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{{short description|Extinct bird that was endemic to Réunion}} | |||
{{Taxobox | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} | |||
| name = Réunion Ibis | |||
{{featured article}} | |||
{{speciesbox | |||
| name = Réunion ibis | |||
| status = EX | | status = EX | ||
| status_system = IUCN3.1 | | status_system = IUCN3.1 | ||
| status_ref = |
| status_ref =<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2017 |title=''Threskiornis solitarius'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T22728791A119423949 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22728791A119423949.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> | ||
| extinct = early 18th |
| extinct = early 18th century | ||
| image = Réunion |
| image = Réunion Ibis.jpg | ||
| image_caption = Hypothetical ] based on contemporary descriptions, ] remains, and extant relatives | |||
| image_width = 250px | |||
| genus = Threskiornis | |||
| image_caption = 1854 restoration of the Solitaire by ] | |||
| |
| species = solitarius | ||
| authority = (], 1848) | |||
| phylum = ] | |||
| synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true|title=<small>List</small> | |||
| classis = ] | |||
|''Apterornis solitarius'' <small>Sélys, 1848</small> | |||
| ordo = ] | |||
|''Raphus solitarius'' <small>Sélys, 1848</small> | |||
| familia = ] | |||
|''Didus apterornis'' <small>(Schlegel, 1854)</small> | |||
| genus = '']'' | |||
|''Pezophaps borbonica'' <small>Bonaparte, 1854</small> | |||
| species = '''''T. solitarius''''' | |||
|''Ornithaptera borbonica'' <small>(Bonaparte, 1854)</small> | |||
| binomial = ''Threskiornis solitarius'' | |||
|''Apterornis solitaria'' <small>(Milne-Edwards, 1869)</small> | |||
| binomial_authority = (], 1848) | |||
|''Didus borbonica'' <small>(Schlegel, 1873)</small> | |||
| synonyms = | |||
|''Didus borbonicus'' <small>(Schlegel, 1875)</small> | |||
|''Ornithaptera solitarius'' <small>(Hachisuka, 1953)</small> | |||
|''Victoriornis imperialis'' <small>Hachisuka, 1937</small> | |||
|''Borbonibis latipes'' <small>Mourer & Moutou, 1987</small>}} | |||
*''Didus borbonicus'' <small>Schlegel, 1873</small> | |||
*''Ornithaptera solitarius'' <small>Hachisuka, 1953</small> | |||
*''Victoriornis imperialis'' <small>Hachisuka, 1953</small> | |||
*''Borbonibis latipes'' <small>Mourer & Moutou, 1987</small> | |||
|range_map= LocationReunion.svg | |range_map= LocationReunion.svg | ||
|range_map_caption=Location of ] (encircled)}} | |||
|range_map_width=250px | |||
|range_map_caption=Former range (encircled)}} | |||
The '''Réunion |
The '''Réunion ibis''' or '''Réunion sacred ibis''' ('''''Threskiornis solitarius''''') is an ] ] of ] that was ] to the volcanic island of ] in the ]. The first ] remains were found in 1974, and the ibis was first scientifically described in 1987. Its closest relatives are the ], the ], and the ]. Travellers' accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries described a white bird on Réunion that flew with difficulty and preferred solitude, which was subsequently referred to as the "'''Réunion solitaire'''". | ||
In the mid 19th century, |
In the mid 19th century, the old travellers' accounts were incorrectly assumed to refer to white relatives of the ], due to one account specifically mentioning dodos on the island, and because 17th-century paintings of white dodos had recently surfaced. However, no fossils referable to dodo-like birds were ever found on Réunion, and it was later questioned whether the paintings had anything to do with the island. Other identities were suggested as well, based only on speculations. In the late 20th century, the discovery of ibis ] led to the idea that the old accounts actually referred to an ibis species instead. The idea that the "solitaire" and the subfossil ibis are identical was met with limited dissent, but is now widely accepted. | ||
Combined, the old descriptions and subfossils show that the Réunion ibis was mainly white, with this colour merging into yellow and grey. The wing tips and plumes of ]-like feathers on its rear were black. The neck and legs were long, and the beak was relatively straight and short for an ibis. It was more robust in build than its extant relatives, but was otherwise quite similar to them. It would have been no longer than 65 cm (25 in) in length. Subfossil wingbones indicate it had reduced flight capabilities, a feature perhaps linked to seasonal fattening. The diet of the Réunion ibis was worms and other items foraged from the soil. In the 17th century, it lived in mountainous areas, but it may have been confined to these remote heights by heavy hunting by humans and predation by ] in the more accessible areas of the island. Visitors to Réunion praised its flavour, and therefore sought after its flesh. These factors are believed to have driven the Réunion ibis to extinction by the early 18th century. | |||
In the late 20th century, the discovery of a ] species of ibis led to the idea that the accounts actually referred to this bird. At the same time, it was suggested that the white Dodo paintings had no relation to Réunion island, but merely showed an aberrant Mauritius Dodo. The idea that the Solitaire and the subfossil ibis are identical has met limited dissent. | |||
==Taxonomy== | |||
Combined, the old accounts and subfossils show that the Réunion Ibis was mainly white, with this colour merging into yellow and grey. The wing tips were black, and so were the ]-like feathers covering its rear. The neck and legs were long, the beak was relatively straight and short for an ibis, and comparable to that of a ]. Its diet was worms and other items foraged in soil. It had difficulty flying, a feature perhaps linked to seasonal fat-cycles. It lived in remote, mountainous areas, but this was perhaps a result of hunting by humans and their ], who arrived on the island in the 17th century. These factors are believed to have wiped out the Réunion Ibis by the early 18th century. | |||
The taxonomic history of the Réunion ibis is convoluted and complex, due to the ambiguous and meagre evidence that was available to scientists until the late 20th century. The supposed "white dodo" of Réunion is now believed to have been an erroneous conjecture based on the few contemporary reports which described the Réunion ibis, combined with paintings of white dodos from Mauritius by the ] painters ] and ] (and derivatives) from the 17th century that surfaced in the 19th century.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
The English Chief Officer John Tatton was the first to mention a specifically white bird on Réunion, in 1625. The French occupied the island from 1646 and onwards, and referred to this bird as the "solitaire". M. Carré of the ] described the "solitaire" in 1699, explaining the reason for its name:<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
==Taxonomy == | |||
{{Blockquote|I saw a kind of bird in this place which I have not found elsewhere; it is that which the inhabitants call the Oiseaux Solitaire for to be sure, it loves solitude and only frequents the most secluded places; one never sees two or more together; it is always alone. It is not unlike a turkey, if it did not have longer legs. The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see. It is of changeable colour which verges upon yellow. The flesh is exquisite; it forms one of the best dishes in this country, and might form a dainty at our tables. We wished to keep two of these birds to send to France and present them to His Majesty, but as soon as they were on board ship, they died of melancholy, having refused to eat or drink.<ref name="Strickland"/>}} | |||
] | |||
The taxonomic history of the Réunion Ibis is very convoluted, due to the ambiguous and meagre evidence that was available to scientists until recently. The supposed "white Dodo" of Réunion is now believed to have been an erroneous conjecture based on the few contemporary reports, combined with paintings of white Dodos by the ] painters ] and ] (and derivatives) from the 1600s that surfaced in the 19th century.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
The only contemporary writer who referred specifically to "Dodos" inhabiting ] was the Dutch sailor ], though he did not mention their colouration: | |||
|align = left | |||
{{Quotation|There were also some ''Dod-eersen'' which had small wings but could not fly. They were so fat that they could scarcely walk, for when they did so their bellies dragged along the ground.<ref name="Fuller Dodo"/>}} | |||
|total_width = 400 | |||
When his journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving copied after one of the Dodos in the ] painter ]'s "Crocker Art Gallery sketch".<ref name="Lost Land">{{cite book | last1 = Cheke | |||
|image1 = DodoBontekoe.jpg | |||
| first1 = A. S. | |||
| |
|alt1 = | ||
|caption1 = 1646 etching of a ] that ] claimed to have seen on Réunion | |||
| last2 = Hume |year=2008 |title=Lost Land of the Dodo: an Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues |publisher=T. & A. D. Poyser |location= London | pages = 30–43 |isbn=978-0-7136-6544-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | |||
|image2 = Roelandt Savery - 'Dodo Birds', Chalk, black and amber on cream paper.jpg | |||
| last = Bontekoe van Hoorn | |||
|caption2 = ] sketch of three dodos from {{circa|lk=no|1626}}; the etching used by Bontekoe was derived from the dodo on the left | |||
| first = W. | |||
|alt2 = Sketch of three dodos, two in the foreground, one in the distance | |||
| authorlink = | |||
}} | |||
| title = Journael ofte Gedenk waerdige beschrijvinghe van de Oost-Indische Reyse van Willem Ysbrantz. Bontekoe van Hoorn | |||
| publisher = Jooft Hartgers | |||
| series = | |||
| volume = | |||
| edition = | |||
| location = Amsterdam | |||
| year = 1646 | |||
| page = 76 | |||
| language = Dutch | |||
| isbn = | |||
| mr = | |||
| zbl = }}</ref> Since Bontekoe was ]ed and lost all his belongings after visiting Réunion in 1619, he may not had been able to write his account until seven years later when he returned to ]. It is likely that he wrote it from memory, and it may therefore not be entirely reliable.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
The ] French ] ] used the name "solitaire" for the ], a ] bird (related to the dodo) he encountered on the nearby island of ] in the 1690s, but it is thought he borrowed the name from a 1689 ] by Marquis Henri Duquesne which mentioned the Réunion species. Duquesne himself had probably based his own description on an earlier one.<ref name="White Dodo"/> No specimens of the "solitaire" were ever preserved.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> | |||
The two individuals Carré attempted to send to the ] in France did not survive in captivity. Billiard claimed that the French administrator ] sent a "solitaire" to France from Réunion around 1740. Since the Réunion ibis is believed to have gone extinct by this date, the bird may actually have been a Rodrigues solitaire.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
{{Quotation|I saw a kind of bird in this place which I have not found elsewhere; it is that which the inhabitants call the Oiseaux Solitaire for to be sure, it loves solitude and only frequents the most secluded places; one never sees two or more together; it is always alone. It is not unlike a turkey, if it did not have longer legs. The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see. It is of changeable colour which verges upon yellow. The flesh is exquisite; it forms one of the best dishes in this country, and might form a dainty at our tables. We wished to keep two of these birds to send to France and present them to His Majesty, but as soon as they were on board ship, they died of melancholy, having refused to eat or drink.<ref name="Strickland"/>}} | |||
