanto any damages nor did he have to pay Monsanto's substantial legal bills. The case caused Monsanto's enforcement tactics to be highlighted in the media over the years it took to play out.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Gar Smith |title=Percy Schmeiser vs. Monsanto |journal=Earth Island Journal |date=2001 autumn}}</ref> The case is widely cited or referenced by the anti-GM community in the context of a fear of a company claiming ownership of a farmer’s crop based on the inadvertent presence of GM pollen grain or seed.<ref>CT NOFA is the Connecticut Chapter of the Northeast Organic Farming Association </ref><ref>Susan Audrey for Occupy Monsanto. 10 February 2012 </ref> "The court record shows, however, that it was not just a few seeds from a passing truck, but that Mr Schmeiser was growing a crop of 95–98% pure Roundup Ready plants, a commercial level of purity far higher than one would expect from inadvertent or accidental presence. The judge could not account for how a few wayward seeds or pollen grains could come to dominate hundreds of acres without Mr Schmeiser’s active participation, saying ‘. . .none of the suggested sources could reasonably explain the concentration or extent of Roundup Ready canola of a commercial quality evident from the results of tests on Schmeiser’s crop’" - in other words, the original presence of Monsanto seed on his land in 1997 was indeed inadvertent, but the crop in 1998 was entirely purposeful.<ref name=McHughen>McHughen A, Wager R. (2010) N Biotechnol. 27(6):724-8. Epub 2010 Mar 30. </ref> | |||
''Lawrence Journal-World'', May 6, 1995.</ref> Monsanto subsequently developed ] (], ], ], ]), ]<ref>{{cite web|author=Crop Biotech Update |url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/article/default.asp?ID=6565 |title=Monsanto's Bt Roundup Ready 2 Yield Soybeans Approved for Planting in Brazil – Crop Biotech Update (8/27/2010) | ISAAA.org/KC |publisher=Isaaa.org |date=August 27, 2010}}</ref> and ]. | |||
Monsanto produces seed that has multiple genetic modifications, also known as "stacked traits"—for instance, cotton that make one or more Bt proteins and is resistant to glyphosate. One of these, created in collaboration with ], is called ]. In 2011 Monsanto launched the Genuity brand for its stacked-trait products.<ref>. ''SE Farm News'', March 2, 2009.</ref> | |||
In 2005 and 2006 Monsanto addressed unlicensed use of its patented "Roundup Ready" technology by farmers and companies in Argentina by enforcing its patents on soymeal imported into Spain from Argentina, which obligated Spanish customs officials to seize the soymeal shipments.<ref></ref> | |||
As of 2012, the agricultural seed lineup included ''Roundup Ready'' alfalfa, canola and sugarbeet; Bt and/or ''Roundup Ready'' cotton; sorghum hybrids; soybeans with various oil profiles, most with the ''Roundup Ready'' trait; and a wide range of wheat products, many of which incorporate the nontransgenic "clearfield" imazamox-tolerant<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agproducts.basf.us/products/clearfield-wheat.html |title=The CLEARFIELD Production System for Wheat|publisher=Agproducts.basf.us}}</ref> trait from ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/monsanto-agricultural-seeds.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Agricultural Seeds |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=November 3, 2008 |access-date=August 17, 2012 |archive-date=June 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616173630/http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/monsanto-agricultural-seeds.aspx }}</ref> | |||
In 2007 Monsanto sued Indiana farmer Vernon Hugh Bowman,<ref name="Bowman CAFC decision">http://www.cafc.uscourts.gov/images/stories/opinions-orders/10-1068.pdf</ref> who in 1999 bought seed for his second planting from a grain elevator - the same elevator that he and others sold their transgenic crops to. The elevator sold the soybeans as commodities, not as seeds for planting.<ref name="Bowman CAFC decision" /><ref name=PatentDocsBowman>{{cite web|url=http://www.patentdocs.org/2011/09/monsanto-co-v-bowman-fed-cir-2011.html |title=Monsanto Co. v. Bowman (Fed. Cir. 2011) |publisher=Patent Docs |date=22 September 2011 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref>). He tested the new seeds, and found that as he had expected, some were resistant to glyphosate. He replanted his harvest in subsequent years for his second seasonal planting, supplementing them with more soybeans he bought at the elevator.<ref name="Bowman CAFC decision" /> He informed Monsanto of his activities.<ref name="Bowman CAFC decision" /> Monsanto stated that he was infringing their patents because the soybeans he bought from the elevator were new products that he purchased for use as seeds without a license from Monsanto; Bowman stated that he had not infringed due to ] on the first sale of seed to whatever farmers had produced the crops that he bought from the elevator, on the grounds that for seed, all future generations are embodied in the first generation that was originally sold.<ref name=PatentDocsBowman /> In 2009 the district court ruled in favor of Monsanto; on appeal, the Federal Circuit upheld the verdict.<ref name="Bowman CAFC decision" /> Bowman has appealed to the ], which accepted the case on 5 October 2012.<ref>{{cite web|author=Posted Fri, 5 October 2012 1:22 pm |url=http://www.scotusblog.com/2012/10/court-grants-7-new-cases/ |title=Court grants seven new cases (UPDATED) |publisher=SCOTUSblog |date=5 October 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> If the Supreme Court reverses the judgement, it would also affect other self-replicating technologies (such as ] and cell lines) used by the biotechnology industry; patent infringement could potentially be avoided by growing or otherwise duplicating the patented articles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genengnews.com/keywordsandtools/print/1/27858/ |title=Patent Exhaustion & Self-Replicating Technologies |publisher=Genengnews.com |date=1 August 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids branded DroughtGard.<ref>OECD BioTrack Database. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701140407/http://www2.oecd.org/biotech/Product.aspx?id=MON-8746%C3%98-4 |date=July 1, 2017 }}</ref> The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe '']''; it was approved by the USDA in 2011<ref>, Vol. 76, No. 248, December 27, 2011.</ref> and by China in 2013.<ref>Michael Eisenstein ''Nature'' 501, S7–S9 (September 26, 2013) Published online September 25, 2013.</ref> | |||
In 2009 Monsanto sued ] for patent infringement of Roundup Ready patents.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-01/monsanto-awarded-1-billion-against-dupont-by-jury.html | work=Bloomberg | first1=Joe | last1=Whittington | first2=Andrew | last2=Harris | first3=Jack | last3=Kaskey | title=Monsanto Awarded Billion Against DuPont by Jury | date=2 August 2012}}</ref> Dupont had licensed the patents from Monsanto already, but had added additional glyphosphate-resistance genes to its seed, which Monsanto claimed was not allowed in the license. Dupont counter-sued, claiming that Monsanto's patent was invalid. The jury handed down a verdict on 1 August 2012, finding that Dupont not only infringed, but willfully infringed, and awarded a verdict of $1 billion, the fourth-largest patent verdict in the history of the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-03/monsanto-s-1-billion-win-against-dupont-appears-vulnerable-1-.html |title=Monsanto's $1 Billion Win Against DuPont Appears Vulnerable |date=4 August 2012 | work=Bloomberg |first1=Susan |last1=Decker |first2=Jack |last2=Kaskey}}</ref> Dupont indicated it would appeal the decision. | |||
The "Xtend Crop System" includes seed genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and ], and a herbicide product including those two active ingredients.<ref name="XtendOfficial"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402202350/http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/roundup-ready-xtend-crop-system.aspx |date=April 2, 2013 }} Accessed May 11, 2013</ref> In December 2014, the system was approved for use in the US. In February 2016, China approved the Roundup Ready 2 Xtend system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.agweb.com/article/roundup-ready-2-xtend-finally-approved-by-china-naa-sonja-begemann/|title=Roundup Ready 2 Xtend Finally Approved by China|website=AgWeb – The Home Page of Agriculture|language=en-US|access-date=May 6, 2016}}</ref> The lack of European Union approval led many American traders to reject the use of Xtend soybeans over concerns that the new seeds would become mixed with EU-approved seeds, leading Europe to reject American soybean exports.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/grain-traders-rejecting-new-soybeans-developed-by-monsanto-1462217040|title=Grain Traders Rejecting New Soybeans Developed by Monsanto|last=Bunge|first=Jacob|date=2016-05-02|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |issn=0099-9660|access-date=May 6, 2016}}</ref> | |||
=====As defendant===== | |||
In 2006 the ] filed requests with the ] to revoke four patents that Monsanto has used in patent lawsuits against farmers, namely U.S. Patents Nos. 5,164,316, 5,196,525, 5,322,938, and 5,352,605. In the first round of reexamination, some claims in all four patents were rejected by the Patent Office in four separate rulings dating from February through July 2007.<ref> from ]</ref> | |||
==== India-specific issues ==== | |||
On 30 March 2011 the ] filed claims in federal ] in Manhattan, challenging the validity of 23 of Monsanto's patents on genetically modified seed, on behalf of the Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association and 82 other farming associations.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-29/monsanto-sued-by-organic-farmers-over-modified-seed-patents-1-.html | work=Bloomberg | first1=Susan | last1=Decker | first2=Jack | last2=Kaskey | title=Monsanto Sued by Organic Farmers Over Modified-Seed Patents | date=29 March 2011}}</ref> The group contended that they were being forced to sue pre-emptively to protect themselves from being accused of patent infringement should their fields ever become contaminated by Monsanto's genetically modified seed.<ref> | |||
In 2009, Monsanto scientists discovered insects that had developed resistance to the ] planted in ]. Monsanto communicated this to the Indian government and its customers, stating that "Resistance is natural and expected, so measures to delay resistance are important. Among the factors that may have contributed to ] resistance to the Cry1Ac protein in Bollgard I in Gujarat are limited refuge planting and early use of unapproved Bt cotton seed, planted prior to GEAC approval of Bollgard I cotton, which may have had lower protein expression levels."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/india-pink-bollworm.aspx|title=Monsanto ~ Cotton In India|date=November 3, 2008|publisher=Monsanto.com}}</ref> The company advised farmers to switch to its second generation of Bt cotton – Bolgard II – which had two resistance genes instead of one,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/06/stories/2010030664831400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315155536/http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/06/stories/2010030664831400.htm|archive-date=March 15, 2010|title=Bt cotton ineffective against pest in parts of Gujarat, admits Monsanto|date=March 6, 2010|work=]|place=Chennai, India}}</ref> the widely recognised ] to forestall, prevent, and cope with any kind of ].<ref name="USEPA-resis-man">{{cite web | title=Slowing and Combating Pest Resistance to Pesticides | author=US EPA (]) | date=May 12, 2016 | url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/slowing-and-combating-pest-resistance-pesticides | access-date=2021-10-28}}</ref><ref name="Pesti-Stew">{{cite web | last=Buhler | first=Wayne | title=Take Steps to Avoid Insecticide Resistance – Pesticide Environmental Stewardship | website=Pesticide Environmental Stewardship | publisher=] | url=http://pesticidestewardship.org/resistance/insecticide-resistance/take-steps-to-avoid-insecticide-resistance/ | access-date=2021-10-28}}</ref><ref name="WSU Tree Fruit 2018">{{cite web | title=Managing Pesticide Resistance | website=] Tree Fruit | date=2018-05-15 | url=http://treefruit.wsu.edu/crop-protection/opm/resistance/ | access-date=2021-10-28}}</ref><ref name="USDA-NIFA">{{cite web | url=http://nifa.usda.gov/sites/default/files/resources/Insecticide%20resistance.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910030336/http://nifa.usda.gov/sites/default/files/resources/Insecticide%20resistance.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-10 |url-status=live | title=Insecticide Resistance: Causes and Action | author1=] | author2=Regional IPM Centers | website=USDA (])}}</ref><ref name="BASF-insecti-MoAs">{{cite web | url=http://agriculture.basf.com/global/assets/en/Crop%20Protection/innovation/BASF_Insecticide_MoA_Manual_2014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420062556/https://agriculture.basf.com/global/assets/en/Crop%20Protection/innovation/BASF_Insecticide_MoA_Manual_2014.pdf |archive-date=2021-04-20 |url-status=live | title=Insecticide Mode of Action - Technical Training Manual | author=]}}</ref><ref name="Fr-resis-man">{{cite web | title=La résistance aux produits phytopharmaceutiques | date=2016-03-29 | url=http://agriculture.gouv.fr/la-resistance-aux-produits-phytopharmaceutiques | quote=Il faut aussi ... varier les modes d'actions ... et éviter les faux mélanges de produits ayant le même mode d'action qui ne font qu'augmenter le risque | website=] | first=Christophe | last=Délye | trans-quote=We must also ... vary the MOAs ... and avoid fake mixes with the same MOA which only increase the risk.}}</ref><ref name="De-sustain">{{cite web | url=http://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/Publications/NAP.html | title=National Action Plan on Sustainable Use of Plant Protection Products | website=] | quote=The varieties being grown today are usually resistant to or tolerant of individual biotic or abiotic influences. Resistances based solely on one plant characteristic (often controlled through one gene) can be broken by adapting the harmful organisms. Increasingly, the aim in resistance research is to create modern breeding measures which breed polygenic resistant plants with resistance mechanisms that harmful organisms find it difficult to circumvent. | access-date=October 28, 2021 | archive-date=October 30, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030033850/https://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/Publications/NAP.html }}</ref> However, this advice was criticized: "an internal analysis of the statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests says it 'appears that this could be a business strategy to phase out single gene events and promote double genes which would fetch higher price.{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/12/stories/2010031263690900.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314222159/http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/12/stories/2010031263690900.htm|archive-date=March 14, 2010|title=Monsanto 'admission' has business motives?|date=March 12, 2010|work=]|place=Chennai, India}}</ref> | |||
{{Cite news | title = Canadian and US farmers sue Monsanto to protect themselves | url = http://cban.ca/Press/Press-Releases/Farmers-and-Seed-Distributors-Sue-Monsanto-to-Protect-Themselves-from-Patents-on-Genetically-Modified-Seed | location = CBAN (Canada) | date = 30 March 2011}}</ref> On 24 February, District Court Judge Naomi Buchwald dismissed the lawsuit and in her ruling criticized the plaintiffs for a "transparent effort to create a controversy where none exists."<ref>http://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/cases/show.php?db=special&id=156</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/breaking/chi-monsanto-prevails-in-suit-brought-by-organic-growers-20120227,0,814254.story | work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref> Plaintiffs plan to appeal the decision.<ref>{{Cite news | |||
| title = Organic farmers' case against Monsanto thrown out by judge | url = http://www.latimes.com/news/local/environment/la-me-gs-judge-throws-out-farmers-case-against-monsanto-20120227,0,5279762.story | accessdate =24 March 2012 | author = Dean Kuipers | work=] | date = 27 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=by McDonnell Boehnen Hulbert & Berghoff LLP on 3/1/2012 |url=http://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/court-dismisses-pubpats-declaratory-jud-05295/ |title=Court Dismisses PubPat's Declaratory Judgment Action against Monsanto | McDonnell Boehnen Hulbert & Berghoff LLP |publisher=JDSupra |date=3 January 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
Monsanto's GM cotton seed was the subject of NGO agitation because of its higher cost. Indian farmers crossed GM varieties with local varieties, using ], violating their agreements with Monsanto.<ref>Ghosh, Pallab (June 17, 2003), , ].</ref> In 2009, high prices of Bt Cotton were blamed for forcing farmers of ] district into debt when the crops died due to lack of rain.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/25/stories/2009082554841400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828160245/http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/25/stories/2009082554841400.htm|archive-date=August 28, 2009|title=Jhabua on its way to becoming Vidarbha-II?|date=August 25, 2009|work=]|place=Chennai, India}}</ref> | |||
In February 2012, two NGOs, Navdanya and No Patent on Seeds, filed documents opposing an EU patent awarded to Monsanto covering virus resistant traits of melons.<ref>https://data.epo.org/publication-server/pdf-document?pn=1962578&ki=B1&cc=EP</ref> Monsanto had acquired DeRuiter, a seed company, in 2008, which originally filed the patent application.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=EP&NR=1962578&KC=&locale=en_EP&FT=E |title=Espacenet - Bibliographic data |publisher=Worldwide.espacenet.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The activists claim it was not an invention of Monsanto but rather ], because the virus-resistant plants originated in ] and were registered in international seed banks; they further claimed that conventional breeding methods were used to transfer the virus resistance genes from an Indian melon to other melons and that European law prohibits patents on conventional breeding.<ref name="Parsai"/> | |||
==== Vegetables ==== | |||
===Other legal action - As defendant=== | |||
In 2012 Monsanto was the world's largest supplier of non-GE vegetable seeds by value, with sales of $800M. 95% of the research and development for vegetable seed is in conventional breeding. The company concentrates on improving flavor.<ref name="wsj0612" /> According to their website they sell "4,000 distinct seed varieties representing more than 20 species".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/vegetable-seeds.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Monsanto Vegetable Seeds |publisher=Monsanto.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610041315/http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/vegetable-seeds.aspx |archive-date=June 10, 2012 }}</ref> Broccoli, with the brand name ''Beneforté'', with increased amounts of ] was introduced in 2010 following development by its ] subsidiary.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2014/01/new-monsanto-vegetables/|title=Monsanto is going organic in a quest for the perfect veggie|magazine=Wired|year=2015|author=Wired}}</ref> | |||
===Former products=== | |||
In a case that ran from February 1984 through October 1987, Monsanto was the defendant in the longest civil jury trial in U.S. history, Kemner v. Monsanto. The case involved a group of plaintiffs who claimed to have been poisoned by dioxin in 1979 when a train derailed in Sturgeon, Missouri. Tank cars on the train carried a chemical used to make wood preservatives and "small quantities of a dioxin called 2, 3, 7, 8, TCDD... formed as a part of the manufacturing process."<ref name="Kellner appeal decision">{{cite web|author=leagle.com |url=http://www.leagle.com/xmlResult.aspx?xmldoc=19911722576NE2d1146_11573.xml&docbase=CSLWAR2-1986-2006 |title=KEMNER v. MONSANTO CO. - July 22, 1991 |publisher=Leagle.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The initial outcome was mixed. "The jurors, after deliberating more than two months, agreed with Monsanto that the plaintiffs had suffered no physical harm from exposure to dioxin. But they accepted the plaintiffs' argument that Monsanto had failed to alter its manufacturing process to eliminate dioxin as a byproduct and that it had failed to warn the public about dioxin's harmfulness. Most of the plaintiffs were awarded only one dollar each for actual losses, but they were awarded $16.2 million in punitive damages."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/24/us/spill-s-legal-odyssey.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm | work=New York Times | first=E. R. | last=Shipp | title=Spill's Legal Odyssey | date=24 October 1987}}</ref> Monsanto appealed the judgements and won on all counts.<ref name="Kellner appeal decision"/> | |||
====Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)==== | |||
In the early 1990s Monsanto faced several lawsuits over harm caused by PCBs from workers at companies such as Westinghouse that bought PCBs from Monsanto and used them to build electrical equipment.<ref>Robert Steyer. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 25 November 1991 Settlement Doesn't End Monsanto's Woes. Acccessed via Factiva 29 September 2012</ref> Monsanto and its customers, such as Westinghouse and GE also faced litigation from third parties, such as workers at scrapyards that bought used electrical equipment and broke them down to reclaim valuable metals.<ref>Supreme Court of Kentucky. MONSANTO COMPANY v. REED; MONSANTO COMPANY, Appellant, v. William REED, et al., Appellees. WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION, Appellant, v. MONSANTO COMPANY, et al., Appellees. Nos. 95-SC-549-DG, 95-SC-561-DG. 24 April 1997 </ref><ref>Supreme Court of Florida. HIGH v. WESTINGHOUSE ELEC. CORP. 610 So.2d 1259 (1992) 11 June 1992 </ref> Monsanto settled some of these cases and won the others, on the grounds that it had clearly told its customers that PCBs were dangerous chemicals and that protective procedures needed to implemented. | |||
Until it ended production in 1977, Monsanto was the source of 99% of the ] (PCBs) used by U.S. industry.<ref name = "ATSDR"/> They were sold under brand names including Aroclor and Santotherm; the name Santotherm is still used for non-chlorinated products.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Mitchell D. |last1=Erickson |first2=Robert G. |last2=Kaley, II |title=Applications of polychlorinated biphenyls |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research International |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=135–51 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |url=http://cdn.eastchem.com/therminol/Applications_of_PCBs_Erickson_Kaley_Aug2010_AuthorsProof_0.pdf |access-date=2015-03-03 |pmid=20848233 |year=2011 |doi=10.1007/s11356-010-0392-1 |bibcode=2011ESPR...18..135E |s2cid=25260209 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402163101/http://cdn.eastchem.com/therminol/Applications_of_PCBs_Erickson_Kaley_Aug2010_AuthorsProof_0.pdf |archive-date=April 2, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Crompton|first=T R|title=Determination of Organic Compounds in Natural and Treated Waters|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=wIKYde_zKqMC|page=396}}|date=June 1, 2002|publisher=CRC Press|page=396|isbn=978-0-203-01635-0}}</ref> PCBs are a ], and cause ] in both animals and humans, among other health effects.<ref name="EPA Health Effects">, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</ref> PCBs were initially welcomed due to the electrical industry's need for durable, safer (than flammable ]) cooling and insulating fluid for industrial transformers and capacitors. PCBs were also commonly used as stabilizing additives in the manufacture of flexible PVC coatings for electrical wiring and in electronic components to enhance PVC heat and fire resistance.<ref>{{cite book |title=Health Concerns and Environmental Issues with PVC-Containing Building Materials in Green Buildings |author1=Karlyn Black Kaley |author2=Jim Carlisle |author3=David Siegel |author4=Julio Salinas |publisher=Integrated Waste Management Board, California Environmental Protection Agency, USA |date=October 2006 |page=11 |url=http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/publications/GreenBuilding/43106016.pdf |access-date=October 21, 2012 |archive-date=July 15, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715221107/http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Publications/GreenBuilding/43106016.pdf }}</ref> As transformer leaks occurred and toxicity problems arose near factories, their durability and toxicity became recognized as serious problems. PCB production was banned by the U.S. Congress in 1979 and by the ] in 2001.<ref name="ATSDR">, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, at 467.</ref><ref name="EPA2">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/region2/pcbs/index.html|title=PCB's in NYC Schools – Region 2 – US EPA|date=January 29, 2013 |access-date=September 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906133728/http://www.epa.gov/region02/pcbs/index.html|archive-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref><ref name="EPA">, Pesticides: International Activities, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from on June 27, 2015.</ref> | |||
==== Agent Orange ==== | |||
