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| {{Short description|Turkish government-funded initiative}} | |||
| ⚫ | The '''Citizen speak Turkish!''' ( |
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}} | |||
| {{Atatürk sidebar}} | |||
| ⚫ | The '''Citizen, speak Turkish!''' ({{langx|tr|Vatandaş, Türkçe konuş!}}) campaign was a Turkish government-funded initiative created by law students which aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak ] in public<ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities">{{cite book|editor-last=Kieser|editor-first=Hans-Lukas|title=Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities|year=2006|publisher=Tauris|location=London |isbn=9781845111410|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC|edition=|accessdate=7 January 2013|page=45}}</ref><ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey">{{cite book|last=Ertürk|first=Nergis|title=Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey|date=19 October 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=9780199746682}}</ref><ref name="Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey’s Jewish Minority">{{cite journal|last=Toktas|first=Sule|title=Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority|journal=Journal of Historical Sociology|year=2005|volume=18|issue=4|pages=394–429|doi=10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x|s2cid=59138386 |url=https://www.academia.edu/761586|accessdate=7 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey">{{cite book|last=Sofos|first=Umut Özkırımlı|author2=Spyros A.|title=Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey|year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780231700528|page=167}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Bozdoǧan|editor1-first=Sibel|editor2=Gülru Necipoğlu|editor3=Julia Bailey |title=Muqarnas : an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world.|year=2007|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004163201}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Aslan|first=Senem|title="Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|date=April 2007|volume=13|issue=2|pages=245–272|publisher=Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group|doi=10.1080/13537110701293500|s2cid=144367148}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Suny|editor-first=Ronald Grigor|title=A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780195393743|author=Goçek, Fatma Müge|author2=Naimark, Norman M.|date=23 February 2011}}</ref> in the 1930s and onwards. In some municipalities, fines were given to those speaking in any language other than Turkish.<ref name="Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey" /><ref name="Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite">{{cite book|last=Soner|first=Çağaptay|title=Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite|year=2006|location=Istanbul|pages=25–26|language=Turkish}}</ref><ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)">{{cite book|last=Bali|first=Rifat N.|title=Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)|year=1999|publisher=İletişim|location=İstanbul|isbn=9789754707632|edition=7|pages=137–147|language=Turkish}}</ref><ref name=Citizenship>{{cite book|last=İnce|first=Başak|title=Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=9781780760261|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydpiawe35DwC|accessdate=8 January 2013|page=61|date=15 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Clark|first=Bruce|title=Twice a stranger : the mass expulsion that forged modern Greece and Turkey|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts)|isbn=9780674023680|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674023680}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Ferhad Ibrahim|title=The Kurdish conflict in Turkey : obstacles and chances for peace and democracy|year=2000|publisher=Lit |location=Münster|isbn=9780312236298|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/kurdishconflicti0000unse}}</ref> The campaign has been considered by some authors as a significant contribution to Turkey's sociopolitical process of ].<ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities" /><ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey" /><ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /> | ||
| ⚫ | ==Political |
||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | ==Political background== | ||
| ⚫ | Many Turkish politicians and intellectuals believed that in order to attain full rights as a Turkish citizen, one must learn and speak Turkish.<ref name="Citizenship in a global world : European questions and Turkish experiences">{{cite book| |
||