] | |||
No specimens of the bird were ever collected.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> The two Solitaires Carré attempted to send to the royal menagerie in France did not survive in captivity. It has been claimed that ] sent a "Solitaire" to France from Réunion around 1740. Since the Réunion Ibis is believed to have gone extinct by this date, the bird may actually have been a Rodrigues Solitaire.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
The only contemporary writer who referred specifically to "dodos" inhabiting ] was the Dutch sailor ], though he did not mention their colouration:<ref name="White Dodo"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Bontekoe van Hoorn |first=W. |title=Journael ofte Gedenk waerdige beschrijvinghe van de Oost-Indische Reyse van Willem Ysbrantz. Bontekoe van Hoorn |publisher=Jooft Hartgers |location=Amsterdam |year=1646 |page=76 |language=nl }}</ref> | |||
In the 1770s, the French naturalist ] stated that the Dodo inhabited both ] and Réunion, but the basis for this claim is unknown.<ref name="White Dodo"/> English naturalist ] discussed the old descriptions of the Réunion Solitaire in his 1848 book ''The Dodo and Its Kindred'', and concluded it was distinct from the Dodo and Rodrigues Solitaire.<ref name="Strickland">{{cite book | |||
{{Blockquote|There were also ''Dod-eersen'' , which have small wings, and so far from being able to fly, they were so fat that they could scarcely walk, and when they tried to run, they dragged their under side along the ground.<ref name="Strickland"/>}} | |||
| last = Strickland | |||
When his journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving which is now known to have been copied after one of the dodos in the ] painter ]'s "Crocker Art Gallery sketch".<ref name="Lost Land">{{cite book |last1=Cheke |first1=A. S. |last2=Hume |first2=J. P. |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGeENV4exXcC |title=Lost Land of the Dodo: An Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues |location=New Haven and London |pages=30–43 |isbn=978-0-7136-6544-4}}</ref> Since Bontekoe was ]ed and lost all his belongings after visiting Réunion in 1619, he may not have written his account until he returned to ], seven years later, which would put its reliability in question.<ref name="White Dodo"/> He may have concluded in hindsight that it was a dodo, finding what he saw similar to accounts of that bird.<ref name="Avian extinctions">{{cite journal |last1=Mourer-Chauviré |first1=C. |first2=S. |last2=Bour |first3=R. |last3=Ribes |year=2006 |title=Recent avian extinctions on Réunion (Mascarene islands) from paleontological and historical sources |journal=Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club |issue=126 |pages=40–48}}</ref> | |||
| first = H. E. | |||
| authorlink = Hugh Edwin Strickland | |||
| last2 = Melville | |||
| first2 = A. G. | |||
| author2-link = | |||
| title = The Dodo and Its Kindred; or the History, Affinities, and Osteology of the Dodo, Solitaire, and Other Extinct Birds of the Islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon | |||
| publisher = Reeve, Benham and Reeve | |||
| series = | |||
| volume = | |||
| edition = | |||
| location = London | |||
| year = 1848 | |||
| pages = 57–62 | |||
| doi = | |||
| isbn = | |||
| mr = | |||
| url = http://archive.org/details/dodoitskindredor00stri}}</ref> Baron ] coined the ] ''Apterornis solitarius'' for the Solitaire in 1848, apparently making it the type species of the genus, in which he also included two other ] birds only known from contemporary accounts, the ] and the ].<ref name="OlsonB"> | |||
{{cite book | |||
| last = Olson | |||
| first = S. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| title = Rails of the World – A Monograph of the Family Rallidae: A synopsis on the fossil Rallidae | |||
| publisher = Codline | |||
| series = | |||
| volume = | |||
| edition = | |||
| location = Boston | |||
| year = 1977 | |||
| pages = 357–358 | |||
| doi = | |||
| isbn = 0-87474-804-6 | |||
| mr = | |||
| zbl = }}</ref> In 1854, ] placed the Solitaire in the same genus as the Dodo, and named it ''Didus apterornis''.<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| last = Schlegel | |||
| first = H. | |||
| author-link = | |||
| title = Ook een Woordje over den Dodo (''Didus ineptus'') en zijne Verwanten | |||
| journal = Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen | |||
| volume = 2 | |||
| pages = 232–256 | |||
| language = Dutch | |||
| year = 1854 }}</ref> He restored it strictly according to contemporary accounts, which resulted in an ibis or stork-like bird instead of a Dodo.<ref name="White Dodo"/> As the name '']'' had already been used for a different bird by ], and the other former names were likewise invalid, Bonaparte coined the new ] ''Ornithaptera borbonica'' in 1854 (] was the original French name for Réunion).<ref name="Avifauna"/> | |||
] | |||
In 1856, William Coker announced the discovery of a 17th century "Persian" painting of a white Dodo among ], which he had been shown in England. The artist was later identified as Pieter Withoos, and many prominent 19th century naturalists, including ], ], and ], subsequently assumed the image depicted the white Solitaire of Réunion. Simultaneously, several similar paintings of white Dodos by Pieter Holsteyn II were discovered in the Netherlands. The images were thought to have been drawn after the same live bird, but they are clearly copied from each other, and Withoos likely copied his Dodo from one of Holsteyn's works, since these were probably produced at an earlier date. All other white Dodo pictures are thought to be based on these paintings.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Dutch zoologist ] suggested that the discrepancies between the paintings and the old descriptions were due to the paintings showing a female, and that the species was therefore ].<ref>{{cite doi|10.2307.2F4073093}}</ref> Rothschild claimed the yellow wings might have been due to ] in this particular specimen.<ref name="Rothschild">{{Cite book | |||
| last = Rothschild | |||
| first = W. | |||
| authorlink = | |||
| title = Extinct Birds | |||
| publisher = Hutchinson & Co | |||
| year = 1907 | |||
| location = London | |||
| pages = 175–176 | |||
| url = http://www.archive.org/download/extinctbirdsatte00roth/extinctbirdsatte00roth.pdf | |||
}}</ref> By the early 20th century, many other paintings and even physical remains were claimed to be white Dodos, amid much speculation. Some believed the Solitaire of the old descriptions was rather a species similar to the Rodrigues Solitaire.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Rothschild commissioned British artist ] to restore the Réunion Solitaire as both a white Dodo, based on the Withoos painting, and as a white Rodrigues Solitaire, based on Dubois' account, for his 1907 book ].<ref name="Rothschild"/> In 1953, the Japanese writer Masauji Hachisuka went as far as referring to the white Dodos of the paintings as ''Victoriornis imperialis'', and the Solitaire of the accounts as ''Ornithaptera solitarius''.<ref name="Hachisuka">{{cite book | |||
|author=Hachisuka, M. | |||
|year=1953 | |||
|title=The Dodo and Kindred Birds | |||
|page= 250 | |||
|location=London | |||
|publisher=Witherby}}</ref> | |||
=== |
===Early interpretation=== | ||
] | |||
Until the late 1980s, only a few researchers doubted the connection between the Solitaire accounts and the Dodo paintings. They cautioned that no conclusions could be made without solid evidence such as fossils, and that nothing indicated that the white Dodos in the paintings had anything to do with Réunion. In 1970, ] predicted that if any such remains were found, they would not belong to Raphinae, or even columbidae.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
The first subfossil bird remains on Réunion were found in 1974, and assigned to a ], '']'' sp. In 1987, subfossils of a recently extinct species of ] from Réunion were described as ''Borbonibis latipes'', and thought related to the ] of the genus ''Geronticus''.<ref name="Borbonibis">{{cite journal | |||
|align = right | |||
| last1 = Mourer-Chauviré | |||
| |
|total_width = 400 | ||
|image1 = Reunion dodo.jpg | |||
| first2 = F. | |||
|alt1 = Painting of a white dodo among various birds | |||
| last2 = Moutou | |||
|caption1 = ]'s late 17th-century painting of a white dodo, the first of such paintings to be discovered | |||
|year=1987 | |||
|image2 = White dodo.jpg | |||
|title=Découverte d'une forme récemment éteinte d'ibis endémique insulaire de l'île de la Réunion ''Borbonibis latipes'' n. gen. n. sp. | |||
|caption2 = One of ]'s mid-17th-century paintings of a white dodo | |||
|language=French | |||
|alt2 = | |||
|trans_title=Discovery of a recently extinct island endemic ibis from Réunion: ''Borbonibis latipes'' n. gen. n. sp. | |||
}} | |||
|journal=] | |||
|series=Série D | |||
|volume=305 | |||
|issue=5 | |||
|pages=419–423}}</ref> In 1994, the "stork" remains were shown to belong to this ibis as well. The 1987 discovery led biologist Anthony S. Cheke to suggest to one of the describers, Francois Moutou, that the subfossils may have been of the Réunion Solitaire.<ref name="White Dodo"/> This suggestion was published by the describers of ''Borbonibis'' in 1995, and they also reassigned it to the genus ''Threskiornis'', now combined with the ] ''{{lang|la|solitarius}}'' from de Sélys-Longchamps' 1848 ] for the Solitaire. The authors pointed out that the contemporary descriptions matched the appearance and behaviour of an ibis more than a member of the Raphinae, especially since a fragment of a comparatively short and straight ibis mandible was discovered in 1994, and because ibis remains were abundant in some localities; it would be strange if contemporary writers never mentioned such a relatively common bird, whereas they mentioned most other species subsequently known from fossils.<ref name="Ibis">{{cite doi|10.1038/373568a0}}</ref> Morphological study suggests its closest relatives are the ] (''T. aethiopicus'') of ] and the ] (''T. spinicollis'') of ]. The African Sacred Ibis also has similar coloured plumage to that described in the old descriptions of the Réunion Solitaire.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
] | |||
The possible basis for the 17th century white Dodo paintings has also recently been examined by biologist Arturo Valledor de Lozoya in 2003, and independently by experts of ] fauna Anthony Cheke and ] in 2004. According to these authors, it appears that the pictures were derived from a previously unreported painting containing a whitish Dodo, called ''Landscape with Orpheus and the animals'', produced by Roelant Savery circa 1611. The Dodo was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in ]; a ''walghvogel'' described as having a "dirty off-white colouring" was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the ] to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607–1611). Savery's several later Dodo images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen a normal specimen. Cheke and Hume concluded the painted specimen was white due to albinism, and that this peculiar feature was the reason it was collected from Mauritius and brought to Europe.<ref name="White Dodo">{{cite journal |authors=Cheke, A. S.; Hume , J. P.|year= 2004|title= The white dodo of Réunion Island|journal= ]|volume= 31|issue= 1|pages= 57–79|url= http://julianhume.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Hume-and-Cheke-no-illustrations.pdf}}</ref> Valledor de Lozoya instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply due to artistic license.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1093/jhc/15.2.201}}</ref> | |||
