Misplaced Pages

Bicycle helmets in Australia: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 09:38, 13 June 2013 editDorre (talk | contribs)271 edits →Cycling levels before and after the introduction of mandatory helmet laws: Deleted duplicate information - Finch and Cameron refer to same data! Added Clarke image and insightful comment← Previous edit Latest revision as of 01:23, 1 July 2024 edit undoCitation bot (talk | contribs)Bots5,406,694 edits Add: doi, pages, issue, date. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Superegz | Category:Law of Australia‎ | #UCB_Category 7/49 
(198 intermediate revisions by 58 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|none}}
{{overly detailed|date=May 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2012}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Australian English|date=January 2012}} {{Use Australian English|date=January 2012}}
{{leadtooshort|date=May 2013}}
]
Between 1990 and 1992, ] ] adopted various laws mandating that ] wear ] while riding.


]
Because Australian bicycle helmet laws came into effect before such laws were enacted elsewhere, much of the data about mandatory bicycle helmet use comes from Australia.<ref name="Curnow2008">Curnow, W. J. "Bicycle Helmets: A Scientific Evaluation" in {{cite book|last=Anton De Smet|first=|title=Transportation Accident Analysis and Prevention|year=2008|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|location=Commack, N.Y|isbn=1-60456-288-9|url=http://www.cyclehelmets.org/papers/p787.pdf}}</ref> Debate continues, without consensus, about its efficacy.
] was the first country to make wearing bicycle helmets mandatory. The majority of early statistical data regarding the effectiveness of bicycle helmets originated from Australia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Curnow|first=W. J.|chapter=Bicycle Helmets: A Scientific Evaluation|editor-last=De Smet|editor-first=Anton|title=Transportation Accident Analysis and Prevention|year=2008|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|location=Commack, N.Y|isbn=978-1-60456-288-0|url=http://www.cyclehelmets.org/papers/p787.pdf}}</ref> Their efficacy is still a matter of debate.

Between 1990 and 1992, Australian ] introduced various laws mandating that ] wear ]s while riding after a campaign by various groups including the ] (RACS).<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF02104435 | volume=16 | issue=3 | title=Helmet efficacy in the prevention of bicyclist head injuries: Royal australasian college of surgeons initiatives in the introduction of compulsory safety helmet wearing in Victoria, Australia | journal=World Journal of Surgery | pages=379–383|year = 1992|last1 = McDermott|first1 = F. T. | pmid=1589969}}</ref>


==History: lead-up to the laws== ==History: lead-up to the laws==
Modern varieties of bicycle helmet first became commercially successful from 1975.<ref></ref> Industry helmet standards were developed from the 1970s<ref>,"Bicycle Helmet Standards." Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute. 26 February 2009, accessed 12 February 2011.</ref> and are still under development.<ref>New bike helmet standards send retailers into a spin. Matthew Moore URBAN AFFAIRS EDITOR Sydney Morning Herald 19 November 2010 http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/wellbeing/new-bike-helmet-standards-send-retailers-into-a-spin-20101118-17zeq.html Accessed 26 Feb 2011</ref><ref>Mandatory standard—Bicycle helmets. Product Safety Australia. http://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/974624 Accessed 26 Feb 2011</ref> Modern varieties of bicycle helmet first became commercially available from 1975.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404144522/http://www.bellbikehelmets.com/timeline.asp |archivedate=4 April 2010 |url=http://www.bellbikehelmets.com/timeline.asp |title=Bell bike helmets timeline |publisher=Bell Bike Helmets}}</ref> Industry helmet standards were developed from the 1970s<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhsi.org/standard.htm |title=Bicycle Helmet Standards |publisher=Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute |date=26 February 2009 |accessdate=12 February 2011}}</ref> and are still under development.<ref>{{cite news |title=New bike helmet standards send retailers into a spin |first=Matthew |last=Moore |newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald |date=19 November 2010 |url=http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/wellbeing/new-bike-helmet-standards-send-retailers-into-a-spin-20101118-17zeq.html |accessdate=26 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mandatory standard — Bicycle helmets |publisher=Product Safety Australia |url=http://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/974624 |accessdate=26 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220223401/http://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/974624 |archivedate=20 February 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>


In 1985, the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Transport Safety recommended that cooperation of states and territories should be sought to "review the benefits of bicycle helmet wearing&nbsp;... and unless there are persuasive arguments to the contrary introduce compulsory wearing of helmets by cyclists on roads and other public places". A ] committee was set up in 1985.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brief History of Helmet Law in Australia | date=26 December 2010 |url=http://crag.asn.au/?p=19 |publisher=Cyclists' Rights Action Group (CRAG) |accessdate=26 March 2013}}</ref>
The ] took an early lead in gaining public awareness, acceptance, and demand for helmet compulsion.<ref>Evidence to the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Road Safety 28.6.77, p. 833.</ref><ref>House of Representatives Standing Committee on Road Safety. Report on motorcycle and bicycle safety. AGPS, Canberra, 1978.</ref> The RACS had been influential in bringing compulsory seat belts and motorcycle helmets and urged a bicycle helmet law as the "''third major step''"<ref>House of Representatives Standing Committee on Transport Safety. McDermott evidence, 1984, p. 1081</ref> RACS members published in medical journals in support of helmet use by cyclists.<ref>McDermott FT, Klug GL Differences in head injuries of pedal cyclist and motorcyclist casualties in Victoria. The Medical Journal of Australia</ref> Some of the arguments used have been disputed.<ref>Day–to-Day Travel in Australia, CR 69, INSTAT, FORS 1988 http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1988/pdf/Aust_Trav.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Road fatality rates in Australia 1984-85. Report No. CR70|year=1989|publisher=Federal Office of Road Safety, Australian Department of Transport and Communications|location=Canberra, Australia|isbn=0-642-51139-X|pages=293–295|url=http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1989/pdf/Stats_Aust_2pt3.pdf|author=Anderson PR, Montesin HJ, Adena MA}}</ref><ref name="RobinsonDL1996">{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=DL|title=Head injuries and bicycle helmet laws.|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=1996|month=July|volume=28|issue=4|pages=463–475|doi=10.1016/0001-4575(96)00016-4|pmid=8870773|url=http://www.cycle-helmets.com/robinson-head-injuries.pdf|accessdate=28 February 2013}}</ref>


A 1986 report on child cyclist injuries from Redcliffe Hospital, Brisbane, detailed 93% of cases were not life-threatening and from 18 admissions, they included nine with minor head injury for overnight observation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Armson|first1=CJ|last2=Pollard|first2=CW|title=Child cyclist injuries; a prospective study|date=3 February 1986|volume=144|journal=]|issue=3 |pages=144–146 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1986.tb112244.x }}</ref> In 1987 a report based on Brisbane hospitals detailed a majority of children aged five to seven years were in favour of wearing helmets, whereas older children were opposed.<ref>O'Rourke NA, Costello F, Yelland JDN, Stuart GG, Head injuries to children riding bicycles, Vol146 June15, Med J Aust. 1987</ref>
Empirical studies of helmet use by injured cyclists were published from the late 1980s, some in Australia, both before and after helmet legislation. These consistently show that cyclists injured in accidents who were wearing helmets were less likely to sustain head injuries (as opposed to injuries to other parts of the body) than those who were not wearing helmets.<ref>"The results of a comparative study of the injury profiles of Victorian motorcyclist and bicyclist casualties were used by the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons in initiating a state-wide campaign to promote the wearing of approved safety helmets by Victorian bicyclists and to obtain the necessary legislation whereby such wearing would become compulsory." World Journal of Surgery Volume 16, Number 3, 379-383, {{doi|10.1007/BF02104435}} World Progress In Surgery. Helmet efficacy in the prevention of bicyclist head injuries: Royal Australasian college of surgeons initiatives in the introduction of compulsory safety helmet wearing in Victoria, Australia. F. T. McDermott. http://www.springerlink.com/content/q3448667v4p21611/ Accessed 28 Feb 2011.</ref><ref></ref><ref>http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/2000/pdf/Bic_Crash_5.pdf Bicycle helmets and injury prevention: A formal review. accessed 4 January 2012</ref><ref name="RobinsonDL1996" /><ref name=RobinsonDL2007>{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=DL|title=Bicycle helmet legislation: Can we reach a consensus?|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=2007|month=Jan|volume=39|issue=1|pages=86–93|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2006.06.007|pmid=16919590|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457506001126|accessdate=1 March 2013}}</ref><ref>McDermott F T, Lane J C, Brazenor G A and Debney A E, The effectiveness of bicyclist helmets: a study of 1710 casualties, Journal of Trauma, 34:834-844, 1993</ref><ref>Bicycle helmet usage rates in Victoria 1983-1990, Vic Roads GR90-9</ref><ref>Whately S, Bicycle Crashes in the Australian Capital Territories, CR 35, FORS, 1985 http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1985/pdf/Bic_Crash_1.pdf
</ref><ref name="Attewell-et-al-2000">{{cite book|title=Bicycle Helmets and Injury Prevention: A formal review|year=2000|publisher=Australian Transport Safety Bureau|location=Canberra, Australia|isbn=0 642 25514 8|url=http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/2000/pdf/Bic_Crash_5.pdf|author=Attewell, R.|coauthors=Glase, K., McFadden, M.|accessdate=24 February 2013}}</ref>


