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{{Short description|Collection of possible string theory vacua}}
The '''string theory landscape''' or '''anthropic landscape''' refers to the large number of different ] in ]. It arises from the idea that there are an extremely large number of ] ] (ground states) in ].{{ref|largenumber}} The large number of possibilites arise from different choices of ]s and different values of generalized ]es over different ] cycles.{{ref|fluxvacua}} This large number of ] ] (ground states) is thought by some physicists to be large enough that the known laws of physics, the ], occurs in at least one, although computing quantities such as masses of particles and ]s for even a single vacuum is a technically difficult problem.
{{String theory|cTopic=Theory}}


In ], the '''string theory landscape''' (or '''landscape of vacua''') is the collection of possible ],<ref name=Ashok>The number of metastable vacua is not known exactly, but commonly quoted estimates are of the order 10<sup>500</sup>. See ], "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0305''', 46 (2003). {{arxiv|hep-th/0303194}}; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0401''', 060 (2004).</ref> together comprising a collective "landscape" of choices of parameters governing ].
The idea of the string theory landscape has been used to propose a concrete implementation of the ], the idea that fundamental constants may have the values they have not for fundamental physical reasons, but rather because such values are necessary for life (and hence intelligent observers to measure the constants). In 1987, ] proposed that the observed value of the ] was so small because it is not possible for life to occur in a universe with a much larger cosmological constant.{{ref|weinberg}} In order to implement this idea in a concrete physical theory, it is necessary to postulate that a ] in which fundamental physical parameters can take different values. This has been realized in the context of ]. Some physicists, starting with Weinberg, have proposed that ] can be used to compute probability distributions for fundamental physical parameters, where the probability <math>P(x)</math> of observing some fundamental parameters <math>x</math> is given by,
:<math>P(x)=P_\mathrm{prior}(x)\times P_\mathrm{selection}(x),</math>
where <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is the prior probability, from fundamental theory, of the parameters <math>x</math> and <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is the anthropic selection function, determined by the number of "observers" that would occur in the universe with parameters <math>x</math>. These probabilistic arguments are the most controversial aspect of the landscape. Technical criticisms of these proposals have pointed out that:
* The function <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is completely unknown in string theory and may be impossible to define or interpret in any sensible probablistic way.
* The function <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is completely unknown, since so little is known about the origin of life and criteria (such as the number of galaxies) must be used as a proxy for the number of observers. Moreover, it may never be possible to compute it for parameters radically different from those of the observable universe.
* Interpreting probability in a context where it is only possible to draw one ] from a ] is problematic.
Various physicists have tried to address these objections, but as yet there is no widespread agreement. These ideas have been reviewed by Carroll {{ref|carroll}}. Tegmark ''et al.'' have recently considered these objections and proposed a simplified anthropic scenario for ] ] in which they argue that the first two of these problems do not apply. {{ref|tegmark}}


The term "landscape" comes from the notion of a ] in ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Jim |last=Baggott |year=2018 |title=Quantum Space Loop Quantum Gravity and the Search for the Structure of Space, Time, and the Universe |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-253681-5 |page=288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HwN6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA288 }}</ref> It was first applied to cosmology by ] in his book '']'' (1997), and was first used in the context of string theory by ].<ref>L. Smolin, "Did the universe evolve?", ''Classical and Quantum Gravity'' '''9''', 173–191 (1992). L. Smolin, '']'' (Oxford, 1997)</ref>
Although few dispute the idea that string theory appears to have an unimaginably large number of metastable vacua, the existence, meaning and scientific relevance of the anthropic landscape remain highly controversial. Prominent proponents of the idea include ], ], ], ] and ] who advocate it as a solution to the ] problem. Opponents, such as ], suggest that the idea is inherently unscientific, unfalsifiable or premature.