In the 1770s, the French naturalist ] stated that the dodo inhabited both ] and Réunion for unclear reasons. He also combined accounts about the Rodrigues solitaire and a bird from Mauritius ("oiseau de Nazareth", now thought to be a dodo), as well as the "solitaire" Carré reported from Réunion under one "solitaire" section, indicating he believed there was both a dodo and "solitaire" on Réunion.<ref name="White Dodo"/> The English naturalist ] discussed the old descriptions of the "solitaire" in his 1848 book ''The Dodo and Its Kindred'', and concluded it was distinct from the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire due to its colouration.<ref name="Strickland">{{cite book |last1=Strickland |first1=H. E. |author-link=Hugh Edwin Strickland |last2=Melville |first2=A. G.| author2-link = Alexander Gordon Melville |title=The Dodo and Its Kindred; or the History, Affinities, and Osteology of the Dodo, Solitaire, and Other Extinct Birds of the Islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon |publisher=Reeve, Benham and Reeve |location=London |year=1848 |pages=–62 |url=https://archive.org/details/dodoitskindredor00stri}}</ref> | |||
Since Réunion was not visited by Europeans until 1635, the 1611 painting could not have shown a bird from there.<ref>{{cite journal | |||
| last1 = Hume | |||
| first1 = J. P. | |||
| first2 = R. P. | |||
| last2 = Prys-Jones | |||
|year=2005 | |||
|title=New discoveries from old sources, with reference to the original bird and mammal fauna of the Mascarene Islands, Indian Ocean | |||
|journal=] | |||
|volume=79 | |||
|issue=3 | |||
|pages=85–95 | |||
|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/42166 | |||
|format=PDF}}</ref> Furthermore, Réunion island is only three million years old, whereas Mauritius and Rodrigues, with each their raphine species, are eight to ten million years old, and it is unlikely that either bird would have been capable of flying after five or more million years of adapting to the islands. Therefore it is unlikely that Réunion could have been colonised by flightless birds from these islands, and only flighted species on the island have relatives there.<ref name="White Dodo"/> No fossil remains of Dodo-like birds have ever been found on Réunion.<ref name="Fuller Dodo">{{cite book | |||
| last = Fuller | |||
| first = E. | |||
| authorlink = Errol Fuller | |||
| year = 2002 | |||
| title = Dodo – From Extinction To Icon | |||
| publisher = ] | |||
| location = London | |||
|pages = 168–172 | |||
| isbn = 978-0-00-714572-0 | |||
| ref = harv | |||
}}</ref> | |||
The Belgian scientist ] coined the ] ''Apterornis solitarius'' for the "solitaire" in 1848, apparently making it the ] of the genus, in which he also included two other ] birds only known from contemporary accounts, the ] and the ].<ref name="OlsonB">{{cite book |last=Olson |first=S. |title=Rails of the World – A Monograph of the Family Rallidae |publisher=Codline |chapter=A synopsis of the fossil Rallidae |location=Boston |year=1977 |pages=357–358 |hdl=10088/12826 |isbn=978-0-87474-804-8 }}</ref> As the name '']'' had already been used for a different bird by the English biologist ], and the other former names were likewise invalid, Bonaparte coined the new ] ''Ornithaptera borbonica'' in 1854 (] was the original French name for Réunion).<ref name="Avifauna"/> In 1854, the German ornithologist ] placed the "solitaire" in the same genus as the dodo, and named it ''Didus apterornis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schlegel |first=H. |title=Ook een Woordje over den Dodo (''Didus ineptus'') en zijne Verwanten |journal=Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen |volume=2 |pages=232–256 |language=nl |url=https://archive.org/stream/verslagenenmeded02koni#page/232/mode/2up |year=1854}}</ref> He restored it strictly according to contemporary accounts, which resulted in an ] or ]-like bird instead of a dodo.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
A few later sources take issue with the proposed ibis-identity of the Solitaire, and have even regarded the "white Dodo" as a valid species.<ref name="Lost Land"/> British writer ] agrees the 17th century paintings do not depict Réunion birds, but has questioned whether the ibis subfossils are necessarily connected to the "Solitaire" accounts. He notes that no evidence indicates the extinct ibis survived until the time Europeans reached Réunion.<ref name="Fuller Extinct">{{cite book | |||
| last = Fuller | |||
| first = E. | |||
| authorlink = Errol Fuller | |||
| year = 2001 | |||
| title = Extinct Birds | |||
| edition = revised | |||
| publisher = Comstock | |||
| location = New York | |||
|pages = 385–386 | |||
| isbn = 978-0-8014-3954-4 | |||
| ref = harv | |||
}}</ref> Cheke and Hume have dismissed such sentiments as being mere "belief" and "hope" in the existence of a Dodo on the island.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
{{multiple image | |||
==Description== | |||
|align = left | |||
] | |||
|total_width = 400 | |||
Contemporary accounts described the "Solitaire" as having white and grey plumage merging into yellow, black wing tips and tail feathers, a long neck and legs, and limited flight capabilities.<ref name="Fuller Dodo"/> Sieur D. B. Dubois' 1674 account is the most detailed description of the bird: | |||
|image1 = Dodo reunion-Rothschild.jpg | |||
|alt1 = | |||
|caption1 = ]'s 1907 restoration of the "solitaire", adapted from Withoos' white dodo | |||
|image2 = Reunion Solitaire.png | |||
|caption2 = Frohawk's alternate restoration, based on ]' description | |||
|alt2 = | |||
}} | |||
In 1856, William Coker announced the discovery of a 17th-century "]n" painting of a white dodo among ], which he had been shown in England. The artist was later identified as Pieter Withoos, and many prominent 19th-century naturalists subsequently assumed the image depicted the white "solitaire" of Réunion, a possibility originally proposed by ornithologist ]. Simultaneously, several similar paintings of white dodos by Pieter Holsteyn II were discovered in the Netherlands.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Other paintings and drawings were also later identified as showing white dodos.<ref name="Parish">{{cite book|last1=Parish|first1=Jolyon C.|title=The Dodo and the Solitaire: A Natural History|date=2013|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0-253-00099-6 |pages=105–106, 141–164}}</ref> In 1869, the English ornithologist ] argued that the Withoos' painting and engraving in Bontekoe's memoir depicted a living Réunion dodo that had been brought to Holland, while explaining its blunt beak as a result of ] to prevent it from injuring humans. He also brushed aside the inconsistencies between the illustrations and descriptions, especially the long, thin beak implied by one contemporary account.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Newton |first1=A. |title=XIII. On a picture supposed to represent the didine bird of the island of Bourbon (Réunion) |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1868.tb00581.x |journal=The Transactions of the Zoological Society of London |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=373–376 |year=1868 }}</ref> | |||
{{Quotation|''Solitaires''. These birds are thus named because they always go alone. They are as big as a big goose and have white plumage, black at the extremity of the wings and of the tail. At the tail there are some feathers resembling those of the Ostrich. They have the neck long and the beak formed like that of the Woodcocks, but larger, and the legs and feet like those of Turkey-chicks. This bird betakes itself to running, only flying but very little. It is the best game on the Island.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/>}} | |||
Newton's words particularly cemented the validity of this connection among contemporary peers, and several of them expanded on his views.<ref name="White Dodo"/> The Dutch zoologist ] suggested in 1917 that the discrepancies between the paintings and the old descriptions were due to the paintings showing a female, and that the species was, therefore, ].<ref name="Oudemans">{{cite journal |last1=Oudemans |first1=A. C. |title=Dodo-studiën. Naar Aanleiding Van de Vondst Van Een Gevelsteen Met Dodo-Beeld Van 1561 Te Vere |journal=Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen |date=1917 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=56–100 |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.15314 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52260#page/7/mode/1up |language=nl}}</ref> The British zoologist ] claimed in 1907 that the yellow wings might have been due to ] in this particular specimen, since the old descriptions described these as black.<ref name="Rothschild">{{Cite book |last=Rothschild |first=W. |title=Extinct Birds |publisher=Hutchinson & Co |year=1907 |location=London |pages=171–176 |url=https://archive.org/stream/extinctbirdsatte00roth#page/174/mode/2up}}</ref> | |||
The plumage colouration mentioned is similar to that of the related African Sacred Ibis and Straw-necked Ibis, which are also mainly white and glossy black. In the reproductive season, the ornamental feathers on the back and wing tips of the African Sacred Ibis look similar to the feathers of an ], which echoes Dubois' description. Likewise, a subfossil lower jaw found in 1994 showed that the bill of the Réunion Ibis was relatively short and straight for an ibis, which corresponds with Dubois' ] comparison.<ref name="Ibis"/> | |||
By the early 20th century, many other paintings and even physical remains were claimed to be of white dodos, amid much speculation.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Rothschild commissioned British artist ] to restore the "solitaire" as both a white dodo, based on the Withoos painting, and as a distinct bird based on the French traveller ]' 1674 description, for his 1907 book '']''.<ref name="Rothschild"/> In 1937, the Japanese writer ] suggested that the old accounts and paintings represented two different species, and referred to the white dodos of the paintings as ''Victoriornis imperialis'' (honouring King ]), and the "solitaire" of the accounts as ''Ornithaptera solitarius'' (using the generic name coined by Bonaparte).<ref name="Hachisuka1937">{{cite journal |last1=Hachisuka |first1=M. |title=Revisional note on the didine birds of Réunion |journal=Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington |date=1937 |volume=50 |pages=69–71 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34510406#page/99/mode/1up}}</ref><ref name="de Lozoya"/> Hachisuka also suggested that a 1618 Italian illustration previously identified as a dodo being hunted, actually showed a male, brown Réunion solitaire (he ruled out Rodrigues because that island was not yet inhabited at the time). To him, this cleared up the confusion between the two species, which is why he named the white dodo for the King of Italy (the illustration being from Italy). Today the illustration is thought to depict an ] or a ].<ref name="Hachisuka1937"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Casey A. |title=Two hitherto unpublished pictures of the Mauritius Dodo |journal=Ibis |date=1927 |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=724–732 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1927.tb05377.x}}</ref><ref name="Parish"/> | |||