| During the ] in 1911, the ] decided to employ the ] in all the schools of the Empire, with the aim to denationalize all the non-Turkish communities and instill patriotism among ].<ref>Gocek, Fatma Muge. 2002. ‘The decline of the Ottoman empire and the emergence of Greek Armenian, Turkish, and Arab nationalisms’ in F. M. Gocek (ed.), Social Constructions of Nationalism: in the Middle East. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 15–83.</ref> The reformation of the state schooling system and of language by the compulsory use of demotic Turkish aimed for the linguistic homogenization of society.<ref>Göl, A. (2005). Imagining the Turkish nation through 'othering' Armenians. Nations and Nationalism. 11(1), pp.121-139</ref> The standardization of the Turkish language aimed to sever the link with the Ottoman language and past in order to create a new sense of Turkish nationhood. | |||
| ⚫ | When the ] was founded, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principals.<ref>{{cite book|last=Findley|first=Carter Vaughn|title=Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity : a history, 1789-2007|year=2010|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, CT|isbn=9780300152609}}</ref> ], the leader of the early years of the Republic, aimed to create a ] ({{langx|tr|ulus}}) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. ] ideology defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation."<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |url = http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |title = Turkish National Education System |accessdate = 20 February 2008 |author = Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education |publisher = T.C. Government |archive-date = 12 June 2002 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020612122337/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |url-status = dead }}</ref> Kemalist criteria for national ''identity'' or simply being a Turk also refers to a shared ]. In 1931 in a speech in ], Atatürk was quoted during a speech as saying:<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Kieser|editor-first=Hans-Lukas|title=Turkey beyond nationalism : towards post-nationalist identities|year=2006|publisher=Tauris|location=London |isbn=9781845111410|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC&dq=a+person+who+says+he+belongs+to+the+turkish+nation+should+in+the+first+place&pg=PA44|edition=|accessdate=8 January 2013|page=44}}</ref> {{Quote|One of the most obvious, precious qualities of a nation is language. A person who says he belongs to the Turkish nation should in the first place and under all circumstances speak Turkish. It is not possible to believe a person's claims that he belongs to the Turkish nation and to Turkish culture if he does not speak Turkish.|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}} | ||
| ] believed that minorities could not be accepted as citizens of Turkey if they did not speak Turkish or accepted Turkish culture.<ref name=Citizenship/>]] | |||
| ⚫ | Many Turkish politicians and intellectuals believed that in order to attain full rights as a Turkish citizen, one must learn and speak Turkish.<ref name="Citizenship in a global world : European questions and Turkish experiences">{{cite book|editor=E. Fuat Keyman|title=Citizenship in a global world : European questions and Turkish experiences|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|location=London |isbn=9780415354561|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOmSa6DrO9IC|edition=1st publ.|accessdate=8 January 2013|page=299}}</ref> One such intellect, ], believed especially that minorities could not be accepted as citizens of Turkey if they did not speak Turkish or accepted Turkish culture.<ref name=Citizenship /> Consequently, non-Turkish languages taught in minority schools were becoming less common, whereas in May 1923, the Turkish Ministry of Education made the teaching of the Turkish language, history, and geography compulsory in all non-Muslim schools.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sezer|first=Ayten|title=Atatürk döneminde yabancı okullar (1923 - 1938)|year=1999|publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi|location=Ankara|isbn=9789751611024|language=Turkish}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rodrigue|first=Aron|title=Jews and Muslims: images of Sephardi and eastern Jewries in modern times|year=2003|publisher=Univ. of Washington Press|location=Seattle, WA |isbn=0295983140}}</ref> These subjects had to be taught in Turkish by "pure Turks" appointed by the Ministry.<ref name=pure>Paz, M. (2011). STATES AND NETWORKS IN THE FORMATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. American University International Law Review, 26(5), 1241-1313.</ref> The "pure Turk" teachers received a salary set by the Ministry which was substantially higher than regular teachers, resulting in a heavy financial burden for minority schools.<ref name=pure /> | ||