In 1996, the New York Times reported that: "Dennis C. Vacco, the Attorney General of New York, ordered the company to pull ads that said Roundup was "safer than table salt" and "practically nontoxic" to mammals, birds and fish. The company withdrew the spots, but also said that the phrase in question was permissible under E.P.A. guidelines."<ref></ref> | |||
{{Main|Agent Orange}} | |||
Monsanto, ], and eight other chemical companies made ] for the ].<ref name="EncNatSec" />{{rp|6}} It was given its name from the color of the orange-striped ] in which it was shipped, and was by far the most widely used of the so-called "]".<ref name="hay-1982-p151">{{cite book|last=Hay|first=Alastair|title=The Chemical Scythe: Lessons of 2,4,5-T and Dioxin|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=V524J4zh06MC|page=151}}|date=September 1, 1982|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-306-40973-8|pages=151–}}</ref> | |||
==== Bovine somatotropin ==== | |||
In 2000, ] (GLC) sued Monsanto for the $71 million shortfall in expected sales. In 1999, Monsanto had sold GLC a business unit, NSC Technologies, for approximately $125 million in cash; NSC Technologies developed, manufactured and sold chiral pharmaceutical intermediates and select bulk actives to pharmaceutical companies, including the key ingredient of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icis.com/Articles/2000/01/24/103399/great-lakes-sues-monsanto-for-71m-over-nsc-sale.html |title=Great Lakes sues Monsanto for $71m over NSC sale-24/01/2000-ICIS News |publisher=Icis.com |date=24 January 2000 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.getfilings.com/o0000912057-02-010230.html |title=GREAT LAKES CHEMICAL CORP - 10-K Annual Report - 12/31/2001 |publisher=Getfilings.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> When sales did not meet projections, GLC sued Monsanto under federal securities laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/corporations/corporations-keyed-to-klein/the-duties-of-officers-directors-and-other-insiders/great-lakes-chemical-corp-v-monsanto-co/ |title=Great Lakes Chemical Corp. v. Monsanto Co |publisher=Casebriefs |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The federal case was dismissed. GLC then sued Monsanto under Delaware state law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/3184475/litigation |title=LITIGATION - Tags: ACTIONS & defenses (Administrative law) MONSANTO Co. - Trials, litigation, etc |publisher=Connection.ebscohost.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.findlaw.com/de-court-of-chancery/1283791.html |title=GREAT LAKES CHEMICAL CORPORATION v. PHARMACIA CORPORATION, C.A. No. 18276., June 29, 2001 - DE Court of Chancery | FindLaw |publisher=Caselaw.findlaw.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The outcome of this case is not known. | |||
{{Main|Bovine somatotropin}} | |||
Monsanto developed and sold ] ] (also known as ] and ]), a synthetic ] that increases milk production by 11–16% when injected into cows.<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
In 2001, French environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case against Monsanto for misleading the public about the ] of its ] ], on the basis that ], Roundup's main ingredient, is classed as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms" by the ]. Monsanto's advertising for Roundup had presented it as biodegradable and as leaving the soil clean after use. In 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising and was fined 15,000 euros. Monsanto's French distributor Scotts France was also fined 15,000 euros. Both defendants were ordered to pay damages of 5,000 euros to the Brittany Water and Rivers Association and 3,000 euros to the CLCV (Consommation Logement Cadre de vie), one of the two main general consumer associations in France.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Monsanto appealed and the court upheld the verdict; Monsanto appealed again to the French Supreme Court, and in 2009 it also upheld the verdict.<ref></ref> | |||
| last1 = Dohoo | first1 = I. R. | |||
| last2 = Leslie | first2 = K. | |||
| last3 = Descôteaux | first3 = L. | |||
| last4 = Fredeen | first4 = A. | |||
| last5 = Dowling | first5 = P. | |||
| last6 = Preston | first6 = A. | |||
| last7 = Shewfelt | first7 = W. | |||
| title = A meta-analysis review of the effects of recombinant bovine somatotropin. 1. Methodology and effects on production | |||
| journal = Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research | |||
| volume = 67 | |||
| issue = 4 | |||
| pages = 241–251 | |||
| year = 2003 | |||
| pmid = 14620860 | |||
| pmc = 280708 | |||
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| last1 = Dohoo | first1 = I. R. | |||
| last2 = Descôteaux | first2 = L. | |||
| last3 = Leslie | first3 = K. | |||
| last4 = Fredeen | first4 = A. | |||
| last5 = Shewfelt | first5 = W. | |||
| last6 = Preston | first6 = A. | |||
| last7 = Dowling | first7 = P. | |||
| title = A meta-analysis review of the effects of recombinant bovine somatotropin. 2. Effects on animal health, reproductive performance, and culling | |||
| journal = Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research | |||
| volume = 67 | |||
| issue = 4 | |||
| pages = 252–264 | |||
| year = 2003 | |||
| pmid = 14620861 | |||
| pmc = 280709 | |||
}}</ref> In October 2008, Monsanto sold this business to ] for $300 million plus additional considerations.<ref name="urlEli Lilly to Buy Monsanto's Dairy Cow Hormone for $300 million - DealBook Blog - NYTimes.com">{{Cite news|url=http://dealbook.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/eli-lilly-to-buy-monsantos-dairy-cow-hormone-for-300-million/ |title=Eli Lilly to Buy Monsanto's Dairy Cow Hormone for $300 million – DealBook Blog |work=The New York Times| date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> | |||
The use of rBST remains controversial with respect to its effects on cows and their milk.<ref name=Dobs>Dobson, William D. (June 1996) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921122744/https://aae.wisc.edu/pubs/sps/pdf/stpap397.pdf/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209122114/http://www.aae.wisc.edu/pubs/sps/pdf/stpap397.pdf |archive-date=2006-02-09 |url-status=live |date=September 21, 2020 }}. University of Wisconsin-Madison Agricultural and Applied Economics Staff Paper Series No. 397</ref> | |||
In 2003, Monsanto reached a $300 million settlement with people in Alabama affected by the manufacturing and dumping of the toxic chemical polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).<ref name=Alabama>{{cite web|author=10/19/12 12:43 pm |url=http://www.legalnewsline.com/news/236012-ala.-sc-makes-ruling-in-cases-over-300m-monsanto-settlement |title=Ala. SC makes ruling in cases over $300M Monsanto settlement |publisher=Legal Newsline |date=1 May 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
In some markets, milk from cows that are not treated with rBST is sold with labels indicating that it is rBST-free: this milk has proved popular with consumers.<ref name = "nytimes milk label">, '']'', March 9, 2008</ref> In reaction to this, in early 2008 a pro-rBST advocacy group called "American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology" (AFACT),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://itisafact.org/ |title=AFACT: American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology |publisher=Itisafact.org }}</ref> made up of dairies and originally affiliated with Monsanto, formed and began lobbying to ban such labels. AFACT stated that "absence" labels can be misleading and imply that milk from cows treated with rBST is inferior.<ref name = "nytimes milk label" /> | |||
In 2004 Monsanto was sued in a US court by ], along with ] and other chemical companies for the effects of its ] defoliant, used by the US military in the ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3798581.stm|title=Vietnam's war against Agent Orange|date=14 June 2004 |work=BBC News | first=Tom | last=Fawthrop}}</ref><ref>, by Tom Fawthrop, 4 November 2004, CorpWatch</ref> The case was dismissed, and plaintiffs appealed all the way to the Supreme Court, which also denied the appeal. | |||
===Uncommercialized products=== | |||
In 2004, the world's largest ] company, Switzerland's ], launched a US lawsuit charging Monsanto with using coercive tactics to monopolize markets.<ref name="organicconsumers.org"> from ]</ref> A flurry of litigation ensued, all of which was settled in 2008.<ref></ref> | |||
Monsanto also developed notable technologies that were not ultimately commercialized. | |||
===="Terminator" seeds==== | |||
In 2005, the ] filed a Deferred Prosecution Agreement<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.virginia.edu/pdf/faculty/garrett/monsanto.pdf |title=United States of America v. Monsanto Company (Foreign Corrupt Practices Act) |publisher=United States District Court for the District of Columbia |accessdate=3 October 2010}}</ref> in which Monsanto admitted to violations of the ] (15 U.S.C. § 78dd-1) and making false entries into its books and records (15 U.S.C § 78m(b)(2) & (5)). Monsanto also agreed to pay a $1.5m fine. The case involved bribes paid to an Indonesian official.<ref></ref> Monsanto admitted a senior manager at Monsanto directed an Indonesian consulting firm to give a $50,000 bribe to a high-level official in Indonesia's environment ministry in 2002 related to the agency's assessment on its genetically modified cotton. Monsanto told the company to disguise an invoice for the bribe as "consulting fees". Monsanto also has admitted to paying bribes to a number of other high-ranking Indonesian officials between 1997 and 2002. On 5 March 2008 the deferred prosecution agreement against Monsanto was dismissed with prejudice (unopposed by the Department of Justice) by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, thereby indicating that Monsanto had complied fully with the terms of the agreement. | |||
{{main|Genetic use restriction technology}} | |||
Genetic use restriction technology, colloquially known as "terminator technology", produces plants with sterile seeds. This trait would prevent the spread of those seeds into the wild. It also would prevent farmers from planting seeds they harvest, requiring them to purchase seed for every planting, allowing the company to enforce its licensing terms via technology. Farmers have been buying ]s for generations, instead of replanting their harvest, because second-generation hybrid seeds are inferior. Nevertheless, most seed companies contract only with farmers who agree not to plant harvested seeds. | |||
In late 2006, the Correctional Tribunal of ], France, ordered two directors of Monsanto subsidiary Asgrow to pay a €15,000 fine related to their knowledge of the presence of unauthorized GMOs in bags of seeds imported by Asgrow on 13 April 2000.<ref>{{Cite news | title = French Monsanto subsidiary found guilty of GMO contamination | newspaper=translation of a France Nature Environnement press release | date = 14 December 2006 | url = http://www.laleva.org/eng/2006/12/french_monsanto_subsidiary_found_guilty_of_gmo_contamination.html | accessdate =11 October 2009}}</ref> | |||
Terminator technology has been developed by governmental labs, university researchers and companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ngin.tripod.com/353.htm |title=RAFI on new Terminator patent |publisher=Ngin.tripod.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=gm-104#gm-104 |title=Context of 'July 20, 1999: USDA and Delta & Pine Land Secure New Patent for Improvements in Terminator Genetic Seed Sterilization Technology' |publisher=Historycommons.org |access-date=July 24, 2012 |archive-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205064112/http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=gm-104#gm-104 }}</ref><ref name="Warwick Terminator">{{cite journal |first=Hugh |last=Warwick |editor-last=Wijeratna |editor-first=Alex |editor2-last=Meienberg |editor2-first=François |editor3-last= Meienberg |title = Syngenta – Switching off farmers' rights? |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=October 2000 |url = http://www.fao.org/righttofood/KC/downloads/vl/docs/AH428.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512172032/http://www.fao.org/righttofood/KC/downloads/vl/docs/AH428.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2011}}</ref> The technology has not been used commercially.<ref name="monsanto pledge">{{cite web |url=http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/terminator-seeds.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Is Monsanto Going to Develop or Sell "Terminator" Seeds? |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=November 3, 2008 |access-date=July 24, 2012 |archive-date=June 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605020705/http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/terminator-seeds.aspx }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.banterminator.org/The-Issues/Introduction |title=Introduction / The Issues / |publisher=Ban Terminator |date=June 1, 2007 |access-date=August 3, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709023839/http://www.banterminator.org/The-Issues/Introduction |archive-date=July 9, 2012 }}</ref> Rumors that Monsanto and other companies intended to introduce terminator technology caused protests, for example in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/465969.stm |work=BBC News |title=Farmers welcome halt of 'terminator' |date=October 5, 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~sr793/doc/RHerring.pdf |title=CAS 38-4 24 Oct 2006.vp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531024738/http://www.columbia.edu/~sr793/doc/RHerring.pdf |archive-date=May 31, 2013}}</ref> | |||
Monsanto was the subject of an investigation by the Environmental Agency of the UK regarding pollution caused by disposal of PCBs and other ] at ]. In February 2011, the Guardian reported that Monsanto had agreed to help with the costs of remediation, but did not accept responsibility for the pollution.<ref></ref> A webpage at the Environmental Agency site put up at around that time states: "We have completed our extensive enquiries to identify those we consider should be held responsible under the contaminated land laws and be held liable for the cost of remediating Brofiscin Quarry. We are at an advanced stage in our consultations with BP, Veolia and Monsanto to provide them with the opportunity to help remediate the land on a voluntary basis. We expect to make further progress on this matter in the next few months. If this approach is unsuccessful, we have the power to carry out the work needed ourselves and recover our costs. The three companies have been identified under the legislation as inheriting the liabilities of companies who were associated with depositing wastes at the quarry."<ref></ref> | |||
In 1999, Monsanto pledged not to commercialize terminator technology.<ref name="monsanto pledge" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/1999/oct/06/gm.food2 |title=World braced for terminator 2 |last=Vidal |first=John |date=October 5, 1999 |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref> The ] intended to commercialize the technology,<ref name="Warwick Terminator" /> but D&PL was acquired by Monsanto in 2007.<ref> monsanto.com</ref> | |||
===Other legal action - As plaintiff or appellant=== | |||
Monsanto "Terminator seeds" were never commercialized nor used in any farmer's field anywhere in the world. The patent expired in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mangan|first=Mary|date=2021-02-12|title='Terminator seeds'—the anti-GMO bogeyman that never existed|url=https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2021/02/12/viewpoint-farewell-to-terminator-seeds-1995-2015-the-anti-gmo-movements-favorite-bogeyman/|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Genetic Literacy Project}}</ref> | |||
In 2003, Monsanto sued ] over Oakhurst's label on its milk cartons that said "Our farmer's pledge: no artificial hormones," referring to the use of ] (rBST).<ref name="wired"/> Monsanto argued that the label implied that Oakhurst milk was superior to milk from cows treated with rBST, which harmed Monsanto's business.<ref name="wired">{{cite web | url=http://www.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2003/09/60132?currentPage=all | title=Sour Grapes Over Milk Labeling | accessdate=25 February 2011 | date=16 September 2003 | publisher=Wired Magazine | archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5wlecaMul | archivedate=25 February 2011}}</ref> The two companies settled out of court, and it was announced that Oakhurst would add the word "used" at the end of its label, and note that the US ] claims there is no major difference between milk from rBST-treated and non rBST-treated cows.<ref></ref> | |||
==== GM wheat ==== | |||
On January 23, 2008 the ], the ], and the Organic Seed Alliance and High Mowing Seeds filed a lawsuit against ]-] regarding their decision to deregulate a glyphosate-resistant sugar beet developed by Monsanto and KWS SAAT AG in 2005. The organizations expressed concerns regarding glyphosate-resistant sugar beets' ability to potentially cross ] with conventional sugar beet.<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline">{{cite web|last=USDA-APHIS |title=Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet_case.shtml|date=February 4, 2011}}</ref> On September 21, 2009 U.S. District Judge Jeffrey S. White, ], ruled that USDA-APHIS had violated Federal law in deregulating glyphosate-resistant sugar beet<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline"/> and on August 13, 2010 he ruled further, revoking the deregulation of glyphosate-resistant sugar beet and declaring it unlawful for growers to plant glyphosate-resistant sugar beet in the spring of 2011. As a result of this ruling, growers were permitted to harvest and process their crop at the end of the 2010 growing season, yet a ban on new plantings was enacted. After Judge White's ruling, USDA-APHIS prepared an Environmental Assessment seeking partial deregulation of glyphosate-resistant sugar beet and allowed GM seedlings to be planted.<ref name="USDA Prepares Draft Environmental Assessment on Regulatory Options for Roundup Ready Sugar Beets">{{cite web|last=USDA-APHIS |title=USDA Prepares Draft Environmental Assessment on Regulatory Options for Roundup Ready Sugar Beets|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/content/2010/11/enviro_sugar_beets.shtml}}</ref> In November 2010, in response to a suit by the original parties, Judge White ordered the destruction of the plantings.<ref>Reuters. 30 November 2010 </ref> In February 2011, a federal appeals court for the Northern district of California in San Francisco overturned the ruling, concluding that "The Plaintiffs have failed to show a likelihood of irreparable injury. Biology, geography, field experience, and permit restrictions make irreparable injury unlikely."<ref> Filed 25 February 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2012</ref> APHIS developed requirements that growers must follow if handling glyphosate-resistant sugar beet. In July 2012, after completing an Environmental Impact Assessment and a Plant Pest Risk Assessment the USDA deregulated Monsanto's Roundup Ready sugar beets.<ref>Staff (7 August 2012) USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology, Retrieved 28 July 2012</ref> | |||
{{main|Genetically modified wheat}} | |||
Monsanto developed several strains of genetically modified wheat, including glyphosate-resistant strains, in the 1990s. Field tests were done in the United States between 1998 and 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2013/05/29/unapproved-monsanto-gmo-wheat-found-in-oregon.html |agency=Reuters |title=Unapproved Monsanto GMO Wheat Found in Oregon |publisher=] |date=2013-05-29 |access-date=September 20, 2018}}</ref> As of 2017, no genetically modified wheat had been released for commercial use.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Regalado |first1=Antonio |title=These are not your father's GMOs |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609230/these-are-not-your-fathers-gmos/ |website=MIT Technology Review |access-date=September 20, 2018}}</ref> | |||
== Legal affairs == | |||
In 2010 the ] ruled in case known as ].<ref name="Supreme Court Opinion">{{cite web|title=Monsanto Co et, al v. Geertson Seed Farms et, al. 561 U.S. ____(2010)|url=http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/09pdf/09-475.pdf|publisher=United States Supreme Court}}</ref> The case concerned an injunction against the planting of Monsanto's gentically engineered ] Ready ] (RRA).<ref> Federal Register, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 27 June 2005, Retrieved 28 August 2012</ref> In 2005 the ]'s ] (APHIS) had deregulated RRA based on an ] (EA) of Monsanto's RRA.<ref name=NonregGrant> United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology Regulatory Services, October 2004, Retrieved 28 August 2012</ref> In 2006, Geertson Seed Farm and others filed suit in a ] against the APHIS' deregulation of RRA.<ref name=Oyez>{{cite web|last=The Oyez Project|first=IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law|title=Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms|url=http://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2009/2009_09_475|publisher=The Oyez Project|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref> The district court disallowed APHIS' deregulation of RRA and issued an injunction against any new planting of RRA pending the preparation of a much more extensive ] (EIS).<ref> United States District Court for Northern California, Case No C 06-01075 CR, 3 May 2007, Retrieved 28 August 2012</ref> The court also refused to allow a partial deregulation.<ref name="Supreme Court Opinion"/> Monsanto and others appealed that decision and lost,<ref>McEowan, Roger (15 January 2010) Iowa State University, Center for Agricultural Law and Taxation, Retrieved 28 August 2012</ref> then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 2010 the Supreme Court reversed the district court's decision. They stated that before a court disallows a partial deregulation, a plaintiff must show that it has suffered irreparable injury. "The District Court abused its discretion in enjoining APHIS from effecting a partial deregulation and in prohibiting the planting of RRA pending the agency’s completion of its detailed environmental review."<ref name="Supreme Court Opinion"/> The Supreme court did not consider the district court's ruling disallowing RRA's deregulation and consequently RRA was still a regulated crop waiting for APHIS's completion of an EIS.<ref name="Supreme Court Opinion"/> At the time, both sides claimed victory.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1038/nbt0810-770a}}</ref> This was the first ruling of the United States Supreme Court on genetically engineered crops.<ref>Koons, Jennifer (21 June 2010) New York Times, Energy & Environment, Retrieved 28 August 2012</ref> | |||
{{main|Monsanto legal cases}} | |||
Monsanto engaged in high-profile lawsuits, as both plaintiff and defendant. It defended lawsuits mostly over its products' health and environmental effects. Monsanto used the courts to enforce its patents, particularly in agricultural ], an approach similar to that of other companies in the field, such as ]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/93431968/Pioneer-Hi-Bred-International-v-Does-1-5|title=Pioneer Hi Bred International v. Does 1–5|date=May 14, 2012|publisher=Scribd.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2001/2001_99_1996/|title=J.E.M. Supply v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International | The Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law|publisher=Oyez.org}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hpj.com/archives/syngenta-sues-to-stop-illegal-sales-of-coker-seed-varieties/article_1d4dfb89-877b-5c7e-9900-7a2795b67210.html|title=Syngenta sues to stop illegal sales of COKER seed varieties|date=January 2002|publisher=Hpj.com|access-date=March 1, 2015|archive-date=January 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129111538/https://www.hpj.com/archives/syngenta-sues-to-stop-illegal-sales-of-coker-seed-varieties/article_1d4dfb89-877b-5c7e-9900-7a2795b67210.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Monsanto also became one of the most controversial large corporations in the world, over a range of issues involving its industrial and agricultural chemical products, and GM seed.<ref name="wp-bayer">{{cite news |last1=Dewey |first1=Caitlin |title=Why 'Monsanto' is no more |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/06/04/why-monsanto-is-no-more/ |access-date=September 28, 2018 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=June 4, 2018}}</ref> In April 2018, just prior to Bayer's acquisition, Bayer indicated that improving Monsanto's reputation represented a major challenge.<ref name="reuters-Bayer">{{cite news |title=Bayer CEO says Monsanto's reputation is a 'major challenge' |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bayer-agm/bayer-ceo-says-monsantos-reputation-is-a-major-challenge-idUSKBN17U127 |access-date=September 28, 2018 |publisher=Reuters |date=April 28, 2018}}</ref> That June, Bayer announced it would drop the Monsanto name as part of a campaign to regain consumer trust.<ref name="wp-bayer" /> | |||
=== |
===Argentina=== | ||
Argentina approved ''Roundup Ready'' soy in 1996. Between 1996 and 2008 soy production grew from 14 million acres to 42 million acres. The growth was driven by Argentine investors' interest in export markets.<ref name="SoyRepublic">. Towardfreedom.com (September 2, 2009).</ref> The consolidation led to a decrease in production of many staples such as ], ], ], ]es and ]. As of 2004, about 150,000 small farmers had left the countryside; as of 2009, 50% in the Chaco region.<ref name="SoyRepublic" /><ref name="GuardianArgentina">. ''The Guardian'' (April 16, 2004).</ref><ref>Carlos Reboratti (2010) . ] Revista de geografía Norte Grande 45: 63–76.</ref> | |||