The Réunion subfossils show that it was more robust, likely much heavier, and had a larger head than the African Sacred and Straw-necked Ibises. It was nonetheless similar to them in most features. Rough protuberances on the wing bones of the Réunion Ibis are similar to those of birds that use their wings in combat. It was perhaps flightless, but this has not left significant ] traces; no complete skeletons have been collected, but of the known ] elements, only one feature indicates reduction in flight capability. The ] is elongated and the ] and ] are robust, as in flighted birds, but a particular ] between a ] and the ] is otherwise only known from flightless birds, such as some ], ], and several extinct species.<ref name="Avifauna">{{Cite journal | |||
| last1 = Mourer-Chauvire | |||
===Modern interpretation=== | |||
| first1 = C. | |||
| last2 = Bour | |||
] of the supposed dodo of Réunion (right) and the dodo of ] (left), by ], ]]] | |||
| first2 = R. | |||
Until the late 1980s, belief in the existence of a white dodo on Réunion was the orthodox view, and only a few researchers doubted the connection between the "solitaire" accounts and the dodo paintings. The American ornithologist ] cautioned in 1958 that no conclusions could be made without solid evidence such as fossils, and that nothing indicated that the white dodos in the paintings had anything to do with Réunion. In 1970, the American ornithologist ] predicted that if any such remains were found, they would not belong to Raphinae like the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire (or even to the ] family like them).<ref name="White Dodo"/><ref name =Greenway>{{cite book |last=Greenway |first=J. C. |title=Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World |publisher=American Committee for International Wild Life Protection 13 |location=New York |year=1967 |pages=110–111, 122–124 |isbn=978-0-486-21869-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/4083934 |last=Storer |first=R. W. |year=1970 |title=Independent Evolution of the Dodo and the Solitaire |journal=The Auk |volume=87 |issue=2 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/21993 |pages=369–370 |jstor=4083934}}</ref> | |||
| last3 = Ribes | |||
| first3 = S. | |||
The first subfossil bird remains on Réunion, the lower part of a ], was found in 1974, and considered a new species of stork in the genus '']'' by the British ornithologist ] in 1987. The remains were found in a cave, which indicated it had been brought there and eaten by early settlers. It was speculated that the remains could have belonged to a large, mysterious bird described by Leguat, and called "Leguat's giant" by some ornithologists. "Leguat's giant" is now thought to be based on a locally extinct population of ].<ref name="Cowles87">{{Cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511735769.004| editor1-last = Diamond| editor1-first = A. W. |title=Studies of Mascarene Island Birds |chapter=The fossil record |pages=90–100 |year=1987 |location=Cambridge |last1=Cowles |first1=G. S. |isbn=978-0-511-73576-9}}</ref> Also in 1987, a subfossil tarsometatarsus of an ibis found in a cave was described as ''Borbonibis latipes'' (the ] means "wide foot") by the French palaeontologists Cécile Mourer-Chauviré and François Moutou, and thought related to the ] of the genus ''Geronticus''.<ref name="Borbonibis">{{cite journal |last1=Mourer-Chauviré |first1=C. |first2=F. |last2=Moutou |year=1987 |title=Découverte d'une forme récemment éteinte d'ibis endémique insulaire de l'île de la Réunion ''Borbonibis latipes'' n. gen. n. sp |language=fr |journal=] |volume=305 |issue=5 |pages=419–423 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283945316}}</ref> | |||
| last4 = Moutou | |||
| first4 = F. | |||
In 1994, Cowles concluded that the "stork" remains he had reported belonged to ''Borbonibis'', since their tarsometatarsi were similar.<ref name="Cowles1994">{{cite journal |last1=Cowles |first1=G. S. |title=A new genus, three new species and two new records of extinct Holocene birds from Réunion Island, Indian Ocean |journal=Geobios |date=1994 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=87–93 |doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(06)80215-9|bibcode=1994Geobi..27...87C }}</ref> The 1987 discovery led the English biologist Anthony S. Cheke to suggest to one of the describers of ''Borbonibis'' that the subfossils may have been of the "solitaire".<ref name="White Dodo"/> In 1995, the French ecologist Jean-Michel Probst reported his discovery of a bird mandible during an excavation on Réunion the former year, and suggested it may have belonged to the ibis or the "solitaire".<ref name="Probst1995">{{cite journal |last1=Probst |first1=J.-M. |title=Découverte d'un bec appartenant au Solitaire de Bourbon? |journal=Bulletin Phaethon |date=1995 |volume=1 |pages=44–45 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321996754}}</ref> In 1995, the describers of ''Borbonibis latipes'' suggested that it represented the "Réunion solitaire", and reassigned it to the ibis genus '']'', now combined with the specific name ''{{lang|la|solitarius}}'' from de Sélys-Longchamps' 1848 binomial for the "solitaire" (making ''Borbonibis latipes'' a ]). The authors pointed out that the contemporary descriptions matched the appearance and behaviour of an ibis more than a member of the Raphinae, especially due to its comparatively short and straight mandible, and because ibis remains were abundant in some localities; it would be strange if contemporary writers never mentioned such a relatively common bird, whereas they mentioned most other species subsequently known from fossils.<ref name="Ibis"/> | |||
| title = Avian paleontology at the close of | |||
the 20th century: the avifauna of Réunion island (Mascarene islands) at | |||
] painting with a whitish dodo in the lower right, 1611]] | |||
the time of the arrival of the first Europeans | |||
The possible origin of the 17th-century white dodo paintings was examined, by the Spanish biologist Arturo Valledor de Lozoya in 2003, and independently by experts of Mascarene fauna Cheke and ] in 2004. The Withoos and Holsteyn paintings are clearly derived from each other, and Withoos likely copied his dodo from one of Holsteyn's works, since these were probably produced at an earlier date. All later white dodo pictures are thought to be based on these paintings. According to the aforementioned writers, it appears these pictures were themselves derived from a whitish dodo in a previously unreported painting called ''Landscape with Orpheus and the Animals'', produced by Roelant Savery c. 1611. The dodo was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in ]; a ''walghvogel'' (old Dutch for dodo) described as having a "dirty off-white colouring" was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the ] to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607–1611).<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
| journal = Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology: Proceedings of | |||
the 4th International Meeting | |||
Savery's several later dodo images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen a normal specimen. Cheke and Hume concluded the painted specimen was white due to albinism, and that this peculiar feature was the reason it was collected from Mauritius and brought to Europe.<ref name="White Dodo">{{cite journal |doi=10.3366/anh.2004.31.1.57 |last1=Hume |first1=J. P. |author-link1=Julian Pender Hume |last2=Cheke |first2=A. S. |year=2004 |title=The white dodo of Réunion Island: Unravelling a scientific and historical myth |journal=Archives of Natural History |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=57–79 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289502850 }}</ref> Valledor de Lozoya instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply due to artistic license.<ref name="de Lozoya">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/jhc/15.2.201 |last1=de Lozoya |first1=A. V. |year=2003 |title=An unnoticed painting of a white Dodo |journal=Journal of the History of Collections |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=201–210 }}</ref> In 2018, the British ornithologist Jolyon C. Parish and Cheke suggested that the painting was instead executed after 1614, or even after 1626, based on some of the motifs.<ref name="early depiction">{{cite journal |last1=Parish |first1=J. C. |last2=Cheke |first2=A. S. |s2cid=89661119 |title=A newly-discovered early depiction of the Dodo (Aves: Columbidae: ''Raphus cucullatus'') by Roelandt Savery, with a note on another previously unnoticed Savery Dodo |journal=Historical Biology |date=2019|volume=31|issue=10 |pages=1402–1411 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2018.1457658}}</ref> | |||
of the Society of Avian | |||
Paleontology and Evolution, | |||
While many subfossil elements from throughout the skeleton have been assigned to the Réunion ibis, no remains of dodo-like birds have ever been found on Réunion.<ref name="Avifauna"/> A few later sources have taken issue with the proposed ibis-identity of the "solitaire", and have even regarded the "white dodo" as a valid species.<ref name="Lost Land"/> The British writer ] agrees that the 17th-century paintings do not depict Réunion birds, but has questioned whether the ibis subfossils are necessarily connected to the "solitaire" accounts. He notes that no evidence indicates the extinct ibis survived until the time Europeans reached Réunion.<ref name="Fuller Dodo">{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=E. |author-link=Errol Fuller |year=2002 |title=Dodo – From Extinction to Icon |publisher=] |location=London |pages=168–172 |isbn=978-0-00-714572-0 }}</ref><ref name="Fuller Extinct">{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=E. |author-link=Errol Fuller |year=2001 |title=Extinct Birds |edition=revised |publisher=Comstock |location=New York |pages=385–386 |isbn=978-0-8014-3954-4 }}</ref> Cheke and Hume have dismissed such sentiments as being mere "belief" and "hope" in the existence of a dodo on the island.<ref name="White Dodo"/> | |||
Washington, D.C, 4–7 June 1996 | |||
| volume = 89 | |||
===Evolution=== | |||
| pages = 8–11 | |||
| date = | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| year = 1999 }}</ref> As contemporary accounts are inconsistent on whether the Solitaire was flightless or had some flight capability, Mourer-Chauvire suggested that this was dependent on fat-cycles; it was described as being "fat", so perhaps it could not fly when it was so, but could when it was thin.<ref name="Ibis"/> | |||
|align = right | |||
|total_width = 450 | |||
|image1 = African Sacred ibis.jpg | |||
|alt1 = Black and white bird | |||
|image2 = Threskiornis spinicollis - Centenary Lakes.jpg | |||
|alt2 = Black and white bird in wetland | |||
|image3 = Ibis sacré de Madagascar.JPG | |||
|alt3 = Black and white bird in a three | |||
|footer = The ], ], and ], three extant relatives in the genus '']'', with similarities in plumage | |||
}} | |||