| In 1935, during a speech at the ]'s fourth congress, Prime Minister ] was quoted as saying, "We will not remain silent. All citizens who live with us must speak Turkish!"<ref name="Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk?">{{cite book|last=Cagaptay|first=Soner|title=Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk?|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=London |isbn=9780415384582|edition=.}}</ref> | |||
| The campaign went beyond the measures of mere policy of speaking Turkish, to an outright prevention and prohibition of any other language.<ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities" /><ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey" /><ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /><ref name=Citizenship /> | The campaign went beyond the measures of mere policy of speaking Turkish, to an outright prevention and prohibition of any other language.<ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities" /><ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey" /><ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /><ref name=Citizenship /> | ||
| ==="Citizen |
==="Citizen, speak Turkish!" campaign=== | ||
| ]'' newspaper reporting local authorities of the ] district of ] to impose fines against speaking in any language other than Turkish in public, 21 May 1936]] | |||
| ⚫ | On |
||
| ⚫ | On 13 January 1928, the student union at the ''Darülfünun'' (Istanbul University) Law School in ] started a campaign with the objective of preventing the use of languages other than Turkish to be used in public.<ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey" /><ref name=Citizenship /><ref name="Türkiye’nin ‘Öz Dil’ Zorbalığı Serüveni">{{cite news|title=Türkiye'nin 'Öz Dil' Zorbalığı Serüveni|url=http://www.haksozhaber.net/turkiyenin-oz-dil-zorbaligi-seruveni-28018h.htm|accessdate=8 January 2013|newspaper=Haksoz Haber|language=Turkish}}</ref> Signs were held by campaign organizers that proclaimed, "''We cannot call Turk to those who do not speak Turkish''".<ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /><ref name=Citizenship /> Some campaigners also chanted, "Speak Turkish or leave the country!".<ref name=Citizenship /> | ||
| ⚫ | |||
| The campaigners placed posters in the major cities of the country with the slogan "Citizen, speak Turkish!" and the message further spread into the mass media, press, and political circles throughout the country.<ref name=Citizenship /><ref>Galanti, A. (2000) Vatandaş Türkçe Konuş Yahut Türkçe'nin Ta'mimi Meselesi: Tarihi, İçtimai, Siyasi (Turkish)</ref> Signs in theaters, restaurants, hotels, and ferries urged everyone to speak Turkish and many people were harassed in public or criminalized for using a language other than Turkish.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ekmekcioglu|first=Lerna|title=Improvising Turkishness: Being Armenian in post-Ottoman Istanbul (1918-1933)|year=2010|location=Ann Arbor|isbn=9781124044422}}</ref> | |||
| ⚫ | In the 1960s, the movement saw its revival as posters and signs were placed and hung throughout the country.<ref>{{cite book| |
||
| ⚫ | Citizens found to be using a language other than Turkish may sometimes have been charged with violating Article 159 (now defunct) of the Turkish penal code for "insulting Turkishness" as a legal justification.<ref name="Citizenship in a global world : European questions and Turkish experiences" /> | ||
| ⚫ | ===Government |
||
| ⚫ | In the 1960s, the movement saw its revival as posters and signs were placed and hung throughout the country.<ref>{{cite book|author=Antonia Susan Byatt|author2=Edouard Roditi|author3=Murat Belge|author4=Işık Şimşek, Association Méditerranéens|title=Istanbul, many worlds|publisher=L'Association Méditerranéens, 1997}}</ref><ref name=Peroomian>{{cite book|last=Peroomian|first=Rubina|title=And those who continued living in Turkey after 1915 : the metamorphosis of the post-genocide Armenian identity as reflected in artistic literature|year=2008|publisher=Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute|location=Yerevan|isbn=9789994196326}}</ref> | ||
| ⚫ | Prior to the launch of the "Citizen |
||
| ⚫ | ===Government sponsorship=== | ||
| ⚫ | After the launch of the "Citizen |
||
| ⚫ | Prior to the launch of the "Citizen, speak Turkish!" campaign, many initiatives were already taken by the government of Turkey to make Turkish the sole language of the public. In 1924 during a session of the ], a law was proposed to make Turkish a compulsory language and refusing to speak it resulted in a fine.<ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /><ref name=Citizenship /> Meanwhile, as the debates in the National Assembly were ongoing, the municipal government of ] took the first initiative and began to impose fines to those who spoke a non-Turkish language in public areas.<ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /><ref name=Citizenship /> This was followed by the cities of ] and ] in 1927.<ref name="Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudleri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945)" /><ref name=Citizenship /> | ||
