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{{Short description|Normative variety of Serbo-Croatian in Montenegro}}
{{expert}}
{{Redirect|Crnogorski|other uses|Montenegrin (disambiguation){{!}}Montenegrin}}
'''Montenegrin dialect''' is the name given to the Ijekavian-] dialect spoken in ]. Although politically unrecognized, some people refer to this specific dialect as a language on its own, while most of its speakers consider it a dialect of ]. ] there is an ongoing controversy on this issue.

{{Infobox language
| name = Montenegrin
| nativename = {{lang-cnr-Latn-Cyrl|crnogorski|црногорски|label=none|separator="<br />"}}
| pronunciation = {{IPA|cnr|tsr̩nǒɡorskiː|}}
| states = ]
| ethnicity = ]
| speakers = 232,600 (])
| date =
| ref =
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = ]
| fam3 = ]
| fam4 = ]
| fam5 = ]
| fam6 = ]
| script = {{ubl|] (]) | ] (]) | ]}}
| nation = {{MNE}}
| minority = ] municipality (Vojvodina, Serbia)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2017/08/07/serbian-montenegrins-demand-right-to-use-native-language-08-04-2017/|title = Serbian Montenegrins Demand Official Language Rights|date = 7 August 2017}}</ref>
| agency = Board for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language
| iso2 = cnr
| iso2comment = <ref name=iso6392>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/code_list.php|title=ISO 639-2 Language Code List – Codes for the representation of names of languages (Library of Congress)|website=www.loc.gov}}</ref>
| iso3 = cnr
| iso3comment = <ref name=iso6393>{{cite web|url=http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=cnr|title=cnr – ISO 639-3|website=www-01.sil.org}}</ref>
| lingua = part of ]
| notice = IPA
| map = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption = {{center|{{small|Montenegrin is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO ] <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/montenegrin|title=World Atlas of Languages: Montenegrin|website=en.wal.unesco.org|access-date=2023-11-30}}</ref>}}}}
| glotto = mont1282
| glottorefname = Montenegrin Standard
| fam7 = ]
| fam8 = New Shtokavian
| fam9 = ]
}}
{{South Slavic languages sidebar}}
'''Montenegrin''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɒ|n|t|ᵻ|ˈ|n|iː|ɡ|r|ᵻ|n}} {{respell|MON|tin|EE|grin}};<ref>{{Cite book|title=Collins English Dictionary|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2018|isbn=978-0-008-28437-4|edition=13th|chapter=Montenegrin}}</ref>{{efn |name="pronunciations"}} {{lang|cnr-Latn|crnogorski}}, {{lang|cnr-Cyrl|црногорски}}) is a ] of the ] language<ref>{{cite book|last=Šipka|first=Danko|author-link=Danko Sipka|year=2019|title=Lexical layers of identity: words, meaning, and culture in the Slavic languages|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=201|doi=10.1017/9781108685795|isbn=978-953-313-086-6|s2cid=150383965|lccn=2018048005 |oclc=1061308790|quote=the Montenegrin language (one of the four ethnic variants of Serbo-Croatian)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Jelena|last=Ćalić|title=Pluricentricity in the classroom: the Serbo-Croatian language issue for foreign language teaching at higher education institutions worldwide|journal=Sociolinguistica: European Journal of Sociolinguistics|publisher=De Gruyter|issn=0933-1883|doi=10.1515/soci-2021-0007|volume=35|issue=1|pages=113–140|year=2021|s2cid=244134335 |quote=The debate about the status of the Serbo-Croatian language and its varieties has recently shifted (again) towards a position which looks at the internal variation within Serbo-Croatian through the prism of linguistic pluricentricity|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mader Skender|first=Mia|title=Die kroatische Standardsprache auf dem Weg zur Ausbausprache|language=German|trans-title=The Croatian standard language on the way to ausbau language|chapter=Schlussbemerkung|trans-chapter=Summary|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/215815/|format=PDF|publisher=University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts, Institute of Slavonic Studies|series=UZH Dissertations|pages=196–197|location=Zurich|year=2022|doi=10.5167/uzh-215815 |accessdate=8 June 2022|type=Dissertation |quote=Serben, Kroaten, Bosnier und Montenegriner immer noch auf ihren jeweiligen Nationalsprachen unterhalten und problemlos verständigen. Nur schon diese Tatsache zeigt, dass es sich immer noch um eine polyzentrische Sprache mit verschiedenen Varietäten handelt.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kordić|first=Snježana|author-link=Snježana Kordić|editor-last1=Nomachi|editor-first1=Motoki|editor-link1=Motoki Nomachi|editor-last2=Kamusella|editor-first2=Tomasz|editor-link2=Tomasz Kamusella|title=Languages and Nationalism Instead of Empires|publisher=]|series=Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe|pages=168–169|chapter=Ideology Against Language: The Current Situation in South Slavic Countries|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372202077|chapter-format=PDF|language=en|location=London|year=2024|doi=10.4324/9781003034025-11|doi-access=|isbn=978-0-367-47191-0|lccn=|oclc=1390118985|s2cid=259576119|s2cid-access=|ssrn=4680766|ssrn-access=free|id={{COBISS.SR|125229577}}. {{COBISS|171014403}}|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/kordic-ideology-against-language |archive-date=2024-01-10|access-date=2024-01-23|url-status=live}}</ref> mainly used by ] and is the official language of ]. Montenegrin is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, ], more specifically on ], which is also the basis of Standard ], ], and ].<ref>, '']'', February 21, 2009</ref>

Montenegro's language has historically and traditionally been called either Serbian or Montenegrin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Reprint: A speech in the Assembly gathering on the 16th of February, 1898. made during the respective discussion by the representative of Ante Trumbić|journal=Kolo Matice Hrvatske|volume=1, 2|pages=200–201}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title="O Crnogorcima: Pisma sa Cetinja 1878. godine"|last=Nenadović|first=Ljubomir|year=1889|isbn=86-7558-383-4|location=Novi Sad|publisher=Чигоја штампа}}</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Montenegro |volume= 18 |last= Bourchier |first= James David |author-link= James David Bourchier | pages = 766–773; see page 771, third para |quote= Language and Literature.—The Montenegrin language is practically identical with the Serbo-Croatian: it exhibits certain dialectical variations, and has borrowed to some extent from the Turkish and Italian....}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=La questione Montenegrina|last=De Bajza|first=Giuseppe|publisher=Casa editrice Franklin|year=1928|location=Budapest, Hungary}}</ref> The idea of a standardized Montenegrin standard language separate from ] appeared in the 1990s during the ] through proponents of ] from ]. Montenegrin became the ] of Montenegro with the ratification and proclamation of a new ] in October 2007.<ref name="CafedelMontenegro">{{cite news |date=2007-10-20 |title=Crna Gora dobila novi Ustav |url=http://www.cafemontenegro.com/index.php?group=23&news=7498 |publisher=] |language=Montenegrin}}</ref>

==History==
{{One source section|date=December 2023}}
The beginnings of Montenegrin literacy date back to 9th century, during the ] period, with the establishment of numerous monasteries in the coastal region. While traces of Latin and Greek literacy from the Duklja period are partially preserved, there is only indirect evidence of literacy in the Slavic language. The use of ] in Duklja was influenced by the strong center of Slavic literacy in ], although some argue that Slavic literature in Duklja was written in Latin script. Literary activity flourished around ] during this period, with the Monastery of Prečista Krajinska as a significant center.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature">{{cite web|url= http://www.fcjk.me/o-jeziku |title=O jeziku|publisher=Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature|date=21 May 2023|language=Montenegrin}}</ref>