In 1987 the Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee tabled a report in the ] which included a recommendation for mandatory wearing of helmets. The terms of reference for the inquiry related to child pedestrians and child cyclists and to report on 'the use of safety helmets by child cyclists'.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee – a History of Inquiries and Outcomes (MUARC Report No. 237) |year=2005 |publisher=Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC) |isbn=978-0-7326-2307-4 |pages=31–38 |url=http://www.monash.edu.au/miri/research/reports/muarc237.pdf |last1=Clark |first1=B. |last2=Haworth |first2=N |last3=Lenne |first3=M.}}</ref>
The 1978 inquiry issued a final report in 1985. It recommended that cooperation of states and territories should be sought to "''review the benefits of bicycle helmet wearing … and unless there are persuasive arguments to the contrary introduce compulsory wearing of helmets by cyclists on roads and other public places''". A federal parliament committee was set up in 1985. Early in the course of its inquiry (before it had reviewed all the evidence), it said: "''It is, of course, this Committee’s belief that all cyclists should wear a helmet to increase cycling safety.''" <ref name=CRAG-BriefHistory>{{cite web|last=Anonymous|title=Brief History of Helmet Law in Australia|url=http://crag.asn.au/?p=19|publisher=Cyclists' Rights Action Group (CRAG)|accessdate=26 March 2013}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=March 2013}}


By 1989, just before the government decided to introduce compulsory wearing of bicycle helmets, an officially-commissioned survey showed that public support for it was 92% for children and 83% for all riders.<ref>{{cite book |title=AGB McNair Survey Community Attitude |date=November 1989}}</ref> Opposition was fragmented and ineffective; no major cycling groups opposed the law in public.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Meredyth-Ann |title=Evaluation of the NSW introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation. Research Note 17/94 |date=May 1995 |publisher=NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) |isbn=978-0-7305-3844-8 |url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/evaluation_of_nsw_introduction_of_compulsory_bicycle_helmet_legislation.pdf |access-date=22 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419203033/http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/evaluation_of_nsw_introduction_of_compulsory_bicycle_helmet_legislation.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
A report from the Australian Department of Transport in 1987 examined cycling accident victims and found that ''"of the unhelmeted cases involving severe head injury, over 40 percent would definitely have had an improved outcome if a substantial bicycle helmet had been worn"''. It also found that, while ''"children do have substantial protection from impacts to the head when wearing a bicycle helmet, it is likely that substantial head deformation occurs in a major impact due to the stiffness of the bicycle helmet liner in the Australian Standard bicycle helmet."'' It recommended changes to the standards, in particular softer foam, which were not implemented.<ref name=Corner-et-al-1987>{{cite book|title=Motorcycle and bicycle protective helmets: requirements resulting from a post-crash study and experimental research. Federal Office of Road Safety Report No. CR 55|year=1987|publisher=DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT, FEDERAL OFFICE OF ROAD SAFETY|location=Canberra, Australia|isbn=0-642-51043-1|url=http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1987/pdf/Mcycle_Helm_1.pdf|author=J.P. Corner|coauthors=C.W. Whitney, N. O'Rourke, D.E. Morgan|month=May}}</ref>


==Introduction of the laws: legal requirements==
In 1987 the Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee tabled a report in the Parliament of Victoria which included a recommendation for mandatory wearing of helmets.<ref>Safe roads for Children, Inquiry into Child Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety, Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee, Parliament of Victoria 1987</ref><ref name=ClarkHaworthLenneMUARC2005>{{cite book|title=The Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee - a History of Inquiries and Outcomes (MUARC Report No. 237)|year=2005|publisher=Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC)|isbn=07326 2307 3|pages=31–38|url=http://www.monash.edu.au/miri/research/reports/muarc237.pdf|author=Clark B|coauthors=Haworth N, Lenne M|month=June}}</ref>
Rule 256 of the ] specifies that "the rider of a bicycle must wear an approved bicycle helmet securely fitted and fastened on the rider’s head, unless the rider is exempt from wearing a bicycle helmet under another law of this jurisdiction." The rules also require helmet use by certain bicycle passengers.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ntc.gov.au/filemedia/Reports/ARRFeb12.pdf |title=Australian Road Rules |date=February 2012 |publisher=National Road Transport Commission |isbn=978-0-7240-8874-4 |accessdate=19 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515215047/http://www.ntc.gov.au/filemedia/Reports/ARRFeb12.pdf |archivedate=15 May 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> {{as of|June 2013}}, the legally-required standard for a bicycle helmet is AS/NZS 2063.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Australian Government |title=Trade Practices (Consumer Product Safety Standard) (Bicycle Helmets) Regulations 2001 |date=15 December 2009 |url=http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2009C01271 |accessdate=19 June 2013}}</ref>


Mandatory helmet laws were first introduced in ] in July 1990, followed in January 1991 by laws for adult cyclists in ] and all age-groups in ]. In July 1991, New South Wales extended the law to child cyclists. In the same month, laws covering all cyclists were adopted in ] and in ], where the law was not enforced until 1 January 1993.<ref>{{cite book |last1=King |first1=M. |last2=Fraine |first2=G. |year=1993 |title=Bicycle helmet legislation and enforcement in Queensland 1991–1993: Effects on helmet wearing and crashes |publisher=Road User Behaviour Section, Road Transport and Safety Division, Queensland Transport}}</ref> In January 1992 helmet laws were introduced in the ] (NT) and ] and in July 1992 in the ].{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}
Meanwhile, in the late 1980s, cyclists in Australia experienced increased safety, associated with an increase in cycling though cycling still accounted for less than 2% of all journeys.<ref name=RobinsonDL1996 /> Helmets were worn by a large minority of cyclists.<ref>Victorian Bicycling Strategy; Vic Roads, Australia 1991</ref><ref name=WalkerMB1990 /> In 1987, a majority of children aged five to seven years were in favour of wearing helmets, whereas older children were opposed. <ref>O'Rourke NA, Costello F, Yelland JD, Stuart GG. Head injuries to children riding bicycles, Med J Aust. 1987 Jun 15;146(12):619-21</ref>


In the NT since March 1994 there is an exemption for adults cycling along footpaths or on cycle paths.<ref></ref>
By 1989, just before the government decided to introduce compulsory wearing of bicycle helmets, an officially commissioned survey showed that public support for it was 92% for children and 83% for all riders.<ref>AGB McNair Survey Community Attitude November 1989</ref> The RACS used this study to push for mandatory bicycle helmets in Victoria. Opposition was fragmented and ineffective; no major cycling groups opposed the law in public.<ref name=Williams1995>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Meredyth-Ann|title=Evaluation of the NSW introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation. Research Note 17/94.|year=1995|publisher=NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA)|isbn=0-7305-3844-3|url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/evaluation_of_nsw_introduction_of_compulsory_bicycle_helmet_legislation.pdf|month=May}}</ref>