| ⚫ | After the launch of the "Citizen, speak Turkish!" campaign of 1928, arrests were being made all throughout the country with full support of the government who encouraged provincial governors 'to incorporate Turks with foreign dialects into the Turkish community by making Turkish their mother tongue'.<ref name="Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey" /> In 1933, in the town of ], British citizens, speaking French, were reportedly attacked in public. It was later reported that hundreds were being arrested for speaking languages other than Turkish in public.<ref name="Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk?" /> In a specific case, a M. Chalfoun and a certain Jewish merchant were arrested for speaking Arabic and French to a merchant in town. The accused were released only after the mayor of ] pardoned them after visiting them in prison.<ref name="Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk?" /> | ||
| ⚫ | New laws were being promulgated throughout the country. In 1936, the municipal governments of ], ], and ] passed decrees to fine those who spoke non-Turkish languages in public.<ref name="Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk?" /><ref name="Türkiye’nin ‘Öz Dil’ Zorbalığı Serüveni" /> Soon thereafter, cities and towns such as ], ], ], and ] followed suit.<ref name="Türkiye’nin ‘Öz Dil’ Zorbalığı Serüveni" /> | ||
| ⚫ | New laws were being promulgated throughout the country. In 1936, the municipal governments of ], ], and ] passed decrees to fine those who spoke non-Turkish languages in public.<ref name="Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk?" /><ref name="Türkiye’nin ‘Öz Dil’ Zorbalığı Serüveni" /> Soon thereafter, cities and towns such as ], ], ], and ] followed suit.<ref name="Türkiye’nin ‘Öz Dil’ Zorbalığı Serüveni" /> | ||
| ⚫ | ==See |
||
| ⚫ | *] | ||
| ==Reactions== | |||
| ⚫ | *] | ||
| {{expand section|date=December 2023}} | |||
| ⚫ | *] | ||
| Protests and deliberate usage of languages other than Turkish occurred as, at the time, many minorities had difficulty adjusting to an environment in which they were to exclusively use Turkish in public. Turkish fluency was particularly low in Jewish people, who had ] (Ladino) as a native language.<ref name=Zetler2014p27>{{cite journal|first=Reyhan|last= Zetler|url=https://www.sagw.ch/fileadmin/redaktion_judaistik/dokumente/Judaistik/2014/III.%20R.%20Zetler%20-%20Bulletin%20SGJF%20Nr.%2023%20%282014%29.pdf |title=Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?|journal=Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung|issue= 23 |oclc=865002828|page=28 (PDF p. 16/28)|year=2014}}</ref> | |||
| ⚫ | ==See also== | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| ⚫ | * ] | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * | |||
| ==References== | ==References== | ||
| {{Reflist}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
| {{Turkish nationalism}} | |||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Latest revision as of 08:02, 1 November 2024
Turkish government-funded initiative
The Citizen, speak Turkish! (Turkish: Vatandaş, Türkçe konuş!) campaign was a Turkish government-funded initiative created by law students which aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public in the 1930s and onwards. In some municipalities, fines were given to those speaking in any language other than Turkish. The campaign has been considered by some authors as a significant contribution to Turkey's sociopolitical process of Turkification.
Political background
During the Ottoman Empire in 1911, the Committee of Union and Progress decided to employ the Turkish language in all the schools of the Empire, with the aim to denationalize all the non-Turkish communities and instill patriotism among Turks. The reformation of the state schooling system and of language by the compulsory use of demotic Turkish aimed for the linguistic homogenization of society. The standardization of the Turkish language aimed to sever the link with the Ottoman language and past in order to create a new sense of Turkish nationhood.
When the Turkish Republic was founded, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principals. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the leader of the early years of the Republic, aimed to create a nation state (Turkish: ulus) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Kemalist ideology defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation." Kemalist criteria for national identity or simply being a Turk also refers to a shared language. In 1931 in a speech in Adana, Atatürk was quoted during a speech as saying:
One of the most obvious, precious qualities of a nation is language. A person who says he belongs to the Turkish nation should in the first place and under all circumstances speak Turkish. It is not possible to believe a person's claims that he belongs to the Turkish nation and to Turkish culture if he does not speak Turkish.
— Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Many Turkish politicians and intellectuals believed that in order to attain full rights as a Turkish citizen, one must learn and speak Turkish. One such intellect, Hamdullah Suphi Tanrıöver, believed especially that minorities could not be accepted as citizens of Turkey if they did not speak Turkish or accepted Turkish culture. Consequently, non-Turkish languages taught in minority schools were becoming less common, whereas in May 1923, the Turkish Ministry of Education made the teaching of the Turkish language, history, and geography compulsory in all non-Muslim schools. These subjects had to be taught in Turkish by "pure Turks" appointed by the Ministry. The "pure Turk" teachers received a salary set by the Ministry which was substantially higher than regular teachers, resulting in a heavy financial burden for minority schools.
In 1935, during a speech at the Republican People's Party's fourth congress, Prime Minister İsmet İnönü was quoted as saying, "We will not remain silent. All citizens who live with us must speak Turkish!"
The campaign went beyond the measures of mere policy of speaking Turkish, to an outright prevention and prohibition of any other language.
"Citizen, speak Turkish!" campaign
On 13 January 1928, the student union at the Darülfünun (Istanbul University) Law School in Istanbul started a campaign with the objective of preventing the use of languages other than Turkish to be used in public. Signs were held by campaign organizers that proclaimed, "We cannot call Turk to those who do not speak Turkish". Some campaigners also chanted, "Speak Turkish or leave the country!".
The campaigners placed posters in the major cities of the country with the slogan "Citizen, speak Turkish!" and the message further spread into the mass media, press, and political circles throughout the country. Signs in theaters, restaurants, hotels, and ferries urged everyone to speak Turkish and many people were harassed in public or criminalized for using a language other than Turkish.
Citizens found to be using a language other than Turkish may sometimes have been charged with violating Article 159 (now defunct) of the Turkish penal code for "insulting Turkishness" as a legal justification.
In the 1960s, the movement saw its revival as posters and signs were placed and hung throughout the country.
Government sponsorship
Prior to the launch of the "Citizen, speak Turkish!" campaign, many initiatives were already taken by the government of Turkey to make Turkish the sole language of the public. In 1924 during a session of the Turkish National Assembly, a law was proposed to make Turkish a compulsory language and refusing to speak it resulted in a fine. Meanwhile, as the debates in the National Assembly were ongoing, the municipal government of Bursa took the first initiative and began to impose fines to those who spoke a non-Turkish language in public areas. This was followed by the cities of Balıkesir and Bergama in 1927.
After the launch of the "Citizen, speak Turkish!" campaign of 1928, arrests were being made all throughout the country with full support of the government who encouraged provincial governors 'to incorporate Turks with foreign dialects into the Turkish community by making Turkish their mother tongue'. In 1933, in the town of Mersin, British citizens, speaking French, were reportedly attacked in public. It was later reported that hundreds were being arrested for speaking languages other than Turkish in public. In a specific case, a M. Chalfoun and a certain Jewish merchant were arrested for speaking Arabic and French to a merchant in town. The accused were released only after the mayor of Mersin pardoned them after visiting them in prison.
New laws were being promulgated throughout the country. In 1936, the municipal governments of Tekirdağ, Lüleburgaz, and Edirne passed decrees to fine those who spoke non-Turkish languages in public. Soon thereafter, cities and towns such as Diyarbakır, Adana, Ankara, and Kırklareli followed suit.
Reactions
 | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2023) |
Protests and deliberate usage of languages other than Turkish occurred as, at the time, many minorities had difficulty adjusting to an environment in which they were to exclusively use Turkish in public. Turkish fluency was particularly low in Jewish people, who had Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) as a native language.
See also
- Racism in Turkey
- Turkification
- Languages of Turkey
- Animal name changes in Turkey
- Geographical name changes in Turkey
- Ivri, daber ivrit (Hebrew, speak Hebrew!)
- If you're Spanish, speak Spanish!