'']'' reported that a Monsanto representative had said, "any problems with GM soya were to do with use of the crop as a monoculture, not because it was GM. If you grow any crop to the exclusion of any other you are bound to get problems."<ref name="GuardianArgentina" /> | |||
====1997 WTVT news story==== | |||
In 2005 and 2006, Monsanto attempted to enforce its patents on soymeal originating in Argentina and shipped to Spain by having Spanish customs officials seize the soymeal shipments. The seizures were part of a larger attempt by Monsanto to put pressure on the Argentinian government to enforce Monsanto's seed patents.<ref>. Cropchoice.com, January 31, 2006.</ref> | |||
This is a case where Monsanto was not a party, but was alleged to have been involved in the events under dispute. In 1997, the news division of ] (Channel 13), a ]–] in ], planned to air an investigative report by ] and ] on the health risks associated with Monsanto's ] product, ].<ref name="sptimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.sptimes.com/News/081900/TampaBay/Reporter_wins_suit_ov.shtml |title=Reporter wins suit over firing |publisher=Sptimes.com |date=19 August 2000 |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> Just before the story was to air, Fox received a threatening letter from Monsanto, saying the reporters were biased and that the story would damage the company.<ref name="sptimes.com" /> Fox tried to work with the reporters to address Monsanto's concerns, and the negotiations between Fox and the reporters broke down.<ref name="sptimes.com" /> Both reporters were eventually fired. Wilson and Akre alleged the firing was for retaliation, while WTVT contended they were fired for insubordination. The reporters then sued Fox/WTVT in Florida state court under the state's ] statute. In 2000, a Florida jury found that while there was no evidence Fox/WTVT had bowed to any pressure from Monsanto to alter the story, Akre, but not Wilson, was a whistleblower and was unjustly fired.<ref name="sptimes.com" /> Fox appealed the decision stating that under Florida law, a whistleblower can only act if "a law, rule, or regulation”" has been broken and argued that the FCC's news distortion policy did not fit that definition.<ref name="decision">{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.findlaw.com/fl-district-court-of-appeal/1310807.html |title=NEW WORLD COMMUNICATIONS OF TAMPA INC WTVT TV v. AKRE, No. 2D01-529., February 14, 2003 - FL District Court of Appeal | FindLaw |publisher=Caselaw.findlaw.com |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The appeals court overturned the verdict, finding that Akre was not a whistleblower because of the Florida "legislature's requirement that agency statements that fit the definition of a “rule” (must) be formally adopted (rules). Recognizing an uncodified agency policy developed through the adjudicative process as the equivalent of a formally adopted rule is not consistent with this policy, and it would expand the scope of conduct that could subject an employer to liability beyond what Florida's Legislature could have contemplated when it enacted the whistle-blower's statute." | |||
In 2013 environmentalist groups objected to a Monsanto corn seed conditioning facility in ]. Neighbours objected to the risk of environmental impact. Court rulings supported the project,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lavoz.com.ar/noticias/politica/monsanto-podra-continuar-con-obra-civil-pero-no-con-operativa|title=Monsanto podrá continuar con obra civil pero no con operativa|date=April 23, 2013|publisher=La Voz|language=es}}</ref> but environmentalist groups organised demonstrations and opened an online petition for the subject to be decided in a popular ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.argenpress.info/2013/12/monsanto-contamina-el-medio-ambiente-y.html|title=Monsanto contamina el medio ambiente y también la democracia|last=Marín|first=Emiliom|date=December 2, 2013|publisher=Argenpress.info}}</ref> The court rulings stipulated that while construction could continue, the facility could not begin operating until the ] required by law had been duly presented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lavoz.com.ar/politica/ratifican-que-monsanto-podra-continuar-con-la-obra-civil|title=Ratifican que Monsanto podrá continuar con la obra civil|date=October 10, 2013|publisher=La Voz|language=es}}</ref> | |||
====Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories scandal==== | |||
In 2016 Monsanto reached an agreement with Argentina's government on soybean seed royalty payments. Monsanto agreed to give the Argentine Seed Institute (Inase) oversight over crops grown from Monsanto's Intacta genetically modified soybean seeds. Before the agreement, Argentine farmers generally avoided royalties by using seeds from previous harvests or purchased from non-registered suppliers. Inase agreed to delegate testing to grain exchanges. About 6 million sample tests were to be conducted annually. Seeds that appear to be GMOs may be tested again using a ] test.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-14/monsanto-argentina-seed-pact-said-to-become-effective-next-week|title=Monsanto-Argentina Seed Pact Said to Become Effective Next Week|last=Gonzalez|first=Pablo Rosendo|date=2016-06-14|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2016-12-15}}</ref> | |||
In 1981, four executives of ](IBT), an American ] were indicted in federal court on various counts including ] and fraud, and were convicted in 1983.<ref name='Marshall 1983-06-10'>Marshall, E. (1983) The murky world of toxicity testing. Science 220(4602):1130–1132 </ref> IBT was an industrial product safety testing laboratory that was used by pharmaceutical companies, chemical manufacturers and other industrial clients, operated one of the largest facility of its kind in the US, and performed more than one-third of all ] in the United States.<ref name=SchneiderAmicus></ref> One of convicted executives was Paul Wright, a toxicologist, who had spent 18 months at IBT in the 1970s while IBT was testing an ] product that Monsanto was developing, ](TCC).<ref>Keith Schneider for Amicus Journal,spring 1983 edition "Faking it: The Case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories"</ref> The revelations of misconduct by IBT Labs led to the establishment of ] standards and regulations for industrial testing.<ref name='Novak TCaW 11-2001'>Roger A. Novak "The long arm of the lab laws" Today's Chemist at Work. November 2001 </ref> | |||
===Brazil=== | |||
In 1991, Philip Smith, a former assistant toxicologist at IBT, testified in a trial in which Monsanto was being sued by workers at Westinghouse over PCBs, that final toxicology reports on PCBs provided to Monsanto by IBT contained falsified data.<ref name='Steyer 1991-10-29'>{{cite news | first = Robert | last = Steyer | title = Lab Falsified Monsanto PCB Data, Witness Says | date = 29 October 1991 | work = St. Louis Post-Dispatch }}</ref> | |||
Brazil is the second largest producer of GMO soy. In 2003 GM soy was found in fields planted in the state of ].<ref name="EconomistBrazil">. ''The Economist'' (October 2, 2003).</ref> This was a controversial decision, and in response, the ] protested by invading and occupying several Monsanto farm plots used for research, training and seed-processing.<ref>. BBC News (June 3, 2003).</ref> In 2005 Brazil passed a law creating a regulatory pathway for GM crops. | |||
===China=== | |||
====2009 antitrust investigation==== | |||
Monsanto was criticized by ] economist ] for controlling the Chinese soybean market, and for trying to do the same to Chinese corn and cotton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class4/201001/128373.html |title=郎咸平:孟山都的转基因帝国-大豆、玉米与棉花 |publisher=Wyzxsx.com |date=January 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328142034/http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class4/201001/128373.html |archive-date=March 28, 2010 }}</ref> | |||
===India=== | |||
In 2009 Monsanto came under scrutiny from the U.S. Justice Department, which began investigating whether the company's activities in the soybean markets were breaking ] rules.<ref name="cbsnews.com"/><ref>{{Cite news| url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/10/08/business/main5372772.shtml | title = Monsanto Focus of Antitrust Investigation | work=] | date = 8 October 2009 | accessdate =15 June 2010}}</ref> In 2010 the DOJ created a website through which comments on "Agriculture and Antitrust Enforcement Issues in Our 21st Century Economy" could be submitted; over 15,000 comments were submitted including a letter by 14 State Attorneys General. The comments are publicly available.<ref></ref> As of July 2012 the investigation was still open.<ref> mentions open investigation at the end.</ref> | |||
{{main|Farmers' suicides in India}} | |||
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, public attention was drawn to suicides by indebted farmers following crop failures.<ref name=FrontLine>. PBS (July 26, 2005).</ref> For example, in the early 2000s, farmers in ] (AP) were in economic crisis due to high-interest rates and crop failures, leading to widespread unrest and farmer suicides.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3855517.stm | work=BBC News | title=India PM pledge over suicide farmers | date=July 1, 2004}}</ref> Monsanto was one focus of protests with respect to the price and yields of Bt seed. In 2005, the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee, the Indian regulatory authority, released a study on field tests of certain Bt cotton strains in AP and ruled that Monsanto could not market those strains in AP because of poor yields.<ref>The Hindu Business Line. May 26, 2005 </ref> At about the same time, the state agriculture minister barred the company from selling Bt cotton seed, because Monsanto refused a request by the state government to provide pay about Rs 4.5 crore (about one million US$) to indebted farmers in some districts, and because the government blamed Monsanto's seeds for crop failures.<ref name="Andra Uproots">{{Cite news |title=Angry Andhra uproots Monsanto |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/angry-andhra-uproots-monsanto/139771/0 |work=financialexpress.com |location=Hyderabad |date=June 23, 2005}}</ref> The order was later lifted. | |||
In 2006, AP tried to convince Monsanto to reduce the price of Bt seeds. Unsatisfied, the state filed several cases against Monsanto and its ]-based licensee, Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds.<ref name="autogenerated3">, '']'', June 27, 2006.</ref> Research by ] found no evidence supporting an increased suicide rate following the introduction of Bt cotton and that Bt cotton.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bt Cotton and Farmer Suicides in India: An Evidence-based Assessment |journal=The Journal of Development Studies |year=2011 |volume=47 |issue=2 |doi=10.1080/00220388.2010.492863 |last1=Gruère |first1=Guillaume |last2=Sengupta |first2=Debdatta |pages=316–37 |pmid=21506303|s2cid=20145281 }}</ref><ref name="Sheridan">{{cite journal |title=Doubts surround link between Bt cotton failure and farmer suicide : Article: Nature Biotechnology |journal=Nature Biotechnology |url=http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v27/n1/full/nbt0109-9.html |access-date=May 6, 2013|date=January 2009 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=9–10 |doi=10.1038/nbt0109-9 |last1=Sheridan |first1=Cormac |pmid=19131979 |s2cid=82412990 }}</ref> The report stated that farmer suicides predated commercial introduction in 2002 (and unofficial introduction in 2001) and that such suicides had made up a fairly constant portion of the overall national suicide rate since 1997.<ref name="Sheridan" /><ref name="Gruere">{{cite web |url=http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00808.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511180115/http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00808.pdf |archive-date=2011-05-11 |url-status=live |year=2008 |title=Bt Cotton and Farmer Suicides in India: Reviewing the Evidence |author=Guillaume P. Gruère, Purvi Mehta-Bhatt and Debdatta Sengupta |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute}}</ref> The report concluded that while Bt cotton may have been a factor in specific suicides, the contribution was likely marginal compared to ] factors.<ref name="Sheridan" /><ref name="Gruere" /> As of 2009, Bt cotton was planted in 87% of Indian cotton-growing land.<ref>Choudhary, B. & Gaur, K. 2010. . ISAAA Series of Biotech Crop Profiles. ISAAA: Ithaca, NY.</ref> | |||
==Controversies and legal actions outside the US== | |||
Critics including ] said that the crop failures could "often be traced to" Monsanto's Bt cotton, that the seeds increased farmer indebtedness and argued that Monsanto misrepresented the profitability of their Bt Cotton, causing losses leading to debt.<ref name="FrontLine" /><ref>. Democracy Now! (December 13, 2006).</ref><ref>Peled, M. X. (Producer and Director) (September 1, 2011). (motion picture). United States: Teddy Bear Films.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://filmmakermagazine.com/40204-bitter-seeds-an-interview-with-director-micha-x-peled/ |journal=] |last=Scott |first=Daniel James|date=February 9, 2012 |title=Director Micha X. Peled on ''Bitter Seeds'' |access-date=May 1, 2013}}</ref> In 2009, Shiva wrote that Indian farmers who had previously spent as little as ₹7 (]) per kilogram were now paying up to ₹17,000 per kilo per year for Bt cotton.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vandana Shiva: From Seeds of Suicide to Seeds of Hope: Why Are Indian Farmers Committing Suicide and How Can We Stop This Tragedy? | date=April 28, 2009| url = https://www.huffingtonpost.com/vandana-shiva/from-seeds-of-suicide-to_b_192419.html |access-date=May 2, 2013 |first=Vandana |last=Shiva |work=Huffington Post}}</ref> In 2012 the ] (ICAR) and the Central Cotton Research Institute (CCRI) stated that for the first time farmer suicides could be linked to a decline in the performance of Bt cotton, and advised, "cotton farmers are in a deep crisis since shifting to Bt cotton. The spate of farmer suicides in 2011–12 has been particularly severe among Bt cotton farmers."<ref name="ICAR1" /> | |||
===Argentina=== | |||
GM soy was approved for cultivation in Argentina in 1996. When Argentina approved the cultivation of GMO in 1996 14 million acres were used for soy production and by 2008 that area grew to 42 million acres.<ref name=SoyRepublic></ref> The growth was driven by Argentine investors' interest in buying or leasing land on which to grow soy for the export market.<ref name=SoyRepublic /> The consolidation has led to a decrease in production of many staples such as milk, rice, maize, potatoes and lentils, and about 150,000 small farmers have left the countryside because they could no longer make a living (as they could not afford GM soya) or were driven off their land.<ref name=SoyRepublic /><ref name=GuardianArgentina> from ''The Guardian''</ref><ref>Carlos Reboratti (2010) "A sea of soybean: Consequences of the new agriculture in Argentina (Un mar de soja: La nueva agricultura en Argentina y sus consecuencias)". ] (Revista de geografía Norte Grande 45: 63–76 </ref> | |||
In 2004, in response to an order from the Bombay High Court the ] produced a report on farmer suicides in ] in 2005.<ref name="InfoChange">Staff, InfoChange August 2005. {{usurped|1=}}</ref><ref name="TataReport">Dandekar A., et al., Tata Institute. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809074417/http://vnss-mission.gov.in/htmldocs/Farmers_suicide_TISS_report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704201549/http://www.vnss-mission.gov.in/htmldocs/Farmers_suicide_TISS_report.pdf |archive-date=2009-07-04 |url-status=live |date=August 9, 2013 }}</ref> The survey cited "government apathy, the absence of a safety net for farmers, and lack of access to information related to agriculture as the chief causes for the desperate condition of farmers in the state."<ref name="InfoChange" /> | |||
The Guardian newspaper interviewed a Monsanto representative and reported that the representative "said that any problems with GM soya were to do with use of the crop as a monoculture, not because it was GM. 'If you grow any crop to the exclusion of any other you are bound to get problems.'"<ref name=GuardianArgentina /> | |||
Various studies identified the important factors as insufficient or risky credit systems, the difficulty of farming semi-arid regions, poor agricultural income, absence of alternative income opportunities, a downturn in the urban economy which forced non-farmers into farming and the absence of suitable counseling services.<ref name="Gruere" /><ref name="Nagraj">{{cite web|author=Nagraj, K. |year=2008 |title=Farmers suicide in India: magnitudes, trends and spatial patterns |url=http://www.macroscan.com/anl/mar08/pdf/Farmers_Suicides.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512173317/http://www.macroscan.com/anl/mar08/pdf/Farmers_Suicides.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Risks, Farmers' Suicides and Agrarian Crisis in India: Is There A Way Out?|author=Mishra, Srijit|publisher=Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR)|year=2007|url=http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2007-014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118215816/http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2007-014.pdf |archive-date=2011-01-18 |url-status=live}}</ref> ICAR and CCRI stated that the cost of cotton cultivation had jumped as a consequence of rising pesticide costs, while total Bt cotton production in the five years from 2007 to 2012 had declined.<ref name="ICAR1">{{cite web | title = Ministry blames Bt cotton for farmer suicides – Hindustan Times |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Business/Ministry-blames-Btcotton-for-farmer-suicides/Article1-830798.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722005640/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Business/Ministry-blames-Btcotton-for-farmer-suicides/Article1-830798.aspx |archive-date=July 22, 2013 |access-date=May 2, 2013 |first=Hindustan |last=Times}}</ref> | |||
===Brazil=== | |||
Brazil had originally approved GM crops in 1998 but Brazilian advocacy groups had successfully sued to overturn the approval.<ref name=EconomistBrazil></ref> In 2003 Brazil allowed a one-year exemption when GM soy was found in fields planted in the state of Rio Grande do Sul.<ref name=EconomistBrazil /> This was a controversial decision, and in response, the ] protested by invading and occupying several Monsanto farm plots used for research, training and seed-processing.<ref> from BBC News</ref> In 2005 Brazil passed a law creating a regulatory pathway for GM crops, and the agriculture minister Roberto Rodrigues stated that "Brazilian soy farmers, who have used cloned or smuggled versions of the biotechnology company's Roundup Ready variety for years, will no longer have to worry about breaking the law or facing legal action from Monsanto as long as regulators approve the seeds for planting."<ref></ref> | |||
=== |
===United Kingdom=== | ||
{{Main|Brofiscin Quarry}} | |||
Monsanto was criticized by Chinese economist Lang Xianping for having controlled the Chinese soybean market, and for trying to do the same to Chinese corn and cotton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wyzxsx.com/Article/Class4/201001/128373.html |title=郎咸平:孟山都的转基因帝国-大豆、玉米与棉花 |publisher=Wyzxsx.com |date=28 January 2010 |accessdate=24 September 2010}}</ref> | |||
] was used as a waste site from about 1965 to 1972 and accepted waste from ], ] and Monsanto.<ref name=WalesOnline>Staff, Wales Online. October 17, 2011 </ref><ref>Burges Salmon LLP. April 12, 2012 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903061851/http://www.inhouselawyer.co.uk/index.php/environment/9839-changes-to-the-contaminated-land-regime |date=September 3, 2014 }}</ref> A 2005 report by ] (EAW) found that the quarry contained up to 75 toxic substances, including ], ] and PCBs.<ref name=WalesOnline/><ref name=BBC2011-06>BBC June 15, 2011 </ref> | |||
In February 2011, Monsanto agreed to help with the costs of remediation, but did not accept responsibility for the pollution.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/feb/21/monsanto-brofiscin-pollution|title=Monsanto agrees to clean up toxic chemicals in South Wales quarry|date=February 21, 2011|access-date=June 5, 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|last1=Levitt|first1=Tom}}</ref><ref name=EAW1>{{cite web|url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/publications/122041.aspx|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140328084622/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/publications/122041.aspx|archive-date=March 28, 2014|title= EA responsibility|publisher=Environment Agency Wales|access-date=June 5, 2013}}</ref> In 2011, EAW and the Rhondda Cynon Taf council announced that they had decided to place an engineered cap over the waste mass,<ref>Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902060620/http://www.rctcbc.gov.uk/en/environmentplanningandwaste/pollution/brofiscin/brofiscin.aspx |date=September 2, 2014 }} Accessed September 1, 2014</ref> and stated that the cost would be £1.5 million; previous estimates had been as high as £100 million.<ref name=BBC2011-06/><ref>BBC, February 12, 2007, 22:48 </ref> | |||
===Haiti=== | |||
After the ], Monsanto donated $255,000 to Haiti for disaster relief<ref name=SeedDaily>Staff writers. "Haitian farmers protest Monsanto seed donations" Hinche, Haiti (AFP) 4 June 2010 </ref> and 60,000 seed sacks (475 tons) of hybrid (non-GM) corn and vegetable seeds worth $4 million.<ref name=BusinessWeek>{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9FMUQN80.htm |title=Monsanto gives Haiti $4 million in hybrid seeds |publisher=BusinessWeek |date=14 May 2010 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> However, a ] (CRS) rapid assessment of seed supply and demand for the 5 most common food security crops found that the Haitians had enough seed and recommended that imported seeds should be introduced only on a small scale.<ref> Catholic Relief Services, March 2010. Retrieved 4 August 2012.</ref> | |||
=== United States === | |||
The announcement of the donation initially raised concerns that the donation would include genetically modified seeds, but Monsanto representatives said no such seeds were included and the donation comprised conventional seed and hybrid seeds, which are produced by manually cross-pollinating plants.<ref name=BusinessWeek /> A report by Haiti Grassroots Watch (HGW) investigated the donation and responses to it.<ref name=truth>{{cite web|url=http://www.truth-out.org/monsanto-haiti/1304605989 |title=Monsanto in Haiti |publisher=Truth-out.org |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> Emmanuel Prophete, head of Haiti's Ministry of Agriculture's Service National Semencier (SNS), that HGW that SNS was not opposed to the hybrid maize seeds because it at least doubles the yield of corn. Louise Sperling, Principal Researcher at the ] (CIAT) told HGW that she was not opposed to hybrids, but noted that most hybrids require extra water and better soils and that most of Haiti was not appropriate for ] hybrids. | |||
==== PCBs ==== | |||
Another concern was that some of the seeds were coated with the highly toxic ]s Maxim or ]. In the United States, ]s containing thiram are banned in home garden products because most home gardeners do not own adequate protection.<ref></ref> HGW found that the coated seeds were handled in a dangerous manner by the recipients and judged that such seeds should not have been donated.<ref name=truth /> | |||
In the late 1960s, the Monsanto plant in ], was the nation's largest producer of ] (PCB) compounds, which remained in the water along Dead Creek there. An EPA official referred to Sauget as "one of the most polluted communities in the region" and "a soup of different chemicals".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06276/727066-28.stm |title=Tiny Sauget, Illinois, likes business misfits |publisher=Post-gazette.com |date=October 3, 2006 |first=William |last=Spain}}</ref> | |||
In ], plaintiffs in a 2002 lawsuit provided documentation showing that the local Monsanto factory knowingly discharged both ] and PCB-laden waste into local creeks for over 40 years.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Monsanto Hid Decades Of Pollution|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0101-02.htm|newspaper=]|first=Michael|last=Grunwald|date=January 1, 2002|access-date=May 26, 2013|archive-date=November 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108111529/https://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0101-02.htm}}</ref> In 1969 Monsanto dumped 45 tons of PCBs into Snow Creek, a feeder for ], which supplies much of the area's drinking water, and buried millions of pounds of PCB in open-pit landfills located on hillsides above the plant and surrounding neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite news|title= PCB Pollution Suits Have Day in Court in Alabama |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04EED7143AF934A15752C0A9649C8B63|work=The New York Times| first=Kevin | last=Sack | date=January 27, 2002}}</ref> In August 2003, ] and Monsanto agreed to pay plaintiffs $700 million to settle claims by over 20,000 Anniston residents.<ref>{{cite news |author=The Associated Press |title=$700 Million Settlement in Alabama PCB Lawsuit |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/21/business/700-million-settlement-in-alabama-pcb-lawsuit.html |work=The New York Times |date=August 21, 2003}}</ref> | |||