The volcanic island of Réunion is only three million years old, whereas Mauritius and Rodrigues, with each of their flightless Raphine species, are eight to ten million years old, and according to Cheke and Hume it is unlikely that either bird would have been capable of flying after five or more million years of adapting to the islands. Therefore, it is unlikely that Réunion could have been colonised by flightless birds from these islands, and only flighted species on the island have relatives there.<ref name="White Dodo"/> Three million years is enough time for flightless and weak flying abilities to have evolved in bird species on Réunion itself, but Mourer-Chauviré and colleagues pointed out that such species would have been wiped out by the eruption of the ] ] between 300,000 and 180,000 years ago. Most recent species would therefore likely be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from Africa or Madagascar after this event, which is not enough time for a bird to become flightless.<ref name="Avifauna"/> | |||
In 1995, a morphological study by Mourer-Chauviré and colleagues suggested the closest extant relatives of the Réunion ibis are the ] (''T. aethiopicus'') of Africa and the ] (''T. spinicollis'') of Australia.<ref name="Ibis">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/373568a0 |last1=Mourer-Chauviré |first1=C. C. |last2=Bour |first2=R. |last3=Ribes |first3=S. |s2cid=4304082 |year=1995 |title=Was the solitaire of Réunion an ibis? |journal=Nature |volume=373 |issue=6515 |pages=568 |ref={{sfnRef|Mourer-Chauviré et al.|1995}} | |||
| bibcode = 1995Natur.373..568M|doi-access=free }}</ref> Cheke and Hume instead suggested that it was closest to the ] (''T. bernieri''), and therefore of ultimately African origin.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
==Description== | |||
]'s 1854 ] or ]-like restoration, based on Dubois' description instead of as a dodo]] | |||
Contemporary accounts described the species as having white and grey plumage merging into yellow, black wing tips and tail feathers, a long neck and legs, and limited flight capabilities.<ref name="Fuller Dodo"/> Dubois' 1674 account is the most detailed contemporary description of the bird,<ref name="Rothschild"/> here as translated by Strickland in 1848: | |||
{{Blockquote|''Solitaires''. These birds are so called because they always go alone. They are the size of a large Goose, and are white, with the tips of the wings and tail black. The tail feathers resemble those of an Ostrich; the neck is long, and the beak is like that of a Woodcock, but larger; the legs and feet like those of Turkeys. This bird has recourse to running, as it flies but very little.<ref name="Strickland"/>}} | |||
According to Mourer-Chauviré and colleagues, the plumage colouration mentioned is similar to that of the related African sacred ibis and straw-necked ibis, which are also mainly white and glossy black. In the reproductive season, the ornamental feathers on the back and wing tips of the African sacred ibis look similar to the feathers of an ostrich, which echoes Dubois' description. Likewise, a subfossil lower jaw found in 1994 showed that the bill of the Réunion ibis was relatively short and straight for an ibis, which corresponds with Dubois' ] comparison.<ref name="Ibis"/> Cheke and Hume have suggested that the French word (''bécasse'') from Dubois' original description, usually translated to "woodcock", could also mean ], another bird with a long, straight, but slightly more robust, bill. They have also pointed out that the last sentence is mistranslated, and actually means the bird could be caught by running after it.<ref name="White Dodo"/> The bright colouration of the plumage mentioned by some authors may refer to ], as seen in the straw-necked ibis.<ref name="Avian extinctions"/> | |||
Subfossils of the Réunion ibis show that it was more robust, likely much heavier, and had a larger head than the African sacred and straw-necked ibises. It was nonetheless similar to them in most features. According to Hume, it would have been no longer than 65 cm (25 in) in length, the size of the African sacred ibis. Rough protuberances on the wing bones of the Réunion ibis are similar to those of birds that use their wings in combat. It was perhaps flightless, but this has not left significant ] traces; no complete skeletons have been collected, but of the known ] elements, only one feature indicates reduction in flight capability. The ] is elongated and the ] and ] are robust, as in flighted birds, but a particular ] (or opening) between a ] and the ] is otherwise only known from flightless birds, such as some ], ], and several extinct species.<ref name="Avifauna">{{Cite journal |last1=Mourer-Chauvire |first1=C. |last2=Bour |first2=R. |last3=Ribes |first3=S. |last4=Moutou |first4=F. |title=Avian paleontology at the close of the 20th century: The avifauna of Réunion Island (Mascarene Islands) at the time of the arrival of the first Europeans |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology |volume=89 |pages=8–11 |year=1999 |hdl=10088/2005}}</ref><ref name="Extinct Birds"/> | |||
==Behaviour and ecology== | ==Behaviour and ecology== | ||
] | |||
] | |||
As contemporary accounts are inconsistent on whether the "solitaire" was flightless or had some flight capability, Mourer-Chauvire and colleagues suggested that this was dependent on seasonal fat-cycles, meaning that individuals fattened themselves during cool seasons, but were slim during hot seasons; perhaps it could not fly when it was fat, but could when it was not.<ref name="Ibis"/> However, Dubois specifically stated the "solitaires" did not have fat-cycles, unlike most other Réunion birds.<ref name="White Dodo"/> The only mention of its diet and exact habitat is the account of the French cartographer ] from 1708, which is also the last record of a living individual: | |||
The Réunion Ibis Solitaire was termed a land-bird by Dubois, so it did not live in typical ibis habitats such as ]. It has been proposed that this is because the ancestors of the bird colonised Réunion before swamps had developed, and had therefore became adapted to the available habitats. They were perhaps prevented from colonising Mauritius as well due to the presence of ]s there, which may have occupied a similar niche.<ref name="Lost Land"/> It appears to have lived in high altitudes, and perhaps had a limited distribution.<ref name="Extinct Birds">{{cite book | |||
{{Blockquote|The solitaires are the size of an average turkey cock, grey and white in colour. They inhabit the tops of mountains. Their food is only worms and filth, taken on or in the soil.<ref name="Lost Land"/>}} | |||
| last1 = Hume | |||
The diet and mode of ] described by Feuilley matches that of an ibis, whereas members of the Raphinae are known to have been ].<ref name="Ibis"/> The species was termed a land-bird by Dubois, so it did not live in typical ibis habitats such as ]. This is similar to the Réunion swamphen, which lived in forest rather than swamps, which is otherwise typical ] habitat. Cheke and Hume proposed that the ancestors of these birds colonised Réunion before swamps had developed, and had therefore become adapted to the available habitats. They were perhaps prevented from colonising Mauritius as well due to the presence of red rails there, which may have occupied a similar niche.<ref name="Lost Land"/><ref name="Hume2019">{{cite journal |last1=Hume |first1=J. P. |title=Systematics, morphology and ecology of rails (Aves: Rallidae) of the Mascarene Islands, with one new species |journal=Zootaxa |date=2019 |volume=4626 |issue=1 |pages=49–51, 63–67 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4626.1.1 |pmid=31712544|s2cid=198258434 }}</ref> | |||
| first1 = J. P. | |||
| first2 = M. | |||
| last2 = Walters | |||
|year= 2012 | |||
|title= Extinct Birds | |||
|publisher= A & C Black | |||
|location= London | |||
|pages= 67–68 | |||
|isbn=1-4081-5725-X}}</ref> The only mention of its diet and exact habitat is Feuilley's account from 1708, which is also the last record of the bird: | |||
{{Quotation|The solitaires are the size of an average turkey cock, grey and white in colour. They inhabit the tops of mountains. Their food is only worms and filth, taken on or in the soil.<ref name="Lost Land"/>}} | |||
The diet and mode of obtaining it described by Feuilley matches that of an ibis, whereas members of the Raphinae are known to have been ].<ref name="Ibis"/> Accounts by early visitors indicate the Solitaire was found near their landing sites, but they were found only in remote places by 1667. The bird may have survived in eastern lowlands until the 1670s. Though many late 1600s accounts state the Solitaire was good food, Feuilley stated it tasted bad. This may be because the bird changed its diet when it moved to more rugged, higher terrain, to escape pigs that destroyed its nests; since it had limited flight capabilities, it probably nested on the ground.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
The Réunion ibis appears to have lived in high altitudes, and perhaps had a limited distribution.<ref name="Extinct Birds">{{cite book |last1=Hume |first1=J. P. |first2=M. |last2=Walters |year=2012 |title=Extinct Birds |publisher=A & C Black |location=London |pages=67–68, 114 |isbn=978-1-4081-5725-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpUBocGB12YC&q=Extinct+Birds+hume}}</ref> Accounts by early visitors indicate the species was found near their landing sites, but they were found only in remote places by 1667. The bird may have survived in eastern lowlands until the 1670s. Though many late 17th century accounts state the bird was good food, Feuilley stated it tasted bad. This may be because it changed its diet when it moved to more rugged, higher terrain, to escape pigs that destroyed its nests; since it had limited flight capabilities, it probably nested on the ground.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
Many other ] of Réunion became extinct after the arrival of man, heavily damaging the ] of the island. The Réunion Ibis lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. Extinct reptiles include the ] and the ]. The ] and the snail '']'' lived on Réunion and Mauritius, but vanished from both islands.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
Many other ] of Réunion became extinct after the human colonisation and the resulting disruption of the island's ]. The Réunion ibis lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the ], the ], the ], the Réunion swamphen, the ], the ], and the ]. Extinct reptiles include the ] and an undescribed '']'' skink. The ] and the snail '']'' lived on Réunion and Mauritius, but vanished from both islands.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
==Extinction== | ==Extinction== | ||
As Réunion was populated, the Réunion |
] | ||
As Réunion was populated by settlers, the Réunion ibis appears to have become confined to the tops of mountains. Introduced predators such as cats and rats took a toll. Overhunting also contributed and several contemporary accounts state the bird was widely hunted for food.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> In 1625, John Tatton described the ] of the bird and how easy it was to hunt, as well as the large quantity consumed: | |||
{{ |
{{Blockquote|There is store of land fowle both small and great, plenty of Doves, great Parrats, and such like; and a great fowle of the bignesse of a Turkie, very fat, and so short winged, that they cannot fly, being white, and in a manner tame: and so be all other fowles, as having not been troubled nor feared with shot. Our men did beat them down with sticks and stones. Ten men may take fowle enough to serve fortie men a day.<ref name="Rothschild"/>}} | ||
In 1671, Melet mentioned the culinary quality of this species, and described the slaughter of several types of birds on the island: | |||
] | |||