The ] period begins with the fall of Duklja to Serbian rule and extends through the rule of the ] and ] families. While there is no consensus on the dating of Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts in present-day Montenegro, it is established that ] and ] became dominant during the Zeta period, replacing ].<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

In Zeta was established a printing press by ], starting in Obod and later moving to ]. This press produced five ], making Montenegro one of the four Slavic nations with incunabula in their language. During this period there was a development of the Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic, exemplified by the Miroslavljevo Gospel from the 12th century, written in ]. This redaction adapted Old Church Slavonic to the local language of medieval Zeta, influencing Bosnian and Serbian redactions. Despite being erroneously labeled as Zeta-Hum redaction, it originated in Zeta and then spread to Hum.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

]

The period of written language spans from the late 15th to the 18th century. During this time, written language represents the written realization of the local spoken language. In new socio-historical circumstances in Montenegro, there was a gradual shift towards the reintegration of the Montenegrin language with a popular basis. However, Old Church Slavonic continued to be used in the Orthodox Church for a long time. In this phase, Old Church Slavonic books and Cyrillic script dominated. Yet, in the coastal region, the influence of the Montenegrin type of Old Church Slavonic had little impact on the literature of the period, where Latin and ] prevailed.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

The written language in secular use continued to follow the development of the Montenegrin spoken language, progressively shedding Church Slavonic elements as time passed. The most significant writers during the period of written language emerged in the late Baroque period - ] in the coastal part ] and ] in the continental part ]. Both wrote in the Montenegrin vernacular.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

From the second half of the 18th century, strengthened by the state and church organization, conditions were created for the establishment of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language as a means of common communication across the territory under the jurisdiction of the state and church. Even before the birth of ], Ivan-Antun Nenadić from ] advocated for the phonetic orthographic principle, emphasizing that writing should reflect how people speak and pronounce. This rule was applied early in Montenegrin literature, making it unsurprising that Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms were later accepted without significant issues. In the period of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language, three styles can be observed: literary, business, and scientific, all formed in the process of spontaneous Montenegrin linguistic standardization. Montenegrin literature, both linguistically and thematically, originated from everyday life. In the period in question, the highest achievement of such literary language is seen in the letters of ].<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

As a result of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform, during the transitional period of the Montenegrin language (from the 1830s to World War I), significant changes occurred, and some typical Montenegrin linguistic features were officially abolished. Throughout this period, the language in Montenegro was officially referred to as ], and the assimilation of the Montenegrin language toward the general štokavian Karadžić model was primarily implemented through textbooks and external teaching staff that wholeheartedly followed the principles of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

Vuk's principle of introducing the vernacular into literature encountered little opposition in Montenegro, as it was already present there before Vuk. However, the complete acceptance of all aspects of this reform did not proceed smoothly, leading to divisions among Montenegrin cultural figures.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" /> In lengthy debates, ] (a consistent follower of Vuk) and ] stood out, with Tomanović advocating for the introduction of graphemes ś and ź. Đuro Špadijer, in his Serbian Grammar (intended for 3rd and 4th grades in Montenegrin elementary schools), introduced some characteristics considered by Vuk's model as dialectal and provincial.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

However, from the school year 1863/64, Montenegro began the continuous implementation of Karadžić's linguistic reform in Cetinje schools. This reform would ultimately achieve a definitive victory in Montenegro by the end of the 19th century, primarily in administrative, journalistic, and scientific styles.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

The literary style, which retained fundamental Montenegrin linguistic features, resisted this process the longest and mostly remained beyond the reach of the mentioned reform, entering the 20th century with preserved foundational Montenegrin language characteristics. The preservation of typical Montenegrin language features in the literary style is evident in the works of three representative figures from that period: ], ], and ].<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

===Yugoslav era===
The most significant changes in the Montenegrin literary language occurred during the phase marked by the influence of Serbian linguist ], between the two World Wars. Montenegrin linguistic peculiarities, preserved in the literary style in the first two decades of the 20th century, were assimilated into the common "Serbo-Croatian" linguistic template in the new socio-historical framework. Although Belić's Orthography from 1923 formally allowed the use of ], he emphasized in that edition and subsequent ones that ] jotization is a dialectal phenomenon. Consequently, Montenegrins were obligated to use atypical non-jotized forms such as "djed" (grandfather), "cjedilo" (strainer), "tjerati" (to drive), "sjesti" (to sit), and so on.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" /><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.cpc.org.me/latinica/istorija/jezik/638-ukidanje-crnogorskog-jezika-radi-knjizevnog-jedinstva-1857/ |title=Ukidanje crnogorskog jezika radi književnog jedinstva (1857.) |publisher=Montenegrin Orthodox Church|date=1 January 2023|language=Montenegrin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.antenam.net/istorija/305868-zapisnik-iz-1969-o-jeziku-crnogoraca-1 |title=Zapisnik iz 1969. o jeziku Crnogoraca|publisher=Antena M|date=19 November 2023|language=Montenegrin}}</ref>

In subsequent editions, Belić abolished the normative status of the so-called longer endings of pronominal-adjective declension (-ijem, -ijeh) and codified only the short endings. This led Vuk's language model to be gradually abandoned by his followers. Despite the formal acknowledgment of ijekavian in literary language, the interwar period in Montenegro was marked by an increasing use of ]. The introduction of ekavian was implemented through education, as textbooks and teaching staff predominantly followed ekavian norms. This is vividly illustrated by writings in the Montenegrin press of that time.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" /><ref>{{cite journal|url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0271530922000830|title=Indicating ideology: Variation in Montenegrin orthography|date=1 January 2023|doi=10.1016/j.langcom.2022.10.004 |last1=Tyran |first1=Katharina |journal=Language & Communication |volume=88 |pages=41–51 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The contemporary stage in the development of the Montenegrin literary language encompasses the period after World War II, with the improvement of the country's status, the language's standing also improved. Although Montenegro did not gain the right to name its language with its own name, during this period, institutions promoting the Montenegrin language were substantively developed. Associations and organizations like the Montenegrin PEN Center, Matica crnogorska, Duklja Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Institute for Montenegrin Language and Linguistics, and the Montenegrin Society of Independent Writers played a crucial role in preserving Montenegrin values. The Declaration on the Constitutional Status of the Montenegrin Language by the Montenegrin PEN Center in 1997 was a significant document emphasizing the autonomy of the Montenegrin language. These efforts culminated in the new Montenegrin Constitution of 2007, where the Montenegrin language gained official status for the first time. The establishment of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin Language in 2008 and the adoption of the Montenegrin Spelling Book in 2009 represent significant steps in the standardization and affirmation of the Montenegrin language.<ref name="Faculty for Montenegrin Language and Literature" />

== Language standardization ==
]In January 2008, the ] formed the Board (Council) for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language, which aims to standardize the Montenegrin language according to international norms. Proceeding documents will, after verification, become a part of the educational programme in Montenegrin schools.