- Vergonha
Further reading
References
- ^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas, ed. (2006). Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities ( ed.). London : Tauris. p. 45. ISBN 9781845111410. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
- ^ Ertürk, Nergis (19 October 2011). Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199746682.
- Toktas, Sule (2005). "Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority". Journal of Historical Sociology. 18 (4): 394–429. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x. S2CID 59138386. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
- ^ Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı; Spyros A. (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780231700528.
- Bozdoǧan, Sibel; Gülru Necipoğlu; Julia Bailey, eds. (2007). Muqarnas : an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004163201.
- Aslan, Senem (April 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 13 (2). Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group: 245–272. doi:10.1080/13537110701293500. S2CID 144367148.
- Goçek, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M. (23 February 2011). Suny, Ronald Grigor (ed.). A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195393743.
- Soner, Çağaptay (2006). Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite (in Turkish). Istanbul. pp. 25–26.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Bali, Rifat N. (1999). Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri bir türkleştirme serüveni ; (1923 - 1945) (in Turkish) (7 ed.). İstanbul: İletişim. pp. 137–147. ISBN 9789754707632.
- ^ İnce, Başak (15 June 2012). Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 61. ISBN 9781780760261. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- Clark, Bruce (2006). Twice a stranger : the mass expulsion that forged modern Greece and Turkey. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674023680.
- Ferhad Ibrahim, ed. (2000). The Kurdish conflict in Turkey : obstacles and chances for peace and democracy. Münster: Lit ISBN 9780312236298.
- Gocek, Fatma Muge. 2002. ‘The decline of the Ottoman empire and the emergence of Greek Armenian, Turkish, and Arab nationalisms’ in F. M. Gocek (ed.), Social Constructions of Nationalism: in the Middle East. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 15–83.
- Göl, A. (2005). Imagining the Turkish nation through 'othering' Armenians. Nations and Nationalism. 11(1), pp.121-139
- Findley, Carter Vaughn (2010). Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity : a history, 1789-2007. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300152609.
- Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education. "Turkish National Education System". T.C. Government. Archived from the original on 12 June 2002. Retrieved 20 February 2008.
- Kieser, Hans-Lukas, ed. (2006). Turkey beyond nationalism : towards post-nationalist identities ( ed.). London : Tauris. p. 44. ISBN 9781845111410. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- ^ E. Fuat Keyman, ed. (2005). Citizenship in a global world : European questions and Turkish experiences (1st publ. ed.). London : Routledge. p. 299. ISBN 9780415354561. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
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- Rodrigue, Aron (2003). Jews and Muslims: images of Sephardi and eastern Jewries in modern times. Seattle, WA : Univ. of Washington Press. ISBN 0295983140.
- ^ Paz, M. (2011). STATES AND NETWORKS IN THE FORMATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. American University International Law Review, 26(5), 1241-1313.
- ^ Cagaptay, Soner (2006). Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey : who is a Turk? (. ed.). London : Routledge. ISBN 9780415384582.
- ^ "Türkiye'nin 'Öz Dil' Zorbalığı Serüveni". Haksoz Haber (in Turkish). Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- Galanti, A. (2000) Vatandaş Türkçe Konuş Yahut Türkçe'nin Ta'mimi Meselesi: Tarihi, İçtimai, Siyasi (Turkish)
- Ekmekcioglu, Lerna (2010). Improvising Turkishness: Being Armenian in post-Ottoman Istanbul (1918-1933). Ann Arbor. ISBN 9781124044422.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Antonia Susan Byatt; Edouard Roditi; Murat Belge; Işık Şimşek, Association Méditerranéens. Istanbul, many worlds. L'Association Méditerranéens, 1997.
- Peroomian, Rubina (2008). And those who continued living in Turkey after 1915 : the metamorphosis of the post-genocide Armenian identity as reflected in artistic literature. Yerevan: Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute. ISBN 9789994196326.
- Zetler, Reyhan (2014). "Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?" (PDF). Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung (23): 28 (PDF p. 16/28). OCLC 865002828.
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