{{Blockquote|(A)nother sort of bird called solitaires which are very good (to eat) and the beauty of their plumage is most fascinating for the diversity of bright colours that shine on their wing and around their necks... There are birds in such great confusion and so tame that it is not necessary to go hunting with firearms, they can so easily be killed with a little stick or rod. During the five or six days that we were allowed to go into the woods, so many were killed that our General was constrained to forbid anyone going beyond a hundred paces from the camp for fear the whole quarter would be destroyed, for one needed only to catch one bird alive and make it cry out, to have in a moment whole flocks coming to perch on people, so that often without moving from one spot one could kill hundreds. But, seeing that it would have been impossible to wipe out such a huge quantity, permission was again given to kill, which gave great joy to everyone, because very good fare was had at no expense.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/>}} | |||
In 1671, Melet described the slaughter of several types of birds on the island, and mentioned the culinary quality of the Solitaire: | |||
The last definite account of the "solitaire" of Réunion was Feuilley's from 1708, indicating that the species probably became extinct sometime early in the century.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> In the 1820s, the French navigator ] asked an old slave about ''drontes'' (old Dutch word for dodo), and was told the bird existed around ] when his father was an infant. This would perhaps be a century earlier, but the account may be unreliable. Cheke and Hume suspect that ] initially hunted wildlife in the lowlands and later turned to higher inland areas, which were probably the last stronghold of the Réunion ibis, as they were unreachable by pigs. The species is thought to have been driven to extinction around 1710–1715.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
{{Quotation|There are birds in such great confusion and so tame that it is not necessary to go hunting with firearms, they can so easily be killed with a little stick or rod. During the five or six days that we were allowed to go into the woods, so many were killed that our General was constrained to forbid anyone going beyond a hundred paces from the camp for fear the whole quarter would be destroyed, for one needed only to catch one bird alive and make it cry out, to have in a moment whole flocks coming to perch on people, so that often without moving from one spot one could kill hundreds. But, seeing that it would have been impossible to wipe out such a huge quantity, permission was again given to kill, which gave great joy to everyone, because very good fare was had at no expense ... (A)nother sort of bird called solitaires which are very good (to eat) and the beauty of their plumage is most fascinating for the diversity of bright colours that shine on their wing and around their necks.<ref name="Lost Land"/>}} | |||
The last definite account of the "Solitaire" of Réunion was Feuilley's from 1708, indicating that the species probably became extinct sometime early in the century.<ref name="Extinct Birds"/> In the 1820s, Louis Henri de Freycinet asked an old slave about ''drontes'' (old Dutch word for Dodo), and was told the bird existed around ] when his father was an infant. This would perhaps be around 1710–15, but the account may be unreliable. Cheke and Hume suspect that feral cats turned to higher inland areas, which were unreachable by pigs, once they had wiped out the wildlife in the lowlands. The ibis would then had been exterminated around 1710–15.<ref name="Lost Land"/> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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==External links== | ==External links== | ||
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* {{Commons category-inline|Threskiornis solitarius|''Threskiornis solitarius''}} | ||
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* {{Wikispecies-inline|Threskiornis solitarius|''Threskiornis solitarius''}} | ||
* : Half hour video interview with expert Julian Hume about the white Dodo | |||
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Latest revision as of 23:38, 20 September 2024
Extinct bird that was endemic to Réunion
Réunion ibis | |
---|---|
Hypothetical restoration based on contemporary descriptions, subfossil remains, and extant relatives | |
Conservation status | |
Extinct (early 18th century) (IUCN 3.1) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Pelecaniformes |
Family: | Threskiornithidae |
Genus: | Threskiornis |
Species: | †T. solitarius |
Binomial name | |
†Threskiornis solitarius (de Sélys-Longchamps, 1848) | |
Location of Réunion (encircled) | |
Synonyms | |
List
|
The Réunion ibis or Réunion sacred ibis (Threskiornis solitarius) is an extinct species of ibis that was endemic to the volcanic island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean. The first subfossil remains were found in 1974, and the ibis was first scientifically described in 1987. Its closest relatives are the Malagasy sacred ibis, the African sacred ibis, and the straw-necked ibis. Travellers' accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries described a white bird on Réunion that flew with difficulty and preferred solitude, which was subsequently referred to as the "Réunion solitaire".
In the mid 19th century, the old travellers' accounts were incorrectly assumed to refer to white relatives of the dodo, due to one account specifically mentioning dodos on the island, and because 17th-century paintings of white dodos had recently surfaced. However, no fossils referable to dodo-like birds were ever found on Réunion, and it was later questioned whether the paintings had anything to do with the island. Other identities were suggested as well, based only on speculations. In the late 20th century, the discovery of ibis subfossils led to the idea that the old accounts actually referred to an ibis species instead. The idea that the "solitaire" and the subfossil ibis are identical was met with limited dissent, but is now widely accepted.
Combined, the old descriptions and subfossils show that the Réunion ibis was mainly white, with this colour merging into yellow and grey. The wing tips and plumes of ostrich-like feathers on its rear were black. The neck and legs were long, and the beak was relatively straight and short for an ibis. It was more robust in build than its extant relatives, but was otherwise quite similar to them. It would have been no longer than 65 cm (25 in) in length. Subfossil wingbones indicate it had reduced flight capabilities, a feature perhaps linked to seasonal fattening. The diet of the Réunion ibis was worms and other items foraged from the soil. In the 17th century, it lived in mountainous areas, but it may have been confined to these remote heights by heavy hunting by humans and predation by introduced animals in the more accessible areas of the island. Visitors to Réunion praised its flavour, and therefore sought after its flesh. These factors are believed to have driven the Réunion ibis to extinction by the early 18th century.
Taxonomy
The taxonomic history of the Réunion ibis is convoluted and complex, due to the ambiguous and meagre evidence that was available to scientists until the late 20th century. The supposed "white dodo" of Réunion is now believed to have been an erroneous conjecture based on the few contemporary reports which described the Réunion ibis, combined with paintings of white dodos from Mauritius by the Dutch painters Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn II (and derivatives) from the 17th century that surfaced in the 19th century.
The English Chief Officer John Tatton was the first to mention a specifically white bird on Réunion, in 1625. The French occupied the island from 1646 and onwards, and referred to this bird as the "solitaire". M. Carré of the French East India Company described the "solitaire" in 1699, explaining the reason for its name:
1646 etching of a dodo that Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe claimed to have seen on RéunionRoelandt Savery sketch of three dodos from c. 1626; the etching used by Bontekoe was derived from the dodo on the leftI saw a kind of bird in this place which I have not found elsewhere; it is that which the inhabitants call the Oiseaux Solitaire for to be sure, it loves solitude and only frequents the most secluded places; one never sees two or more together; it is always alone. It is not unlike a turkey, if it did not have longer legs. The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see. It is of changeable colour which verges upon yellow. The flesh is exquisite; it forms one of the best dishes in this country, and might form a dainty at our tables. We wished to keep two of these birds to send to France and present them to His Majesty, but as soon as they were on board ship, they died of melancholy, having refused to eat or drink.
The marooned French Huguenot François Leguat used the name "solitaire" for the Rodrigues solitaire, a Raphine bird (related to the dodo) he encountered on the nearby island of Rodrigues in the 1690s, but it is thought he borrowed the name from a 1689 tract by Marquis Henri Duquesne which mentioned the Réunion species. Duquesne himself had probably based his own description on an earlier one. No specimens of the "solitaire" were ever preserved.
The two individuals Carré attempted to send to the royal menagerie in France did not survive in captivity. Billiard claimed that the French administrator Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais sent a "solitaire" to France from Réunion around 1740. Since the Réunion ibis is believed to have gone extinct by this date, the bird may actually have been a Rodrigues solitaire.
The only contemporary writer who referred specifically to "dodos" inhabiting Réunion was the Dutch sailor Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe, though he did not mention their colouration:
There were also Dod-eersen , which have small wings, and so far from being able to fly, they were so fat that they could scarcely walk, and when they tried to run, they dragged their under side along the ground.
When his journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving which is now known to have been copied after one of the dodos in the Flemish painter Roelant Savery's "Crocker Art Gallery sketch". Since Bontekoe was shipwrecked and lost all his belongings after visiting Réunion in 1619, he may not have written his account until he returned to Holland, seven years later, which would put its reliability in question. He may have concluded in hindsight that it was a dodo, finding what he saw similar to accounts of that bird.
Early interpretation
Pieter Withoos's late 17th-century painting of a white dodo, the first of such paintings to be discoveredOne of Pieter Holsteyn II's mid-17th-century paintings of a white dodoIn the 1770s, the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the dodo inhabited both Mauritius and Réunion for unclear reasons. He also combined accounts about the Rodrigues solitaire and a bird from Mauritius ("oiseau de Nazareth", now thought to be a dodo), as well as the "solitaire" Carré reported from Réunion under one "solitaire" section, indicating he believed there was both a dodo and "solitaire" on Réunion. The English naturalist Hugh Edwin Strickland discussed the old descriptions of the "solitaire" in his 1848 book The Dodo and Its Kindred, and concluded it was distinct from the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire due to its colouration.