The first Montenegrin standard was officially proposed in July 2009. In addition to the letters prescribed by the Serbo-Croatian standard, the proposal introduced two additional letters, {{angle bracket|ś}} and {{angle bracket|ź}}, to replace the ] {{angle bracket|sj}} and {{angle bracket|zj}}.<ref name="crnogorski-dva-nova-slova">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwide.rs/vesti/53-dva-nova-slova-u-crnogorskom-pravopisu |title=Dva nova slova u crnogorskom pravopisu |date=2 January 2015 |publisher=Worldwide.rs |access-date=2015-05-19}}</ref> The Ministry of Education has accepted neither of the two drafts of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin language, but instead adopted an alternate third one which was not a part of their work. The Council has criticized this act, saying it comes from "a small group" and that it contains an abundance of "methodological, conceptual and linguistic errors".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mondo.rs/v2/tekst.php?vest=142385 |title=Osporen crnogorski pravopis &#124; Mondo |website=www.mondo.rs |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120804174002/http://www.mondo.rs/v2/tekst.php?vest=142385 |archive-date=4 August 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> On 21 June 2010, the Council for General Education adopted the first ''Montenegrin Grammar''.

The first written request for the assignment of an international code was submitted by the Montenegrin authorities to the technical committee ISO 639 in July 2008, with complete paperwork forwarded to Washington in September 2015. After a long procedure, the request was finally approved on Friday, December 8, 2017, and ] and ] code '''''' was assigned to the Montenegrin language, effective December 21, 2017.<ref name=iso6392 /><ref name=iso6393 /><ref>{{cite web|url= http://senat.me/en/montenegrin-language-iso-code-cnr-approved/|title= Montenegrin language ISO code assigned • SENAT.me – MeP|date= 11 December 2017}}
</ref>


== Official status and speakers' preference == == Official status and speakers' preference ==
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = MontenegroLanguage2003.png
| image2 = MontenegroLanguage2011.PNG
| caption1 = Linguistic structure of Montenegro by settlements in 2003
| caption2 = Linguistic structure of Montenegro by settlements in 2011; Montenegrin in red color, contrasted with Serbian in blue
| image3 = Linguistic map of Montenegro by municipality.svg
| caption3 = Linguistic structure of Montenegro by municipalities in 2011
}}


The language remains an ongoing issue in Montenegro.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8520466.stm |title=Montenegro embroiled in language row |access-date=2010-03-01 |date=2010-02-19 |work=] }}</ref> In the census of 1991, the vast majority of Montenegrin citizens, 510,320 or 82.97%, declared themselves speakers of the then-official language: ]. The earlier 1981 population census had also recorded a Serbo-Croatian-speaking majority. However, in the first Communist censuses, the vast majority of the population declared ] to be their native language. Such had also been the case with the first recorded population census in Montenegro, in 1909, when approximately 95% of the population of the ] claimed Serbian as their native language. According to the ], the official language of the republic since 1992 has been 'Serbian language of the ] dialect'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2005)096-e|title=Constitution of the Republic of Montenegro|quote=Article 9}}</ref>
On the last ] in 2003, 21.53% of the population of Montenegro declared that Montenegrin is their native language. 63.5% of the population declared that Serbian language is their mother tongue. Given that 32% of the population declared themselves as ], and that it is quite unlikely that any of them would declare their language to be other than Serbian, it could be estimated that 31.5% of the population declared Serbian as their language while not declaring as ethnic Serbs.


After ] and until 1992, the official language of Montenegro was Serbo-Croatian. Before that, in the previous Montenegrin realm, the language in use was called Serbian. Serbian was the officially used language in ] until after the 1950 ],{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} and Serbo-Croatian was introduced into the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro in 1974. Organizations promoting Montenegrin as a distinct language have appeared since 2004 when the ] regime introduced usage of the term. The new constitution, adopted on 19 October 2007, deemed Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro.
The language issue is a debated issue in Montenegro. In the previous census of 1991, the majority of Montenegrin citizens declared themselves as speakers of the then official language: ]. According to the constitution of Montenegro, the official language of the republic, since 1992, is Serbian of the Ijekavian standard. After the ] and until 1992, the official language of Montenegro was Serbo-Croatian. In the late nineties and early 21st century, organizations promoting Montenegrin as a distinct language appeared.


The most recent ] conducted in Montenegro was in 2011. According to it, 36.97% of the population (229,251) declared that their native language was Montenegrin, and 42.88% (265,895) declared it to be Serbian.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf | title=Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011 | work=Monstat | access-date=July 12, 2011 | pages=10, 12}}</ref>
Some people might compare the situation with Montenegrin language with the position of ] and ] languages, and even come to the conclusion that position of Montenegrin parallels the positions of the others. However, there are crucial differences between the three: while Croatian and Bosnian are ]s and ]s, there is no accepted standard for Montenegrin and it is not official anywhere (the official language of the Republic of Montenegro is Serbian). Further, while most speakers of the Croatian and Bosnian dialects claim to speak Croatian and Bosnian language, respectively, most speakers of Montenegrin dialects claim to speak the Serbian language.

], a prominent Montenegrin lawyer, wrote a draft version of ] which passed the parliament's constitutional committee. Šuković suggested that Montenegrin be declared the official language of ]. The ], an advisory body of the ], had a generally positive attitude towards the draft of the constitution but did not address the language and church issues, calling them symbolic. The new constitution ratified on 19 October 2007 declared Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro, but also gave some recognition to ], ], ], and Serbian.

The ruling ] and ] stand for simply stating the country's official language to be Montenegrin, but this policy is opposed by the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ] as well as by the ] coalition led by the ]. A referendum was not needed, however, as a two-thirds majority of the parliament voted for the Constitution, including the ], ], the ], and the ], while the pro-Serbian parties voted against it and the Albanian minority parties abstained from voting. The Constitution was ratified and adopted on 19 October 2007, recognizing Montenegrin as the official language of Montenegro.

According to a poll of 1,001 Montenegrin citizens conducted by ] in 2014, the linguistic demographics were:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pobjeda.me/2014/07/03/matica-crnogorska-crnogorskim-jezikom-govori-411-odsto-gradana-srpskim-391/#.VEJZhvmUca4 |title=Matica Crnogorska: Crnogorskim jezikom govori 41,1 odsto građana, a srpskim 39,1 |trans-title=Matica Crnogorska: Montenegrin is spoken by 41.1 percent of citizens, and Serbian by 39.1 percent |newspaper=] |access-date=2015-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022053115/http://www.pobjeda.me/2014/07/03/matica-crnogorska-crnogorskim-jezikom-govori-411-odsto-gradana-srpskim-391/ |archive-date=2014-10-22 }}</ref>
{{flowlist|
* 41.1% Montenegrin
* 39.1% Serbian
* 12.3% Serbian, Montenegrin, Bosnian, Croatian and Serbo-Croatian (as one and the same language)
* 3.9% Serbo-Croatian
* 1.9% Bosnian
* 1.7% Croatian}}

According to an early 2017 poll, 42.6% of Montenegro's citizens have opted for Serbian as the name of their native language, while 37.9% for Montenegrin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/u-crnoj-gori-za-sfrj-zali-63-odsto-gradana-928817|title=U Crnoj Gori za SFRJ žali 63 odsto građana}}</ref> A declaration of Montenegrin as their native language is not confined to ethnic Montenegrins. According to the 2011 census, a proportion of other ethnic groups in Montenegro have also claimed Montenegrin to be their native language. Most openly, Matica Muslimanska called on ] living in Montenegro to name their native language as Montenegrin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maticamuslimanska.me/mcg/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102101253/http://www.maticamuslimanska.me/mcg/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 November 2015|title=MUSLIMANI CRNE GORE – MATICA MUSLIMANSKA CRNE GORE|date=2 November 2015}}</ref>


== Linguistic considerations == == Linguistic considerations ==
]
Montenegrins speak ], which is a ] ] of the ] Serbo-Croatian. The dialect serves as a basis for the Montenegrin language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sussex |first=Roland |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Slavic_Languages.html?id=G2bsJdYrwD4C |title=The Slavic Languages |last2=Cubberley |first2=Paul |date=2006-09-21 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45728-6 |language=en}}</ref> Some of the dialects are shared with the neighbouring Slavic nations, such as the ] and the ].