==Compactified Calabi–Yau manifolds<!--'KKLT mechanism' redirects here-->==
The term "landscape" comes from ] (see '']'') and was first applied to cosmology by ] in his book {{ref|smolin}}. It was first used in the context of string theory by Susskind.{{ref|susskind}} There are several popular books about the anthropic principle in cosmology.{{ref|popbooks}} Two popular physics blogs are opposed to the anthropic principle.{{ref|blogs}}
{{main|Compactification (physics)}}

In string theory the number of ] is commonly thought to be roughly <math>10^{500}</math>,<ref>{{cite journal|title=The landscape and the multiverse: What's the problem?|journal=Synthese|date=2021|last1=Read|first1=James|last2=Le Bihan|first2=Baptiste|volume=199|issue=3–4|pages=7749–7771|doi=10.1007/s11229-021-03137-0|s2cid=234815857|doi-access=free}}</ref> but could be <math>10^{272,000}</math><ref>{{cite journal|title=The F-theory geometry with most flux vacua|date=2015|last1=Taylor| first1=Washington|last2=Wang|first2=Yi-Nan|doi=10.1007/JHEP12(2015)164|journal=Journal of High Energy Physics|volume=2015|issue=12|pages=164|arxiv=1511.03209 |bibcode=2015JHEP...12..164T|s2cid=41149049}}</ref> or higher. The large number of possibilities arises from choices of ]s and choices of generalized ]es over various ] cycles, found in ].

If there is no structure in the space of vacua, the problem of finding one with a sufficiently small cosmological constant is ].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Computational complexity of the landscape|year=2007|author1=Frederik Denef|last2=Douglas | first2=Michael R.|doi=10.1016/j.aop.2006.07.013|journal=Annals of Physics|volume=322|issue=5|pages=1096–1142|arxiv=hep-th/0602072|bibcode = 2007AnPhy.322.1096D |s2cid=281586}}</ref> This is a version of the ].

A possible mechanism of string theory vacuum stabilization, now known as the '''KKLT mechanism'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, was proposed in 2003 by ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal|title=de Sitter Vacua in String Theory|journal=Physical Review D|volume=68|issue=4|pages=046005|arxiv=hep-th/0301240|author=Kachru, Shamit|author2=Kallosh, Renata|author3=Linde, Andrei|author4=Trivedi, Sandip P.|year=2003|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.68.046005|bibcode=2003PhRvD..68d6005K|s2cid=119482182}}</ref>

==Fine-tuning by the anthropic principle==
{{main|Fine-tuning (physics)|Anthropic principle}}

] of constants like the ] or the ] mass are usually assumed to occur for precise physical reasons as opposed to taking their particular values at random. That is, these values should be uniquely consistent with underlying physical laws.

The number of theoretically allowed configurations has prompted suggestions{{according to whom|date=May 2017}} that this is not the case, and that many different vacua are physically realized.<ref>L. Susskind, "The anthropic landscape of string theory", {{arxiv|hep-th/0302219}}.</ref> The ] proposes that fundamental constants may have the values they have because such values are necessary for life (and therefore intelligent observers to measure the constants). The ''anthropic landscape'' thus refers to the collection of those portions of the landscape that are suitable for supporting intelligent life.

===Weinberg model===
{{main|Bayesian probability}}

In 1987, ] proposed that the observed value of the ] was so small because it is impossible for life to occur in a universe with a much larger cosmological constant.<ref>S. Weinberg, "Anthropic bound on the cosmological constant", ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''59''', 2607 (1987).</ref>

Weinberg attempted to predict the magnitude of the cosmological constant based on probabilistic arguments. Other attempts{{which|date=May 2017}} have been made to apply similar reasoning to models of particle physics.<ref>S. M. Carroll, "Is our universe natural?" (2005) {{arxiv|hep-th/0512148}} reviews a number of proposals in preprints dated 2004/5.</ref>

Such attempts are based in the general ideas of ]; interpreting probability in a context where it is only possible to draw one ] from a ] is problematic in ] but not in Bayesian probability, which is not defined in terms of the frequency of repeated events.