The Belgian scientist Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the scientific name Apterornis solitarius for the "solitaire" in 1848, apparently making it the type species of the genus, in which he also included two other Mascarene birds only known from contemporary accounts, the red rail and the Réunion swamphen. As the name Apterornis had already been used for a different bird by the English biologist Richard Owen, and the other former names were likewise invalid, Bonaparte coined the new binomial Ornithaptera borbonica in 1854 (Bourbon was the original French name for Réunion). In 1854, the German ornithologist Hermann Schlegel placed the "solitaire" in the same genus as the dodo, and named it Didus apterornis. He restored it strictly according to contemporary accounts, which resulted in an ibis or stork-like bird instead of a dodo.
Frederick William Frohawk's 1907 restoration of the "solitaire", adapted from Withoos' white dodoFrohawk's alternate restoration, based on Sieur Dubois' descriptionIn 1856, William Coker announced the discovery of a 17th-century "Persian" painting of a white dodo among waterfowl, which he had been shown in England. The artist was later identified as Pieter Withoos, and many prominent 19th-century naturalists subsequently assumed the image depicted the white "solitaire" of Réunion, a possibility originally proposed by ornithologist John Gould. Simultaneously, several similar paintings of white dodos by Pieter Holsteyn II were discovered in the Netherlands. Other paintings and drawings were also later identified as showing white dodos. In 1869, the English ornithologist Alfred Newton argued that the Withoos' painting and engraving in Bontekoe's memoir depicted a living Réunion dodo that had been brought to Holland, while explaining its blunt beak as a result of beak trimming to prevent it from injuring humans. He also brushed aside the inconsistencies between the illustrations and descriptions, especially the long, thin beak implied by one contemporary account.
Newton's words particularly cemented the validity of this connection among contemporary peers, and several of them expanded on his views. The Dutch zoologist Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans suggested in 1917 that the discrepancies between the paintings and the old descriptions were due to the paintings showing a female, and that the species was, therefore, sexually dimorphic. The British zoologist Walter Rothschild claimed in 1907 that the yellow wings might have been due to albinism in this particular specimen, since the old descriptions described these as black.
By the early 20th century, many other paintings and even physical remains were claimed to be of white dodos, amid much speculation. Rothschild commissioned British artist Frederick William Frohawk to restore the "solitaire" as both a white dodo, based on the Withoos painting, and as a distinct bird based on the French traveller Sieur Dubois' 1674 description, for his 1907 book Extinct Birds. In 1937, the Japanese writer Masauji Hachisuka suggested that the old accounts and paintings represented two different species, and referred to the white dodos of the paintings as Victoriornis imperialis (honouring King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy), and the "solitaire" of the accounts as Ornithaptera solitarius (using the generic name coined by Bonaparte). Hachisuka also suggested that a 1618 Italian illustration previously identified as a dodo being hunted, actually showed a male, brown Réunion solitaire (he ruled out Rodrigues because that island was not yet inhabited at the time). To him, this cleared up the confusion between the two species, which is why he named the white dodo for the King of Italy (the illustration being from Italy). Today the illustration is thought to depict an ostrich or a bustard.
Modern interpretation
Until the late 1980s, belief in the existence of a white dodo on Réunion was the orthodox view, and only a few researchers doubted the connection between the "solitaire" accounts and the dodo paintings. The American ornithologist James Greenway cautioned in 1958 that no conclusions could be made without solid evidence such as fossils, and that nothing indicated that the white dodos in the paintings had anything to do with Réunion. In 1970, the American ornithologist Robert W. Storer predicted that if any such remains were found, they would not belong to Raphinae like the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire (or even to the pigeon family like them).
The first subfossil bird remains on Réunion, the lower part of a tarsometatarsus, was found in 1974, and considered a new species of stork in the genus Ciconia by the British ornithologist Graham S. Cowles in 1987. The remains were found in a cave, which indicated it had been brought there and eaten by early settlers. It was speculated that the remains could have belonged to a large, mysterious bird described by Leguat, and called "Leguat's giant" by some ornithologists. "Leguat's giant" is now thought to be based on a locally extinct population of greater flamingos. Also in 1987, a subfossil tarsometatarsus of an ibis found in a cave was described as Borbonibis latipes (the specific name means "wide foot") by the French palaeontologists Cécile Mourer-Chauviré and François Moutou, and thought related to the bald ibises of the genus Geronticus.
In 1994, Cowles concluded that the "stork" remains he had reported belonged to Borbonibis, since their tarsometatarsi were similar. The 1987 discovery led the English biologist Anthony S. Cheke to suggest to one of the describers of Borbonibis that the subfossils may have been of the "solitaire". In 1995, the French ecologist Jean-Michel Probst reported his discovery of a bird mandible during an excavation on Réunion the former year, and suggested it may have belonged to the ibis or the "solitaire". In 1995, the describers of Borbonibis latipes suggested that it represented the "Réunion solitaire", and reassigned it to the ibis genus Threskiornis, now combined with the specific name solitarius from de Sélys-Longchamps' 1848 binomial for the "solitaire" (making Borbonibis latipes a junior synonym). The authors pointed out that the contemporary descriptions matched the appearance and behaviour of an ibis more than a member of the Raphinae, especially due to its comparatively short and straight mandible, and because ibis remains were abundant in some localities; it would be strange if contemporary writers never mentioned such a relatively common bird, whereas they mentioned most other species subsequently known from fossils.
The possible origin of the 17th-century white dodo paintings was examined, by the Spanish biologist Arturo Valledor de Lozoya in 2003, and independently by experts of Mascarene fauna Cheke and Julian Hume in 2004. The Withoos and Holsteyn paintings are clearly derived from each other, and Withoos likely copied his dodo from one of Holsteyn's works, since these were probably produced at an earlier date. All later white dodo pictures are thought to be based on these paintings. According to the aforementioned writers, it appears these pictures were themselves derived from a whitish dodo in a previously unreported painting called Landscape with Orpheus and the Animals, produced by Roelant Savery c. 1611. The dodo was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague; a walghvogel (old Dutch for dodo) described as having a "dirty off-white colouring" was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607–1611).
Savery's several later dodo images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen a normal specimen. Cheke and Hume concluded the painted specimen was white due to albinism, and that this peculiar feature was the reason it was collected from Mauritius and brought to Europe. Valledor de Lozoya instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply due to artistic license. In 2018, the British ornithologist Jolyon C. Parish and Cheke suggested that the painting was instead executed after 1614, or even after 1626, based on some of the motifs.
While many subfossil elements from throughout the skeleton have been assigned to the Réunion ibis, no remains of dodo-like birds have ever been found on Réunion. A few later sources have taken issue with the proposed ibis-identity of the "solitaire", and have even regarded the "white dodo" as a valid species. The British writer Errol Fuller agrees that the 17th-century paintings do not depict Réunion birds, but has questioned whether the ibis subfossils are necessarily connected to the "solitaire" accounts. He notes that no evidence indicates the extinct ibis survived until the time Europeans reached Réunion. Cheke and Hume have dismissed such sentiments as being mere "belief" and "hope" in the existence of a dodo on the island.
Evolution
The African sacred ibis, straw-necked ibis, and Malagasy sacred ibis, three extant relatives in the genus Threskiornis, with similarities in plumageThe volcanic island of Réunion is only three million years old, whereas Mauritius and Rodrigues, with each of their flightless Raphine species, are eight to ten million years old, and according to Cheke and Hume it is unlikely that either bird would have been capable of flying after five or more million years of adapting to the islands. Therefore, it is unlikely that Réunion could have been colonised by flightless birds from these islands, and only flighted species on the island have relatives there. Three million years is enough time for flightless and weak flying abilities to have evolved in bird species on Réunion itself, but Mourer-Chauviré and colleagues pointed out that such species would have been wiped out by the eruption of the volcano Piton des Neiges between 300,000 and 180,000 years ago. Most recent species would therefore likely be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from Africa or Madagascar after this event, which is not enough time for a bird to become flightless.
In 1995, a morphological study by Mourer-Chauviré and colleagues suggested the closest extant relatives of the Réunion ibis are the African sacred ibis (T. aethiopicus) of Africa and the straw-necked ibis (T. spinicollis) of Australia. Cheke and Hume instead suggested that it was closest to the Malagasy sacred ibis (T. bernieri), and therefore of ultimately African origin.
Description
Contemporary accounts described the species as having white and grey plumage merging into yellow, black wing tips and tail feathers, a long neck and legs, and limited flight capabilities. Dubois' 1674 account is the most detailed contemporary description of the bird, here as translated by Strickland in 1848:
Solitaires. These birds are so called because they always go alone. They are the size of a large Goose, and are white, with the tips of the wings and tail black. The tail feathers resemble those of an Ostrich; the neck is long, and the beak is like that of a Woodcock, but larger; the legs and feet like those of Turkeys. This bird has recourse to running, as it flies but very little.
According to Mourer-Chauviré and colleagues, the plumage colouration mentioned is similar to that of the related African sacred ibis and straw-necked ibis, which are also mainly white and glossy black. In the reproductive season, the ornamental feathers on the back and wing tips of the African sacred ibis look similar to the feathers of an ostrich, which echoes Dubois' description. Likewise, a subfossil lower jaw found in 1994 showed that the bill of the Réunion ibis was relatively short and straight for an ibis, which corresponds with Dubois' woodcock comparison. Cheke and Hume have suggested that the French word (bécasse) from Dubois' original description, usually translated to "woodcock", could also mean oystercatcher, another bird with a long, straight, but slightly more robust, bill. They have also pointed out that the last sentence is mistranslated, and actually means the bird could be caught by running after it. The bright colouration of the plumage mentioned by some authors may refer to iridescence, as seen in the straw-necked ibis.
Subfossils of the Réunion ibis show that it was more robust, likely much heavier, and had a larger head than the African sacred and straw-necked ibises. It was nonetheless similar to them in most features. According to Hume, it would have been no longer than 65 cm (25 in) in length, the size of the African sacred ibis. Rough protuberances on the wing bones of the Réunion ibis are similar to those of birds that use their wings in combat. It was perhaps flightless, but this has not left significant osteological traces; no complete skeletons have been collected, but of the known pectoral elements, only one feature indicates reduction in flight capability. The coracoid is elongated and the radius and ulna are robust, as in flighted birds, but a particular foramen (or opening) between a metacarpal and the alular is otherwise only known from flightless birds, such as some ratites, penguins, and several extinct species.