Four of the six states (Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia), and the ], have exemptions for people who can not wear helmets for religious reasons, primarily ].<ref>, ], January 23 2020</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Calligeros |first=Marissa |title=Bike helmet laws will change to allow religious exemptions |url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/bike-helmet-laws-will-change-to-allow-religious-exemptions-20130423-2ibaq.html |accessdate=23 April 2013 |newspaper=The Brisbane Times |date=23 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424061711/http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/bike-helmet-laws-will-change-to-allow-religious-exemptions-20130423-2ibaq.html |archivedate=24 April 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>
==Legal requirements==
The law is laid out in Part 15 of the Australian Road Rules, approved by the Australian Transport Council. It specifies that "the rider of a bicycle must wear an approved bicycle helmet securely fitted and fastened on the rider’s head, unless the rider is exempt from wearing a bicycle helmet under another law of this jurisdiction." The law also requires helmet use by certain bicycle passengers.<ref>http://www.ntc.gov.au/filemedia/Reports/ARRFeb12.pdf</ref> The current legally-required standard for a bicycle helmet is AS/NZS 2063.<ref>Australian Government: Trade Practices (Consumer Product Safety Standard) (Bicycle Helmets) Regulations 2001</ref>


==Ongoing debate: after the laws==
Mandatory helmet laws were first introduced in ] in July 1990, followed in January 1991 by laws for adult cyclists in ] and all age-groups in ]. In July 1991, New South Wales extended the law's reach to child cyclists. In the same month, laws covering all cyclists were adopted in ] and in ], where the law was not enforced until 1 January 1993.<ref name=King1993>King, M. and Fraine, G. (1993). Bicycle helmet legislation and enforcement in Queensland 1991-1993: Effects on helmet wearing and crashes. Road User Behaviour Section, Road Transport and Safety Division, Queensland Transport.</ref> In January 1992 helmet laws were introduced in the ] and ] and in July 1992 in the ].


Academics within and outside Australia continue to express professional opinions both supportive and in opposition of the laws.<ref>{{cite web | title = Letter to Brisbane Central Business District Bicycle User Group | date = 23 March 2011 | url = http://www.cbdbug.org.au/wp-content/uploads/correspondence/2011/03/CARRSQHelmetReport20110323.pdf | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130513034745/http://www.cbdbug.org.au/wp-content/uploads/correspondence/2011/03/CARRSQHelmetReport20110323.pdf | archivedate = 13 May 2013 | first = David | last = Stewart | publisher = Office of the Director General, Department of Transport and Main Roads, Queensland Government}}</ref>
In Tasmania, the law only applies on public streets, while in the NT since March 1994 there is an exemption for adults cycling along footpaths or on cycle paths.<ref name=BHRF-HelmetLawsEffects>{{cite web|title=Helmet laws: what has been their effect?|url=http://cyclehelmets.org/1096.html|author=Bicycle Helmet Research Foundation (BHRF)|accessdate=15 March 2013}}</ref>
One opposition to the legislation is centred on shared bicycles in Brisbane and Melbourne. Shared bicycles are used about one tenth as much as is typical within areas without compulsory helmet laws.<ref>, Clay Lucas, ], 29 November 2010. </ref> Various factors may be responsible.<ref>, Elliott Fishman, ], 25 November 2012.</ref><ref> Alan Davies, ], 3 June 2013.</ref> One response has been to improve the availability of helmets to users of bicycle-sharing schemes,<ref>, Alan Davies, ], 12 February 2012.</ref> while Brisbane City Council has suggested trialling helmet-free zones.<ref>, Katherine Feeney, ], 10 August 2013.</ref> In 2015, the Australian Senate included the helmet issue as part of an Inquiry (Personal choice and community impacts) and received many submissions (mainly opposed to the laws) and heard from various witnesses giving evidence both for and against the helmet laws.<ref>, Senate Standing Committees on Economics, ]</ref>


==Research==
The Queensland government announced in April 2013 that exemptions on religious grounds from mandatory bicycle helmet laws would be granted from 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last=Calligeros|first=Marissa|title=Bike helmet laws will change to allow religious exemptions|url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/bike-helmet-laws-will-change-to-allow-religious-exemptions-20130423-2ibaq.html|accessdate=23 April 2013|newspaper=The Brisbane Times|date=April 23, 2013}}</ref>
Studies of helmet use by injured cyclists were published from the late 1980s, some in Australia, both before and after helmet legislation. These have concluded both for and against the encouragement of bicycle helmet wearing and/or bicycle helmet legislation – the debate continues, without consensus.<ref name="RobinsonDL1996">{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=D. L.|title=Head injuries and bicycle helmet laws.|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention |date=July 1996 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=463–475 |doi=10.1016/0001-4575(96)00016-4 |pmid=8870773 |url=http://www.cycle-helmets.com/robinson-head-injuries.pdf|accessdate=28 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |quote=The results of a comparative study of the injury profiles of Victorian motorcyclist and bicyclist casualties were used by the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons in initiating a state-wide campaign to promote the wearing of approved safety helmets by Victorian bicyclists and to obtain the necessary legislation whereby such wearing would become compulsory |journal=World Journal of Surgery |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=379–383 |doi=10.1007/BF02104435 |title=World Progress In Surgery. Helmet efficacy in the prevention of bicyclist head injuries: Royal Australasian college of surgeons initiatives in the introduction of compulsory safety helmet wearing in Victoria, Australia |first=F. T. |last=McDermott |year=1992 |pmid=1589969 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.bv.com.au/file/file/carrsq%20bike%20helmet%20report.pdf |publisher=Center for Accident Research and Bike Safety |location=Brisbane |title=Monograph 5 – Bike Helmet Research |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-9751596-8-2 |first1=Narelle |last1=Haworth |first2=Amy |last2=Schramm |first3=Mark |last3=King |first4=Dale |last4=Steinhardt |accessdate=19 June 2013 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/infrastructure-transport-vehicles/road-transport-infrastructure/safety/publications/2000/Bic_Crash_5 |title=Bicycle helmets and injury prevention: A formal review |date=June 2000 |isbn=978-0-642-25514-3 |publisher=Australian Transport Safety Bureau |first1=R. |last1=Attewell |first2=K. |last2=Glase |first3=M. |last3=McFadden}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=D. L.|title=Bicycle helmet legislation: Can we reach a consensus?|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention |date=January 2007 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=86–93 |doi=10.1016/j.aap.2006.06.007|pmid=16919590 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDermott |first1=F. T. |last2=Lane |first2=J. C. |last3=Brazenor |first3=G. A. |last4=Debney |first4=A. E. |title=The effectiveness of bicyclist helmets: a study of 1710 casualties |journal=Journal of Trauma |volume=34 |pages=834–844 |year=1993 |pmid=8315679 |issue=6 |doi=10.1097/00005373-199306000-00015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Whately |first=S |title=Bicycle Crashes in the Australian Capital Territories |publisher=Federal Office of Road Safety |location=Canberra |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-642-51019-8 |url=http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1985/pdf/Bic_Crash_1.pdf}}</ref>

==Cycling levels before and after the introduction of mandatory helmet laws==
]
A 1993 Victorian study by Finch ''et al.'' concluded that (after taking weather conditions into account) the helmet legislation had no deleterious effect on adult cycling, but reduced teenage (road) cycling by about 45%. <ref name=FinchCLetalMUARC1993>{{cite book|title=Bicycle use and helmet wearing rates in Melbourne, 1987 to 1992: The influence of the helmet wearing law. MUARC Report No. 45|year=1993|publisher=Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC)|location=Monash University, Victoria, Australia.|isbn=0-7326-0045-6|url=http://www.monash.edu.au/miri/research/reports/muarc045.pdf|author=Finch CF|coauthors=Heiman L; Neiger D|accessdate=1 March 2013}}</ref> Clarke compared the increase in helmet wearing with the drop in cycling, noting that "the drop of 36% (see Figure) represents more than half of those not wearing helmets."
noted that "On a web page, Robinson criticised the claim relating to adult use on the basis that MUARC ignored the 29% fewer adults counted post-law at the same sites and observation periods as the pre-law survey, and instead "estimated the effect of the law by comparing adult cycle use in 1991 with a much earlier survey (1987/88) at a different time of year. This is... invalid because... cycle use has a marked seasonal variation."<ref name=RobinsonDL-HeadInjuries-BicycleHelmetResearchFoundation>{{cite web|last=Robinson|first=DL|title=Head Injuries and Helmet Laws in Australia and New Zealand.|url=http://www.cyclehelmets.org/1241.html|publisher=Bicycle Helmet Research Foundation|accessdate=28 February 2013}}</ref>