The seeds were donated free of charge, and were in turn sold at a reduced price in local markets.<ref name=BusinessWeek /> However, farmers feared that they were being given seeds that would "threaten local varieties"<ref name=SeedDaily /> and an estimated 8-12,000 farmers attended a protest of the donation on 4 June 2010 organized by a Haitian farmers' association, the Peasant Movement of Papay, where a small pile of seeds was symbolically burned.<ref></ref><ref name=Epoch>{{cite news |title=Haiti GM food aid is a 'trojan horse' |author=Kristina Skorbach |url=http://epoch-archive.com/a1/en/ie/nnn/2010/06-June/24/ET220610005.pdf |newspaper=The Epoch Times |date=24 June – 7 July 2010 |accessdate=27 August 2012}}</ref> | |||
In June 2020, Bayer proposed paying $650 million to settle local PCB lawsuits, and $170 million to the attorneys-general of New Mexico, Washington and the District of Columbia.<ref name=bayerpays /> Monsanto was acknowledged at the time of the settlement to have ceased making PCBs in 1977, though State Impact of Pennsylvania reported that this did not stop PCBs from contaminating people many years later.<ref name=bayerpays /> State Impact of Pennsylvania stated "In 1979, the EPA banned the use of PCBs, but they still exist in some products produced before 1979. They persist in the environment because they bind to sediments and soils. High exposure to PCBs can cause birth defects, developmental delays, and liver changes." On November 25, 2020, however U.S. District Judge ] rejected the proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer and allowed Monsanto-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810.html|title=Bayer's $650 Million PCB Pollution Settlement Rejected by Judge|first1=Joel|last1=Rosenblatt|first2=Mark|last2=Chediak|publisher=Claims Journal|date=December 1, 2020|access-date=December 15, 2020}}{{dead link|date=October 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> | |||
===India=== | |||
Monsanto has had a controversial history in India, starting with the accusation that Monsanto used ]s in its seeds, causing demonstrations against the company. Later, its GM cotton seed was the subject of NGO agitation because of its higher cost. Indian farmers cross GM varieties with local varieties using ] to yield better strains, an illegal practice termed "seed piracy".<ref> from ]</ref><ref> from BBC News</ref> In 2009, high prices of Bt Cotton were blamed for forcing farmers of the district ] into severe debts when the crops died due to lack of rain.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/25/stories/2009082554841400.htm |title=Jhabua on its way to becoming Vidarbha-II? |publisher=Hindu.com |date=25 August 2009 |accessdate=28 October 2011 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> | |||
==== |
==== Polluted sites ==== | ||
As of November 2013, Monsanto was associated with nine "active" ] sites and 32 "archived" sites in the US, in the EPA's Superfund database.<ref> Search for "Monsanto" in "Alias/Alternative Site Name" field, first in "active" sites, then "archived" sites, October 20, 2012</ref> Monsanto was sued and settled multiple times for damaging the health of its employees or residents near its Superfund sites through pollution and poisoning.<ref name="washingtonpost">{{Cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-338869.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115751/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-338869.html |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |title=Monsanto Held Liable For PCB Dumping | newspaper=The Washington Post |date=February 22, 2002}}</ref><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050718082623/http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/annistonindepth/toxicity.asp |date=July 18, 2005 }}. Chemicalindustryarchives.org.</ref> | |||
In 2009, Monsanto scientists initially discovered that insects had developed resistance to the Bt Cotton planted in ] and when studies were completed, Monsanto communicated this to the Indian government and its customers, stating that "Resistance is natural and expected, so measures to delay resistance are important. Among the factors that may have contributed to pink bollworm resistance to the Cry1Ac protein in Bollgard I in Gujarat are limited refuge planting and early use of unapproved Bt cotton seed, planted prior to GEAC approval of Bollgard I cotton, which may have had lower protein expression levels."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/india-pink-bollworm.aspx |title=Monsanto ~ Cotton In India |publisher=Monsanto.com |date=3 November 2008 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The company advised farmers to switch to its second generation of Bt cotton – Bolguard II – which had two resistance genes instead of one.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/06/stories/2010030664831400.htm|title= Bt cotton ineffective against pest in parts of Gujarat, admits Monsanto | accessdate=12 March 2010 | location=Chennai, India|work=The Hindu|date=6 March 2010}}</ref> However, this advice was criticized; an article in ] reported that "an internal analysis of the statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests says it 'appears that this could be a business strategy to phase out single gene events and promote double genes which would fetch higher price.'".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/12/stories/2010031263690900.htm|title=Monsanto ‘admission' has business motives? | accessdate=12 March 2010 | location=Chennai, India|work=The Hindu|date=12 March 2010}}</ref> | |||
==== |
==== GM wheat ==== | ||
In the early 2000s, farmers in the state of ], were in economic crisis due to high interest rates and crop failures, leading to widespread social unrest and suicides.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3855517.stm | work=BBC News | title=India PM pledge over suicide farmers | date=1 July 2004}}</ref> Monsanto was one focus of protests with respect to the price of Bt seed and yields of Bt seed. In 2005, the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee, the Indian regulatory authority, released a study on field tests of certain Bt cotton strains in Andhra Pradesh and ruled that Monsanto could not market those strains in Andhra Pradesh because the yields were poor, and extended the ban on one of them, Mech-12 Bt, to all of south India.<ref> | |||
{{Cite news | title = Three varieties of BT cotton rejected in Andhra Pradesh, India | url = http://www.twnside.org.sg/title2/service215.htm | location = Malaysia | date = 4 June 2005}}</ref> At about the same time, the state agriculture minister barred the company from selling any Bt cotton seeds in the state, because Monsanto refused a request by the state government to provide a compensation package of about Rs 4.5 crore (about 1 Million US$) to indebted farmers in some districts, and because the government blamed Monsanto's Bt seeds for crop failures.<ref name="Andra Uproots"> | |||
{{Cite news | title = Angry Andhra uproots Monsanto | url = http://www.financialexpress.com/news/angry-andhra-uproots-monsanto/139771/0 | location = Hyderabad | date = 23 June 2005 | accessdate =16 January 2009}}</ref> The order was later lifted. In 2006, the Andhra Pradesh state government tried to convince Monsanto to reduce the price at which it sold Bt seeds. When Monsanto did not reduce the price enough to satisfy the government, the state filed several cases against Monsanto and its ] based licensee Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds.<ref name="autogenerated3"> from '']''</ref> | |||
In 2013 a Monsanto-developed transgenic cultivar of ]-resistant ] was discovered on a farm in Oregon, growing as a weed or ]. The final Oregon field test had occurred in 2001. As of May 2013, the GMO seed source was unknown. Volunteer wheat from a former test field two miles away was tested and was not found to be glyphosate-tolerant. Monsanto faced penalties up to $1 million over potential violations of the ]. The discovery threatened world-leading US wheat exports, which totaled $8.1 billion in 2012.<ref name="BloombergWheat">Alan Bjerga, , ''Bloomberg News''. May 29, 2013.</ref><ref>Andrew Pollack, , ''The New York Times'', May 29, 2013.</ref> This wheat variety was rarely exported to Europe and was more likely destined for Asia. Monsanto said it had destroyed all the material it held after completing trials in 2004 and it was "mystified" by its appearance.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23638-monsanto-modified-wheat-mystery-deepens-in-oregon.html|title=Monsanto modified wheat mystery deepens in Oregon |author=Andy Coghlan|magazine=New Scientist|date=2013-06-03}}</ref> On June 14, 2013, the USDA announced: "As of today, USDA has neither found nor been informed of anything that would indicate that this incident amounts to more than a single isolated incident in a single field on a single farm. All information collected so far shows no indication of the presence of GE wheat in commerce."<ref>Staff, ''Food Safety News''. June 17, 2013. </ref> As of August 30, 2013, while the source of the GM wheat remained unknown, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan had all resumed placing orders.<ref>Associated Press. August 30, 2013. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914124347/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/source-gmo-wheat-oregon-remains-mystery |date=September 14, 2013 }}</ref> | |||
====Child labor ==== | |||
As in much of the developing world and especially in agricultural areas, ] is widespread in India's agricultural sector, which employs ~60% of ]. Child labor is especially used in seed production.<ref name="Seed production chapter">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianet.nl/cotssec3.html |title=Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh |publisher=Indianet.nl |date= |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> The seed production is done mostly through child labor—it is carried out on plots owned by small farmers, who sell the seed to "seed organizers", who in turn sell the seed to public and private seed agencies and companies.<ref name="Seed production chapter" /> The public and private agencies and companies include Indian state corporations, Mahyco-Monsanto, Syngenta, and others.<ref> from India Committee of the Netherlands</ref> Monsanto's website states that the company complies with all child labor laws and that they are working towards minimizing its occurrence.<ref></ref> | |||
==== |
==== Cancer risks of Roundup ==== | ||
{{main|Farmers' suicides in India}} | |||
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, public attention was drawn to suicides by indebted farmers in India following crop failures.<ref name=FrontLine> from the ]</ref> Some stated that the crop failures could "often be traced to" Monsanto's Bt cotton, and that the seeds increased farmers' indebtedness.<ref name=FrontLine /><ref></ref> However, a 2008 report by the ] stated that there was no evidence for an increased suicide rate following the 2002 introduction of Bt cotton, but instead that the rate had been consistent since 1997. The report concluded that while the cotton may have been a factor in specific suicides, the contribution was likely marginal compared to ] factors.<ref name = "Gruere">{{cite web|url=http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00808.pdf|year=2008|title=Bt Cotton and Farmer Suicides in India: Reviewing the Evidence|author=Guillaume P. Gruère, Purvi Mehta-Bhatt and Debdatta Sengupta|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Nat Biotechnol.|year=2009|volume=27|pages =9–10|title=Doubts surround link between Bt cotton failure and farmer suicide|author=Sheridan, C.|pmid=19131979|doi=10.1038/nbt0109-9|issue=1 }}</ref> Various studies identify the important factors as insufficient or risky credit systems, the difficulty of farming semi-arid regions, poor agricultural income, absence of alternative income opportunities, a downturn in the urban economy which forced non-farmers into farming, and the absence of suitable counseling services.<ref name = "Gruere"/><ref name = "Nagraj">{{cite web|author=Nagraj, K.|year=2008|title=Farmers suicide in India: magnitudes, trends and spatial patterns|url=http://www.macroscan.com/anl/mar08/pdf/Farmers_Suicides.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Risks, Farmers’ Suicides and Agrarian Crisis in India: Is There A Way Out?|author=Mishra, Srijit|publisher=Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR)|year=2007|url=http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2007-014.pdf}}</ref> Monsanto has referred to these third-party studies and added that Indian farmers are the "fastest-growing users of biotech crops in the world."<ref></ref> | |||
Monsanto has faced controversy in the United States over claims that its herbicide products might be carcinogens. There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening.<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |publisher=Cancer Research UK |title=Food Controversies—Pesticides and organic foods |url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/food-controversies#food_controversies4 |date=2016 |access-date=November 28, 2017}}</ref> The ] among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity.<ref name=Tarazona>{{cite journal |last1=Tarazona |first1=Jose V. |last2=Court-Marques |first2=Daniele |last3=Tiramani |first3=Manuela |last4=Reich |first4=Hermine |last5=Pfeil |first5=Rudolf |last6=Istace |first6=Frederique |last7=Crivellente |first7=Federica |title=Glyphosate toxicity and carcinogenicity: a review of the scientific basis of the European Union assessment and its differences with IARC |journal=Archives of Toxicology |date=April 3, 2017 |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=2723–2743 |doi=10.1007/s00204-017-1962-5 |pmid=28374158 |pmc=5515989}}</ref> Organizations such as the ] (WHO), the ], ], Canadian ], and the German ]<ref>{{cite web |title=The BfR has finalised its draft report for the re-evaluation of glyphosate – BfR |access-date=August 18, 2018 |url=https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/the_bfr_has_finalised_its_draft_report_for_the_re_evaluation_of_glyphosate-188632.html}}</ref> have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or ] risk to humans.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} However, one international scientific organization, the ] (IARC), affiliated with the WHO, has made claims of carcinogenicity in research reviews; in 2015 the IARC declared glyphosate "probably carcinogenic".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cressey |first1=Daniel |title=Widely used herbicide linked to cancer |url=https://www.nature.com/news/widely-used-herbicide-linked-to-cancer-1.17181 |journal=Nature |year=2015 |doi=10.1038/nature.2015.17181 |s2cid=131732731 |access-date=April 1, 2019|doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
==Political contributions and lobbying== | |||
As of October 30, 2019, there were 42,700 plaintiffs who said that glyphosate herbicides caused their cancer after the IARC report in 2015 linking glyphosate to cancer in humans.<ref name="8K Roundup lawsuits">{{cite news |title=Bayer's Monsanto faces 8,000 lawsuits on glyphosate |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bayer-glyphosate-lawsuits/bayers-monsanto-sued-by-8000-plaintiffs-on-glyphosate-idUSKCN1L81J0 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=September 11, 2018 |date=2018-08-23}}</ref><ref name=NatureonWHO2015>{{cite journal |first1=Daniel |last1=Cressey |name-list-style=vanc |url=http://www.nature.com/news/widely-used-herbicide-linked-to-cancer-1.17181 |title=Widely used herbicide linked to cancer |journal=Nature |date=March 25, 2015 |doi=10.1038/nature.2015.17181 |s2cid=131732731|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="IARC Mono 112">{{cite book |url=https://monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/mono112.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808103032/https://monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/mono112.pdf |archive-date=2018-08-08 |url-status=live |title=IARC Monographs, Volume 112. Glyphosate, in: Some Organophosphate Insecticides and Herbicides |last1=International Agency for Research on Cancer |date=2017 |publisher=IARC/WHO |location=Lyon |pages=321–412}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bayer's Roundup Headache Grows as Plaintiffs Pile Into Court |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-10-30/bayer-is-now-facing-42-700-plaintiffs-in-roundup-litigation |access-date=31 October 2019 |work=Bloomberg |date=October 30, 2019}}</ref> Monsanto denies that Roundup is carcinogenic.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/05/15/health/roundup-herbicide-cancer-allegations/index.html|title=Patients: Roundup gave us cancer as EPA official helped the company|first=Holly |last=Yan |others=Photographs by John Francis Peters for |publisher=CNN |access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/08/10/health/monsanto-johnson-trial-verdict/index.html |title=Jurors give $289 million to a man they say got cancer from Monsanto's Roundup weedkiller |first=Holly |last=Yan |publisher=CNN |access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref> | |||
===United States=== | |||
Monsanto ] the ] and the ] about regulations that would affect the production and distribution of genetically engineered produce.<ref>, ] December 15, 2011, ©2012 BLOOMBERG L.P.</ref> In 2011, Monsanto spent about $6.3 million.<ref name="OpenSecrets">{{cite web|url=http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/clientsum.php?id=D000000211&year=2011 |title=Lobbying Spending Database - Monsanto Co, 2011 |publisher=OpenSecrets |date=17 September 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> For comparison, the US Chamber of Commerce spent the most in lobbying in 2011, with $66.4 million, and the 20th highest spender, Pfizer, spent $12.9 million.<ref>Open Secrets Database </ref> US diplomats in Europe have worked directly for Monsanto.<ref name="07Paris4723" /> In 2008, Monsanto spent $8.8 million for ]. $1.5 million was to outside ]s with the remainder used by in-house lobbyists.<ref>, ''Open Secrets.''</ref> In 2011, total money spent on lobbying was about $6.3 million, more than any other agribusiness firm except the tobacco company Altria,<ref name="OpenSecrets"/> | |||
and $2 million of which was spent on matters concerning "Foreign Agriculture Biotechnology Laws, Regulations, and Trade."<ref>| accessdate = 2012-11-04 </ref> | |||
In March 2017, 40 plaintiffs filed a lawsuit at the ], a branch of the California Superior Court, asking for damages caused by the company's glyphosate-based weed-killers, including Roundup, and demanding a jury trial.<ref name="rec">{{cite news|last1=Breitler|first1=Alex|title=SJ, Lode residents among those suing Monsanto claiming Roundup linked to cancer|url=http://www.recordnet.com/news/20170327/sj-lode-residents-among-those-suing-monsanto-claiming-roundup-linked-to-cancer|access-date=2017-04-25|publisher=The Stockton Record|date=2017-03-27}}</ref> On August 10, 2018, Monsanto lost the first decided case. Dewayne Johnson, who has ], was initially awarded $289 million in damages after a jury in San Francisco said that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide. Pending appeal, the award was later reduced to $78.5 million.<ref>{{cite news |title=Monsanto appeals Roundup cancer verdict |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-11-monsanto-appeals-roundup-cancer-verdict.html |work=Phys.org |access-date=November 30, 2018}}</ref><ref name="ABC7">{{cite web |title=Roundup maker Monsanto appeals $78.5 million verdict over Bay Area man's cancer |url=https://abc7news.com/society/roundup-maker-monsanto-appeals-$785-million-verdict-over-bay-area-mans-cancer/4728882/ |website=ABC7 San Francisco |access-date=November 30, 2018 |date=November 21, 2018}}</ref> In November 2018, Monsanto appealed the judgement, asking an appellate court to consider a motion for a new trial.<ref name="ABC7"/> A verdict on the appeal was delivered in June 2020 upholding the verdict but further reducing the award to $21.5 million.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Egelko |first1=Bob |title=Award to Vallejo groundskeeper in Monsanto cancer case slashed again - verdict upheld |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/Award-to-Vallejo-groundskeeper-in-Monsanto-cancer-15421705.php |access-date=3 March 2021 |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=21 July 2020}}</ref> | |||
Monsanto gave $186,250 to federal candidates in the 2008 election cycle through its ] (PAC) – 42% to ], 58% to ]. For the 2010 election cycle they gave $305,749 – 48% to ], 52% to ].<ref>, ''Open Secrets.''</ref> | |||
On March 27, 2019, Monsanto was found liable in a federal court for Edwin Hardeman's non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and ordered to pay $80 million in damages. A spokesperson for Bayer, by this time the parent company of Monsanto, said the company would appeal the verdict.<ref>{{cite news |last=Levin |first=Sam |title=Monsanto found liable for California man's cancer and ordered to pay $80m in damages |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/mar/27/monsanto-trial-verdict-cancer-jury |work=] |date=March 27, 2019 |access-date=March 28, 2019 }}</ref> | |||
Monsanto spent $8.1 million opposing the passage of ] in the US state of ], making it the largest donor against the initiative. Proposition 37, voted on in November 2012, mandated the disclosure of ] used in the production of California food products. One of the central arguments in support of labelling concerned consumer's having the right to know the exact contents of the food they consume and also have the right to choose to avoid GE food if they so wished. Monsanto argued that labelling could mislead consumers and give them the impression that such food is unsafe for human consumption.They also claimed that that the measure was too complex, could lead to increased food prices, and have a negative impact on farmers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-05-02/california-heads-for-vote-on-modified-food-labeling |title=California Heads for Vote on Modified Food Labeling |publisher=Businessweek |date=2 May 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Baertlein|first=Will|last=Evans|title=Prop 37 donors revealed|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/02/prop-37-donors-revealed-f_n_2065789.html|publisher=Huffington Post|date=2 November 2012}}</ref>Biotechnology labeling is not required by the United States ] (FDA), but it has been adopted by over 40 countries. According to public disclosures, the Council for Biotechnology Information and The Grocery Manufacturers Association, have each made matching donations of $375,000 to fight the initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-05-02/california-heads-for-vote-on-modified-food-labeling |title=California Heads for Vote on Modified Food Labeling |publisher=Businessweek |date=2 May 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref name="Huffington Post">{{cite news|last=Baertlein|first=Lisa|last=Gillam|first=Carey |title=Prop 37: California GMO Fight Pits Big Food Against Activists|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/17/prop-37-california_n_1791555.html|publisher=Huffington Post|date=16 August 2012}}</ref> | |||
On May 13, 2019, a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay $2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-05-13/bayer-loses-its-third-trial-over-claims-roundup-causes-cancer |title=Bayer's $2 Billion Roundup Damages Boost Pressure to Settle |publisher=Bloomberg News |access-date=2019-05-14}}</ref> On July 26, 2019, an Alameda County judge cut the settlement to $86.7 million, stating that the judgement by the jury exceeded legal precedent.<ref>{{cite news |title=Judge cuts $2 billion award for couple with cancer to $86.7 million in Roundup lawsuit |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/07/26/judge-cuts-billion-award-couple-with-cancer-million-roundup-lawsuit |date=2019-07-26 |newspaper=] |first=Taylor |last=Telford |access-date=2019-07-27}}</ref> | |||
], a former Monsanto Vice President for ]<ref name="Fda.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2009/ucm170842.htm|title=Noted Food Safety Expert Michael R. Taylor Named Advisor to FDA Commissioner|publisher=Fda.gov |date=7 July 2009 |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Sandra Hoffmann 2005">Sandra Hoffmann, Michael R. Taylor (2005). "Toward Safer Food: Perspectives on Risk and Priority Setting," Routledge (p. xiv).</ref><ref name=WilsonCenterBio></ref> and the current ] to the ] of the US Food and Drug Administration,<ref>FDA News Release 7 July 2009 </ref><ref name="foodfirst.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.foodfirst.org/en/node/2515|title=Monsanto's Man in the Obama Administration |publisher=foodfirst.org|date=14 August 2009|accessdate=26 September 2012}}</ref> was once described by ] (1999) as "Monsanto's chief rep in Washington."<ref>Business Week, Issues 3658-3661, Mac Graw-Hill (1999), Snippet view retrieved from ]</ref> | |||
In June 2020, Monsanto acquisitor Bayer agreed to settle over a hundred thousand Roundup cancer lawsuits, agreeing to pay $8.8 to $9.6 billion to settle those claims, and $1.5 billion for any future claims. The settlement does not include three cases that have already gone to jury trials and are being appealed.<ref name=bayerpays>{{cite news |last1=Chappell |first1=Bill |title=Bayer To Pay More Than $10 Billion To Resolve Cancer Lawsuits Over Weedkiller Roundup |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/06/24/882949098/bayer-to-pay-more-than-10-billion-to-resolve-roundup-cancer-lawsuits |access-date=12 July 2020 |publisher=NPR |date=24 June 2020}}</ref> | |||
===UK=== | |||
During the late 1990s, Monsanto lobbied to raise permitted glyphosate levels in soya beans and was successful in convincing ] and both the UK and American governments to lift levels to 20 milligrams per 1 kilogram of soya.<ref name=captive>{{cite book | author=Monbiot, George | title=Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain | publisher=Pan Macmillan | year=2000 | page=265 |isbn=978-0-330-36943-5}}</ref> | |||