Behaviour and ecology
As contemporary accounts are inconsistent on whether the "solitaire" was flightless or had some flight capability, Mourer-Chauvire and colleagues suggested that this was dependent on seasonal fat-cycles, meaning that individuals fattened themselves during cool seasons, but were slim during hot seasons; perhaps it could not fly when it was fat, but could when it was not. However, Dubois specifically stated the "solitaires" did not have fat-cycles, unlike most other Réunion birds. The only mention of its diet and exact habitat is the account of the French cartographer Jean Feuilley from 1708, which is also the last record of a living individual:
The solitaires are the size of an average turkey cock, grey and white in colour. They inhabit the tops of mountains. Their food is only worms and filth, taken on or in the soil.
The diet and mode of foraging described by Feuilley matches that of an ibis, whereas members of the Raphinae are known to have been fruit eaters. The species was termed a land-bird by Dubois, so it did not live in typical ibis habitats such as wetlands. This is similar to the Réunion swamphen, which lived in forest rather than swamps, which is otherwise typical swamphen habitat. Cheke and Hume proposed that the ancestors of these birds colonised Réunion before swamps had developed, and had therefore become adapted to the available habitats. They were perhaps prevented from colonising Mauritius as well due to the presence of red rails there, which may have occupied a similar niche.
The Réunion ibis appears to have lived in high altitudes, and perhaps had a limited distribution. Accounts by early visitors indicate the species was found near their landing sites, but they were found only in remote places by 1667. The bird may have survived in eastern lowlands until the 1670s. Though many late 17th century accounts state the bird was good food, Feuilley stated it tasted bad. This may be because it changed its diet when it moved to more rugged, higher terrain, to escape pigs that destroyed its nests; since it had limited flight capabilities, it probably nested on the ground.
Many other endemic species of Réunion became extinct after the human colonisation and the resulting disruption of the island's ecosystem. The Réunion ibis lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the hoopoe starling, the Mascarene parrot, the Réunion parakeet, the Réunion swamphen, the Réunion scops owl, the Réunion night heron, and the Réunion pink pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink. The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius, but vanished from both islands.
Extinction
As Réunion was populated by settlers, the Réunion ibis appears to have become confined to the tops of mountains. Introduced predators such as cats and rats took a toll. Overhunting also contributed and several contemporary accounts state the bird was widely hunted for food. In 1625, John Tatton described the tameness of the bird and how easy it was to hunt, as well as the large quantity consumed:
There is store of land fowle both small and great, plenty of Doves, great Parrats, and such like; and a great fowle of the bignesse of a Turkie, very fat, and so short winged, that they cannot fly, being white, and in a manner tame: and so be all other fowles, as having not been troubled nor feared with shot. Our men did beat them down with sticks and stones. Ten men may take fowle enough to serve fortie men a day.
In 1671, Melet mentioned the culinary quality of this species, and described the slaughter of several types of birds on the island:
(A)nother sort of bird called solitaires which are very good (to eat) and the beauty of their plumage is most fascinating for the diversity of bright colours that shine on their wing and around their necks... There are birds in such great confusion and so tame that it is not necessary to go hunting with firearms, they can so easily be killed with a little stick or rod. During the five or six days that we were allowed to go into the woods, so many were killed that our General was constrained to forbid anyone going beyond a hundred paces from the camp for fear the whole quarter would be destroyed, for one needed only to catch one bird alive and make it cry out, to have in a moment whole flocks coming to perch on people, so that often without moving from one spot one could kill hundreds. But, seeing that it would have been impossible to wipe out such a huge quantity, permission was again given to kill, which gave great joy to everyone, because very good fare was had at no expense.
The last definite account of the "solitaire" of Réunion was Feuilley's from 1708, indicating that the species probably became extinct sometime early in the century. In the 1820s, the French navigator Louis de Freycinet asked an old slave about drontes (old Dutch word for dodo), and was told the bird existed around Saint-Joseph when his father was an infant. This would perhaps be a century earlier, but the account may be unreliable. Cheke and Hume suspect that feral cats initially hunted wildlife in the lowlands and later turned to higher inland areas, which were probably the last stronghold of the Réunion ibis, as they were unreachable by pigs. The species is thought to have been driven to extinction around 1710–1715.
References
- BirdLife International (2017). "Threskiornis solitarius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T22728791A119423949. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22728791A119423949.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
- ^ Hume, J. P.; Cheke, A. S. (2004). "The white dodo of Réunion Island: Unravelling a scientific and historical myth". Archives of Natural History. 31 (1): 57–79. doi:10.3366/anh.2004.31.1.57.
- ^ Strickland, H. E.; Melville, A. G. (1848). The Dodo and Its Kindred; or the History, Affinities, and Osteology of the Dodo, Solitaire, and Other Extinct Birds of the Islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon. London: Reeve, Benham and Reeve. pp. 57–62.
- ^ Hume, J. P.; Walters, M. (2012). Extinct Birds. London: A & C Black. pp. 67–68, 114. ISBN 978-1-4081-5725-1.
- ^ Cheke, A. S.; Hume, J. P. (2008). Lost Land of the Dodo: An Ecological History of Mauritius, Réunion & Rodrigues. New Haven and London. pp. 30–43. ISBN 978-0-7136-6544-4.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Bontekoe van Hoorn, W. (1646). Journael ofte Gedenk waerdige beschrijvinghe van de Oost-Indische Reyse van Willem Ysbrantz. Bontekoe van Hoorn (in Dutch). Amsterdam: Jooft Hartgers. p. 76.
- ^ Mourer-Chauviré, C.; Bour, S.; Ribes, R. (2006). "Recent avian extinctions on Réunion (Mascarene islands) from paleontological and historical sources". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club (126): 40–48.
- Olson, S. (1977). "A synopsis of the fossil Rallidae". Rails of the World – A Monograph of the Family Rallidae. Boston: Codline. pp. 357–358. hdl:10088/12826. ISBN 978-0-87474-804-8.
- ^ Mourer-Chauvire, C.; Bour, R.; Ribes, S.; Moutou, F. (1999). "Avian paleontology at the close of the 20th century: The avifauna of Réunion Island (Mascarene Islands) at the time of the arrival of the first Europeans". Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology. 89: 8–11. hdl:10088/2005.
- Schlegel, H. (1854). "Ook een Woordje over den Dodo (Didus ineptus) en zijne Verwanten". Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (in Dutch). 2: 232–256.
- ^ Parish, Jolyon C. (2013). The Dodo and the Solitaire: A Natural History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 105–106, 141–164. ISBN 978-0-253-00099-6.
- Newton, A. (1868). "XIII. On a picture supposed to represent the didine bird of the island of Bourbon (Réunion)". The Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. 6 (6): 373–376. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1868.tb00581.x.
- Oudemans, A. C. (1917). "Dodo-studiën. Naar Aanleiding Van de Vondst Van Een Gevelsteen Met Dodo-Beeld Van 1561 Te Vere". Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen (in Dutch). 2 (4): 56–100. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.15314.
- ^ Rothschild, W. (1907). Extinct Birds. London: Hutchinson & Co. pp. 171–176.
- ^ Hachisuka, M. (1937). "Revisional note on the didine birds of Réunion". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 50: 69–71.
- ^ de Lozoya, A. V. (2003). "An unnoticed painting of a white Dodo". Journal of the History of Collections. 15 (2): 201–210. doi:10.1093/jhc/15.2.201.
- Wood, Casey A. (1927). "Two hitherto unpublished pictures of the Mauritius Dodo". Ibis. 69 (3): 724–732. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1927.tb05377.x.
- Greenway, J. C. (1967). Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World. New York: American Committee for International Wild Life Protection 13. pp. 110–111, 122–124. ISBN 978-0-486-21869-4.
- Storer, R. W. (1970). "Independent Evolution of the Dodo and the Solitaire". The Auk. 87 (2): 369–370. doi:10.2307/4083934. JSTOR 4083934.
- Cowles, G. S. (1987). "The fossil record". In Diamond, A. W. (ed.). Studies of Mascarene Island Birds. Cambridge. pp. 90–100. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511735769.004. ISBN 978-0-511-73576-9.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Mourer-Chauviré, C.; Moutou, F. (1987). "Découverte d'une forme récemment éteinte d'ibis endémique insulaire de l'île de la Réunion Borbonibis latipes n. gen. n. sp". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (in French). 305 (5): 419–423.
- Cowles, G. S. (1994). "A new genus, three new species and two new records of extinct Holocene birds from Réunion Island, Indian Ocean". Geobios. 27 (1): 87–93. Bibcode:1994Geobi..27...87C. doi:10.1016/S0016-6995(06)80215-9.
- Probst, J.-M. (1995). "Découverte d'un bec appartenant au Solitaire de Bourbon?". Bulletin Phaethon. 1: 44–45.
- ^ Mourer-Chauviré, C. C.; Bour, R.; Ribes, S. (1995). "Was the solitaire of Réunion an ibis?". Nature. 373 (6515): 568. Bibcode:1995Natur.373..568M. doi:10.1038/373568a0. S2CID 4304082.
- Parish, J. C.; Cheke, A. S. (2019). "A newly-discovered early depiction of the Dodo (Aves: Columbidae: Raphus cucullatus) by Roelandt Savery, with a note on another previously unnoticed Savery Dodo". Historical Biology. 31 (10): 1402–1411. doi:10.1080/08912963.2018.1457658. S2CID 89661119.
- ^ Fuller, E. (2002). Dodo – From Extinction to Icon. London: HarperCollins. pp. 168–172. ISBN 978-0-00-714572-0.
- Fuller, E. (2001). Extinct Birds (revised ed.). New York: Comstock. pp. 385–386. ISBN 978-0-8014-3954-4.
- Hume, J. P. (2019). "Systematics, morphology and ecology of rails (Aves: Rallidae) of the Mascarene Islands, with one new species". Zootaxa. 4626 (1): 49–51, 63–67. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4626.1.1. PMID 31712544. S2CID 198258434.
External links
- Media related to Threskiornis solitarius at Wikimedia Commons
- Data related to Threskiornis solitarius at Wikispecies
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Threskiornis solitarius |
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