The Eastern Herzegovinian dialect is spoken in the majority of Montenegro and ], as well as areas in ] and Serbia, with Montenegro only partially codifying the dialect. The Zeta–Raška dialect is prevalent in mostly southern Montenegro and parts of the historical region of ] in Serbia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Okuka |first=Miloš |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eVwqAQAAIAAJ |title=Srpski dijalekti |date=2008 |publisher=Prosvjeta |isbn=978-953-7611-06-4 |language=hr}}</ref> It is mainly spoken by local ethnic ], Montenegrins, Bosniaks and Muslims.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Okuka |first=Miloš |author-link=Miloš Okuka |url=http://www.isj.sanu.ac.rs/2017/08/07/zbornik-instituta-za-srpski-jezik-sanu-i/ |title=Zetsko-raški dijalekat srpskog jezika |year=2008b |edition=1st |pages=351–369 |language=sr |script-title=sr:Зборник Института за српски језик САНУ |chapter=Zetsko-raški dijalekat srpskog jezika}}</ref>
]


== Writing ==
<!--???? The Montenegrin language can be grouped in ]s as the patterns of difference between language spoken in Serbia and Montenegro is the same as in languages spoken in Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia. ???-->
{{Main|Montenegrin alphabet}}{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2023}}
The prevailing dialect spoken in Montenegro is Neoštokavian Ijekavian, similar to one spoken in most of Western Serbia, ] and ].
The proponents of the separate Montenegrin language prefer using ] alphabet over the ]. In both scripts, the Montenegrin alphabets have two additional letters (bold), which are easier to render in ] in the Latin alphabet due to their existence in ], but which must be created ''ad hoc'' using ]s when typesetting Cyrillic.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
The vocabulary of the dialect has some distinct features, but words different from other dialects are few (e.g. "sjutra" is used in Montenegro instead of "sutra", which is used in standard Serbian, Bosnian or Croatian).
|+ Latin collation order
|-
! Latin
| A
| B
| C
| Č
| Ć
| D
| Dž
| Đ
| E
| F
| G
| H
| I
| J
| K
| L
| Lj
| M
| N
| Nj
| O
| P
| R
| S
| Š
| {{included|''']'''}}
| T
| U
| V
| Z
| Ž
| {{included|''']'''}}
|-
! Cyrillic
| А
| Б
| Ц
| Ч
| Ћ
| Д
| Џ
| Ђ
| Е
| Ф
| Г
| Х
| И
| Ј
| К
| Л
| Љ
| М
| Н
| Њ
| О
| П
| Р
| С
| Ш
| {{included|''']'''}}
| Т
| У
| В
| З
| Ж
| {{included|''']'''}}
|}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Proponents of Montenegrin favour the ] over the ] and even propose amending of the standard phonological system (as well as alphabet) for three ]: ], ] and ]. While these ]s could be heard with some Montenegrin speakers, they are rare and do not form ]s, and so are not considered ]es by that criteria. In addition, there are speakers in Montenegro who don't utter them and speakers of Serbian and Croatian outside of Montenegro (notably in ] and ]) who do.
|+ Cyrillic collation order
! Cyrillic
| А
| Б
| В
| Г
| Д
| Ђ
| Е
| Ж
| З
| {{included|'''З́'''}}
| И
| Ј
| К
| Л
| Љ
| М
| Н
| Њ
| О
| П
| Р
| С
| {{included|'''С́'''}}
| Т
| Ћ
| У
| Ф
| Х
| Ц
| Ч
| Џ
| Ш
|-
! Latin
| A
| B
| V
| G
| D
| Đ
| E
| Ž
| Z
| {{included|'''Ź'''}}
| I
| J
| K
| L
| Lj
| M
| N
| Nj
| O
| P
| R
| S
| {{included|'''Ś'''}}
| T
| Ć
| U
| F
| H
| C
| Č
| Dž
| Š
|}


== Montenegrin language proponents == === Phonology and grammar ===
{{Main|Serbo-Croatian phonology|Serbo-Croatian grammar}}


== Literature ==
The chief proponent of Montenegrin is ]-educated ], the head of the Institute for Montenegrin Language in the capital Podgorica. His dictionaries and grammars are printed by Croatian publishers as the major Montenegrin publishing houses such as ] in ], as always, opt for the official nomenclature specified in the Constitution (Serbo-Croat until 1992, Serbian after 1992).
Many literary works of authors from ] provide examples of the local Montenegrin vernacular. The medieval literature was mostly written in ] and its ]s, but most of the 19th century works were written in some of the dialects of Montenegro. They include the folk literature collected by ] and other authors, as well as the books of writers from Montenegro such as ]'s '']'' (''Gorski vijenac''), ]'s ''The Examples of Humanity and Bravery'' (''Primjeri čojstva i junaštva''), etc. In the second half of the 19th century and later, the ], which served as a basis for the standard ] language, was often used instead of the ] characteristic of most dialects of Montenegro. Petar Petrović Njegoš, one of the most respectable Montenegrin authors, changed many characteristics of the Zeta–South Raška dialect from the manuscript of his ''Gorski vijenac'' to those proposed by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić as a standard for the ].


For example, most of the ]s of place used in the Zeta–South Raška dialect were changed by Njegoš to the ]s used in the Serbian standard. Thus the stanzas ''"U dobro je lako dobar biti, / na muku se poznaju junaci"'' from the manuscript were changed to ''"U dobru je lako dobar biti, / na muci se poznaju junaci"'' in the printed version. Other works of later Montenegrin authors were also often modified to the East Herzegovinian forms in order to follow the Serbian language literary norm. However, some characteristics of the traditional Montenegrin Zeta–South Raška dialect sometimes appeared. For example, the poem '']'' by ], although it was written in the East Herzegovinian Serbian standard, contains several Zeta–South Raška forms: ''"Onamo namo, za brda ona"'' (], instead of ] ''za brdima onim''), and ''"Onamo namo, da viđu'' (instead of ''vidim'') ''Prizren"'', and so on.
Montenegro's independence-minded prime minister ] declared his open support for the formalization of the Montenegrin language by declaring himself as a speaker of the Montenegrin language, in an October 2004 interview with Belgrade daily '']''. At one point during the ], official Montenegrin government communiqués were officially given in ''English and Montenegrin''. The Government has since switched back to Serbian. The official web page of the President of Montenegro states that it is provided in "Montenegrin-Serbian version" (''Crnogorsko-srpska verzija'').
In 2004, the government of Montenegro changed the school curriculum in such a way that name of the mandatory classes teaching the language was changed from "Serbian language" to "Mother tongue (Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Bosnian)".