In such a framework, the probability <math>P(x)</math> of observing some fundamental parameters <math>x</math> is given by,
:<math>P(x)=P_{\mathrm{prior}}(x)\times P_{\mathrm{selection}}(x),</math>
where <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is the prior probability, from fundamental theory, of the parameters <math>x</math> and <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is the "anthropic selection function", determined by the number of "observers" that would occur in the universe with parameters <math>x</math>.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

These probabilistic arguments are the most controversial aspect of the landscape. Technical criticisms of these proposals have pointed out that:{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}{{year needed|date=May 2016}}

* The function <math>P_\mathrm{prior}</math> is completely unknown in string theory and may be impossible to define or interpret in any sensible probabilistic way.
* The function <math>P_\mathrm{selection}</math> is completely unknown, since so little is known about the origin of life. Simplified criteria (such as the number of galaxies) must be used as a proxy for the number of observers. Moreover, it may never be possible to compute it for parameters radically different from those of the observable universe.

===Simplified approaches===
] ''et al.'' have recently considered these objections and proposed a simplified anthropic scenario for ] ] in which they argue that the first two of these problems do not apply.<ref>M. Tegmark, A. Aguirre, M. Rees and F. Wilczek, "Dimensionless constants, cosmology and other dark matters", {{arxiv|astro-ph/0511774}}. F. Wilczek, "Enlightenment, knowledge, ignorance, temptation", {{arxiv|hep-ph/0512187}}. See also the discussion at .</ref>

Vilenkin and collaborators have proposed a consistent way to define the probabilities for a given vacuum.<ref>See, ''e.g.'' {{cite journal|year=2007|title=A measure of the multiverse|author1=Alexander Vilenkin|doi=10.1088/1751-8113/40/25/S22|journal=Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical|volume=40|issue=25|pages=6777–6785|arxiv=hep-th/0609193|bibcode = 2007JPhA...40.6777V |s2cid=119390736}}</ref>

A problem with many of the simplified approaches people{{who|date=March 2016}} have tried is that they "predict" a cosmological constant that is too large by a factor of 10–1000 orders of magnitude (depending on one's assumptions) and hence suggest that the cosmic acceleration should be much more rapid than is observed.<ref>{{cite journal|title=An observational test for the anthropic origin of the cosmological constant|author=Abraham Loeb|date=2006|journal=Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics|volume=0605|issue=5|pages=009 |bibcode=2006JCAP...05..009L|arxiv=astro-ph/0604242|doi=10.1088/1475-7516/2006/05/009|s2cid=39340203}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Anthropic prediction for Lambda and the Q catastrophe|author=Jaume Garriga|author2=Alexander Vilenkin|name-list-style=amp|date=2006|volume=163|pages=245–57|journal=Prog. Theor. Phys. Suppl.|doi=10.1143/PTPS.163.245 |arxiv = hep-th/0508005 |bibcode = 2006PThPS.163..245G |s2cid=118936307}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Probabilities in the Bousso-Polchinski multiverse|author=Delia Schwartz-Perlov|author2=Alexander Vilenkin|name-list-style=amp|date=2006|journal=Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics|volume=0606|issue=6|pages=010 |bibcode=2006JCAP...06..010S|arxiv=hep-th/0601162|doi=10.1088/1475-7516/2006/06/010|s2cid=119337679}}</ref>

===Interpretation===
Few dispute the large number of metastable vacua.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} The existence, meaning, and scientific relevance of the anthropic landscape, however, remain controversial.{{elucidate|date=May 2017}}

====Cosmological constant problem====
], ] and ] advocate it as a solution to the ].{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}

===Weak scale supersymmetry from the landscape===
The string landscape ideas can be applied to the notion of weak scale supersymmetry and the Little Hierarchy problem.
For string vacua which include the MSSM (Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model) as the low energy effective field theory, all values of SUSY breaking fields
are expected to be equally likely on the landscape. This led Douglas<ref>M. R. Douglas, "Statistical analysis of the supersymmetry breaking scale", {{arxiv|hep-th/0405279}}.</ref> and others to propose that the SUSY breaking scale is distributed as a power
law in the landscape <math>P_{prior}\sim m_{soft}^{2n_F+n_D-1} </math> where <math>n_F</math> is the number of F-breaking fields
(distributed as complex numbers) and <math>n_D</math> is the number of D-breaking fields (distributed as real numbers).
Next, one may impose the Agrawal, Barr, Donoghue, Seckel (ABDS) anthropic requirement<ref>V. Agrawal, S. M. Barr, J. F. Donoghue and
D. Seckel, "Anthropic considerations in multiple domain theories and the scale of electroweak symmetry breaking",
''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''80''', 1822 (1998).{{arxiv|hep-ph/9801253}}</ref> that the derived weak scale lie within a factor of a few
of our measured value (lest nuclei as needed for life as we know it become unstable (the atomic principle)).
Combining these effects with a mild power-law draw to large soft SUSY breaking terms,
one may calculate the Higgs boson and superparticle masses expected from the landscape.<ref>H. Baer, V. Barger, H. Serce and K. Sinha, "Higgs and superparticle mass predictions from the landscape", ''JHEP'' '''03''', 002 (2018), {{arxiv|1712.01399}} .</ref>
The Higgs mass probability distribution peaks around 125 GeV while sparticles (with the exception of light higgsinos) tend to
lie well beyond current LHC search limits. This approach is an example of the application of stringy naturalness.

====Scientific relevance====
] suggests{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} that the idea is inherently unscientific, unfalsifiable or premature. A famous debate on the anthropic landscape of string theory is the ] on the merits of the landscape.

====Popular reception====
There are several popular books about the anthropic principle in cosmology.<ref>L. Susskind, ''The cosmic landscape: string theory and the illusion of intelligent design'' (Little, Brown, 2005). M. J. Rees, ''Just six numbers: the deep forces that shape the universe'' (Basic Books, 2001). R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, "The string theory landscape", ''Sci. Am.'' '''291''', 60–69 (2004).</ref> The authors of two physics blogs, ] and ], are opposed to this use of the anthropic principle.{{why|date=May 2017}}<ref>Motl's blog criticized the anthropic principle and Woit's frequently attacks the anthropic string landscape.</ref>

==See also==
* ]
* ]


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
#{{note|largenumber}} The most commonly quoted number is of order 10<sup>500</sup>. See M. Douglas, "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0305''', 46 (2003). {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0303194}}; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", ''JHEP'' '''0401''', 060 (2004).

#{{note|fluxvacua}} R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, "Quantization of four-form fluxes and dynamical neutralization of the cosmological constant", ''JHEP'' '''06''', 006 (2000). {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0004134}} S. Kachru, R. Kallosh, A. Linde and S. Trivedi, "de Sitter vacua in string theory", ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D68''', 046005 (2003). {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0301240}}
==External links==
#{{note|weiberg}} S. Weinberg, "Anthropic bound on the cosmological constant", ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''59''', 2607 (1987).
* on ].
#{{note|carroll}} S. M. Carroll, "Is our universe natural?", {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0512148}}.
* {{cite journal |title= On the computation of non-perturbative effective potentials in the string theory landscape |first1= Mirjam |last1= Cvetič|author1-link= Mirjam Cvetič |first2= Iñaki |last2= García-Etxebarria |first3= James |last3= Halverson |doi= 10.1002/prop.201000093 |journal= Fortschritte der Physik |volume= 59 |issue= 3–4 |pages= 243–283 |date= March 2011 |arxiv = 1009.5386 |bibcode = 2011ForPh..59..243C |s2cid= 46634583 }}
#{{note|tegmark}} M. Tegmark, A. Aguirre, M. Rees and F. Wilczek, "Dimensionless constants, cosmology and other dark matters", {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0511774}}. F. Wilczek, "Enlightenment, knowledge, ignorance, temptation," {{arxiv|archive=hep-ph|id=0512187}}. See also the discussion at .