Studies conducted for the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority indicated that number of child (road) cyclists reduced by about 40% after the helmet law, but that a comparison of surveys in different seasons (pre-law: October, post-law: April) did not show a reduction in adult cycling. <ref name=WalkerMB1990>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=MB|title=Law compliance and helmet use among cyclists in New South Wales. Consultant Report 6/90.|year=1990|publisher=Road Safety Bureau, NSW Roads and Traffic Authority|location=Rosebery, NSW,Australia.|isbn=0-7305-3652-1|url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/law_compliance_and_helmet_use_amongst_cyclists_in_nsw.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name=Smith&Milthorpe1993>{{cite book|title=An observational survey of law compliance and helmet wearing by bicyclists in New South Wales -1993.|year=1993|publisher=Transport and Network Development Branch, NSW Roads and Traffic Authority|location=Rosebery, NSW, Australia.|isbn=0-7305-9110-7|url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/smith_milthorpe_1993_survey.pdf|author=Smith NC|coauthors=Milthorpe FW}}</ref><ref name=Williams1995>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Meredyth-Ann|title=Evaluation of the NSW introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation. Research Note 17/94.|year=1995|publisher=NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA)|isbn=0-7305-3844-3|url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/evaluation_of_nsw_introduction_of_compulsory_bicycle_helmet_legislation.pdf|month=May}}</ref>
However, a series of subsequent surveys suggested that October was a less favourable month for cycling.<ref>
Walker, MB (1990). Law compliance and helmet use among cyclists in New South Wales. Consultant Report 6/90.. Rosebery, NSW, Australia.: Road Safety Bureau, NSW Roads and Traffic Authority. ISBN 0-7305-3652-1.</ref>

The (1995) report by Williams noted that an increase in adult cyclist non-head injury hospital admissions (of 17%) between 1988/89 and 1992/93 suggested that there had been no decrease in adult cycling in NSW as a result of the helmet law. Williams also noted that a 1994 analysis by Beattie had found that adult cyclist non-head injury admissions had not changed after the helmet law, and that Beattie had found that this casualty data indicated that the level of adult cycling had changed little as a result of the helmet law. Hospital admission data in the 1995 Victorian study by Carr ''et al.'' showed that, in Victoria, cyclist non-head injury hospital admissions dropped by about the same amount as pedestrian head injury admissions (25% and 20% respectively), indicating that there was little or no reduction in the level of cycling in Victoria as a result of the helmet law. <ref name=Carr-et-al-1995></ref>

A 1995 SA study by Marshall and White found that, after the helmet law, there was no change (p<0.05) in the number of adults or children who cycled at least once a week. <ref name=Marshall-and-White-1994>{{cite book|title=Evaluation of the compulsory helmet wearing legislation for bicyclists in South Australia. Office of Road Safety Report Series 8/94|year=1994|publisher=Office of Road Safety, South Australian Department of Transport|isbn=0-7308-0075-X|author=Marshall J|coauthors=White M|month=November|url=http://www.bicyclenetwork.com.au/media/vanilla/file/SA%20Helmet%20eval%201994%20SA%20Marshall.pdf}}</ref> Marshall and White also found that prior to the helmet law, cycling to school comprised about 20% of cycling activity in that age group, and that after the helmet law, cycling to school reduced by about 40%, and cycling to/around other venues increased by about the same amount.

Automatic counters installed on two key cyclist bridges over the Swan river, Perth, Western Australia, recorded an average of 16,326 cycle movements weekly for the three months October to December 1991 (pre-law). The same months in the post law years 1992-94 recorded 13067, 12470 and 10701 cyclist movements per week, reductions of 20%, 24% and 34% on pre-law cycling.<ref name="RobinsonDL1996">{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=DL|title=Head injuries and bicycle helmet laws.|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=1996|month=July|volume=28|issue=4|pages=463–475|doi=10.1016/0001-4575(96)00016-4|pmid=8870773|url=http://www.cycle-helmets.com/robinson-head-injuries.pdf|accessdate=28 February 2013}}</ref> A telephone survey in which adults responded on behalf of themselves and their children found 13% of Perth and 8% of country cyclists had given up or cycled less because of the law. However, when the adult respondents in the telephone survey replied for themselves an estimated 27% of the State's adult population - cyclists and non cyclists - (the equivalent of 64% of current adult cyclists) would cycle more if not legally required to wear a helmet.<ref name=RobinsonDL1996 />

Robinson noted that for children, the decrease in numbers of cyclists counted in New South Wales and Victoria)was greater than the increase in numbers wearing helmets, suggesting that the main effect of the law was to discourage cycling rather than persuade cyclists to wear helmets.<ref name=RobinsonDL1996 />

==Effects of mandatory helmet laws on injury rates in Australian cyclists==
Hospital admission data in a 1995 Victorian study by Carr ''et al.'' showed that in the 3 after the helmet law, compared to the 3 years before the helmet law, pedestrian head injury hospital admissions dropped by about 20%, cyclist non-head injury admisions dropped by about 25%, cyclist head injury admissions dropped by 40%, and serious and severe cyclist head/brain injury (AIS 3/4) admissions dropped by 60%. After taking into account various factors that could have contributed to the reduction in cyclist head injuries, Carr ''et al.'' concluded that "the major part of this reduction is attributable to the introduction of the helmet wearing law" and that "This analysis has confirmed the substantial reductions being made in both number and severity of bicycle injuries since the introduction of the mandatory helmet wearing law". <ref>Evaluation of the bicycle helmet law in Victoria during its first four years; Carr D, Skalova M, Cameron M.; Monash University Accident Research Centre, 1995.</ref>

A 1995 NSW study by Williams showed that between 1990 and 1993, road fatalities excluding cyclists dropped by 24%, and cyclist road fatalities dropped by 60% (from 20 to 8).<ref name=Williams1995>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Meredyth-Ann|title=Evaluation of the NSW introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation. Research Note 17/94.|year=1995|publisher=NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA)|isbn=0-7305-3844-3|url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/evaluation_of_nsw_introduction_of_compulsory_bicycle_helmet_legislation.pdf|month=May}}</ref> In 1994 there were 23 cyclist fatalities. <ref>Road Traffic Accidents in NSW-1994</ref>

A 1995 SA study by Marshall and White found that, after accounting for exposure and changing hospital admission policy (for concussion injury), comparing the year before the helmet law to the year after the helmet law, the helmet legislation could be linked to a 12% reduction in cyclists injuries that were potentially preventable by the use of a helmet. Comparing the 2 years before and after the helmet law, Marshall and White found that the helmet law was responsible for a 25% decrease in hospital admissions for potentially preventable cyclist head injuries in SA.<ref name=Marshall-and-White-1994>{{cite book|title=Evaluation of the compulsory helmet wearing legislation for bicyclists in South Australia. Office of Road Safety Report Series 8/94|year=1994|publisher=Office of Road Safety, South Australian Department of Transport|isbn=0-7308-0075-X|author=Marshall J|coauthors=White M|month=November|url=http://www.bicyclenetwork.com.au/media/vanilla/file/SA%20Helmet%20eval%201994%20SA%20Marshall.pdf}}</ref>

In a 1996 analysis of cyclist and pedestrian casualties in Victoria and NSW, all-age cyclist counts in Victoria, and child cyclist counts in NSW, Dorothy Robinson noted similar declining trends for both cyclist and pedestrian head injuries in those states, and concluded that the decreases in hospital admissions were less than the decreases in cycling.<ref name="RobinsonDL1996"/>