== Language politics ==
This change was made, according to the government, in order to better reflect the diversity of languages spoken among citizens in the republic and to protect human rights of non-Serb citizens in Montenegro who declare themselves as speakers of other languages.
]
Most mainstream politicians and other proponents of the Montenegrin language state that the issue is chiefly one of self-determination and the people's right to call the language what they want, rather than an attempt to artificially create a new language when there is none. The Declaration of the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.montenet.org/language/pen-decl.htm |title=Declaration of Montenegrin P.E.N. Centre |publisher=Montenet.org |access-date=2015-05-19}}</ref> states that the "''Montenegrin language does not mean a systemically separate language, but just one of four names (Montenegrin, Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) by which Montenegrins name their part of Shtokavian system, commonly inherited with ], Serbs and Croats''". Therefore, in 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia signed the ], which states that in Montenegro, Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina a common ] is used, consisting of several standard varieties, similar to the situation of languages like ], ] or ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Trudgill|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Trudgill|date=30 November 2017|page=46|title=Time to Make Four Into One|url=https://archive.org/details/PeterTrudgillTimeToMakeFourIntoOne2017|publisher=]|access-date=2 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|first=Dan|last=Nosovitz|date=11 February 2019|title=What Language Do People Speak in the Balkans, Anyway?|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-language-is-spoken-in-the-balkans|magazine=]|archive-date=11 February 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190211191959/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-language-is-spoken-in-the-balkans|access-date=9 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Sven|last=Milekić|date=30 March 2017|title=Post-Yugoslav 'Common Language' Declaration Challenges Nationalism|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/post-yugoslav-common-language-declaration-challenges-nationalism-03-29-2017|publisher=]|archive-date=30 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330075725/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/post-yugoslav-common-language-declaration-challenges-nationalism-03-29-2017|url-status=live|location=London|access-date=3 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=J.|first=T.|date=10 April 2017|title=Is Serbo-Croatian a Language?|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2017/04/economist-explains-4|newspaper=]|archive-date=10 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410083158/http://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2017/04/economist-explains-4|url-status=live|location=London|issn=0013-0613|access-date=6 January 2018}} </ref>


The introduction of the Montenegrin language has been supported by other important academic institutions such as the ], although meeting opposition from the ]. Some proponents go further. The chief proponent of Montenegrin was ]-educated ], professor at the Department of Language and Literature at the ] and the head of the ] in the capital Podgorica. His dictionaries and grammars were printed by Croatian publishers since the major Montenegrin publishing houses such as ] in ] opted for the official nomenclature specified in the Constitution (Serbian until 1974, Serbo-Croatian to 1992, Serbian until 2007).<ref>Pravopis crnogorskog jezika, Vojislav Nikčević. Crnogorski PEN Centar, 1997</ref> Nikčević advocates amending the Latin alphabet with three letters Ś, Ź, and З and corresponding Cyrillic letters С́, З́ and Ѕ (representing IPA {{IPAblink|ɕ}}, {{IPAblink|ʑ}} and {{IPAblink|dz}} respectively).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.montenet.org/language/letters.htm |title=Language: Montenegrin Alphabet |publisher=Montenet.org |access-date=2015-05-19}}</ref>
This decision resulted in a dozen Serb teachers declaring a ] and a number of parents refusing to send their children to schools. The cities affected by the strikes include ], ], ], ] and ].


Opponents acknowledge that these sounds can be heard by many Montenegrin speakers, however, they do not form a language system and thus are ]s rather than phonemes.<ref>]: </ref> In addition, there are speakers in Montenegro who do not utter them and speakers of Serbian and Croatian outside of Montenegro (notably in Herzegovina and Bosanska Krajina) who do. In addition, introduction of those letters could pose significant technical difficulties (the Eastern European character encoding ] does not contain the letter З, for example, and the corresponding letters were not proposed for Cyrillic).
==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]


Prime minister ] declared his open support for the formalization of the Montenegrin language by declaring himself as a speaker of Montenegrin in an October 2004 interview with Belgrade daily {{lang|sr-latn|]}}. Official Montenegrin government communiqués are given in ''English and Montenegrin'' on the government's webpage.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215000303/http://www.gov.me/eng/|date=February 15, 2009}}</ref>
==Examples of nomenclature==
*
*
*
*


In 2004, the government of Montenegro changed the school curriculum so that the name of the mandatory classes teaching the language was changed from "Serbian language" to "Mother tongue (Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Bosnian)". This change was made, according to the government, in order to better reflect the diversity of languages spoken among citizens in the republic and to protect human rights of non-Serb citizens in Montenegro who declare themselves as speakers of other languages.<ref>, '']'', 26 March 2004</ref>
]
]
]


This decision resulted in a number of teachers declaring a ] and parents refusing to send their children to schools.<ref>{{in lang|sr}} , Glas Javnosti, 17 September 2004.</ref> The cities affected by the strike included ], ], ], ] and ]. The new letters had been used for official documents since 2009 but in February 2017, the ] removed them from the official webpage.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
]

]
== Sample text ==
]
Article 1 of the '']'' in Montenegrin, written in the ]:<ref>{{cite web|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=ohchr.org|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=cnr}}</ref>
]

]
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|cnr|"Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i savješću i jedni prema drugima treba da postupaju u duhu bratstva."|italic=no}}}}
]
Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Montenegrin, written in ] alphabet:

{{Blockquote|text={{lang|cnr|"Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и савјешћу и једни према другима треба да поступају у духу братства."}}}}

Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=un.org}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text="All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Languages}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] 2017

== References ==
;Notes
{{notelist |refs=

{{efn |name="pronunciations"|or: '''Montenegrin''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɒ|n|t|ᵻ|ˈ|n|iː|ɡ|r|ə|n}} {{respell|MON|tih|NEE|grən}}){{hair space}}<ref>{{cite dictionary |editor1-last=Mish |editor1-first=Frederick C. |editor2=Merriam-Webster |editor2-link=Merriam-Webster |date=1983 |title=Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary |edition=9 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |location=Springfield Mass. |pages=1483– |isbn=978-0-87779-511-7 |oclc=11598288 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cd-VAAAACAAJ&pg=PA1483}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |editor1-last=Abate |editor1-first=Frank R. |editor2-last=Jewell |editor2-first=Elizabeth |date=2001 |title=The New Oxford American Dictionary |edition=2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=1106 |isbn=978-0-19-511227-6 |oclc=185510850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uK6VQgAACAAJ&pg=PA1106}}</ref>}}