When asked how negotiations with Monsanto were conducted ], then the ] Agriculture minister in the ], stated that all information relating to the matter would be "kept secret."<ref name=captive /> During a period of 24 months prior to the 1997 British election Monsanto representatives had 22 meetings at the departments of Agriculture and the Environment.<ref name=captive2>{{cite book | author=Monbiot, George | title=Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain | publisher=Pan Macmillan | year=2000 | page=266 | isbn=978-0-330-36943-5}}</ref> British newspapers revealed that ], an election advisor to ], went on to work as a Monsanto consultant.<ref name=captive2 /> It was also reported that a former Labour spokesperson, ], became Monsanto's media adviser at the lobbying firm ].<ref name=captive2 /> The Labour government was challenged in parliament about "trips, facilities, gifts and other offerings of financial value provided by Monsanto to civil servants" but only stated that ] had two working lunches with Monsanto.<ref name=captive3>{{cite book | author=Monbiot, George | title=Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain | publisher=Pan Macmillan | year=2000 | page=267 |isbn=978-0-330-36943-5}}</ref> It was also revealed that ], then a ] ] and Chairman of the Agriculture Select Committee, had received up to £10,000 a year from Bell Pottinger on behalf of Monsanto.<ref name=captive3 /><ref>{{cite web | title = Monsanto's lobby firm pays key MP | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/1999/jul/04/uk.politicalnews | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | first = Antony | last = Barnett | publisher = ] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Resign call over MP's link with GM food firm | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/1999/jul/11/gm.food | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | first = Antony | last = Barnett | publisher = ]}}</ref> | |||
=== |
====Dicamba lawsuits==== | ||
Following a lawsuit by a ] farmer alleging that Dicamba used as a weed killer drifted in the wind from adjacent crops to destroy his peach orchards, a ] trial jury found in February 2020 that Monsanto and codefendant ] were negligent in design of Dicamba and failed to warn farmers about the product, awarding $15 million for losses and $250 million in ].<ref name="ruff">{{cite news |url=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/monsanto-basf-will-pay-250-million-punitive-damages-first-dicamba-trial |title=Monsanto, BASF Will Pay $250 Million In Punitive Damages In First Dicamba Trial |author=Corrine Ruff |date=15 February 2020 |work=St. Louis Public Radio |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> On February 14, 2020, the jury involved in a Missouri lawsuit involving tree damage caused by dicamba drift ruled against Bayer and its co-defendant BASF and found in favor of Bader Farms owner Bill Bader.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/jury-finds-in-favor-of-missouri-peach-grower-in-lawsuit/article_adcb9979-ca3e-557b-878e-7be4e301adbc.html|title = Jury finds in favor of Missouri peach grower in lawsuit against Bayer, BASF| date=February 14, 2020 }}</ref> In June 2020, Bayer agreed to a settlement of up to $400 million for all 2015–2020 crop year dicamba claims, not including the $250 million judgement which was issued to Bader.<ref name=bayerpays /> On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge ] reduced the punitive damage amount in the Bader Farms case to $60 million.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810.html|title=District Judge orders reduction of punitive damages in dicamba case|first=J.C.|last=Reeves|publisher=Southeast Missourian|date=December 15, 2020|access-date=December 15, 2020}}{{dead link|date=October 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> | |||
In January 2011, ] reported on ] documents that suggested US diplomats in Europe were responding to a request from help from Spanish government and "working directly for GM companies such as Monsanto.".<ref name="07Paris4723" /><ref>{{cite web | title = U.S. targeted EU on GM foods: WikiLeaks | url = http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2011/03/08/genetically-modified-food.html | accessdate = 2012-11-04 | datemade = Mar 9, 2011 5:07 PM ET | publisher = ]}}</ref> The documents show that in 2009, when the Spanish government's policy allowing ] corn to be grown, as allowed under European law, was under pressure from EU interests, Monsanto's Director for Biotechnology for Spain and Portugal requested that the US government support Spain on the matter.<ref name="07Paris4723">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/03/wikileaks-us-eu-gm-crops|title=WikiLeaks: US targets EU over GM crops |work=] |author=Vidal, John |date=3 January 2011 |accessdate=3 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="09MADRID482">{{cite web|url=http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/05/09MADRID482.html|title=Spain's biotech crop under threat (Wikileaks telegram 09MADRID482)| accessdate=20. December 2010|publisher=U.S. Department of State| date= 19 May 2009}} Link was Dead Oct 30 2012, Internet Archive link is </ref><ref>{{cite web | title = EUobserver.com / Headline News / Spain a key ally of pro-GMO America, cables reveal | url = http://euobserver.com/news/31544 | accessdate = 2012-11-04}}</ref> The reports also indicated that Spain and the US had worked closely together to "persuade the EU not to strengthen biotechnology laws."<ref name="07Paris4723" /><ref>{{cite web | title = U.S. targeted EU on GM foods: WikiLeaks | url = http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2011/03/08/genetically-modified-food.html | accessdate = 2012-11-04 | datemade = Mar 9, 2011 5:07 PM ET | publisher = ]}}</ref> Spain was viewed as an EU member that was a key supporter of GM and there was a widespread belief in biotechnology industry that "if Spain falls, the rest of Europe will follow."<ref>{{cite web | title = U.S. Presses Europe to Worship Genetically Modified Foods - Barry Estabrook - The Atlantic | url = http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2011/01/us-presses-europe-to-worship-genetically-modified-foods/69633/ | accessdate = 2012-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = EE UU: "España nos pide que presionemos a Bruselas a favor de los transgénicos" | Edición impresa | EL PAÍS | url = http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=es&to=en&a=http://elpais.com/diario/2010/12/19/espana/1292713201_850215.html | accessdate = 2012-11-02}}</ref> The documents also revealed that in response to an attempt by France to ban a Monsanto's MON810 in late 2007, the then US ambassador to France, ], in a bid to "help strengthen European pro-biotech voices," asked Washington to "calibrate a targeted retaliation list that some pain across the EU," in particular those countries that did not support the use of GM crops.<ref name="07Paris4723">{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/03/wikileaks-us-eu-gm-crops |title=WikiLeaks: US targets EU over GM crops |work=The Guardian |location=UK |author=Vidal, John |date=3 January 2011 |accessdate=3 January 2011}}</ref><ref>DAVID GARDNER,, Daily Mail, 4th January 2011, Associated Newspapers Ltd.</ref> This activity transpired after the US, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, Mexico and New Zealand had brought an action against Europe via the World Trade Organization with respect to the EU's banning of GMOs; in 2006, the WTO had ruled against the EU.<ref>{{cite web | title = EE UU: "España nos pide que presionemos a Bruselas a favor de los transgénicos" | Edición impresa | EL PAÍS | url = http://elpais.com/diario/2010/12/19/espana/1292713201_850215.html# | accessdate = 2012-11-02}}</ref><ref>Staff (updated 23 May 2007) Retrieved 7 October 2011</ref><ref>Staff World Trade Organisation. Retrieved 7 October 2011</ref> | |||
=== Improper accounting for incentive rebates === | |||
Monsanto is a member of ], the leading biotechnology trade group in Europe, and of ] (BIO). One of EuropaBio's initiatives is "Transforming Europe’s position on GM food", and it has stated that there is "an urgent need to reshape the terms of the debate about GM in Europe."<ref name="guardian.co.uk"> ''Executive summary of the EuropaBio initiative for pro-GM ambassadors programme'', The Guardian, Thursday 20 October 2011, Guardian News and Media Limited</ref><ref>EuropaBio official website: </ref> In an effort to transform European policy relating to the production and distribution of ] within the EU, EuropaBio proposed the recruitment of high profile "ambassadors" that might affect opinion on GM policy by lobbying European leaders directly. Examples of who that might include were ]; the chancellor of ] and ] chairman, ]; former Irish ] and ] David Byrne, and "potentially" the involvement of former ] ]. The organisation also aimed to introduce the ambassadors to high-level European ]s and ] with the goal of making a stronger case for GM within the EU.<ref name="guardian.co.uk"/><ref> John Vidal and Hanna Gersmann, ], Thursday 20 October 2011, Guardian News and Media Limited</ref><ref> ''Draft letter from EuropaBio to potential GM ambassadors seeking their involvement in the outreach programme'', The Guardian, Thursday 20 October 2011, Guardian News and Media Limited</ref> | |||
From 2009 to 2011, Monsanto improperly accounted for incentive rebates. The actions inflated Monsanto's reported profit by $31 million over the two years. Monsanto paid $80 million in penalties pursuant to a subsequent settlement with the ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/11/business/for-monsanto-whistle-blower-a-22-million-award-that-fell-short.html|title=Monsanto Whistle-Blower: $22 Million Richer, but Not Satisfied|last=Morgenson|first=Gretchen|date=2016-09-09|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-12-22|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Monsanto materially misstated its consolidated earnings in response to losing market share of Roundup to generic producers. Monsanto overhauled its internal controls. Two of their top CPAs were suspended and Monsanto was required to hire, at their expense, an independent ethics/compliance consultant for two years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2016/33-10037.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405051304/http://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2016/33-10037.pdf |archive-date=2016-04-05 |url-status=live|title=ORDER INSTITUTING ADMINISTRATIVE AND CEASE-AND-DESIST PROCEEDINGS PURSUANT TO SECTION 8A OF THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933, SECTIONS 4C AND 21C OF THE SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934, AND RULE 102(e) OF THE COMMISSION'S RULES OF PRACTICE, MAKING FINDINGS AND IMPOSING REMEDIAL SANCTIONS AND A CEASE-AND-DESIST ORDER|website=SEC.gov|access-date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> | |||
===Alleged ghostwriting=== | |||
==Public officials' connections to Monsanto== | |||
A review of glyphosate's carcinogenic potential by four independent expert panels, with a comparison to the ] assessment, was published in September 2016. Using emails released in August 2017 by plaintiffs' lawyers who are suing Monsanto, '']'' reported that "Monsanto scientists were heavily involved in organizing, reviewing, and editing drafts submitted by the outside experts." A Monsanto spokesperson responded that Monsanto had provided only non-substantive cosmetic copyediting.<ref>{{cite news|title=Monsanto Was Its Own Ghostwriter for Some Safety Reviews|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-08-09/monsanto-was-its-own-ghostwriter-for-some-safety-reviews|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=August 9, 2017 |access-date=October 26, 2017}}</ref> | |||
Former Monsanto employees currently hold positions in US government agencies such as the ] (FDA), ] (EPA) and the ]. These include: | |||
In 2017, ''The New York Times'' reported that a 2015 article attributed to researcher and columnist ] had been drafted by Monsanto.<ref name=nytmill>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/01/business/monsantos-sway-over-research-is-seen-in-disclosed-emails.html|title=Monsanto's Sway Over Research Is Seen in Disclosed Emails|date=2 August 2017|access-date=2 August 2017|work=]}}</ref> According to the report, Monsanto asked Miller to write an article rebutting the findings of the ], and he indicated willingness to do it if he "could start from a high-quality draft".<ref name=nytmill/> Forbes later removed Miller's blog from Forbes.com and ended their relationship.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/01/business/monsantos-sway-over-research-is-seen-in-disclosed-emails.html|title=Monsanto Emails Raise Issue of Influencing Research on Roundup Weed Killer|last=Hakim|first=Danny|date=2017-08-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-12-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> | |||
*Michael A. Friedman, MD, was Senior Vice President of Research and Development, Medical and Public Policy for Pharmacia, and later served as an FDA deputy commissioner.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cityofhope.org/about/leadership/Pages/michael-friedman.aspx|title=Michael A. Friedman |publisher=Cityofhope.org |date=11 September 2001 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.lww.com/oncology-times/Fulltext/2003/06250/Dr__Michael_Friedman,_After_Serving_at_the_NCI,.15.aspx|title=Dr. Michael Friedman, After Serving at the NCI, FDA, and Pharmacia, Returns to Academia as CEO of City of Hope|doi=10.1097/01.COT.0000289833.46951.54 |publisher=Journals.lww.com|date=25 June 2003 |accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
*] was an assistant administrator at the ] (EPA) before she was a vice president at Monsanto from 1995 to 2000. In 2001, Fisher became the deputy administrator of the EPA.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/> | |||
*] was an assistant to the ] (FDA) commissioner before working as an attorney for ], a private-sector law firm that represented Monsanto among other clients.<ref>{{cite web | title = New FDA deputy to lead food-safety mandate | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/13/AR2010011304402.html | accessdate = 2012-11-02 | first = Lyndsey | last = Layton | publisher = ]}}</ref><ref>Gregory Palast,,Sunday 21 February 1999, Guardian News and Media Limited.</ref> He later served as deputy commissioner for policy to the FDA on food safety between 1991 and 1994 during which time the FDA approved rBST.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/> He was accused of a conflict of interest, but a federal investigation cleared him. Following his tenure at the FDA, Taylor returned to Monsanto as Vice President for Public Policy.<ref name="Fda.gov"/><ref name="Sandra Hoffmann 2005"/><ref name="WilsonCenterBio"/> On 7 July 2009, Taylor entered government as Senior Advisor to the Commissioner of the US Food and Drug Administration for the Obama administration.<ref name="foodfirst.org"/><ref>FDA News Release 7 July 2009 </ref> | |||
*United States Supreme Court Justice ] worked as an attorney for Monsanto in the 1970s. Thomas wrote the majority opinion in the 2001 Supreme Court decision J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.<ref name="cornell1996">{{cite web|url=http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-1996.ZS.html |title=J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. V. Pioneer Hi-Bredinternational, Inc|publisher=Law.cornell.edu |date= |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> which found that "newly developed plant breeds are patentable under the general utility patent laws of the United States."<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/><ref name="cornell1996"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/articles/harl/HarlMar02.htm|title=Key Supreme Court ruling on plant patents * – McEowen, Harl March 2002 |publisher=Extension.iastate.edu |date=18 January 2002 |accessdate=28 October 2011}}</ref> | |||
==Government relations== | |||
Public officials with indirect connections or who worked for Monsanto after leaving public office include: | |||
===United States=== | |||
*] served on Monsanto's board after serving in government as a trade representative.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/> | |||
Monsanto regularly ] the US government with<ref>, ] December 15, 2011, ©2012 BLOOMBERG L.P.</ref> expenses reaching $8.8 million in 2008<ref>, ''Open Secrets.''</ref> and $6.3 million in 2011.<ref name="OpenSecrets">{{cite web|url=http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/clientsum.php?id=D000000211&year=2011 |title=Lobbying Spending Database – Monsanto Co, 2011 |publisher=OpenSecrets |date=September 17, 2012}}</ref> $2 million was spent on matters concerning "Foreign Agriculture Biotechnology Laws, Regulations, and Trade". Some US diplomats in Europe at other times worked directly for Monsanto.<ref name="07Paris4723" /> | |||
*] served as the first head of the ](EPA) in 1970, was subsequently acting Director of the ], and then ]. From 1983 to 1985, he returned as EPA administrator. After leaving government he joined the Board of Directors of Monsanto; he is currently retired from that board.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ruckelshauscenter.wsu.edu/about/Ruckelshaus.bio.html|title=Ruckelshaus.bio |publisher=Ruckelshauscenter.wsu.edu |date=|accessdate=20 October 2012}}</ref> | |||
*Former Secretary of Defense ] was chairman and chief executive officer of ], which Monsanto purchased in 1985. Rumsfeld's stock and options in Searle were $12 million USD at the time of the transaction.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/> | |||
]'s 2012 ] would have mandated the ] of ] used in the production of California food products. Monsanto spent $8.1 million opposing passage, making it the largest contributor against the initiative. The proposition was rejected by a 53.7% majority.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/07/prop-37-californian-gm-labelling?INTCMP=SRCH|title=Prop 37: Californian voters reject GM food labelling|last=Vaughan|first=Adam|date=November 7, 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London}}</ref> Labeling is not required in the US.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-05-02/california-heads-for-vote-on-modified-food-labeling|title=California Heads for Vote on Modified Food Labeling |magazine=Businessweek |date=May 2, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Huffington Post">{{cite news|last=Gillam|first=Carey |title=Prop 37: California GMO Fight Pits Big Food Against Activists| url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/17/prop-37-california_n_1791555.html|work=The Huffington Post|date=August 16, 2012}}</ref> | |||
==Sponsorships== | |||
Monsanto has been the corporate sponsor of many attractions at ] and ]. | |||
In 2009 ], food safety expert and former Monsanto VP for ],<ref name="Fda.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2009/ucm170842.htm|title=Noted Food Safety Expert Michael R. Taylor Named Advisor to FDA Commissioner|publisher=Fda.gov |date=July 7, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="Sandra Hoffmann 2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bguf6j-BOR0C|title=Toward Safer Food: Perspectives on Risk and Priority Setting|last1=Hoffmann|first1=Sandra|last2=Taylor|first2=Michael R.|date=September 30, 2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-52451-6}}</ref><ref name=WilsonCenterBio>{{cite web |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/sept_20_bios.pdf |title=Woodrow Wilson Center bio |access-date=May 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107023113/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/sept_20_bios.pdf |archive-date=January 7, 2019 }}</ref> became a ] to the FDA ].<ref name="fda">FDA News Release July 7, 2009 </ref> | |||
At Disneyland they include: | |||
Monsanto is a member of the Washington D.C based ] (BIO), the world's largest biotechnology ], which provides "advocacy, business development, and communications services."<ref>{{cite web | title = Modified crops increase herbicide use, WSU researcher says | Local News | The Seattle Times | url = http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2019418644_pesticides13m.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = About BIO | BIO | url = http://www.bio.org/articles/about-bio | access-date = November 7, 2012 | archive-date = November 12, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121112012349/http://www.bio.org/articles/about-bio }}</ref> Between 2010 and 2011 BIO spent a total of $16.43 million on lobbying.<ref>{{cite web | title = Lobbying Spending Database-Biotechnology Industry Organization, 2010 | OpenSecrets | url = https://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/firmsum.php?id=D000024369&year=2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Lobbying Spending Database-Biotechnology Industry Organization, 2011 | OpenSecrets | url = https://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/firmsum.php?id=D000024369&year=2011 }}</ref> | |||
* Hall of Chemistry (1955 to 1966)<ref name="HallOfChemistry"></ref> | |||
* Fashions and Fabrics through the Years (from 1965 to 1966)<ref name="HallOfChemistry"/> | |||
* ] (from 1957 to 1967)<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
* ] (from 1967 to 1986)<ref></ref> | |||
The Monsanto Company Citizenship Fund aka Monsanto Citizenship Fund is a ] that donated over $10 million to various candidates from 2003 to 2013.<ref>] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225161526/http://www.followthemoney.org/database/topcontributor.phtml?u=1758&y=0 |date=February 25, 2012 }}</ref><ref>Staff, Monsanto. Retrieved July 22, 2013 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829054837/http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/Pages/political-disclosures.aspx |date=August 29, 2013 }}</ref><ref>Federal Election Commission. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507203827/http://query.nictusa.com/pdf/287/13941177287/13941177287.pdf |date=May 7, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://images.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/fecimg/?C00042069 |title=COMMITTEE DETAILS FOR COMMITTEE ID C00042069 |access-date=June 15, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000557/http://images.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/fecimg/?C00042069 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.libertyff.com/committees.php?id=C00042069|title=LibertyFF report on the Monsanto Citizenship Fund PAC|access-date=July 22, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014091653/http://www.libertyff.com/committees.php?id=C00042069|archive-date=October 14, 2013}}</ref> | |||
And at Walt Disney World they include: | |||
As of October 2013, Monsanto and ] continued backing an anti-labeling campaign, spending roughly $18 million. The state of Washington, along with 26 other states, made proposals in November to require GMO labeling.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-25/monsanto-bets-5-million-in-fight-over-gene-altered-food.html | work=Bloomberg | title=Monsanto Bets $5 Million in Fight Over Gene-Altered Food}}</ref> | |||
* Magic Eye Theatre at ] {{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} | |||
* ] {{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} | |||
====Revolving door==== | |||
All attractions that the company has ever sponsored (except for the Magic Eye Theatre, in the Future World section of Epcot) were located in ]. {{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} | |||
In the US regulatory environment, many individuals move back and forth between positions in the public and private sectors, including at Monsanto. Critics argued that the connections between the company and the government allowed Monsanto to obtain favorable regulations at the expense of consumer safety.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Revolving Doors: Monsanto and the Regulators |journal=The Ecologist |last=Ferrara |first=Jennifer |date=September–October 1998 |volume=28 |number=5 |pages=280–286 |url=http://exacteditions.theecologist.org/browsePages.do?issue=5361&size=3&pageLabel=280 |access-date=December 26, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226013506/http://exacteditions.theecologist.org/browsePages.do?issue=5361&size=3&pageLabel=280 |archive-date=December 26, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://mises.org/daily/6580/ |title=Monsanto's Friends in High Places |work=Mises Daily |date=November 9, 2013 |last=Lewis |first=Hunter |author-link=Hunter Lewis |publisher=] |access-date=December 25, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thinkprogress.org/health/2013/04/10/1832621/monsanto-protection-act-power |title=The Real Monsanto Protection Act: How The GMO Giant Corrupts Regulators And Consolidates Its Power |last=Shen |first=Aviva |date=April 10, 2013 |work=ThinkProgress |access-date=December 25, 2013}}</ref> Supporters of the practice point to the benefits of competent and experienced individuals in both sectors and to the importance of appropriately managing potential ].<ref>Stephanie Armour for Bloomberg News. February 29, 2012. </ref><ref>OECD August 23, 2010 {{ISBN|9789264056701}}</ref>{{rp|16–23}} The list of such people includes: | |||
*]—EPA assistant administrator, then Monsanto VP from 1995 to 2000. then EPA deputy administrator.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/05/monsanto200805|title=Monsanto's Cruel, and Dangerous, Monopolization on American Farming|magazine=Vanity Fair|date=April 2, 2008}}</ref> | |||