Noting that all road users had 42% fewer deaths from head injury in 1994 than in 1998, pedestrians had 38% fewer, but the reduction in head injury deaths for cyclists was only 30%, Curnow concluded: "Despite a decrease in cycling, deaths to cyclists, even those by head injury, declined by less than other road users. No benefit from the helmet laws is evident."<ref name=Curnow2005AAP>{{cite journal|last=Curnow|first=WJ|title=The Cochrane Collaboration and bicycle helmets.|journal=Accident Analysis and Prevention|year=2005|month=May|volume=37|issue=3|pages=569–573|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2005.01.009|pmid=15784212|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457505000266}}</ref> ATSB road fatality data shows that between 1992 and 1994, compared to 1987-1989, the number of pedestrian fatalities fell by 28%, and the number of cyclist fatalities fell by 45%.<ref name="ReferenceA">Road Fatalities Australia: Statistical Summary 2002; Safety Transport Statistics Unit, Australian Transport Safety Bureau, 2003</ref>

]

A 1996 analysis by Bruce Robinson used information on head injuries, recorded for hospital admissions in Western Australia (WA) since 1971, to show the remarkably similar trends for all road users, and noted that a divergence between the injury rates from 1991 was unexplained, suggesting that it might just be random variation.<ref name=BruceRobinson-VeloAustralis1996>Is There Any Reliable Evidence That Australian Helmet Legislation Works? Bruce Robinson, Bicycle Federation of Australia. Proceedings of Velo Australis, a conference held in Fremantle, Australia, 30 October 1996. http://www.bhsi.org/veloaust.htm</ref> {{anchor|Hendrie}}The WA data were later analysed by Hendrie ''et al''., using a statistical model to estimate the effect of the helmet law on cyclist head injuries, after taking the downward trends in both pedestrian and cyclist head injuries into account. The model showed that the divergence was not due to random variation (p<0.001); that before the helmet law the proportion of cyclists with a head injury was on average 6% higher than the proportion of pedestrians with a head injury; and that after the law the proportion of cyclists with a head injury was on average 16% lower than the proportion of pedestrians with a head injury. (This divergence can be seen on the graph, where the green/pedestrian line crosses the black/cyclist line the year before the helmet law is introduced.) With respect to the cost-benefit of the helmet law, Hendrie et al concluded that "In monetary terms, it is unlikely that the helmet wearing legislation would have achieved net savings of any sizeable magnitude."<ref name=Hendrie-et-al-1999>{{cite book|title=An economic evaluation of the mandatory bicycle helmet legislation in Western Australia|year=1999|publisher=Proceedings, Conference on Road Safety, Insurance Commission of Western Australia|url=http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/intranet/libpages.nsf/WebFiles/ITS+-+bikes+report+Hendrie/$FILE/helmets+report+Hendrie.pdf|author=Hendrie D, Legge M, Rosman D, Kirov C. Road Accident Prevention Research Unit, Department of Public Health, The University of Western Australia}}</ref> ATSB data shows that in NSW, during the 3 years following legislation 1992-1994, compared to the 3 years prior to legislation of 1988-1990, pedestrian fatalities dropped by 34% (from an average of 185 to 122 per year), cyclist fatalities dropped by 49% (from an average of 24 to 12 per year) and motorcyclists dropped by 49% (an average of 107 to 54).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> A 1995 NSW RTA analysis reported the total reduction in cyclist casualties since helmet legislation (including the effects of safer roads and reduced cycling) as 33 fewer cyclist deaths and 1040 fewer injuries, a saving of $47,863,820 in casualty costs.<ref name=Williams1995 />

A 2006 review by Robinson of available data head injuries and cycle use in four Australian states (Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia) and New Zealand concluded that there was no evidence at the population level that the laws had reduced head injuries.<ref name="Robinson 2006">{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/bmj.332.7543.722-a |title=No clear evidence from countries that have enforced the wearing of helmets |year=2006 |last1=Robinson |first1=D L |journal=BMJ |volume=332 |issue=7543 |pages=722–725 |pmid=16565131 |pmc=1410838}}</ref> Several authors have criticised the 2006 Robinson review.{{efn|name=Robinson2006Footnote|Hynd ''et al.'' noted that Robinson's definition of head injuries is "''very vague and not useful for this type of study''", and that it is important that injury severity is considered in such analyses.<ref name=Hynd-et-al-2009>{{cite book|title=The potential for cycle helmets to prevent injury&nbsp;— A review of the evidence (Report PPR446)|year=2009|publisher=Transport Research Laboratory, UK.|isbn=978-1-84608-939-8|url=http://www.trl.co.uk/online_store/reports_publications/trl_reports/cat_road_user_safety/report_the_potential_for_cycle_helmets_to_prevent_injury___a_review_of_the_evidence.htm|author=D Hynd|coauthors=R Cuerden, S Reid, S Adams}}</ref> Hagel noted that the correlation coefficient corresponding to one of the figures in Robinson's 2006 article suggested that much of the variation in the percentage of head injuries is explained by helmet use. Hagel also noted that much of Robinson's data is based on time series or ecological designs without any concurrent comparison groups, and that such studies are considered to provide weak evidence. Hagel then noted that time series or ecological studies are subject to confounding/bias, and that unlike case-control studies, confounding variables in ecological studies cannot be measured, so cannot be adjusted for.<ref name=Hagel-et-al-BMJ-2005>{{cite journal|last=Hagel|first=B|coauthors=Macpherson A; Rivara FP; Pless B|title=Arguments against helmet legislation are flawed|journal=British Medical Journal|year=2006|month=March|volume=332|issue=7543|pages=725–726|doi=10.1136/bmj.332.7543.725|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1410864/|accessdate=19 March 2013|pmc=PMC1410864}}</ref>}} Robinson's review included a Victorian study by Carr et al.<ref>Evaluation of the bicycle helmet law in Victoria during its first four years; Carr D, Skalova M, Cameron M.; Monash University Accident Research Centre, 1995.</ref> which noted: "the change is largely due to the introduction of the mandatory helmet wearing legislation although it is possible that a part of the change relates to reduced exposure to crash risk of bicyclists since the legislation's introduction." Robinson noted that pedestrian deaths and serious injuries declined to 74% of pre-law casualties. The same 74% reduction in deaths and serious head injuries, together with 30% fewer cyclists, should have led to a 48% reduction in cyclists' deaths and serious head injuries. The actual fall of only 43% therefore implied increased risk of death and serious injury per cyclist (compared to pedestrians) after the introduction of helmet laws in Australia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=D L|title=Safety in Numbers in Australia: more walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and bicycling|journal=Health Promotion Journal of Australia|year=20052|volume=16|pages=47–51}}</ref>

A 2011 study by researchers at the ] concluded that helmet laws led to an immediate 29% reduction in cycling related head injuries over and above any reductions in cycling participation immediately after the introduction of the legislation in NSW.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Walter|first=SR|coauthors=Olivier, J., Churches, T., Grzebieta, R.|title=The impact of compulsory cycle helmet legislation on cyclist head injuries in New South Wales, Australia.|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=2011|month=November|volume=43|issue=6|pages=2064–2071|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2011.05.029|pmid=21819836|url=http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/50858|accessdate=24 February 2013|issn=0001-4575}}</ref> A rejoinder by Rissel to this paper criticised aspects of its methods and challenged its conclusions.<ref name=Rissel-rejoinder-2012>{{cite journal|last=Rissel|first=C|title=The impact of compulsory cycle helmet legislation on cyclist head injuries in New South Wales, Australia: A rejoinder|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=2012|month=March|volume=45|pages=107–109|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2011.11.017|pmid=22269491|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457511003228|accessdate=24 February 2013|issn=0001-4575}}</ref> A response to this critique by the authors of the original paper addressed each of the criticisms and provided some additional analyses of the data used in the original paper, which confirmed the original results and conclusions.<ref name=Walter-et-al-2012>{{cite journal|last=Walter|first=SR|coauthors=Olivier J., Churches T., Grzebieta R.|title=The impact of compulsory helmet legislation on cyclist head injuries in New South Wales, Australia: A response|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=2013|month=March|volume=52|pages=204–209|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2012.11.028|pmid=23339779|url=http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/52350|accessdate=24 February 2013|issn=0001-4575}}</ref>

A 2012 study by the same University of New South Wales researchers found that the population-based hospitalisation rate for cyclist arm injuries had increased by 145 percent in NSW from 1991 to 2010. In the same time period head injuries rates only increased by 20 percent.<ref name="Olivier 2013 1128–1134">{{cite journal|last=Olivier|first=J|coauthors=Walter SR; Grzebieta RH|title=Long term bicycle related head injury trends for New South Wales, Australia following mandatory helmet legislation|journal=Accident Analysis & Prevention|year=2013|month=January|volume=50|pages=1128–1134|doi=10.1016/j.aap.2012.09.003|pmid=23026203|url=http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/52030|accessdate=25 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bike helmet critics not using their heads|url=http://www.theage.com.au/opinion/society-and-culture/bike-helmet-critics-not-using-their-heads-20121003-26yvc.html|accessdate=9 April 2013|newspaper=The Age|date=3 October 2012|author=Jake Olivier|author2=Scott Walter|author3=Raphael Grzebieta}}</ref> When trends are assessed relative to available estimates of cycling participation from 2001-2010, arm injuries increased by 46% while head injuries remained flat. In terms of absolute numbers of hospitalisations, between 1991 and 2000, the number of arm injuries doubled, while the number of head injuries increased by 40%.