}}

;References
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{citation |url=http://www.vreme.com/arhiva_html/478/18.html |language=sh |title=Govorite li crnogorski? |trans-title=Do you speak Montenegrin? |first=Violeta |last=Arsenić |work=] |issue=478 |date=4 March 2000 |access-date=4 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728152223/http://www.vreme.com/arhiva_html/478/18.html |archive-date= Jul 28, 2013 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Glušica, Rajka |title=O nacionalizmu u jeziku: prikaz knjige ''Jezik i nacionalizam'' |trans-title=On nationalism in the language: Review of the book Jezik i nacionalizam |journal=Riječ |volume=5 |pages=185–191 |year=2011 |issn=0354-6039 |id={{ZDB|1384597-4}} |url=http://www.ff.ac.me/dokumenta2/RIJEC%205%20prelom%2019%204.pdf |language=sh |archive-date=Nov 4, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104120139/http://www.ff.ucg.ac.me//dokumenta2/RIJEC%205%20prelom%2019%204.pdf |access-date=7 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }} <small></small>.
* {{cite book|last=Glušica|first=Rajka|title=Njegoševi dani 7: zbornik radova s međunarodnog naučnog skupa, Kotor 30.8.-3.9.2017|publisher=Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filološki fakultet|pages=167–181|language=sh|chapter=Crnogorski jezički nacionalizam|trans-chapter=Montenegrin linguistic nationalism|location=Nikšić|year=2019|isbn=978-86-7798-062-7}}
* {{citation|url=http://www.suc.org/culture/history/Hist_Serb_Culture/chc/Standard_Language.html |title=Standard Language as an Instrument of Culture and the Product of National History |first=Pavle |last=Ivić |work=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416025545/http://www.suc.org/culture/history/Hist_Serb_Culture/chc/Standard_Language.html |archive-date=16 April 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last=Kordić |first=Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |editor-last=Ostojić |editor-first=Branislav |title=Jezička situacija u Crnoj Gori – norma i standardizacija: radovi sa međunarodnog naučnog skupa, Podgorica 24.-25.5.2007 |publisher=Crnogorska akademija nauka i umjetnosti |pages=35–47 |language=sh |chapter=Crnogorska standardna varijanta policentričnog standardnog jezika |trans-chapter=Montenegrin standard variety of a polycentric standard language |chapter-url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430408.CRNOGORSKA_STANDARDNA_VARIJANTA.PDF |url-status=live |location=Podgorica |year=2008 |isbn=978-86-7215-207-4 |oclc=318462699 |s2cid=232539465 |ssrn=3434494 |id={{CROSBI|430408}} |archive-date=21 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921125027/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430408.CRNOGORSKA_STANDARDNA_VARIJANTA.PDF |access-date=19 March 2022}} <small></small>.
* {{cite news|last=Lajović |first=Vuk |date=24 July 2012 |title=Političari prodaju maglu |trans-title=Politicians are blowing smoke |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/589513.Intervju_Vijesti_Politicari_prodaju_maglu.pdf |language=sh |newspaper=] |location=Podgorica |issn=1450-6181 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921193155/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/589513.Intervju_Vijesti_Politicari_prodaju_maglu.pdf |access-date=3 February 2014 }}
* {{citation|url=http://www.tol.org/client/article/9253-what-language-do-montenegrins-speak.html |title=What Language Do Montenegrins Speak? |first=Aida |last=Ramusović |work=] |date=16 April 2003}} {{subscription required}}

== External links ==
{{Incubator|cnr}}
{{Commons category|Montenegrin language}}
{{Wikivoyage|Montenegrin phrasebook|Montenegrin|a phrasebook}}
{{wiktionary category|Serbo-Croatian language}}
* {{citation|url=http://www.pcgn.org.uk/Montenegro2.pdf |title=A Brief Note on the Effect of Montenegrin Independence on Language |work=] |date=October 2006 |access-date=4 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016071444/http://www.pcgn.org.uk/Montenegro2.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2012 }}
* <!-- possibly useful linkfarm, TBD -->

{{Languages of Montenegro}}
{{Montenegro topics |collapsed}}
{{Slavic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Montenegrin Language}}
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 01:24, 29 November 2024

Normative variety of Serbo-Croatian in Montenegro "Crnogorski" redirects here. For other uses, see Montenegrin.
Montenegrin
crnogorski
црногорски
Pronunciation[tsr̩nǒɡorskiː]
Native toMontenegro
EthnicityMontenegrins
Native speakers232,600 (see text)
Language familyIndo-European
Writing system
Official status
Official language in Montenegro
Recognised minority
language in
Mali Iđoš municipality (Vojvodina, Serbia)
Regulated byBoard for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language
Language codes
ISO 639-2cnr
ISO 639-3cnr
Glottologmont1282
Linguaspherepart of 53-AAA-g
Montenegrin is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
South Slavic languages and dialects
Western South Slavic
Eastern South Slavic
Transitional dialects
Alphabets
Includes Banat Bulgarian alphabet.

Montenegrin (/ˌmɒntɪˈniːɡrɪn/ MON-tin-EE-grin; crnogorski, црногорски) is a normative variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Montenegrins and is the official language of Montenegro. Montenegrin is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, more specifically on Eastern Herzegovinian, which is also the basis of Standard Croatian, Serbian, and Bosnian.

Montenegro's language has historically and traditionally been called either Serbian or Montenegrin. The idea of a standardized Montenegrin standard language separate from Serbian appeared in the 1990s during the breakup of Yugoslavia through proponents of Montenegrin independence from Serbia and Montenegro. Montenegrin became the official language of Montenegro with the ratification and proclamation of a new constitution in October 2007.

History

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The beginnings of Montenegrin literacy date back to 9th century, during the Duklja period, with the establishment of numerous monasteries in the coastal region. While traces of Latin and Greek literacy from the Duklja period are partially preserved, there is only indirect evidence of literacy in the Slavic language. The use of Glagolitic script in Duklja was influenced by the strong center of Slavic literacy in Ohrid, although some argue that Slavic literature in Duklja was written in Latin script. Literary activity flourished around Lake Skadar during this period, with the Monastery of Prečista Krajinska as a significant center.

The Zeta period begins with the fall of Duklja to Serbian rule and extends through the rule of the Balšić and Crnojević families. While there is no consensus on the dating of Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts in present-day Montenegro, it is established that Old Church Slavonic and Cyrillic became dominant during the Zeta period, replacing Glagolitic script.

In Zeta was established a printing press by Đurađ Crnojević, starting in Obod and later moving to Cetinje. This press produced five incunabula, making Montenegro one of the four Slavic nations with incunabula in their language. During this period there was a development of the Zetan (Montenegrin) redaction of Old Church Slavonic, exemplified by the Miroslavljevo Gospel from the 12th century, written in Kotor. This redaction adapted Old Church Slavonic to the local language of medieval Zeta, influencing Bosnian and Serbian redactions. Despite being erroneously labeled as Zeta-Hum redaction, it originated in Zeta and then spread to Hum.

A page of Oktoih prvoglasnik, printed at the Crnojević printing house in Cetinje, 1494.

The period of written language spans from the late 15th to the 18th century. During this time, written language represents the written realization of the local spoken language. In new socio-historical circumstances in Montenegro, there was a gradual shift towards the reintegration of the Montenegrin language with a popular basis. However, Old Church Slavonic continued to be used in the Orthodox Church for a long time. In this phase, Old Church Slavonic books and Cyrillic script dominated. Yet, in the coastal region, the influence of the Montenegrin type of Old Church Slavonic had little impact on the literature of the period, where Latin and Italian language prevailed.

The written language in secular use continued to follow the development of the Montenegrin spoken language, progressively shedding Church Slavonic elements as time passed. The most significant writers during the period of written language emerged in the late Baroque period - Andrija Zmajević in the coastal part Bay of Kotor and Danilo Petrović Njegoš in the continental part Cetinje. Both wrote in the Montenegrin vernacular.

From the second half of the 18th century, strengthened by the state and church organization, conditions were created for the establishment of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language as a means of common communication across the territory under the jurisdiction of the state and church. Even before the birth of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, Ivan-Antun Nenadić from Perast advocated for the phonetic orthographic principle, emphasizing that writing should reflect how people speak and pronounce. This rule was applied early in Montenegrin literature, making it unsurprising that Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reforms were later accepted without significant issues. In the period of the uncodified Montenegrin literary language, three styles can be observed: literary, business, and scientific, all formed in the process of spontaneous Montenegrin linguistic standardization. Montenegrin literature, both linguistically and thematically, originated from everyday life. In the period in question, the highest achievement of such literary language is seen in the letters of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš.

As a result of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform, during the transitional period of the Montenegrin language (from the 1830s to World War I), significant changes occurred, and some typical Montenegrin linguistic features were officially abolished. Throughout this period, the language in Montenegro was officially referred to as Serbian, and the assimilation of the Montenegrin language toward the general štokavian Karadžić model was primarily implemented through textbooks and external teaching staff that wholeheartedly followed the principles of Vuk Karadžić's linguistic reform.