#{{note|smolin}} L. Smolin, "Did the universe evolve?," ''Classical and Quantum Gravity'' '''9''', 173&ndash;191 (1992). L. Smolin, ''The Life of the Cosmos'' (Oxford, 1997)
{{String theory topics |state=collapsed}}
#{{note|susskind}} L. Susskind, "The anthropic landscape of string theory", {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0302219}}.

#{{note|popbooks}} L. Susskind, ''The cosmic landscape: string theory and the illusion of intelligent design'' (Little, Brown, 2005). M. J. Rees, ''Just six numbers: the deep forces that shape the universe'' (Basic Books, 2001). R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, "The string theory landscape", ''Sci. Am.'' '''291''', 60&ndash;69 (2004).
{{DEFAULTSORT:String Theory Landscape}}
#{{note|blogs}} ]'s and ]'s frequently attack the landscape.
]
#
]
] ]
]
]

Latest revision as of 07:38, 22 July 2024

Collection of possible string theory vacua
String theory
Fundamental objects
Perturbative theory
Non-perturbative results
Phenomenology
Mathematics
Related concepts
Theorists

In string theory, the string theory landscape (or landscape of vacua) is the collection of possible false vacua, together comprising a collective "landscape" of choices of parameters governing compactifications.

The term "landscape" comes from the notion of a fitness landscape in evolutionary biology. It was first applied to cosmology by Lee Smolin in his book The Life of the Cosmos (1997), and was first used in the context of string theory by Leonard Susskind.

Compactified Calabi–Yau manifolds

Main article: Compactification (physics)

In string theory the number of flux vacua is commonly thought to be roughly 10 500 {\displaystyle 10^{500}} , but could be 10 272 , 000 {\displaystyle 10^{272,000}} or higher. The large number of possibilities arises from choices of Calabi–Yau manifolds and choices of generalized magnetic fluxes over various homology cycles, found in F-theory.

If there is no structure in the space of vacua, the problem of finding one with a sufficiently small cosmological constant is NP complete. This is a version of the subset sum problem.

A possible mechanism of string theory vacuum stabilization, now known as the KKLT mechanism, was proposed in 2003 by Shamit Kachru, Renata Kallosh, Andrei Linde, and Sandip Trivedi.

Fine-tuning by the anthropic principle

Main articles: Fine-tuning (physics) and Anthropic principle

Fine-tuning of constants like the cosmological constant or the Higgs boson mass are usually assumed to occur for precise physical reasons as opposed to taking their particular values at random. That is, these values should be uniquely consistent with underlying physical laws.

The number of theoretically allowed configurations has prompted suggestions that this is not the case, and that many different vacua are physically realized. The anthropic principle proposes that fundamental constants may have the values they have because such values are necessary for life (and therefore intelligent observers to measure the constants). The anthropic landscape thus refers to the collection of those portions of the landscape that are suitable for supporting intelligent life.

Weinberg model

Main article: Bayesian probability

In 1987, Steven Weinberg proposed that the observed value of the cosmological constant was so small because it is impossible for life to occur in a universe with a much larger cosmological constant.

Weinberg attempted to predict the magnitude of the cosmological constant based on probabilistic arguments. Other attempts have been made to apply similar reasoning to models of particle physics.

Such attempts are based in the general ideas of Bayesian probability; interpreting probability in a context where it is only possible to draw one sample from a distribution is problematic in frequentist probability but not in Bayesian probability, which is not defined in terms of the frequency of repeated events.

In such a framework, the probability P ( x ) {\displaystyle P(x)} of observing some fundamental parameters x {\displaystyle x} is given by,

P ( x ) = P p r i o r ( x ) × P s e l e c t i o n ( x ) , {\displaystyle P(x)=P_{\mathrm {prior} }(x)\times P_{\mathrm {selection} }(x),}

where P p r i o r {\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {prior} }} is the prior probability, from fundamental theory, of the parameters x {\displaystyle x} and P s e l e c t i o n {\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {selection} }} is the "anthropic selection function", determined by the number of "observers" that would occur in the universe with parameters x {\displaystyle x} .