{{See also|Bicycle_helmet#Rotational_injury}}

Bambach ''et al.'' 2013 <ref>Bambach, M; Mitchell RJ, Grzebieta RH, Olivier J (April 2013). "The effectiveness of helmets in bicycle collisions with motor vehicles: A case-control study.". Accid Anas and Prev. 53: 78–88. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.01.005. PMID 23377086.</ref> provided details for NSW, 2001 to 2009, by comparing wearers and non-wearers, head and other injuries from accidents involving motor vehicles. A noticeable feature in the details was for the ages, 55% of non-wearers were in the 0-19 age group compared with 19% for wearers. Bambach Table 2 shows 267 head injuries for non-wearers and 372 head injuries for wearers. There were 120 non-wearers over the 0.05 BAC limit and 85 wearers. Non-helmeted cyclists were more likely to display imprudent cycling behaviour, including disobeying a traffic control (9.4% compared with 3.3%) and cycling with a BAC greater than 0.05 (7.2% compared with 1.7%) (Table 2). However, non-helmeted cyclists were more likely cycling on the footpath (34.4% compared with 12.9%) and in speed zones of 50 km/h or less (56.9% compared with 50.0%), and less likely cycling on highways or freeways (8.3% compared with 12.6%). Overall, non-helmeted cyclists were more likely to be seriously injured in body regions other than the head (9.5% compared with 7.3%).

In a meta-analysis of published helmet effectiveness studies, Attewell ''et al''. found in 2000 that "...three studies provided neck injury results that were unfavourable to helmets with a summary estimate of 1.36 (95% confidence interval 1.00 to 1.86), but this result may not be applicable to the lighter helmets currently in use", and that compared to helmeted cyclists, unhelmeted cyclists were 2.4 times more likely to sustain a brain injury; 2.5 times more likely to sustain a head injury; and 3.7 times more likely to sustain a fatal injury.<ref name="Attewell-et-al-2000">{{cite book|title=Bicycle Helmets and Injury Prevention: A formal review|year=2000|publisher=Australian Transport Safety Bureau|location=Canberra, Australia|isbn=0 642 25514 8|url=http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/2000/pdf/Bic_Crash_5.pdf|author=Attewell, R.|coauthors=Glase, K., McFadden, M.|accessdate=24 February 2013}}</ref>
{{See also|Bicycle_helmet#Meta-analyses}}

===Use of case-control studies===
{{Main|Bicycle_helmet#Case-control_studies}}
] concerning the effectiveness of helmets, including some from Australia, have been cited in a literature review regarding the health outcomes of cycling and bicycle helmets by the Centre for Accident Research & Road Safety&nbsp;— Queensland (CARRS-Q).<ref name=Haworth-et-al-CARRS-Q-2010>{{cite book|title=Bicycle Helmet Research (CARRS-Q Monograph 5).|year=2010|publisher=Centre for Accident Research & Road Safety&nbsp;— Queensland (CARRS-Q), Queensland University of Technology (QUT)|isbn=978-0-9751-5968-2|url=http://www.bicyclenetwork.com.au/media/vanilla/file/carrsq%20bike%20helmet%20report.pdf|author=Haworth N|coauthors=Schramm A, King M, Steinhardt D|accessdate=31 March 2013}}</ref> The Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) analysed sixteen such studies, four from Australia.<ref name="Attewell-et-al-2000" />{{efn|name=AttewellNote|group=Footnotes|Attewell ''et al''. (2000)<ref name="Attewell-et-al-2000" /> concluded: "This formal summarisation of studies of individual cyclists in various settings has confirmed the clear benefits of helmets in terms of injury risk. The upper bounds of the 95% confidence intervals provide conservative risk reduction estimates of at least 45% for head injury, 33% for brain injury, 27% for facial injury and 29% for fatal injury."}}

All these studies are disputed by Curnow<ref name=Curnow2005AAP />.

==Helmets and bike-share schemes==
Melbourne inaugurated a ] in 2010. Mandatory helmet laws have been cited as one reason for its low initial usage.<ref></ref> Increased access to helmets in local shops saw usage of the bike share scheme almost double in late 2010 to an average of 183 trips a day.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lucas|first=Clay|title=Helmet law hurting shared bike scheme|url=http://www.smh.com.au/victoria/helmet-law-hurting-shared-bike-scheme-20101128-18cf2.html|accessdate=10 April 2013|newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald|date=29 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Cyclists fined during anti-helmet protest|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-07-24/cyclists-fined-during-anti-helmet-protest/917976|accessdate=10 April 2013|newspaper=ABC News|date=24 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Moore|first=Tony|title=CityCycle won't follow Melbourne's $5 helmet lead|url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/citycycle-wont-follow-melbournes-5-helmet-lead-20110808-1ii05.html|accessdate=10 April 2013|newspaper=Brisbane Times|date=8 Augus 2011}}</ref> The bike share scheme has seen its usage increase in 2011 from a low point of 257 average daily trips in July, to 519 in January 2012.<ref>Bike share scheme starts to gain traction The Age http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/bike-share-scheme-starts-to-gain-traction-20120209-1rwsx.html</ref> Nonetheless, this is still low by international standards at 0.4 trips per bike per day in July and 0.8 trips per bike per day in January,<ref>{{cite web|title=A Tale of Two Cities|url=http://www.cyclehelmets.org/1211.html|author=Bicycle Helmet Research Foundation (BHRF)|accessdate=15 March 2013}}</ref> while 8 to 10 trips per day is usual elsewhere.<ref>The Role of Smart Bike-sharing Systems in Urban Mobility. Peter MIDGLEY. JOURNEYS. May 2009. http://www.scribd.com/doc/63059837/IS02-p23-Bike-Sharing</ref> Some politicians has suggested that the helmet laws should be altered so as to aid bike hire schemes.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zaw|first=Yolanda|title=City plans bike-hire scheme|url=http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/newshome/13856970/city-plans-bike-hire-scheme/|accessdate=10 April 2013|newspaper=The West Australian|date=4 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Zaw|first=Yolanda|title=Fremantle in call for no helmets trial|url=http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/newshome/13656583/fremantle-in-call-for-no-helmets-trial/|accessdate=10 April 2013|newspaper=The West Australian|date=11 May 11, 2012}}</ref> The Lord Mayor of the City of Sydney, Clover Moore, has indicated that an exemption from compulsory helmet laws will be sought for a future bike hire scheme after a network of inner-city bikes lanes is completed.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saulwick|first=Jacob|title=Bike hire plans hinge on helmets|url=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/bike-hire-plans-hinge-on-helmets-20120304-1ub4f.html|accessdate=1 March 2013|newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald|date=5-Mar-2012}}</ref>

==Enforcement, fines and legal aspects of compulsory helmet use==

In Victoria more than 19,000 fines for not wearing a helmet were issued in the first 12 months of their helmet law.<ref name=Cameron-et-al-MUARC-1992>{{cite book|title=Evaluation of the Bicycle Helmet Wearing Law in Victoria During its First 12 Months (MUARC Report No. 32)|year=1992|publisher=Monash University Accident Research Centre|url=http://www.monash.edu.au/miri/research/reports/muarc032.html|author=Cameron M|coauthors=Heiman L, Neiger D|accessdate=22 March 2013}}</ref> Before the law was enforced in Queensland, bicycle travel represented about 2.3% of total vehicle kilometres; after the helmet law was enforced in 1993, bicycle offence notices increased to 7.9% of traffic offence notices, implying that per kilometre, bicycle offence notices were about four times higher than all other traffic offences put together - speeding, drink-driving, not wearing seatbelts, careless driving or riding, etc.<ref name=RobinsonDL1996 /> In 2005 almost 10,000 cyclists in NSW were fined for not wearing a helmet. The figure had dropped to 6,537 in 2010.<ref>Cyclists 'getting an easy ride' SMH http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/cyclists-getting-an-easy-ride-20101208-18px7.html</ref>