Vuk's principle of introducing the vernacular into literature encountered little opposition in Montenegro, as it was already present there before Vuk. However, the complete acceptance of all aspects of this reform did not proceed smoothly, leading to divisions among Montenegrin cultural figures. In lengthy debates, Jovan Pavlović (a consistent follower of Vuk) and Lazar Tomanović stood out, with Tomanović advocating for the introduction of graphemes ś and ź. Đuro Špadijer, in his Serbian Grammar (intended for 3rd and 4th grades in Montenegrin elementary schools), introduced some characteristics considered by Vuk's model as dialectal and provincial.

However, from the school year 1863/64, Montenegro began the continuous implementation of Karadžić's linguistic reform in Cetinje schools. This reform would ultimately achieve a definitive victory in Montenegro by the end of the 19th century, primarily in administrative, journalistic, and scientific styles.

The literary style, which retained fundamental Montenegrin linguistic features, resisted this process the longest and mostly remained beyond the reach of the mentioned reform, entering the 20th century with preserved foundational Montenegrin language characteristics. The preservation of typical Montenegrin language features in the literary style is evident in the works of three representative figures from that period: Petar II Petrović Njegoš, Stefan Mitrov Ljubiša, and Marko Miljanov Popović.

Yugoslav era

The most significant changes in the Montenegrin literary language occurred during the phase marked by the influence of Serbian linguist Aleksandar Belić, between the two World Wars. Montenegrin linguistic peculiarities, preserved in the literary style in the first two decades of the 20th century, were assimilated into the common "Serbo-Croatian" linguistic template in the new socio-historical framework. Although Belić's Orthography from 1923 formally allowed the use of ijekavian, he emphasized in that edition and subsequent ones that jekavian jotization is a dialectal phenomenon. Consequently, Montenegrins were obligated to use atypical non-jotized forms such as "djed" (grandfather), "cjedilo" (strainer), "tjerati" (to drive), "sjesti" (to sit), and so on.

In subsequent editions, Belić abolished the normative status of the so-called longer endings of pronominal-adjective declension (-ijem, -ijeh) and codified only the short endings. This led Vuk's language model to be gradually abandoned by his followers. Despite the formal acknowledgment of ijekavian in literary language, the interwar period in Montenegro was marked by an increasing use of ekavian. The introduction of ekavian was implemented through education, as textbooks and teaching staff predominantly followed ekavian norms. This is vividly illustrated by writings in the Montenegrin press of that time.

The contemporary stage in the development of the Montenegrin literary language encompasses the period after World War II, with the improvement of the country's status, the language's standing also improved. Although Montenegro did not gain the right to name its language with its own name, during this period, institutions promoting the Montenegrin language were substantively developed. Associations and organizations like the Montenegrin PEN Center, Matica crnogorska, Duklja Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Institute for Montenegrin Language and Linguistics, and the Montenegrin Society of Independent Writers played a crucial role in preserving Montenegrin values. The Declaration on the Constitutional Status of the Montenegrin Language by the Montenegrin PEN Center in 1997 was a significant document emphasizing the autonomy of the Montenegrin language. These efforts culminated in the new Montenegrin Constitution of 2007, where the Montenegrin language gained official status for the first time. The establishment of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin Language in 2008 and the adoption of the Montenegrin Spelling Book in 2009 represent significant steps in the standardization and affirmation of the Montenegrin language.

Language standardization

Petar II Petrović-Njegoš was a Prince-Bishop of Montenegro, poet and philosopher whose works are widely considered some of the most important in Montenegrin literature.

In January 2008, the government of Montenegro formed the Board (Council) for Standardization of the Montenegrin Language, which aims to standardize the Montenegrin language according to international norms. Proceeding documents will, after verification, become a part of the educational programme in Montenegrin schools.

The first Montenegrin standard was officially proposed in July 2009. In addition to the letters prescribed by the Serbo-Croatian standard, the proposal introduced two additional letters, ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ź⟩, to replace the digraphs ⟨sj⟩ and ⟨zj⟩. The Ministry of Education has accepted neither of the two drafts of the Council for the Standardization of the Montenegrin language, but instead adopted an alternate third one which was not a part of their work. The Council has criticized this act, saying it comes from "a small group" and that it contains an abundance of "methodological, conceptual and linguistic errors". On 21 June 2010, the Council for General Education adopted the first Montenegrin Grammar.

The first written request for the assignment of an international code was submitted by the Montenegrin authorities to the technical committee ISO 639 in July 2008, with complete paperwork forwarded to Washington in September 2015. After a long procedure, the request was finally approved on Friday, December 8, 2017, and ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 code was assigned to the Montenegrin language, effective December 21, 2017.

Official status and speakers' preference

Linguistic structure of Montenegro by settlements in 2003Linguistic structure of Montenegro by settlements in 2011; Montenegrin in red color, contrasted with Serbian in blueLinguistic structure of Montenegro by municipalities in 2011

The language remains an ongoing issue in Montenegro. In the census of 1991, the vast majority of Montenegrin citizens, 510,320 or 82.97%, declared themselves speakers of the then-official language: Serbo-Croatian. The earlier 1981 population census had also recorded a Serbo-Croatian-speaking majority. However, in the first Communist censuses, the vast majority of the population declared Serbian to be their native language. Such had also been the case with the first recorded population census in Montenegro, in 1909, when approximately 95% of the population of the Principality of Montenegro claimed Serbian as their native language. According to the Constitution of Montenegro, the official language of the republic since 1992 has been 'Serbian language of the ijekavian dialect'.

After World War II and until 1992, the official language of Montenegro was Serbo-Croatian. Before that, in the previous Montenegrin realm, the language in use was called Serbian. Serbian was the officially used language in Socialist Republic of Montenegro until after the 1950 Novi Sad Agreement, and Serbo-Croatian was introduced into the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro in 1974. Organizations promoting Montenegrin as a distinct language have appeared since 2004 when the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro regime introduced usage of the term. The new constitution, adopted on 19 October 2007, deemed Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro.

The most recent population census conducted in Montenegro was in 2011. According to it, 36.97% of the population (229,251) declared that their native language was Montenegrin, and 42.88% (265,895) declared it to be Serbian.

Mijat Šuković, a prominent Montenegrin lawyer, wrote a draft version of the constitution which passed the parliament's constitutional committee. Šuković suggested that Montenegrin be declared the official language of Montenegro. The Venice Commission, an advisory body of the Council of Europe, had a generally positive attitude towards the draft of the constitution but did not address the language and church issues, calling them symbolic. The new constitution ratified on 19 October 2007 declared Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro, but also gave some recognition to Albanian, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian.

The ruling Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro and Social Democratic Party of Montenegro stand for simply stating the country's official language to be Montenegrin, but this policy is opposed by the Socialist People's Party of Montenegro, the People's Party, the Democratic Serb Party, the Bosniak Party, and the Movement for Changes as well as by the Serb List coalition led by the Serb People's Party. A referendum was not needed, however, as a two-thirds majority of the parliament voted for the Constitution, including the ruling coalition, Movement for Changes, the Bosniaks, and the Liberals, while the pro-Serbian parties voted against it and the Albanian minority parties abstained from voting. The Constitution was ratified and adopted on 19 October 2007, recognizing Montenegrin as the official language of Montenegro.