Echoing Monsanto's sponsorship of Tomorrowland, in the second episode of the first season of '']'', "]", a Moon carnival ride named "The Goophy Gopher Revue" is said to have been sponsored/owned by "Monsanto".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imsdb.com/transcripts/Futurama-The-Series-Has-Landed.html |title=The Series Has Landed at IMSDb |publisher=Internet Movie Database|accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref> | |||
*Michael A. Friedman, MD—FDA deputy commissioner.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Dr. Michael Friedman, After Serving at the NCI, FDA, and Pharmacia, Returns to Academia as CEO of City of Hope|journal=Oncology Times|volume=25|issue=12|pages=41–42|date=June 25, 2003|doi=10.1097/01.COT.0000289833.46951.54|last1=Laino|first1=Charlene|doi-access=free}}</ref> | |||
*Earle H. Harbison Jr., Central Intelligence Agency Deputy Director, then President, Chief Operating Officer, and Director, from 1986 to 1993.<ref name="ForbesPlanet" /> | |||
*Robert Holifield—chief of staff of Senate Agriculture Committee, then partner in Lincoln Policy Group.<ref>, ''The Huffington Post''.</ref> | |||
*]—US ], then Monsanto board member.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest" /> | |||
*]—US Senator and chair of ], then founder of lobbying firm Lincoln Policy Group | |||
*]—EPA Administrator, then acting Director of the ], and then ], then EPA administrator, then Monsanto Board member.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ruckelshauscenter.wsu.edu/advisory-board-members/william-d-ruckelshaus/|title=William D. Ruckelshaus|publisher=Ruckelshauscenter.wsu.edu}}</ref> | |||
*]—] and previous secretary of Searle, a Monsanto subsidiary, for eight years<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|jstor=j.ctt183p5cm|title=Making the World Safe for Capitalism: How Iraq Threatened the US Economic Empire and had to be Destroyed|last=Doran|first=Christopher|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7453-3222-2|page=214|doi=10.2307/j.ctt183p5cm}}</ref> | |||
*]—assistant to the FDA commissioner, then attorney for ],<ref>{{cite news |title=New FDA deputy to lead food-safety mandate |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/13/AR2010011304402.html |first=Lyndsey |last=Layton |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=January 14, 2010}}</ref><ref>Palast, Gregory (February 21, 1999) , The Guardian</ref> then FDA deputy commissioner for policy on food safety between 1991 and 1994.<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/> He was cleared of conflict of interest accusations. Then he became Monsanto's VP for Public Policy,<ref name="Fda.gov"/><ref name="Sandra Hoffmann 2005"/><ref name="WilsonCenterBio"/> becoming Senior Advisor to the FDA Commissioner for the Obama administration.<ref name="fda" /> | |||
* ]—] who worked as an attorney for Monsanto in the 1970s, then wrote the majority opinion in '']''<ref name="cornell1996">{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-1996.ZS.html |title=J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. V. Pioneer Hi-Bredinternational, Inc|publisher=Law.cornell.edu }}</ref> finding that "newly developed plant breeds are patentable under the general utility patent laws of the United States."<ref name="url_monsantoharvest"/><ref name=":3" /><ref name="cornell1996"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/articles/harl/HarlMar02.htm |title=Key Supreme Court ruling on plant patents – McEowen, Harl March 2002 |publisher=Extension.iastate.edu |date=January 18, 2002 |access-date=May 19, 2008 |archive-date=December 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202000652/http://www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/articles/harl/HarlMar02.htm }}</ref> | |||
*]—Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, and member of the board of directors of Calgene<ref name=":3" /> | |||
== |
===United Kingdom=== | ||
During the late 1990s, Monsanto lobbied to raise permitted glyphosate levels in soybeans and was successful in convincing ] and both the UK and US governments to lift levels 200 times to 20 milligrams per kilogram of soya.<ref name="captive">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TdYPAAAAQBAJ|title=Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain|last=Monbiot|first=George|date=July 11, 2013|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4472-5247-4}}</ref>{{rp|265}} When asked how negotiations with Monsanto were conducted, ], then the ] Agriculture minister in the ], stated that all information relating to the matter would be "kept secret".<ref name=captive />{{rp|265}} During the 24 months prior to the 1997 British election Monsanto representatives had 22 meetings at the departments of Agriculture and the Environment.<ref name=captive/>{{rp|266}} ], an election advisor to ], later worked as a Monsanto consultant.<ref name=captive/>{{rp|266}} Former Labour spokesperson David Hill, became Monsanto's media adviser at the lobbying firm ].<ref name=captive/>{{rp|266}} The Labour government was challenged in Parliament about "trips, facilities, gifts and other offerings of financial value provided by Monsanto to civil servants", but only acknowledged that ] had two working lunches with Monsanto.<ref name=captive/>{{rp|267}} ], then a ] ] and Chairman of the Agriculture Select Committee, received up to £10,000 a year from Bell Pottinger on behalf of Monsanto.<ref name=captive/>{{rp|266}}<ref>{{cite news | title = Monsanto's lobby firm pays key MP | url = https://www.theguardian.com/politics/1999/jul/04/uk.politicalnews |date=July 4, 1999| first = Antony | last = Barnett | newspaper =The Guardian | location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = Resign call over MP's link with GM food firm | url = https://www.theguardian.com/science/1999/jul/11/gm.food |date=July 11, 1999 | first = Antony | last = Barnett | newspaper =The Guardian | location=London}}</ref> | |||
{{Portal|Companies|Agriculture and Agronomy}} | |||
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===European Union=== | ||
In January 2011, ] documents suggested that US diplomats in Europe responded to a request for help from the Spanish government. One report stated, "In addition, the cables show US diplomats working directly for GM companies such as Monsanto. 'In response to recent urgent requests by state secretary Josep Puxeu and Monsanto, post requests renewed US government support of Spain's science-based agricultural biotechnology position through high-level US government intervention.'"<ref name="07Paris4723" /><ref name="cbc.ca">{{cite news |title=U.S. targeted EU on GM foods: WikiLeaks |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/u-s-targeted-eu-on-gm-foods-wikileaks-1.1010690 |date=March 9, 2011 |publisher=]}}</ref> The leaked documents showed that in 2009, when the Spanish government's policy approving ] was under pressure from EU interests, Monsanto's Director for Biotechnology for Spain and Portugal requested that the US government support Spain on the matter.<ref name="07Paris4723">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/03/wikileaks-us-eu-gm-crops |title=WikiLeaks: US targets EU over GM crops |work=] |author=Vidal, John |date=January 3, 2011 |location=London, UK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=EUobserver |title=Spain a key ally of pro-GMO America, cables reveal |url=http://euobserver.com/news/31544 |date=December 20, 2010}}</ref> The leaks indicated that Spain and the US had worked closely together to "persuade the EU not to strengthen biotechnology laws".<ref name="07Paris4723" /><ref name="cbc.ca"/> Spain was viewed as a key GMO supporter and a leading indicator of support across the continent.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Presses Europe to Worship Genetically Modified Foods |author=Estabrook, Barry |website=] |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2011/01/us-presses-europe-to-worship-genetically-modified-foods/69633/|date=January 17, 2011}}</ref><ref name="El Pais">{{cite web |title=EE UU: "España nos pide que presionemos a Bruselas a favor de los transgénicos" |work=El Pais |url=http://www.microsofttranslator.com/bv.aspx?from=es&to=en&a=http://elpais.com/diario/2010/12/19/espana/1292713201_850215.html |date=December 19, 2010}}</ref> The leaks also revealed that in response to an attempt by France to ban MON810 in late 2007, then-US ambassador to France, ], asked Washington to "calibrate a targeted retaliation list that some pain across the EU", targeting countries that did not support the use of GM crops.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/03/wikileaks-us-eu-gm-crops |title=WikiLeaks: US targets EU over GM crops |work=The Guardian |author=Vidal, John |date=January 3, 2011 |location=London, UK}}</ref> This activity transpired after the US, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, Mexico and New Zealand had brought an action against Europe via the World Trade Organization with respect to the EU's banning of GMOs; in 2006, the ] had ruled against the EU.<ref name="El Pais" /><ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907170429/http://www.euractiv.com/en/trade/eu-gmo-ban-illegal-wto-rules/article-155197 |date=September 7, 2008 }}, euractiv.com (updated May 23, 2007)</ref><ref>, World Trade Organisation.</ref> | |||
* Carson, Rachel '']'' Houghton Mifflin 1962 ISBN 0-618-24906-0. | |||
* Monbiot, George (2001). ]: The Corporate Takeover of Britain. Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-36943-5. | |||
* ] ''Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply'' South End Press 2000 ISBN 0896086070 | |||
* ]: ''Seeds of Deception.'' YES Books, 2003. (Book ISBN 0-9729665-8-7). | |||
* Smith, Jeffrey M: 'Genetic Roulette: The Documented Health Risks of Genetically Engineered Foods'' Chelsea Green 2007. ISBN 0972966528 | |||
Monsanto was a member of ], the leading biotechnology trade group in Europe. One of EuropaBio's initiatives is "Transforming Europe's position on GM food". It found "an urgent need to reshape the terms of the debate about GM in Europe".<ref name="guardian.co.uk"> ''The Guardian'', October 20, 2011</ref> EuropaBio proposed the recruitment of high-profile "ambassadors" to lobby EU officials.<ref name="guardian.co.uk"/><ref> John Vidal and Hanna Gersmann, '']'', October 20, 2011</ref><ref> (Draft letter from EuropaBio to potential GM ambassadors seeking their involvement in the outreach programme), ''The Guardian'', October 20, 2011</ref> | |||
==Feature length Documentaries== | |||
*'']'' | |||
*'']'' | |||
*'']'' | |||
*'']''. Critical of Monsanto's activities in Canada and the US. | |||
* '']'' | |||
In September 2017 Monsanto lobbyists were banned from the European parliament after the Monsanto refused to attend a parliamentary hearing into allegations of regulatory interference.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/28/monsanto-banned-from-european-parliament|title=Monsanto banned from European parliament|first=Arthur|last=Neslen|date=September 28, 2017|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> | |||
==Other media related to Monsanto== | |||
* ''The Monsanto Story''<ref>''The Monsanto Story – Part 1'' (1901–1994), 2007, 22 min, by Andy Radford, </ref> | |||
* ''Life Running Out Of Control''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bullfrogfilms.com/catalog/lroc.html |title=Life Running Out of Control | Bullfrog Films: 1-800-543-3764: Environmental DVDs and Educational DVDs |publisher=Bullfrog Films |accessdate=24 September 2010}}</ref> | |||
* ''David Versus Monsanto''<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E42ndfjnP1g|title= Journeyman Features: David Vs Monsanto|publisher=Journeyman Pictures|accessdate=6 September 2010}}</ref> | |||
* ''The Genetic Roulette'' by ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geneticroulettemovie.com/|title=Genetic Roulette Movie}}</ref> | |||
=== Haiti === | |||
==Protest songs about Monsanto== | |||
After the ], Monsanto donated $255,000 for disaster relief<ref name=SeedDaily>, Hinche, Haiti (AFP) June 4, 2010</ref> and 60,000 seed sacks (475 tons) of hybrid (non-GM) corn and vegetable seeds worth $4 million.<ref name=BusinessWeek>{{cite magazine|last=Katz |first=Jonathan M. |url=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9FMUQN80.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100518201252/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9FMUQN80.htm |archive-date=May 18, 2010 |title=Monsanto gives Haiti $4 million in hybrid seeds |magazine=BusinessWeek |date=May 14, 2010}}</ref> However, a ] (CRS) rapid assessment of seed supply and demand for the five most common food security crops found that the Haitians had enough seed and recommended that imported seeds be introduced only on a small scale.<ref> Catholic Relief Services, March 2010</ref> Emmanuel Prophete, head of Haiti's Ministry of Agriculture's Service National Semencier (SNS), stated that SNS was not opposed to the hybrid maize seeds because they at least double yields. Louise Sperling, Principal Researcher at the ] (CIAT) told HGW that she was not opposed to hybrids, but noted that most hybrids required extra water and better soils and that most of Haiti was not appropriate for hybrids. | |||
* Mestizo band Mañana me Chanto together with ] released a song entitled "Glifosato" criticizing the RoundUp series of products.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
*The folk band ] released a song entitled "Food `n health `n hope (Monsanto Song)".<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
Activists objected that some of the seeds were coated with the ]s Maxim or ]. In the United States, ]s containing thiram are banned in home garden products because most home gardeners do not have adequate protection.<ref>. (PDF).</ref> Activists wrote that the coated seeds were handled in a dangerous manner by the recipients.<ref name=truth>{{cite web |url=http://www.truth-out.org/monsanto-haiti/1304605989 |title=Monsanto in Haiti |publisher=Truth-out.org |access-date=February 9, 2012 |archive-date=May 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509194832/http://www.truth-out.org/monsanto-haiti/1304605989 }}</ref> | |||
*Punk rock band ] released a song entitled "Monsanto Hayride" criticizing corporate wrongdoing.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
*Punk rock band ] released a song entitled "The W.T.O. Kills Farmers" which accuses Monsanto of murder as a result of their business practices.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
The donated seeds were sold at a reduced price in local markets.<ref name=BusinessWeek /> However, farmers feared that they were being given seeds that would "threaten local varieties".<ref name=SeedDaily /> | |||
*The Greek low-bap/rap band ] released a song entitled "Allios Skapste" criticizing Monsanto of its business practices.<ref></ref> | |||
*Folk artist ] released a song entitled "Monsanto Jones", criticizing Monsanto's business practices by way of making light of a character named Monsanto Jones.<ref></ref> | |||
== Public relations == | |||
Monsanto has engaged in various ] campaigns to improve its image and public perception of some of its products.<ref>Jenny Hopkinson, "", ''Politico'', November 29, 2013.</ref><ref>John Vidal, "", ''The Guardian'', October 6, 1999.</ref> These include developing a relationship with scientist ] with respect to ].<ref>Sarah Boseley, ""; ''The Guardian'', December 8, 2006.</ref><ref>"", ''BBC'', December 8, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tweedale|first=Geoffrey|date=2007-04-01|title=Hero or Villain?—Sir Richard Doll and Occupational Cancer|journal=International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health|volume=13|issue=2|pages=233–235|doi=10.1179/oeh.2007.13.2.233|issn=1077-3525|pmid=17718181|s2cid=40438560}}</ref> Other campaigns include the joint funding with other biotech companies for the website ].<ref>Eric Lipton, "", ''The New York Times'', September 9, 2015.</ref> | |||
=== Sponsorships === | |||
* ] attractions, namely: | |||
** Hall of Chemistry (1955 to 1966)<ref name="HallOfChemistry">. Yesterland.com.</ref> | |||
** ] (from 1957 to 1967)<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829035358/http://alum.mit.edu/pages/sliceofmit/2010/04/30/monsanto_mit_house/ |date=August 29, 2012 }}. Alum.mit.edu (April 30, 2010)</ref><ref>. Yesterland.com.</ref> | |||
** Fashions and Fabrics through the Years (from 1965 to 1966)<ref name="HallOfChemistry" /> | |||
** ] (from 1967 to 1986)<ref>. Yesterland.com.</ref> | |||
* Monsanto has donated $10 million to the ] in St. Louis in the 1970s, which named its 1998 plant science facility the 'Monsanto Center', which has been renamed in 2018 as the 'Bayer Center'.<ref>Press release Missouri Botanical Garden, June 5, 2012</ref> | |||
* ] | |||
** ] exhibit<ref>{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Field Museum, page 10, 2007: "Restricted gifts and grants 100,000 to $249,999"</ref> and "Underground Adventures" since 2011 "about the importance and fragility of the ecosystem within soil".<ref>Press Release {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627075337/https://www.fieldmuseum.org/underground-adventure-press-release |date=June 27, 2017 }} Field Museum, 2011</ref> | |||
**"Monsanto Environmental Education Initiative", led by Gregory M. Mueller | |||
** Chair of the Department of Botany and Associate Curator of Mycology<ref>{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Office of Academic Affairs, The Field Museum, March 20, 2000, page 53</ref> | |||
** Staff of the Field Museum, such as Curator Mark W. Westneat, attended Monsanto meetings<ref>Office of Collections and Research, The Field Museum page 64.</ref> | |||
*], renamed in 2018 as the Bayer Insectarium, at the ], in ], | |||
=== University relationships === | |||
Monsanto was a major funder of science research at ] for many years.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.247.4946.1027|title=Monsanto - WashU|journal=Science|date=March 2, 1990|volume=247|issue=4946|page=1027|doi=10.1126/science.247.4946.1027|last1=Culliton|first1=Barbara J.|pmid=17800050}}</ref> This research was highlighted by the Washington University/Monsanto Biomedical Research Agreement, which brought more than $100 million of research funding to the university.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://beckerarchives.wustl.edu/?p=collections/findingaid&id=8381&q=&rootcontentid=157655|title=WU/Monsanto Biomedical Research Agreement {{!}} Vertical File Collection, Bernard Becker Medical Library Archives|website=beckerarchives.wustl.edu|access-date=2019-08-19}}</ref> ] built the Monsanto Laboratory of the Life Sciences in 1965.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wustl.edu/about/campuses/danforth-campus/monsanto-laboratory-life-sciences/|title=Monsanto Laboratory of the Life Sciences|website=Washington University in St. Louis|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-19|archive-date=August 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822180137/https://wustl.edu/about/campuses/danforth-campus/monsanto-laboratory-life-sciences/}}</ref> In 2015, Monsanto gave Washington University's Institute for School Partnership a $1.94 million grant to help better teach students in STEM fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monsanto.com/news-releases/monsanto-fund-awards-1-9-million-grant-to-institute-for-school-partnership/|title=Monsanto Fund Awards $1.9 Million Grant to Institute for School Partnership|date=2015-08-18|website=Monsanto|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-20|archive-date=August 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820161253/https://monsanto.com/news-releases/monsanto-fund-awards-1-9-million-grant-to-institute-for-school-partnership/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/blog/biznext/2015/07/monsanto-gives-wash-u-stem-initiative-2-2-million.html|title=Monsanto - WashU Stem Initiative|website=www.bizjournals.com|access-date=2019-08-19}}</ref> | |||
==Awards== | |||
In 2009 Monsanto was chosen as '']'' magazine's company of the year.<ref name=ForbesPlanet>Langreth, Robert and Herper, Matthew, (January 19, 2010) ''Forbes'' magazine</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weiner |first1=Juli |title=How Seed Giant Monsanto Went from 2009 Company of the Year to Worst Stock of 2010 |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2010/10/how-seed-giant-monsanto-went-from-2009-company-of-the-year-to-worst-stock-of-2010 |access-date=September 20, 2018 |work=The Hive |date=2010-10-07 |language=en}}</ref> In 2010 Swiss research firm Covalence rated Monsanto least ethical<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.covalence.ch/index.php/2010/01/26/covalence-ethical-ranking-2009 |title=Covalence Ethical Rankings 2009 |date=2010-01-26 |access-date=March 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317034952/http://www.covalence.ch/index.php/2010/01/26/covalence-ethical-ranking-2009 |archive-date=2010-03-17 }}</ref> of 581 multinational corporations based on their ] reputation tracking index which "aggregates thousands of positive and negative news items published by the media, companies, and stakeholders",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethicalquote.com/index.php/about-us/ |title=About-Us |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Covalence EthicalQuote |date=January 12, 2007 |access-date=March 29, 2016}}</ref> without attempt to validate sources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.covalence.ch/index.php/products/methodology? |title=Methodology |access-date=March 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420063502/http://www.covalence.ch/index.php/products/methodology/|archive-date=April 20, 2010 |quote=Covalence does not see some sources as more reliable than others. Any source is considered equally. Covalence does not validate information sources, neither the content of information.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.covalence.ch/index.php/ethical-rankings/across-sectors |title=Across Sectors |date=2010-01-26 |access-date=March 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325004450/http://www.covalence.ch/index.php/ethical-rankings/across-sectors|archive-date=March 25, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/04/08/monsanto-leads-in-genetically-modified-agriculture-trails-in-e/ |title=Monsanto leads in genetically modified agriculture, trails in ethics |last1=Cesca |first1=Bob |date=April 9, 2010 |website=Daily Finance |access-date=March 29, 2016 |quote=And where was Monsanto on the list? Dead last. 581 out of 581.}}</ref> The journal ] ranked Monsanto in its Top 20 Employers list between 2011 and 2014. In 2012, it described the company as "innovative leader in the industry", "makes changes needed" and "does important quality research".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_magazine/previous_issues/articles/2012_09_21/science.opms.r1200125|title=Annual Top Employers Survey: Stability in the Face of Change|work=Science Careers|date=September 21, 2012|access-date=June 15, 2015|archive-date=September 5, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905230955/http://sciencecareers.sciencemag.org/career_magazine/previous_issues/articles/2012_09_21/science.opms.r1200125}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Unglesbee |first1=Ben |title=Monsanto makes top 10 on Science's list of best employers |url=https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/blog/2014/10/monsanto-makes-top-10-on-science-s-list-of-best.html |access-date=September 20, 2018 |work=www.bizjournals.com |date=2014-10-14}}</ref> Monsanto executive ] won the ] for "breakthrough achievements in founding, developing, and applying modern agricultural biotechnology".<ref name="worldfoodprize.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/2010__2013_laureates/2013__van_montagu_chilton_fraley/|title=2013 – Van Montagu, Chilton, Fraley|access-date=June 15, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714080549/https://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/2010__2013_laureates/2013__van_montagu_chilton_fraley/|archive-date=July 14, 2015}}</ref><ref name="nytimes.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/20/business/monsanto-executive-is-among-world-food-prize-winners.html|title=Executive at Monsanto Wins Global Food Honor|date=June 20, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Pollack|first1=Andrew}}</ref> | |||
==Documentaries== | |||
* ] | |||
* '']'' | |||
* '']'' | |||
* '']'' | |||
* '']''<ref>{{YouTube|zfOSFaaLx_o|The World According to Monsanto}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | |||
{{Portal|Companies|Agriculture and agronomy}} | |||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|30em}} | {{Reflist|30em}} | ||
== |
==Bibliography== | ||
*{{cite book |title=Zion in the Valley, 1807-1907: Volume I, The Jewish Community of St. Louis|last=Ehrlich|first=Walter |year=1997|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=0-8262-1098-8}} | |||
{{Commons category-inline|Monsanto Company}} | |||
* Forrestal, Dan J. (1977). ''Faith, Hope & $5000: The Story of Monsanto'', Simon & Schuster, {{ISBN|0-671-22784-X}}. | |||
* Pechlaner, Gabriela, ''Corporate Crops: Biotechnology, Agriculture, and the Struggle for Control'', University of Texas Press, 2012, {{ISBN|0292739451}} | |||
* ], ''The World According to Monsanto: Pollution, Corruption, and the Control of the World's Food Supply'', New Press, 2009, {{ISBN|1595584269}} | |||
* Spears, Ellen Griffith, ''Baptized in PCBs: Race, Pollution, and Justice in an All-American Town'', The University of North Carolina Press, 2014, {{ISBN|1469611716}}. | |||
* ], ''Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply'', ], 2000, {{ISBN|0896086070}}. | |||
== External links == | |||
* {{Commons category inline|Monsanto Company}} | |||
{{Monsanto}} | {{Monsanto}} | ||
{{Genetic engineering}} | {{Genetic engineering}} | ||
{{US seed companies}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 01:57, 11 November 2024
American agribusiness corporation (1901–2018) For other uses, see Monsanto (disambiguation).