The ''Sydney Morning Herald'' has reported that the number of cyclists who have been fined decreased from more than 13,000 in 2005-06; to 10,807 in 2007-08; and to 8,866 in 2008-2009. The chairman of the Pedestrian Council of Australia was quoted as saying that in the past 5 years there have been no fines issued for most bicycle-related offences; that 74% of the fines related to helmets, not riding offences; and that it appeared that the government was going soft on cyclists.<ref>{{cite web|first=Alexandra |last=Smith |url=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/cyclists-getting-an-easy-ride-20101208-18px7.html |title=Fine For Riding Without Helmet, Light / Running Red Light In NSW |publisher=Smh.com.au |date=2010-12-09 |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref> An article in ''The Age'' quoted the officer in charge of Victoria Police's bicycle unit as saying that cyclists without a helmet were a particular focus, because it is a most fundamental safety rule. The newspaper also reported that Bicycle Victoria, a cycling advocacy group, supported the increased fines.<ref>{{cite web|first=Clay |last=Lucas |url=http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/riders-left-reeling-by-bike-fine-increase-20100526-we7e.html#ixzz2Ngadm529 |title=New Cycling Fines In Melbourne Leaves Riders Reeling &#124; Trams |publisher=Theage.com.au |date= |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref>

==Public attitude to helmets==

In 1989, an officially-commissioned survey showed that public support for mandatory helmet laws was 92% for children and 83% for all riders.<ref>AGB McNair Survey Community Attitude November 1989</ref> A 1995 study by Williams reported that prior to the legislation in NSW, compulsory helmet wearing had an approval rating of over 70%, rising to 92% in 1994.
<ref name=Williams1995 />

A 2011 survey of 1000 Australians by the Cycling Promotion Fund found that 515 respondents were not interested in cycling for transport, with 15.7% citing "don't like wearing a helmet" as one of their reasons. This was the 13th most popular response with safety issues ("Unsafe road conditions" "Speed/volume of traffic" and "Don't feel safe riding" the top three responses). 158 people had cycled for transport in the past month.<ref></ref>

An April 2012 survey of 1,910 Australian respondents found 94% approved of the government making helmet wearing mandatory while 1% strongly opposed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Essential Vision|title=Essential Report 30 April 2012|url=http://essentialvision.com.au/documents/essential_report_120430.pdf|accessdate=27 February 2013}}</ref>

An online survey of attitudes to cycling of 1,007 randomly-selected Australian women aged 18 and over was commissioned in February 2013 by the National Heart Foundation of Australia and the Cycling Promotion Fund.<ref name=NHFA-CPF-WomenCyclingSurvey2013>{{cite web|title=Women and Cycling Survey 2013|url=http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/news-media/Media-Releases-2013/Documents/CPF%20-%20Women%20and%20Cycling%20Survey%202013.pdf|publisher=National Heart Foundation of Australia and the Cycling Promotion Fund|accessdate=26 March 2013|year=2013}}</ref> In response to the statement "Wearing a helmet ruins a woman's hairstyle", 39% of survey participants agreed, 33% disagreed, 27% responded "neither" and 1% were unsure. In response to the question "What would encourage women to cycle more?", 4% of participants listed "Not having to wear helmets" as a main reason, and 11% listed it as an other reason.

===Opinions on cycling in relation to the helmet laws===
A street survey in the Northern Territory found 20% of cyclists had given up because of the law and 42% said they had reduced their cycling.<ref name=RobinsonDL1996 /> A 1994 evaluation report on the helmet laws by the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority<ref name=Williams1995>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Meredyth-Ann|title=Evaluation of the NSW introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation. Research Note 17/94.|year=1995|publisher=NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA)|isbn=0-7305-3844-3|url=http://www.bicycleinfo.nsw.gov.au/downloads/cycle_research/evaluation_of_nsw_introduction_of_compulsory_bicycle_helmet_legislation.pdf|month=May}}</ref> stated:<blockquote>On examination of bicycling magazines at the time of legislation, the feeling of many individuals in the Australian bicycle fraternity was anti-helmet and particularly, against compulsory legislation. There was, however, the occasional pro-helmet advocate. The magazine editorial approach tended to be antagonistic toward compulsory helmet legislation, but some, e.g., Bicycle Victoria, encouraged helmet wearing. Articles within the body of the magazines, although primarily against the idea of bicycle helmet legislation, did proyide a more balanced perspective on the topic. Bicycle user groups throughout Australia supported helmet usage, although there were some concerns with helmet design, e.g., in the Northern Territory, the lack of air flow through helmets was of particular concern. The RTA's Bicycle Advisory Council also supported the legislation.</blockquote>

In 2007, John C. Harland, a Melbourne cycling activist, put forward the following views, citing two 1996 cycling conference papers,<ref name=BruceRobinson-VeloAustralis1996 /><ref name=RobinsonDL-Velo-Australis-1996>{{cite web|last=Robinson|first=Dorothy L|title=Cycle Helmet Laws&nbsp;— Facts, Figures and Consequences|url=http://www.roble.net/marquis/cached/agbu.une.edu.au/~drobinso/velo1/velo.html|publisher=Paper presented at Velo Australis, the International Bicycle Conference, Freemantle, Western Australia, 1996.|accessdate=25 March 2013}}</ref> in a history conference paper titled "''Cycling cultures and the mismeasurement of cycling''":<ref name=Harland2007>{{cite web|last=Harland|first=John C.|title=Cycling cultures and the mismeasurement of cycling|url=http://www.thebikeshed.org.au/DocumentListHandler.ashx?FolderName=History+Papers&FileName=The+Measurment+of+Cycling.pdf|year=2007|publisher=The BikeShed at CERES (community cycling group)|accessdate=9 April 2013}}</ref>
<blockquote>
"Helmets and social equity&nbsp;— It is believed widely that bicycle helmets reduce the risk of brain damage in bicycle crashes. The data, however, is very thin even now, and was skeletal at the time of mandation of helmet use. Bruce Robinson and Dorre Robinson have both presented good analyses of these issues and will be familiar to most readers from the Velo Australis conference of 1996. A key problem is the use of limited data on head injury to infer data on brain damage - the real issue of concern. The two parameters are far less-well correlated than is believed widely, and Dorre Robinson’s 1996 paper is a good analysis of that. On the scant evidence available, helmet use should never have been mandated. Another issue that raised far too little concern at the time, though, was that of social equity."
</blockquote>


==See also== ==See also==
Line 119: Line 40:
*] *]
*] *]

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}


==References== ==References==
Line 127: Line 45:


==External links== ==External links==
* *
* *
* *
*
*
*
*


] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]

Latest revision as of 01:23, 1 July 2024

Cyclists wearing helmets on a street in Melbourne, during a climate protest event

Australia was the first country to make wearing bicycle helmets mandatory. The majority of early statistical data regarding the effectiveness of bicycle helmets originated from Australia. Their efficacy is still a matter of debate.

Between 1990 and 1992, Australian states and territories introduced various laws mandating that cyclists wear bicycle helmets while riding after a campaign by various groups including the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons (RACS).

History: lead-up to the laws

Modern varieties of bicycle helmet first became commercially available from 1975. Industry helmet standards were developed from the 1970s and are still under development.

In 1985, the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Transport Safety recommended that cooperation of states and territories should be sought to "review the benefits of bicycle helmet wearing ... and unless there are persuasive arguments to the contrary introduce compulsory wearing of helmets by cyclists on roads and other public places". A federal parliament committee was set up in 1985.