These probabilistic arguments are the most controversial aspect of the landscape. Technical criticisms of these proposals have pointed out that:

  • The function P p r i o r {\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {prior} }} is completely unknown in string theory and may be impossible to define or interpret in any sensible probabilistic way.
  • The function P s e l e c t i o n {\displaystyle P_{\mathrm {selection} }} is completely unknown, since so little is known about the origin of life. Simplified criteria (such as the number of galaxies) must be used as a proxy for the number of observers. Moreover, it may never be possible to compute it for parameters radically different from those of the observable universe.

Simplified approaches

Tegmark et al. have recently considered these objections and proposed a simplified anthropic scenario for axion dark matter in which they argue that the first two of these problems do not apply.

Vilenkin and collaborators have proposed a consistent way to define the probabilities for a given vacuum.

A problem with many of the simplified approaches people have tried is that they "predict" a cosmological constant that is too large by a factor of 10–1000 orders of magnitude (depending on one's assumptions) and hence suggest that the cosmic acceleration should be much more rapid than is observed.

Interpretation

Few dispute the large number of metastable vacua. The existence, meaning, and scientific relevance of the anthropic landscape, however, remain controversial.

Cosmological constant problem

Andrei Linde, Sir Martin Rees and Leonard Susskind advocate it as a solution to the cosmological constant problem.

Weak scale supersymmetry from the landscape

The string landscape ideas can be applied to the notion of weak scale supersymmetry and the Little Hierarchy problem. For string vacua which include the MSSM (Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model) as the low energy effective field theory, all values of SUSY breaking fields are expected to be equally likely on the landscape. This led Douglas and others to propose that the SUSY breaking scale is distributed as a power law in the landscape P p r i o r ∼ m s o f t 2 n F + n D − 1 {\displaystyle P_{prior}\sim m_{soft}^{2n_{F}+n_{D}-1}} where n F {\displaystyle n_{F}} is the number of F-breaking fields (distributed as complex numbers) and n D {\displaystyle n_{D}} is the number of D-breaking fields (distributed as real numbers). Next, one may impose the Agrawal, Barr, Donoghue, Seckel (ABDS) anthropic requirement that the derived weak scale lie within a factor of a few of our measured value (lest nuclei as needed for life as we know it become unstable (the atomic principle)). Combining these effects with a mild power-law draw to large soft SUSY breaking terms, one may calculate the Higgs boson and superparticle masses expected from the landscape. The Higgs mass probability distribution peaks around 125 GeV while sparticles (with the exception of light higgsinos) tend to lie well beyond current LHC search limits. This approach is an example of the application of stringy naturalness.

Scientific relevance

David Gross suggests that the idea is inherently unscientific, unfalsifiable or premature. A famous debate on the anthropic landscape of string theory is the Smolin–Susskind debate on the merits of the landscape.

Popular reception

There are several popular books about the anthropic principle in cosmology. The authors of two physics blogs, Lubos Motl and Peter Woit, are opposed to this use of the anthropic principle.