Company type | Public |
---|---|
Traded as | NYSE: MON |
Industry | Agribusiness |
Founded | September 26, 1901; 123 years ago (1901-09-26) Reformed in 2000 (spun off from Pharmacia & Upjohn) |
Founder | John Francis Queeny |
Defunct | June 7, 2018; 6 years ago (2018-06-07) |
Fate | Acquired by Bayer |
Headquarters | Creve Coeur, Missouri, U.S. |
Key people |
|
Products | |
Parent | Pharmacia & Upjohn (1999–2000) |
Footnotes / references |
The Monsanto Company (/mɒnˈsæntoʊ/) was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri. Monsanto's best-known product is Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide, developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue.
Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983, and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987. It was one of the top-ten U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on biotechnology.
Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies. In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents.
Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as a chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide DDT, PCBs, Agent Orange, and recombinant bovine growth hormone.
In September 2016, German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$66 billion in an all-cash deal. After gaining U.S. and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name Monsanto was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products Roundup, PCBs and Dicamba. Owing to the massive financial and reputational blows caused by ongoing litigation concerning Monsanto's herbicide Roundup, the Bayer-Monsanto merger is considered one of the worst corporate mergers in history.
History
Further information: Timeline of Monsanto"Pre-Pharmacia" Monsanto
1901 to WWII
In 1901, Monsanto was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a chemical company. The founder was John Francis Queeny, who, at age 42, was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry. He funded the firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor. He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the Monsanto family.
The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as the artificial sweetener saccharin, caffeine and vanillin.
Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr, Wales. The venture produced vanillin, aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid, and later rubber processing chemicals.
In the 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs. Queeny's son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over the company in 1928.
In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois (now known as Sauget). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of the responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president.
In 1935, Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston, Alabama, and thereby entered the business of producing PCBs.
In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio, to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department. Thomas spent the rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970. In 1943, Thomas was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with Leslie Groves, commander of the Manhattan Project, and James Conant, president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). They urged Thomas to become co-director of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer, but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto. He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research. To that end, Monsanto operated the Dayton Project, and later Mound Laboratories, and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons.
Post-WWII
In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which it sold to Lever Brothers in 1957. In 1947, its styrene factory was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster. In 1949, Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds. In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in the United States.
Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill malaria-transmitting mosquitoes, but it was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts.
In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later.
1960s and 1970s
In the mid‑1960s, William Standish Knowles and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation. This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds. Knowles' team designed the "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"—L‑dopa, which is used to treat Parkinson's disease. In 2001, Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed the Monsanto process for making acetic acid, which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf (initially ChemGrass).
In the 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam, and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984. In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide. From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were electronic calculators, digital watches and digital clocks. Monsanto became a pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s.
Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the Monsanto Open.
In 1974, Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10-year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman, which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were the first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application.
1980 to 1989: Becoming an agribiotech company
Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983. Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops. Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's CEO in 1983. This involvement increased under the leadership of Robert Shapiro, appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture.
In 1985, Monsanto acquired G.D. Searle & Company, a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex, which in 1998 became the first selective COX‑2 inhibitor to be approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer's acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002.
1990 to 1999: Moving into the seed market & industry consolidation
In 1994, Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin, brand-named Posilac. Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company.
In 1996, Monsanto purchased Agracetus, the biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991.
In 1997, Monsanto divested Solutia, a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production.
Monsanto first entered the maize seed business when it purchased 40% of Dekalb in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998. In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on Moore's Law, indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired. In 1998, Monsanto purchased Cargill's international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries. In 2005, it finalized the purchase of Seminis Inc, a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $1.4 billion. This made it the world's largest conventional seed company.
In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co. In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia & Upjohn, in a deal valuing the transaction at $27 billion. The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of the "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex.
"Pre-Pharmacia" Monsanto overview
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"Post-Pharmacia" Monsanto
2000 to 2009: Birth of the "new" Monsanto
In 2000, Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into a new company, the "new Monsanto", focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton. Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia. As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003.
In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform".
Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased Seminis, the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $1.4 billion. Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in the longer term.
In June 2007, Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company, a major cotton seed breeder, for $1.5 billion. As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice, Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer, and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot. Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property". In 2007, Monsanto and BASF announced a long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products.
In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million, and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly & Co, in August for $300 million plus "additional contingent consideration".
2010 to 2017: Further growth, Syngenta
In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $210 million Precision Planting Inc., a company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting.
Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based Climate Corp for $930 million in 2013. Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated.
In May 2013, a worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called March Against Monsanto, was held in over 400 cities. A second protest took place in May 2014.
Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival Syngenta for US$46.5 billion in 2015, but failed. In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%). Monsanto was the only manufacturer of white phosphorus for military use in the US.
"Post-Pharmacia" Monsanto overview
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Sale to Bayer
In September 2016, Monsanto agreed to be acquired by Bayer for US$66 billion. In an effort to receive regulatory clearance for the deal, Bayer announced the sale of significant portions of its current agriculture businesses, including its seed and herbicide businesses, to BASF.
The deal was approved by the European Union on March 21, 2018, and approved in the United States on May 29, 2018. The sale closed on June 7, 2018; Bayer announced its intent to discontinue the Monsanto name, with the combined company operating solely under the Bayer brand.
Under the terms of merger, Bayer promised to maintain Monsanto's more than 9,000 U.S. jobs and add 3,000 new U.S. high-tech positions.
The prospective merger parties said at the time the combined agriculture business planned to spend $16 billion on research and development over the next six years and at least $8 billion on research and development in United States.
Bayer would also establish its new global Seeds & Traits and North American commercial headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri.
The Bayer-Monsanto merger is widely considered to be one of the worst mergers in history, mostly due to the exposure to Roundup litigation. By 2023, Bayer's market value had declined by over 60% since its 2016 merger, leaving the company's overall worth at less than half of what it paid to acquire Monsanto.
Products and associated issues
Current products
Glyphosate herbicides
See also: GlyphosateFollowing its 1970 introduction, Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent on the herbicide glyphosate (brand name RoundUp) expired in 2000. Glyphosate has since been marketed by many agrochemical companies, in various solution strengths and with various adjuvants, under dozens of tradenames. As of 2009, glyphosate represented about 10% of Monsanto's revenue. Roundup-related products (which include genetically modified seeds) represented about half of Monsanto's gross margin.
Crop seed
See also: Hybrid seed, Genetically modified crops, Genetically modified food, and Genetically modified food controversiesAs of 2015, Monsanto's line of seed products included corn, cotton, soy and vegetable seeds.
Row crops
Many of Monsanto's agricultural seed products are genetically modified, such as for resistance to herbicides, including glyphosate and dicamba. Monsanto calls glyphosate-tolerant seeds Roundup Ready. Monsanto's introduction of this system (planting a glyphosate-resistant seed and then applying glyphosate once plants emerged) allowed farmers to increase yield by planting rows closer together. Without it, farmers had to plant rows far enough apart to allow the control of post-emergent weeds with mechanical tillage. Farmers widely adopted the technology—for example over 80% of maize (Mon 832), soybean (MON-Ø4Ø32-6), cotton, sugar beet and canola planted in the United States are glyphosate-tolerant. Monsanto developed a Roundup Ready genetically modified wheat (MON 71800) but ended development in 2004 due to concerns from wheat exporters about the rejection of genetically modified (GM) wheat by foreign markets.
Two patents were critical to Monsanto's GM soybean business; one expired in 2011 and the other in 2014. The second expiration meant that glyphosate resistant soybeans became "generic". The first harvest of generic glyphosate-tolerant soybeans came in 2015. Monsanto broadly licensed the patent to other seed companies that include glyphosate resistance trait in their seed products. About 150 companies have licensed the technology, including competitors Syngenta and DuPont Pioneer.
Monsanto invented and sells genetically modified seeds that make a crystalline insecticidal protein from Bacillus thuringiensis, known as Bt. In 1995 Monsanto's potato plants producing Bt toxin were approved by the Environmental Protection Agency, following approval by the FDA, making it the first pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the United States. Monsanto subsequently developed Bt maize (MON 802, MON 809, MON 863, MON 810), Bt soybean and Bt cotton.
Monsanto produces seed that has multiple genetic modifications, also known as "stacked traits"—for instance, cotton that make one or more Bt proteins and is resistant to glyphosate. One of these, created in collaboration with Dow Chemical Company, is called SmartStax. In 2011 Monsanto launched the Genuity brand for its stacked-trait products.
As of 2012, the agricultural seed lineup included Roundup Ready alfalfa, canola and sugarbeet; Bt and/or Roundup Ready cotton; sorghum hybrids; soybeans with various oil profiles, most with the Roundup Ready trait; and a wide range of wheat products, many of which incorporate the nontransgenic "clearfield" imazamox-tolerant trait from BASF.
In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids branded DroughtGard. The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe Bacillus subtilis; it was approved by the USDA in 2011 and by China in 2013.
The "Xtend Crop System" includes seed genetically modified to be resistant to both glyphosate and dicamba, and a herbicide product including those two active ingredients. In December 2014, the system was approved for use in the US. In February 2016, China approved the Roundup Ready 2 Xtend system. The lack of European Union approval led many American traders to reject the use of Xtend soybeans over concerns that the new seeds would become mixed with EU-approved seeds, leading Europe to reject American soybean exports.
India-specific issues
In 2009, Monsanto scientists discovered insects that had developed resistance to the Bt Cotton planted in Gujarat. Monsanto communicated this to the Indian government and its customers, stating that "Resistance is natural and expected, so measures to delay resistance are important. Among the factors that may have contributed to pink bollworm resistance to the Cry1Ac protein in Bollgard I in Gujarat are limited refuge planting and early use of unapproved Bt cotton seed, planted prior to GEAC approval of Bollgard I cotton, which may have had lower protein expression levels." The company advised farmers to switch to its second generation of Bt cotton – Bolgard II – which had two resistance genes instead of one, the widely recognised best practice to forestall, prevent, and cope with any kind of pesticide resistance. However, this advice was criticized: "an internal analysis of the statement of the Ministry of Environment and Forests says it 'appears that this could be a business strategy to phase out single gene events and promote double genes which would fetch higher price.'"
Monsanto's GM cotton seed was the subject of NGO agitation because of its higher cost. Indian farmers crossed GM varieties with local varieties, using plant breeding, violating their agreements with Monsanto. In 2009, high prices of Bt Cotton were blamed for forcing farmers of Jhabua district into debt when the crops died due to lack of rain.
Vegetables
In 2012 Monsanto was the world's largest supplier of non-GE vegetable seeds by value, with sales of $800M. 95% of the research and development for vegetable seed is in conventional breeding. The company concentrates on improving flavor. According to their website they sell "4,000 distinct seed varieties representing more than 20 species". Broccoli, with the brand name Beneforté, with increased amounts of glucoraphanin was introduced in 2010 following development by its Seminis subsidiary.
Former products
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Until it ended production in 1977, Monsanto was the source of 99% of the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) used by U.S. industry. They were sold under brand names including Aroclor and Santotherm; the name Santotherm is still used for non-chlorinated products. PCBs are a persistent organic pollutant, and cause cancer in both animals and humans, among other health effects. PCBs were initially welcomed due to the electrical industry's need for durable, safer (than flammable mineral oil) cooling and insulating fluid for industrial transformers and capacitors. PCBs were also commonly used as stabilizing additives in the manufacture of flexible PVC coatings for electrical wiring and in electronic components to enhance PVC heat and fire resistance. As transformer leaks occurred and toxicity problems arose near factories, their durability and toxicity became recognized as serious problems. PCB production was banned by the U.S. Congress in 1979 and by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001.
Agent Orange
Main article: Agent OrangeMonsanto, Dow Chemical, and eight other chemical companies made Agent Orange for the U.S. Department of Defense. It was given its name from the color of the orange-striped barrels in which it was shipped, and was by far the most widely used of the so-called "Rainbow Herbicides".
Bovine somatotropin
Main article: Bovine somatotropinMonsanto developed and sold recombinant bovine somatotropin (also known as rBST and rBGH), a synthetic hormone that increases milk production by 11–16% when injected into cows. In October 2008, Monsanto sold this business to Eli Lilly for $300 million plus additional considerations.
The use of rBST remains controversial with respect to its effects on cows and their milk.
In some markets, milk from cows that are not treated with rBST is sold with labels indicating that it is rBST-free: this milk has proved popular with consumers. In reaction to this, in early 2008 a pro-rBST advocacy group called "American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology" (AFACT), made up of dairies and originally affiliated with Monsanto, formed and began lobbying to ban such labels. AFACT stated that "absence" labels can be misleading and imply that milk from cows treated with rBST is inferior.
Uncommercialized products
Monsanto also developed notable technologies that were not ultimately commercialized.
"Terminator" seeds
Main article: Genetic use restriction technologyGenetic use restriction technology, colloquially known as "terminator technology", produces plants with sterile seeds. This trait would prevent the spread of those seeds into the wild. It also would prevent farmers from planting seeds they harvest, requiring them to purchase seed for every planting, allowing the company to enforce its licensing terms via technology. Farmers have been buying hybrid seeds for generations, instead of replanting their harvest, because second-generation hybrid seeds are inferior. Nevertheless, most seed companies contract only with farmers who agree not to plant harvested seeds.
Terminator technology has been developed by governmental labs, university researchers and companies. The technology has not been used commercially. Rumors that Monsanto and other companies intended to introduce terminator technology caused protests, for example in India.
In 1999, Monsanto pledged not to commercialize terminator technology. The Delta & Pine Land Company of Mississippi intended to commercialize the technology, but D&PL was acquired by Monsanto in 2007.
Monsanto "Terminator seeds" were never commercialized nor used in any farmer's field anywhere in the world. The patent expired in 2015.
GM wheat
Main article: Genetically modified wheatMonsanto developed several strains of genetically modified wheat, including glyphosate-resistant strains, in the 1990s. Field tests were done in the United States between 1998 and 2005. As of 2017, no genetically modified wheat had been released for commercial use.
Legal affairs
Main article: Monsanto legal casesMonsanto engaged in high-profile lawsuits, as both plaintiff and defendant. It defended lawsuits mostly over its products' health and environmental effects. Monsanto used the courts to enforce its patents, particularly in agricultural biotechnology, an approach similar to that of other companies in the field, such as Dupont Pioneer and Syngenta. Monsanto also became one of the most controversial large corporations in the world, over a range of issues involving its industrial and agricultural chemical products, and GM seed. In April 2018, just prior to Bayer's acquisition, Bayer indicated that improving Monsanto's reputation represented a major challenge. That June, Bayer announced it would drop the Monsanto name as part of a campaign to regain consumer trust.
Argentina
Argentina approved Roundup Ready soy in 1996. Between 1996 and 2008 soy production grew from 14 million acres to 42 million acres. The growth was driven by Argentine investors' interest in export markets. The consolidation led to a decrease in production of many staples such as milk, rice, maize, potatoes and lentils. As of 2004, about 150,000 small farmers had left the countryside; as of 2009, 50% in the Chaco region.
The Guardian reported that a Monsanto representative had said, "any problems with GM soya were to do with use of the crop as a monoculture, not because it was GM. If you grow any crop to the exclusion of any other you are bound to get problems."
In 2005 and 2006, Monsanto attempted to enforce its patents on soymeal originating in Argentina and shipped to Spain by having Spanish customs officials seize the soymeal shipments. The seizures were part of a larger attempt by Monsanto to put pressure on the Argentinian government to enforce Monsanto's seed patents.
In 2013 environmentalist groups objected to a Monsanto corn seed conditioning facility in Malvinas Argentinas, Córdoba. Neighbours objected to the risk of environmental impact. Court rulings supported the project, but environmentalist groups organised demonstrations and opened an online petition for the subject to be decided in a popular referendum. The court rulings stipulated that while construction could continue, the facility could not begin operating until the environmental impact report required by law had been duly presented.
In 2016 Monsanto reached an agreement with Argentina's government on soybean seed royalty payments. Monsanto agreed to give the Argentine Seed Institute (Inase) oversight over crops grown from Monsanto's Intacta genetically modified soybean seeds. Before the agreement, Argentine farmers generally avoided royalties by using seeds from previous harvests or purchased from non-registered suppliers. Inase agreed to delegate testing to grain exchanges. About 6 million sample tests were to be conducted annually. Seeds that appear to be GMOs may be tested again using a polymerase chain reaction test.
Brazil
Brazil is the second largest producer of GMO soy. In 2003 GM soy was found in fields planted in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. This was a controversial decision, and in response, the Landless Workers' Movement protested by invading and occupying several Monsanto farm plots used for research, training and seed-processing. In 2005 Brazil passed a law creating a regulatory pathway for GM crops.
China
Monsanto was criticized by Chinese economist Larry Lang for controlling the Chinese soybean market, and for trying to do the same to Chinese corn and cotton.
India
Main article: Farmers' suicides in IndiaIn the late 1990s and early 2000s, public attention was drawn to suicides by indebted farmers following crop failures. For example, in the early 2000s, farmers in Andhra Pradesh (AP) were in economic crisis due to high-interest rates and crop failures, leading to widespread unrest and farmer suicides. Monsanto was one focus of protests with respect to the price and yields of Bt seed. In 2005, the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee, the Indian regulatory authority, released a study on field tests of certain Bt cotton strains in AP and ruled that Monsanto could not market those strains in AP because of poor yields. At about the same time, the state agriculture minister barred the company from selling Bt cotton seed, because Monsanto refused a request by the state government to provide pay about Rs 4.5 crore (about one million US$) to indebted farmers in some districts, and because the government blamed Monsanto's seeds for crop failures. The order was later lifted.
In 2006, AP tried to convince Monsanto to reduce the price of Bt seeds. Unsatisfied, the state filed several cases against Monsanto and its Mumbai-based licensee, Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds. Research by International Food Policy Research Institute found no evidence supporting an increased suicide rate following the introduction of Bt cotton and that Bt cotton. The report stated that farmer suicides predated commercial introduction in 2002 (and unofficial introduction in 2001) and that such suicides had made up a fairly constant portion of the overall national suicide rate since 1997. The report concluded that while Bt cotton may have been a factor in specific suicides, the contribution was likely marginal compared to socio-economic factors. As of 2009, Bt cotton was planted in 87% of Indian cotton-growing land.
Critics including Vandana Shiva said that the crop failures could "often be traced to" Monsanto's Bt cotton, that the seeds increased farmer indebtedness and argued that Monsanto misrepresented the profitability of their Bt Cotton, causing losses leading to debt. In 2009, Shiva wrote that Indian farmers who had previously spent as little as ₹7 (rupees) per kilogram were now paying up to ₹17,000 per kilo per year for Bt cotton. In 2012 the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the Central Cotton Research Institute (CCRI) stated that for the first time farmer suicides could be linked to a decline in the performance of Bt cotton, and advised, "cotton farmers are in a deep crisis since shifting to Bt cotton. The spate of farmer suicides in 2011–12 has been particularly severe among Bt cotton farmers."
In 2004, in response to an order from the Bombay High Court the Tata Institute produced a report on farmer suicides in Maharashtra in 2005. The survey cited "government apathy, the absence of a safety net for farmers, and lack of access to information related to agriculture as the chief causes for the desperate condition of farmers in the state."
Various studies identified the important factors as insufficient or risky credit systems, the difficulty of farming semi-arid regions, poor agricultural income, absence of alternative income opportunities, a downturn in the urban economy which forced non-farmers into farming and the absence of suitable counseling services. ICAR and CCRI stated that the cost of cotton cultivation had jumped as a consequence of rising pesticide costs, while total Bt cotton production in the five years from 2007 to 2012 had declined.
United Kingdom
Main article: Brofiscin QuarryBrofiscin Quarry was used as a waste site from about 1965 to 1972 and accepted waste from BP, Veolia and Monsanto. A 2005 report by Environment Agency Wales (EAW) found that the quarry contained up to 75 toxic substances, including heavy metals, Agent Orange and PCBs.
In February 2011, Monsanto agreed to help with the costs of remediation, but did not accept responsibility for the pollution. In 2011, EAW and the Rhondda Cynon Taf council announced that they had decided to place an engineered cap over the waste mass, and stated that the cost would be £1.5 million; previous estimates had been as high as £100 million.
United States
PCBs
In the late 1960s, the Monsanto plant in Sauget, Illinois, was the nation's largest producer of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) compounds, which remained in the water along Dead Creek there. An EPA official referred to Sauget as "one of the most polluted communities in the region" and "a soup of different chemicals".
In Anniston, Alabama, plaintiffs in a 2002 lawsuit provided documentation showing that the local Monsanto factory knowingly discharged both mercury and PCB-laden waste into local creeks for over 40 years. In 1969 Monsanto dumped 45 tons of PCBs into Snow Creek, a feeder for Choccolocco Creek, which supplies much of the area's drinking water, and buried millions of pounds of PCB in open-pit landfills located on hillsides above the plant and surrounding neighborhoods. In August 2003, Solutia and Monsanto agreed to pay plaintiffs $700 million to settle claims by over 20,000 Anniston residents.
In June 2020, Bayer proposed paying $650 million to settle local PCB lawsuits, and $170 million to the attorneys-general of New Mexico, Washington and the District of Columbia. Monsanto was acknowledged at the time of the settlement to have ceased making PCBs in 1977, though State Impact of Pennsylvania reported that this did not stop PCBs from contaminating people many years later. State Impact of Pennsylvania stated "In 1979, the EPA banned the use of PCBs, but they still exist in some products produced before 1979. They persist in the environment because they bind to sediments and soils. High exposure to PCBs can cause birth defects, developmental delays, and liver changes." On November 25, 2020, however U.S. District Judge Fernando M. Olguin rejected the proposed $650 million settlement from Bayer and allowed Monsanto-related lawsuits involving PCB to proceed.
Polluted sites
As of November 2013, Monsanto was associated with nine "active" Superfund sites and 32 "archived" sites in the US, in the EPA's Superfund database. Monsanto was sued and settled multiple times for damaging the health of its employees or residents near its Superfund sites through pollution and poisoning.
GM wheat
In 2013 a Monsanto-developed transgenic cultivar of glyphosate-resistant wheat was discovered on a farm in Oregon, growing as a weed or "volunteer plant". The final Oregon field test had occurred in 2001. As of May 2013, the GMO seed source was unknown. Volunteer wheat from a former test field two miles away was tested and was not found to be glyphosate-tolerant. Monsanto faced penalties up to $1 million over potential violations of the Plant Protection Act. The discovery threatened world-leading US wheat exports, which totaled $8.1 billion in 2012. This wheat variety was rarely exported to Europe and was more likely destined for Asia. Monsanto said it had destroyed all the material it held after completing trials in 2004 and it was "mystified" by its appearance. On June 14, 2013, the USDA announced: "As of today, USDA has neither found nor been informed of anything that would indicate that this incident amounts to more than a single isolated incident in a single field on a single farm. All information collected so far shows no indication of the presence of GE wheat in commerce." As of August 30, 2013, while the source of the GM wheat remained unknown, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan had all resumed placing orders.
Cancer risks of Roundup
Monsanto has faced controversy in the United States over claims that its herbicide products might be carcinogens. There is limited evidence that human cancer risk might increase as a result of occupational exposure to large amounts of glyphosate, as in agricultural work, but no good evidence of such a risk from home use, such as in domestic gardening. The consensus among national pesticide regulatory agencies and scientific organizations is that labeled uses of glyphosate have demonstrated no evidence of human carcinogenicity. Organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization, European Commission, Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency, and the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment have concluded that there is no evidence that glyphosate poses a carcinogenic or genotoxic risk to humans. However, one international scientific organization, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), affiliated with the WHO, has made claims of carcinogenicity in research reviews; in 2015 the IARC declared glyphosate "probably carcinogenic".
As of October 30, 2019, there were 42,700 plaintiffs who said that glyphosate herbicides caused their cancer after the IARC report in 2015 linking glyphosate to cancer in humans. Monsanto denies that Roundup is carcinogenic.
In March 2017, 40 plaintiffs filed a lawsuit at the Alameda County Superior Court, a branch of the California Superior Court, asking for damages caused by the company's glyphosate-based weed-killers, including Roundup, and demanding a jury trial. On August 10, 2018, Monsanto lost the first decided case. Dewayne Johnson, who has non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, was initially awarded $289 million in damages after a jury in San Francisco said that Monsanto had failed to adequately warn consumers of cancer risks posed by the herbicide. Pending appeal, the award was later reduced to $78.5 million. In November 2018, Monsanto appealed the judgement, asking an appellate court to consider a motion for a new trial. A verdict on the appeal was delivered in June 2020 upholding the verdict but further reducing the award to $21.5 million.
On March 27, 2019, Monsanto was found liable in a federal court for Edwin Hardeman's non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and ordered to pay $80 million in damages. A spokesperson for Bayer, by this time the parent company of Monsanto, said the company would appeal the verdict.
On May 13, 2019, a jury in California ordered Bayer to pay $2 billion in damages after finding that the company had failed to adequately inform consumers of the possible carcinogenicity of Roundup. On July 26, 2019, an Alameda County judge cut the settlement to $86.7 million, stating that the judgement by the jury exceeded legal precedent.
In June 2020, Monsanto acquisitor Bayer agreed to settle over a hundred thousand Roundup cancer lawsuits, agreeing to pay $8.8 to $9.6 billion to settle those claims, and $1.5 billion for any future claims. The settlement does not include three cases that have already gone to jury trials and are being appealed.
Dicamba lawsuits
Following a lawsuit by a peach farmer alleging that Dicamba used as a weed killer drifted in the wind from adjacent crops to destroy his peach orchards, a Missouri trial jury found in February 2020 that Monsanto and codefendant BASF were negligent in design of Dicamba and failed to warn farmers about the product, awarding $15 million for losses and $250 million in punitive damages. On February 14, 2020, the jury involved in a Missouri lawsuit involving tree damage caused by dicamba drift ruled against Bayer and its co-defendant BASF and found in favor of Bader Farms owner Bill Bader. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to a settlement of up to $400 million for all 2015–2020 crop year dicamba claims, not including the $250 million judgement which was issued to Bader. On November 25, 2020, U.S. District Judge Stephen Limbaugh Jr. reduced the punitive damage amount in the Bader Farms case to $60 million.
Improper accounting for incentive rebates
From 2009 to 2011, Monsanto improperly accounted for incentive rebates. The actions inflated Monsanto's reported profit by $31 million over the two years. Monsanto paid $80 million in penalties pursuant to a subsequent settlement with the US Securities and Exchange Commission. Monsanto materially misstated its consolidated earnings in response to losing market share of Roundup to generic producers. Monsanto overhauled its internal controls. Two of their top CPAs were suspended and Monsanto was required to hire, at their expense, an independent ethics/compliance consultant for two years.
Alleged ghostwriting
A review of glyphosate's carcinogenic potential by four independent expert panels, with a comparison to the IARC assessment, was published in September 2016. Using emails released in August 2017 by plaintiffs' lawyers who are suing Monsanto, Bloomberg Business Week reported that "Monsanto scientists were heavily involved in organizing, reviewing, and editing drafts submitted by the outside experts." A Monsanto spokesperson responded that Monsanto had provided only non-substantive cosmetic copyediting.
In 2017, The New York Times reported that a 2015 article attributed to researcher and columnist Henry I. Miller had been drafted by Monsanto. According to the report, Monsanto asked Miller to write an article rebutting the findings of the International Agency for Research on Cancer, and he indicated willingness to do it if he "could start from a high-quality draft". Forbes later removed Miller's blog from Forbes.com and ended their relationship.
Government relations
United States
Monsanto regularly lobbied the US government with expenses reaching $8.8 million in 2008 and $6.3 million in 2011. $2 million was spent on matters concerning "Foreign Agriculture Biotechnology Laws, Regulations, and Trade". Some US diplomats in Europe at other times worked directly for Monsanto.
California's 2012 Proposition 37 would have mandated the disclosure of genetically modified crops used in the production of California food products. Monsanto spent $8.1 million opposing passage, making it the largest contributor against the initiative. The proposition was rejected by a 53.7% majority. Labeling is not required in the US.
In 2009 Michael R. Taylor, food safety expert and former Monsanto VP for Public Policy, became a senior advisor to the FDA Commissioner.
Monsanto is a member of the Washington D.C based Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO), the world's largest biotechnology trade association, which provides "advocacy, business development, and communications services." Between 2010 and 2011 BIO spent a total of $16.43 million on lobbying.
The Monsanto Company Citizenship Fund aka Monsanto Citizenship Fund is a political action committee that donated over $10 million to various candidates from 2003 to 2013.
As of October 2013, Monsanto and DuPont Co. continued backing an anti-labeling campaign, spending roughly $18 million. The state of Washington, along with 26 other states, made proposals in November to require GMO labeling.
Revolving door
In the US regulatory environment, many individuals move back and forth between positions in the public and private sectors, including at Monsanto. Critics argued that the connections between the company and the government allowed Monsanto to obtain favorable regulations at the expense of consumer safety. Supporters of the practice point to the benefits of competent and experienced individuals in both sectors and to the importance of appropriately managing potential conflicts of interest. The list of such people includes:
- Linda J. Fisher—EPA assistant administrator, then Monsanto VP from 1995 to 2000. then EPA deputy administrator.
- Michael A. Friedman, MD—FDA deputy commissioner.
- Earle H. Harbison Jr., Central Intelligence Agency Deputy Director, then President, Chief Operating Officer, and Director, from 1986 to 1993.
- Robert Holifield—chief of staff of Senate Agriculture Committee, then partner in Lincoln Policy Group.
- Mickey Kantor—US trade representative, then Monsanto board member.
- Blanche Lincoln—US Senator and chair of Agriculture Committee, then founder of lobbying firm Lincoln Policy Group
- William D. Ruckelshaus—EPA Administrator, then acting Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and then Deputy Attorney General of the United States, then EPA administrator, then Monsanto Board member.
- Donald Rumsfeld—Secretary of Defense and previous secretary of Searle, a Monsanto subsidiary, for eight years
- Michael R. Taylor—assistant to the FDA commissioner, then attorney for King & Spalding, then FDA deputy commissioner for policy on food safety between 1991 and 1994. He was cleared of conflict of interest accusations. Then he became Monsanto's VP for Public Policy, becoming Senior Advisor to the FDA Commissioner for the Obama administration.
- Clarence Thomas—Supreme Court Justice who worked as an attorney for Monsanto in the 1970s, then wrote the majority opinion in J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. finding that "newly developed plant breeds are patentable under the general utility patent laws of the United States."
- Ann Veneman—Secretary of the Department of Agriculture, and member of the board of directors of Calgene
United Kingdom
During the late 1990s, Monsanto lobbied to raise permitted glyphosate levels in soybeans and was successful in convincing Codex Alimentarius and both the UK and US governments to lift levels 200 times to 20 milligrams per kilogram of soya. When asked how negotiations with Monsanto were conducted, Lord Donoughue, then the Labour Party Agriculture minister in the House of Lords, stated that all information relating to the matter would be "kept secret". During the 24 months prior to the 1997 British election Monsanto representatives had 22 meetings at the departments of Agriculture and the Environment. Stanley Greenberg, an election advisor to Tony Blair, later worked as a Monsanto consultant. Former Labour spokesperson David Hill, became Monsanto's media adviser at the lobbying firm Bell Pottinger. The Labour government was challenged in Parliament about "trips, facilities, gifts and other offerings of financial value provided by Monsanto to civil servants", but only acknowledged that Department of Trade and Industry had two working lunches with Monsanto. Peter Luff, then a Conservative Party MP and Chairman of the Agriculture Select Committee, received up to £10,000 a year from Bell Pottinger on behalf of Monsanto.
European Union
In January 2011, WikiLeaks documents suggested that US diplomats in Europe responded to a request for help from the Spanish government. One report stated, "In addition, the cables show US diplomats working directly for GM companies such as Monsanto. 'In response to recent urgent requests by state secretary Josep Puxeu and Monsanto, post requests renewed US government support of Spain's science-based agricultural biotechnology position through high-level US government intervention.'" The leaked documents showed that in 2009, when the Spanish government's policy approving MON810 was under pressure from EU interests, Monsanto's Director for Biotechnology for Spain and Portugal requested that the US government support Spain on the matter. The leaks indicated that Spain and the US had worked closely together to "persuade the EU not to strengthen biotechnology laws". Spain was viewed as a key GMO supporter and a leading indicator of support across the continent. The leaks also revealed that in response to an attempt by France to ban MON810 in late 2007, then-US ambassador to France, Craig Roberts Stapleton, asked Washington to "calibrate a targeted retaliation list that some pain across the EU", targeting countries that did not support the use of GM crops. This activity transpired after the US, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, Mexico and New Zealand had brought an action against Europe via the World Trade Organization with respect to the EU's banning of GMOs; in 2006, the WTO had ruled against the EU.
Monsanto was a member of EuropaBio, the leading biotechnology trade group in Europe. One of EuropaBio's initiatives is "Transforming Europe's position on GM food". It found "an urgent need to reshape the terms of the debate about GM in Europe". EuropaBio proposed the recruitment of high-profile "ambassadors" to lobby EU officials.
In September 2017 Monsanto lobbyists were banned from the European parliament after the Monsanto refused to attend a parliamentary hearing into allegations of regulatory interference.
Haiti
After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Monsanto donated $255,000 for disaster relief and 60,000 seed sacks (475 tons) of hybrid (non-GM) corn and vegetable seeds worth $4 million. However, a Catholic Relief Services (CRS) rapid assessment of seed supply and demand for the five most common food security crops found that the Haitians had enough seed and recommended that imported seeds be introduced only on a small scale. Emmanuel Prophete, head of Haiti's Ministry of Agriculture's Service National Semencier (SNS), stated that SNS was not opposed to the hybrid maize seeds because they at least double yields. Louise Sperling, Principal Researcher at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) told HGW that she was not opposed to hybrids, but noted that most hybrids required extra water and better soils and that most of Haiti was not appropriate for hybrids.
Activists objected that some of the seeds were coated with the fungicides Maxim or thiram. In the United States, pesticides containing thiram are banned in home garden products because most home gardeners do not have adequate protection. Activists wrote that the coated seeds were handled in a dangerous manner by the recipients.
The donated seeds were sold at a reduced price in local markets. However, farmers feared that they were being given seeds that would "threaten local varieties".
Public relations
Monsanto has engaged in various public relations campaigns to improve its image and public perception of some of its products. These include developing a relationship with scientist Richard Doll with respect to Agent Orange. Other campaigns include the joint funding with other biotech companies for the website GMO Answers.
Sponsorships
- Disneyland attractions, namely:
- Hall of Chemistry (1955 to 1966)
- Monsanto House of the Future (from 1957 to 1967)
- Fashions and Fabrics through the Years (from 1965 to 1966)
- Adventure Thru Inner Space (from 1967 to 1986)
- Monsanto has donated $10 million to the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis in the 1970s, which named its 1998 plant science facility the 'Monsanto Center', which has been renamed in 2018 as the 'Bayer Center'.
- Field Museum
- Gregor Mendel exhibit and "Underground Adventures" since 2011 "about the importance and fragility of the ecosystem within soil".
- "Monsanto Environmental Education Initiative", led by Gregory M. Mueller
- Chair of the Department of Botany and Associate Curator of Mycology
- Staff of the Field Museum, such as Curator Mark W. Westneat, attended Monsanto meetings
- Monsanto Insectarium, renamed in 2018 as the Bayer Insectarium, at the St. Louis Zoo, in St. Louis, Missouri,
University relationships
Monsanto was a major funder of science research at Washington University in St. Louis for many years. This research was highlighted by the Washington University/Monsanto Biomedical Research Agreement, which brought more than $100 million of research funding to the university. Washington University built the Monsanto Laboratory of the Life Sciences in 1965. In 2015, Monsanto gave Washington University's Institute for School Partnership a $1.94 million grant to help better teach students in STEM fields.
Awards
In 2009 Monsanto was chosen as Forbes magazine's company of the year. In 2010 Swiss research firm Covalence rated Monsanto least ethical of 581 multinational corporations based on their EthicalQuote reputation tracking index which "aggregates thousands of positive and negative news items published by the media, companies, and stakeholders", without attempt to validate sources. The journal Science ranked Monsanto in its Top 20 Employers list between 2011 and 2014. In 2012, it described the company as "innovative leader in the industry", "makes changes needed" and "does important quality research". Monsanto executive Robert Fraley won the World Food Prize for "breakthrough achievements in founding, developing, and applying modern agricultural biotechnology".
Documentaries
See also
- Biological patents in the United States
- DuPont Pioneer
- Genetically modified food controversies
- Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories
- Temporal analysis of products
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Il faut aussi ... varier les modes d'actions ... et éviter les faux mélanges de produits ayant le même mode d'action qui ne font qu'augmenter le risque
[We must also ... vary the MOAs ... and avoid fake mixes with the same MOA which only increase the risk.] - "National Action Plan on Sustainable Use of Plant Protection Products". German Agriculture Ministry. Archived from the original on October 30, 2021. Retrieved October 28, 2021.
The varieties being grown today are usually resistant to or tolerant of individual biotic or abiotic influences. Resistances based solely on one plant characteristic (often controlled through one gene) can be broken by adapting the harmful organisms. Increasingly, the aim in resistance research is to create modern breeding measures which breed polygenic resistant plants with resistance mechanisms that harmful organisms find it difficult to circumvent.
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And where was Monsanto on the list? Dead last. 581 out of 581.
- "Annual Top Employers Survey: Stability in the Face of Change". Science Careers. September 21, 2012. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved June 15, 2015.
- Unglesbee, Ben (October 14, 2014). "Monsanto makes top 10 on Science's list of best employers". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved September 20, 2018.
- "2013 – Van Montagu, Chilton, Fraley". Archived from the original on July 14, 2015. Retrieved June 15, 2015.
- Pollack, Andrew (June 20, 2013). "Executive at Monsanto Wins Global Food Honor". The New York Times.
- The World According to Monsanto on YouTube
Bibliography
- Ehrlich, Walter (1997). Zion in the Valley, 1807-1907: Volume I, The Jewish Community of St. Louis. University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1098-8.
- Forrestal, Dan J. (1977). Faith, Hope & $5000: The Story of Monsanto, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-671-22784-X.
- Pechlaner, Gabriela, Corporate Crops: Biotechnology, Agriculture, and the Struggle for Control, University of Texas Press, 2012, ISBN 0292739451
- Robin, Marie-Monique, The World According to Monsanto: Pollution, Corruption, and the Control of the World's Food Supply, New Press, 2009, ISBN 1595584269
- Spears, Ellen Griffith, Baptized in PCBs: Race, Pollution, and Justice in an All-American Town, The University of North Carolina Press, 2014, ISBN 1469611716.
- Shiva, Vandana, Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply, South End Press, 2000, ISBN 0896086070.
External links
- Media related to Monsanto Company at Wikimedia Commons
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