According to a poll of 1,001 Montenegrin citizens conducted by Matica crnogorska in 2014, the linguistic demographics were:

  • 41.1% Montenegrin
  • 39.1% Serbian
  • 12.3% Serbian, Montenegrin, Bosnian, Croatian and Serbo-Croatian (as one and the same language)
  • 3.9% Serbo-Croatian
  • 1.9% Bosnian
  • 1.7% Croatian

According to an early 2017 poll, 42.6% of Montenegro's citizens have opted for Serbian as the name of their native language, while 37.9% for Montenegrin. A declaration of Montenegrin as their native language is not confined to ethnic Montenegrins. According to the 2011 census, a proportion of other ethnic groups in Montenegro have also claimed Montenegrin to be their native language. Most openly, Matica Muslimanska called on Muslims living in Montenegro to name their native language as Montenegrin.

Linguistic considerations

Shtokavian subdialects in Montenegro.

Montenegrins speak Shtokavian, which is a prestige supradialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian. The dialect serves as a basis for the Montenegrin language. Some of the dialects are shared with the neighbouring Slavic nations, such as the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect and the Zeta–Raška dialect.

The Eastern Herzegovinian dialect is spoken in the majority of Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as areas in Croatia and Serbia, with Montenegro only partially codifying the dialect. The Zeta–Raška dialect is prevalent in mostly southern Montenegro and parts of the historical region of Raška in Serbia. It is mainly spoken by local ethnic Serbs, Montenegrins, Bosniaks and Muslims.

Writing

Main article: Montenegrin alphabet
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The proponents of the separate Montenegrin language prefer using Gaj's Latin alphabet over the Serbian Cyrillic. In both scripts, the Montenegrin alphabets have two additional letters (bold), which are easier to render in digital typography in the Latin alphabet due to their existence in Polish, but which must be created ad hoc using combining characters when typesetting Cyrillic.

Latin collation order
Latin A B C Č Ć D Đ E F G H I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Š Ś T U V Z Ž Ź
Cyrillic А Б Ц Ч Ћ Д Џ Ђ Е Ф Г Х И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С Ш С́ Т У В З Ж З́
Cyrillic collation order
Cyrillic А Б В Г Д Ђ Е Ж З З́ И Ј К Л Љ М Н Њ О П Р С С́ Т Ћ У Ф Х Ц Ч Џ Ш
Latin A B V G D Đ E Ž Z Ź I J K L Lj M N Nj O P R S Ś T Ć U F H C Č Š

Phonology and grammar

Main articles: Serbo-Croatian phonology and Serbo-Croatian grammar

Literature

Many literary works of authors from Montenegro provide examples of the local Montenegrin vernacular. The medieval literature was mostly written in Old Church Slavonic and its recensions, but most of the 19th century works were written in some of the dialects of Montenegro. They include the folk literature collected by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and other authors, as well as the books of writers from Montenegro such as Petar Petrović Njegoš's The Mountain Wreath (Gorski vijenac), Marko Miljanov's The Examples of Humanity and Bravery (Primjeri čojstva i junaštva), etc. In the second half of the 19th century and later, the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect, which served as a basis for the standard Serbo-Croatian language, was often used instead of the Zeta–South Raška dialect characteristic of most dialects of Montenegro. Petar Petrović Njegoš, one of the most respectable Montenegrin authors, changed many characteristics of the Zeta–South Raška dialect from the manuscript of his Gorski vijenac to those proposed by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić as a standard for the Serbian language.

For example, most of the accusatives of place used in the Zeta–South Raška dialect were changed by Njegoš to the locatives used in the Serbian standard. Thus the stanzas "U dobro je lako dobar biti, / na muku se poznaju junaci" from the manuscript were changed to "U dobru je lako dobar biti, / na muci se poznaju junaci" in the printed version. Other works of later Montenegrin authors were also often modified to the East Herzegovinian forms in order to follow the Serbian language literary norm. However, some characteristics of the traditional Montenegrin Zeta–South Raška dialect sometimes appeared. For example, the poem Onamo namo by Nikola I Petrović Njegoš, although it was written in the East Herzegovinian Serbian standard, contains several Zeta–South Raška forms: "Onamo namo, za brda ona" (accusative, instead of instrumental case za brdima onim), and "Onamo namo, da viđu (instead of vidim) Prizren", and so on.

Language politics

A proposed Montenegrin alphabet which contains three more letters than the Serbian counterpart — Ś, З and Ź

Most mainstream politicians and other proponents of the Montenegrin language state that the issue is chiefly one of self-determination and the people's right to call the language what they want, rather than an attempt to artificially create a new language when there is none. The Declaration of the Montenegrin PEN Center states that the "Montenegrin language does not mean a systemically separate language, but just one of four names (Montenegrin, Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) by which Montenegrins name their part of Shtokavian system, commonly inherited with Muslims, Serbs and Croats". Therefore, in 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia signed the Declaration on the Common Language, which states that in Montenegro, Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina a common polycentric standard language is used, consisting of several standard varieties, similar to the situation of languages like German, English or Spanish.

The introduction of the Montenegrin language has been supported by other important academic institutions such as the Matica crnogorska, although meeting opposition from the Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts. Some proponents go further. The chief proponent of Montenegrin was Zagreb-educated Vojislav Nikčević, professor at the Department of Language and Literature at the University of Montenegro and the head of the Institute for Montenegrin Language in the capital Podgorica. His dictionaries and grammars were printed by Croatian publishers since the major Montenegrin publishing houses such as Obod in Cetinje opted for the official nomenclature specified in the Constitution (Serbian until 1974, Serbo-Croatian to 1992, Serbian until 2007). Nikčević advocates amending the Latin alphabet with three letters Ś, Ź, and З and corresponding Cyrillic letters С́, З́ and Ѕ (representing IPA [ɕ], [ʑ] and [dz] respectively).

Opponents acknowledge that these sounds can be heard by many Montenegrin speakers, however, they do not form a language system and thus are allophones rather than phonemes. In addition, there are speakers in Montenegro who do not utter them and speakers of Serbian and Croatian outside of Montenegro (notably in Herzegovina and Bosanska Krajina) who do. In addition, introduction of those letters could pose significant technical difficulties (the Eastern European character encoding ISO/IEC 8859-2 does not contain the letter З, for example, and the corresponding letters were not proposed for Cyrillic).

Prime minister Milo Đukanović declared his open support for the formalization of the Montenegrin language by declaring himself as a speaker of Montenegrin in an October 2004 interview with Belgrade daily Politika. Official Montenegrin government communiqués are given in English and Montenegrin on the government's webpage.

In 2004, the government of Montenegro changed the school curriculum so that the name of the mandatory classes teaching the language was changed from "Serbian language" to "Mother tongue (Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian, Bosnian)". This change was made, according to the government, in order to better reflect the diversity of languages spoken among citizens in the republic and to protect human rights of non-Serb citizens in Montenegro who declare themselves as speakers of other languages.

This decision resulted in a number of teachers declaring a strike and parents refusing to send their children to schools. The cities affected by the strike included Nikšić, Podgorica, Berane, Pljevlja and Herceg Novi. The new letters had been used for official documents since 2009 but in February 2017, the Assembly of Montenegro removed them from the official webpage.

Sample text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Montenegrin, written in the Latin alphabet:

"Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i savješću i jedni prema drugima treba da postupaju u duhu bratstva."

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Montenegrin, written in Montenegrin Cyrillic alphabet:

"Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и савјешћу и једни према другима треба да поступају у духу братства."

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

See also

References

Notes
  1. or: Montenegrin (/ˌmɒntɪˈniːɡrən/ MON-tih-NEE-grən) 
References
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