See also

References

  1. The number of metastable vacua is not known exactly, but commonly quoted estimates are of the order 10. See M. Douglas, "The statistics of string / M theory vacua", JHEP 0305, 46 (2003). arXiv:hep-th/0303194; S. Ashok and M. Douglas, "Counting flux vacua", JHEP 0401, 060 (2004).
  2. Baggott, Jim (2018). Quantum Space Loop Quantum Gravity and the Search for the Structure of Space, Time, and the Universe. Oxford University Press. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-19-253681-5.
  3. L. Smolin, "Did the universe evolve?", Classical and Quantum Gravity 9, 173–191 (1992). L. Smolin, The Life of the Cosmos (Oxford, 1997)
  4. Read, James; Le Bihan, Baptiste (2021). "The landscape and the multiverse: What's the problem?". Synthese. 199 (3–4): 7749–7771. doi:10.1007/s11229-021-03137-0. S2CID 234815857.
  5. Taylor, Washington; Wang, Yi-Nan (2015). "The F-theory geometry with most flux vacua". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2015 (12): 164. arXiv:1511.03209. Bibcode:2015JHEP...12..164T. doi:10.1007/JHEP12(2015)164. S2CID 41149049.
  6. Frederik Denef; Douglas, Michael R. (2007). "Computational complexity of the landscape". Annals of Physics. 322 (5): 1096–1142. arXiv:hep-th/0602072. Bibcode:2007AnPhy.322.1096D. doi:10.1016/j.aop.2006.07.013. S2CID 281586.
  7. Kachru, Shamit; Kallosh, Renata; Linde, Andrei; Trivedi, Sandip P. (2003). "de Sitter Vacua in String Theory". Physical Review D. 68 (4): 046005. arXiv:hep-th/0301240. Bibcode:2003PhRvD..68d6005K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.68.046005. S2CID 119482182.
  8. L. Susskind, "The anthropic landscape of string theory", arXiv:hep-th/0302219.
  9. S. Weinberg, "Anthropic bound on the cosmological constant", Phys. Rev. Lett. 59, 2607 (1987).
  10. S. M. Carroll, "Is our universe natural?" (2005) arXiv:hep-th/0512148 reviews a number of proposals in preprints dated 2004/5.
  11. M. Tegmark, A. Aguirre, M. Rees and F. Wilczek, "Dimensionless constants, cosmology and other dark matters", arXiv:astro-ph/0511774. F. Wilczek, "Enlightenment, knowledge, ignorance, temptation", arXiv:hep-ph/0512187. See also the discussion at .
  12. See, e.g. Alexander Vilenkin (2007). "A measure of the multiverse". Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical. 40 (25): 6777–6785. arXiv:hep-th/0609193. Bibcode:2007JPhA...40.6777V. doi:10.1088/1751-8113/40/25/S22. S2CID 119390736.
  13. Abraham Loeb (2006). "An observational test for the anthropic origin of the cosmological constant". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 0605 (5): 009. arXiv:astro-ph/0604242. Bibcode:2006JCAP...05..009L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2006/05/009. S2CID 39340203.
  14. Jaume Garriga & Alexander Vilenkin (2006). "Anthropic prediction for Lambda and the Q catastrophe". Prog. Theor. Phys. Suppl. 163: 245–57. arXiv:hep-th/0508005. Bibcode:2006PThPS.163..245G. doi:10.1143/PTPS.163.245. S2CID 118936307.
  15. Delia Schwartz-Perlov & Alexander Vilenkin (2006). "Probabilities in the Bousso-Polchinski multiverse". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 0606 (6): 010. arXiv:hep-th/0601162. Bibcode:2006JCAP...06..010S. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2006/06/010. S2CID 119337679.
  16. M. R. Douglas, "Statistical analysis of the supersymmetry breaking scale", arXiv:hep-th/0405279.
  17. V. Agrawal, S. M. Barr, J. F. Donoghue and D. Seckel, "Anthropic considerations in multiple domain theories and the scale of electroweak symmetry breaking", Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 1822 (1998).arXiv:hep-ph/9801253
  18. H. Baer, V. Barger, H. Serce and K. Sinha, "Higgs and superparticle mass predictions from the landscape", JHEP 03, 002 (2018), arXiv:1712.01399 .
  19. L. Susskind, The cosmic landscape: string theory and the illusion of intelligent design (Little, Brown, 2005). M. J. Rees, Just six numbers: the deep forces that shape the universe (Basic Books, 2001). R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, "The string theory landscape", Sci. Am. 291, 60–69 (2004).
  20. Motl's blog criticized the anthropic principle and Woit's blog frequently attacks the anthropic string landscape.

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Particles and fields
Branes
Conformal field theory
Gauge theory
Geometry
Supersymmetry
Holography
M-theory
String theorists
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