A 1986 report on child cyclist injuries from Redcliffe Hospital, Brisbane, detailed 93% of cases were not life-threatening and from 18 admissions, they included nine with minor head injury for overnight observation. In 1987 a report based on Brisbane hospitals detailed a majority of children aged five to seven years were in favour of wearing helmets, whereas older children were opposed.

In 1987 the Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee tabled a report in the Parliament of Victoria which included a recommendation for mandatory wearing of helmets. The terms of reference for the inquiry related to child pedestrians and child cyclists and to report on 'the use of safety helmets by child cyclists'.

By 1989, just before the government decided to introduce compulsory wearing of bicycle helmets, an officially-commissioned survey showed that public support for it was 92% for children and 83% for all riders. Opposition was fragmented and ineffective; no major cycling groups opposed the law in public.

Introduction of the laws: legal requirements

Rule 256 of the Australian Road Rules specifies that "the rider of a bicycle must wear an approved bicycle helmet securely fitted and fastened on the rider’s head, unless the rider is exempt from wearing a bicycle helmet under another law of this jurisdiction." The rules also require helmet use by certain bicycle passengers. As of June 2013, the legally-required standard for a bicycle helmet is AS/NZS 2063.

Mandatory helmet laws were first introduced in Victoria in July 1990, followed in January 1991 by laws for adult cyclists in New South Wales and all age-groups in Tasmania. In July 1991, New South Wales extended the law to child cyclists. In the same month, laws covering all cyclists were adopted in South Australia and in Queensland, where the law was not enforced until 1 January 1993. In January 1992 helmet laws were introduced in the Northern Territory (NT) and Western Australia and in July 1992 in the Australian Capital Territory.

In the NT since March 1994 there is an exemption for adults cycling along footpaths or on cycle paths.

Four of the six states (Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia), and the ACT, have exemptions for people who can not wear helmets for religious reasons, primarily Sikhs.

Ongoing debate: after the laws

Academics within and outside Australia continue to express professional opinions both supportive and in opposition of the laws. One opposition to the legislation is centred on shared bicycles in Brisbane and Melbourne. Shared bicycles are used about one tenth as much as is typical within areas without compulsory helmet laws. Various factors may be responsible. One response has been to improve the availability of helmets to users of bicycle-sharing schemes, while Brisbane City Council has suggested trialling helmet-free zones. In 2015, the Australian Senate included the helmet issue as part of an Inquiry (Personal choice and community impacts) and received many submissions (mainly opposed to the laws) and heard from various witnesses giving evidence both for and against the helmet laws.

Research

Studies of helmet use by injured cyclists were published from the late 1980s, some in Australia, both before and after helmet legislation. These have concluded both for and against the encouragement of bicycle helmet wearing and/or bicycle helmet legislation – the debate continues, without consensus.

See also

References

  1. Curnow, W. J. (2008). "Bicycle Helmets: A Scientific Evaluation". In De Smet, Anton (ed.). Transportation Accident Analysis and Prevention (PDF). Commack, N.Y: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60456-288-0.
  2. McDermott, F. T. (1992). "Helmet efficacy in the prevention of bicyclist head injuries: Royal australasian college of surgeons initiatives in the introduction of compulsory safety helmet wearing in Victoria, Australia". World Journal of Surgery. 16 (3): 379–383. doi:10.1007/BF02104435. PMID 1589969.
  3. "Bell bike helmets timeline". Bell Bike Helmets. Archived from the original on 4 April 2010.
  4. "Bicycle Helmet Standards". Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute. 26 February 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
  5. Moore, Matthew (19 November 2010). "New bike helmet standards send retailers into a spin". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
  6. "Mandatory standard — Bicycle helmets". Product Safety Australia. Archived from the original on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
  7. "Brief History of Helmet Law in Australia". Cyclists' Rights Action Group (CRAG). 26 December 2010. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  8. Armson, CJ; Pollard, CW (3 February 1986). "Child cyclist injuries; a prospective study". Medical Journal of Australia. 144 (3): 144–146. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1986.tb112244.x.
  9. O'Rourke NA, Costello F, Yelland JDN, Stuart GG, Head injuries to children riding bicycles, Vol146 June15, Med J Aust. 1987
  10. Clark, B.; Haworth, N; Lenne, M. (2005). The Victorian Parliamentary Road Safety Committee – a History of Inquiries and Outcomes (MUARC Report No. 237) (PDF). Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC). pp. 31–38. ISBN 978-0-7326-2307-4.
  11. AGB McNair Survey Community Attitude. November 1989.
  12. Williams, Meredyth-Ann (May 1995). Evaluation of the NSW introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation. Research Note 17/94 (PDF). NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA). ISBN 978-0-7305-3844-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2013.
  13. Australian Road Rules (PDF). National Road Transport Commission. February 2012. ISBN 978-0-7240-8874-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  14. Trade Practices (Consumer Product Safety Standard) (Bicycle Helmets) Regulations 2001. Australian Government. 15 December 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  15. King, M.; Fraine, G. (1993). Bicycle helmet legislation and enforcement in Queensland 1991–1993: Effects on helmet wearing and crashes. Road User Behaviour Section, Road Transport and Safety Division, Queensland Transport.
  16. Northern Territory Government – Bicycle safety
  17. Sikh community now exempted from helmet laws, Canberra Times, January 23 2020
  18. Calligeros, Marissa (23 April 2013). "Bike helmet laws will change to allow religious exemptions". The Brisbane Times. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  19. Stewart, David (23 March 2011). "Letter to Brisbane Central Business District Bicycle User Group" (PDF). Office of the Director General, Department of Transport and Main Roads, Queensland Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 May 2013.
  20. Helmet law hurting shared bike scheme, Clay Lucas, The Age, 29 November 2010.
  21. Fixing Australian bike share goes beyond helmet laws, Elliott Fishman, The Conversation, 25 November 2012.
  22. Why does bikeshare work in New York but not in Australia? Alan Davies, Crikey, 3 June 2013.
  23. Is the law on helmets why bikeshare is failing?, Alan Davies, Crikey, 12 February 2012.
  24. Trial helmet-free cycling zones, says Brisbane City Council, Katherine Feeney, Brisbane Times, 10 August 2013.
  25. Personal choice and community impacts, Senate Standing Committees on Economics, Parliament of Australia
  26. Robinson, D. L. (July 1996). "Head injuries and bicycle helmet laws" (PDF). Accident Analysis & Prevention. 28 (4): 463–475. doi:10.1016/0001-4575(96)00016-4. PMID 8870773. Retrieved 28 February 2013.
  27. McDermott, F. T. (1992). "World Progress In Surgery. Helmet efficacy in the prevention of bicyclist head injuries: Royal Australasian college of surgeons initiatives in the introduction of compulsory safety helmet wearing in Victoria, Australia". World Journal of Surgery. 16 (3): 379–383. doi:10.1007/BF02104435. PMID 1589969. The results of a comparative study of the injury profiles of Victorian motorcyclist and bicyclist casualties were used by the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons in initiating a state-wide campaign to promote the wearing of approved safety helmets by Victorian bicyclists and to obtain the necessary legislation whereby such wearing would become compulsory
  28. Haworth, Narelle; Schramm, Amy; King, Mark; Steinhardt, Dale (2010). Monograph 5 – Bike Helmet Research (PDF). Brisbane: Center for Accident Research and Bike Safety. ISBN 978-0-9751596-8-2. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  29. Attewell, R.; Glase, K.; McFadden, M. (June 2000). Bicycle helmets and injury prevention: A formal review. Australian Transport Safety Bureau. ISBN 978-0-642-25514-3.
  30. Robinson, D. L. (January 2007). "Bicycle helmet legislation: Can we reach a consensus?". Accident Analysis & Prevention. 39 (1): 86–93. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2006.06.007. PMID 16919590.
  31. McDermott, F. T.; Lane, J. C.; Brazenor, G. A.; Debney, A. E. (1993). "The effectiveness of bicyclist helmets: a study of 1710 casualties". Journal of Trauma. 34 (6): 834–844. doi:10.1097/00005373-199306000-00015. PMID 8315679.
  32. Whately, S (1985). Bicycle Crashes in the Australian Capital Territories (PDF). Canberra: Federal Office of Road Safety. ISBN 978-0-642-51019-8.

External links

Categories: