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{{Short description|Type of anger outburst engaged in typically by young children}}
{{otheruses}}
{{other uses}}
A '''tantrum''' is an ]al outburst wherein higher brain functions are unable to stop the emotional expression of the lower (emotional and physical) brain functions. Usually the tantrum is shown by ] of the ages of 3-6 but sometimes 7-9; this is a very clear case of emotional disinhibition caused by immature ] development. It is not just children that throw tantrums, however, with ]s being very common also. People who have ] such as ] have tantrums much more often than normal people do. Because a tantrum is most often associated with children, it is often also colloquially known as a '''dummy spit''', a reference to a ] spitting out their ] (pacifier) because it is unhappy.
] in a Tantrum" by her brother, ]]]
A '''tantrum''', '''angry outburst''', '''temper tantrum''', '''lash out''', '''meltdown''', '''fit''', or '''hissy fit''' is an ]al ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Album|first=Cabinet|date=1830|title=The Cabinet Album A Collection of Original and Selected Literature|journal=The|publisher=Hurst, Chance and Company|pages=92}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foote|first=Samuel|date=1765|title=The Dramatic Works Volume 1|journal=The Dramatic Works|publisher=P. Vaillant|volume=1|pages=40–41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Payn |first=James |title=Married Beneath Him. A novel. By the author of "Lost Sir Massingberd" James Payn |publisher=The British Library |year=1869 |pages=369}}</ref> usually associated with those in emotional distress. It is typically characterized by ], ], ], ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Hara|first=Kane|date=1770|title=Midas An English Burletta. As it is Performed at the Theatre-Royal, in Covent-Garden|journal=Midas an English Burletta. As It is Performed at the Theatre-Royal, in Covent-Garden|pages=20}}</ref> ],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=GOMBERT|first=A. J.|date=1825|title=The French Drama ... with Notes Critical and Explanatory, by A. G. Volume 2 of The French Drama ... with Notes Critical and Explanatory, by A. G|journal=The French Drama...|publisher=The British Library|volume=2|pages=47}}</ref> ] ], a resistance to attempts at pacification, and, in some cases, hitting and other physically violent behavior. Physical control may be lost; the person may be unable to remain still; and even if the "goal" of the person is met, they may not be calmed. Throwing a temper tantrum can lead to a child getting detention or being suspended from ] for older school age children, and can result in a timeout or grounding, complete with room or corner time, at home.<ref name="babycentre">{{cite web|url=http://www.babycentre.co.uk/toddler/penelopeleach/whatisatantrum/ |author= Penelope Leach|title=What is a tantrum? |website= BabyCentre|access-date=2011-03-20}}</ref><ref name="kidshealth">{{cite web|url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/behavior/tantrums.html|title=Temper Tantrums|website= KidsHealth |access-date=2011-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.babycenter.com/0_tantrums_11569.bc |title=Tantrums |website=BabyCenter |author=Karisa Ding|date=July 26, 2017 |access-date=2011-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jan Hunt|url=http://www.naturalchild.org/jan_hunt/tantrum.html |title=When a Child Has a Tantrum |work=The Natural Child Project |access-date=2011-03-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mullen|first=J.K.|date=1983|title=Understanding and managing the temper tantrum|journal=Child Care Quarterly|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–70|doi=10.1007/BF01258080|s2cid=144110786}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=E.R.|last=Geelerd|date=1945|title=Observations on temper tantrums in children|journal=American Journal of Orthopsychiatry|volume=15|issue=2|pages=238–246|doi=10.1111/j.1939-0025.1945.tb04937.x}}</ref> A tantrum may be expressed in a tirade: a protracted, angry speech.<ref name="babycentre" /><ref name="kidshealth" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daniels|last2=Mandleco|last3=Luthy|first1=Elizabeth|first2=Barbara|first3=Karlen E.|date=2012|title=Assessment, management, and prevention of childhood temper tantrums|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners|volume=24|issue=10|pages=569–573|doi=10.1111/j.1745-7599.2012.00755.x|pmid=23006014|doi-access=free}}</ref>


==In early childhood==
In many situations, it can be a very effective political and social tool, especially for adults, such as police (] scenarios), custodial officers, childcare workers, teachers, therapists and politicians.
Tantrums are one of the most common forms of problematic behavior in young children but tend to decrease in frequency and intensity as the child gets older.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Banham Bridges|first=Katharine M.|date=1932|title=Emotional Development in Early Infancy|journal=Child Development|volume=3|issue=4|pages=324–341|jstor=1125359|doi=10.2307/1125359}}</ref> For a ], tantrums can be considered as normal, and even as gauges of developing strength of character.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robin Skynner|author2=John Cleese|title=Families and how to survive them|date=1993|page=177}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=S.|last=Isaacs|date=1940|title=Temper tantrums in early childhood in their relation to internal objects.|journal=The International Journal of Psychoanalysis|volume=21|pages=280–293}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=A.|last=Solter|date=1992|title=Understanding Tears and Tantrums|journal=Young Children|volume=47|issue=4|pages=64–68|jstor=42725308}}</ref>


]
Most people might show their tantrum when they are upset or bothered. These people may have learnt consciously or unconsciously that they will probabilistically achieve their goal. This statistical probabilities material is consciously used by actuarialists such as Cognitive Behavioural Psychologists, to "mold" a client's behaviour.
While tantrums are sometimes seen as a predictor of future ],<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Potegal, Michael|author2=Davidson, Richard J.|title=Temper Tantrums in Young Children|journal= Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics|volume=24|issue=3|pages=140–147|date=June 2003|doi=10.1097/00004703-200306000-00002|pmid= 12806225|s2cid=23682833}}</ref> in another sense they are simply an age-appropriate sign of excessive ],<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=J.A.|first2=P.G.|first3=M.|last1=Green|last2=Whitney|last3=Potegal|date=2011|title=Screaming, yelling, whining, and crying: Categorical and intensity differences in vocal expressions of anger and sadness in children's tantrums.|journal=Emotion|volume=11|issue=5|pages=1124–1133|doi=10.1037/a0024173|pmid=21707157|pmc=3192404}}</ref> and will diminish over time given a calm and consistent handling.<ref>{{cite book|author= Roy Benaroch|title=Solving Health and Behavioural Problems from Birth Through Preschool|date=2008|page=157}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=C.B.|last=Kopp|date=1989|title=Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view.|journal= Developmental Psychology|volume=25|issue=3|pages=343–354|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levine|first=Linda|date=1995|title=Young Children's Understanding of the Causes of Anger and Sadness|journal=Child Development|volume=66|issue=3|pages=967–709|jstor=1131944|doi=10.2307/1131944 |pmid=7789196 }}</ref> Parental containment where a child cannot contain themself—rather than what the child is ostensibly demanding—may be what is really required.<ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Casement|title=Further Learning from the Patient|date=1990|pages=113–4}}</ref>


] warned against "too much pressure or forceful methods of control from the outside" in child-rearing: "if we turn every instance of pants changing, treasure hunting, napping, puddle wading and garbage distribution into a governmental crisis we can easily bring on fierce defiance, tantrums, and all the fireworks of revolt in the nursery".<ref>{{cite book|author=Selma H. Fraiberg|title=The Magic Years|date=1987|page=65}}</ref>
There are several goals in a tantrum, which may or may not be the "reward(s)" that are attempted by the person. To many outsiders or unskilled people, these goals may seem irrational, unreasonable, inappropriate, criminal, unethical, immoral, or the work of some spiritual force(s). To people familiar with or trained to recognize the psychological causes of such behavior, however, there are clear emotional, cognitive behavioural and biochemical correlates to each and every tantrum.


== Intellectual and developmental disorders ==
Since there are chemical corellates to some tantrums, sometime medication can minimize but not always prevent tantrums. This is especially so for those people with ], which commonly affects the forebrain. The main ways to temporarily damage the forebrain are to poison it with a mood depressant (such as alcohol) or brain-fatigue by lack of sleep.
Some people who have developmental disorders such as ], ], ], and ]<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=J.|first2=L.|last1=Luiselli|last2=Murbach|date=2002|title=Providing Instruction from Novel Staff as an Antecedent Intervention for Child Tantrum Behavior in a Public School Classroom|journal=Education and Treatment of Children|volume=25|issue=3|pages=356–365|jstor=42899711}}</ref> or even a ], could be more vulnerable to tantrums than others, although anyone experiencing brain damage (temporary or permanent) can suffer from tantrums.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=G. E.|first2=P. M.|first3=P. S.|first4=L.|first5=G.|last1=Lancioni|last2=Smeets|last3=Ceccarani|last4=Capodaglio|last5=Campanari|date=1984|title=Effects of gross motor activities on the severe self-injurious tantrums of multihandicapped individuals.|journal=Applied Research in Mental Retardation|volume=5|issue=4|pages=471–482|doi=10.1016/S0270-3092(84)80039-9|pmid=6240965}}</ref> Anyone may be prone to tantrums once in a while, regardless of gender or age.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sandra Ketcham|url=http://autism.lovetoknow.com/Temper_Tantrums_and_Autism|title=Temper Tantrums and Autism|work=LoveToKnow|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Osterman|last2=Bjorkqvist|first1=Karin|first2=Kaj|date=April 1, 2010|title=A Cross-Sectional Study of Onset, Cessation, Frequency, and Duration of Children's Temper Tantrums in a Nonclinical Sample|journal=Psychological Reports|volume=106|issue=2|pages=448–454|doi=10.2466/pr0.106.2.448-454|pmid=20524545|s2cid=43291154}}</ref> However, a meltdown due to ] (which even ] children can experience) is not the same as a temper tantrum.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bennie|first1=Maureen|title=Tantrum vs Autistic Meltdown: What Is The Difference?|url=https://autismawarenesscentre.com/what-is-the-difference-between-a-tantrum-and-an-autistic-meltdown/|website=Autism Awareness|publisher=Autism Awareness Centre Inc.|access-date=9 June 2017|date=2 February 2016}}</ref>


==Aberrations==
To most untrained people, a tantrum seems to be an irrational outburst, where the person may seem to be inconsolable, even when given what he or she wants. It can be categorized by an irrational fit of crying, screaming, defiance, and a resistance to every attempt at pacification in which even physical control is lost. The person may not stand or sit on their own. It differs from a normal fit in that even when the "goal" of the person is met, he or she is not calmed.
] video explaining the difference between tantrums and meltdowns]]
] considered that the ]'s development of temper tantrums was connected with his seduction by his sister: he became "discontented, irritable and violent, took offence on every possible occasion, and then flew into a rage and screamed like a savage".<ref>{{cite book|author=Sigmund Freud|title=Case Histories II (PFL 9) |page=242}}</ref> Freud linked the tantrums to an unconscious need for punishment driven by feelings of ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Sigmund Freud|title=Case Histories II (PFL 9) |page=257}}</ref>—something which he thought could be generalised to many other cases of childhood tantrums.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sigmund Freud|title=Case Histories II (PFL 9)|pages=242 & 257–8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=M., R.J |first=Potegal, Davidson |date=1997 |title=Young children's post tantrum affiliation with their parents |journal= Aggressive Behavior|volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=329–341 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1997)23:5<329::AID-AB3>3.0.CO;2-D |doi-access=free }}</ref>


] contended that tantrums were ],<ref name="I. Goldenberg, 2007 p. 172">{{cite book|author=H. Goldenberg|author2=I. Goldenberg|title=Family Therapy|date=2007|page=172}}</ref> caused by the thwarting of the infant's ]-] core. The blow to the inflated self-image, when a child's wishes are (however justifiably) refused, creates fury because it strikes at the feeling of ].<ref name="Gambling 1974 p. 182">] in J. Halliday/P. Fuller eds., ''The Psychology of Gambling'' (London 1974) p. 182</ref>
Tantrums are such common and powerful communication tools between people that some schools of acting demand them as an essential part of their training. Most good script-writers use the tantrum to emphasize important parts of their productions onto the audiences.


] over the birth of a sibling, and resulting aggression,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=J., H.A. |first=Kagan, Moss |date=1962 |title=The stability of behavior: II. Aggression. In J. Kagan & H. A. Moss, Birth to maturity: A study in psychological development |url=https://doi.org/10.1037/13129-004 |journal=Birth to Maturity: A Study in Psychological Development |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |pages=85–119|doi=10.1037/13129-004 }}</ref> may also provoke ] tantrums, as the effort at controlling the feelings overloads the child's system of self-regulation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Selma H. Fraiberg|title=The Magic Years|date=1987|page=152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|first=Tracy A.|last=Dennis|date=2006|title=Emotional self-regulation in preschoolers: The interplay approach reactivity, and control capacities|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=84–97|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.84|pmid=16420120|s2cid=14692506}}</ref>
==Other names==
⚫ {{wiktionary}}
* Dummy spit
* Tanny spit (])
* Hissy fit
* Tizzy


==In later life==
⚫ ]
Writer ] claimed that in later life "you may tell a tantrum as far as you can see one, by the distressed and dissatisfied expression of its countenance—'Tantrumical', if we may term it so".<ref>{{cite book|author=William Makepeace Thackeray|title=The Irish Sketch Book|url=https://archive.org/details/irishsketchbook01thacgoog|date=1848|page=|publisher=J. Winchester }}</ref>

] contended that "the baby’s core is likely to contain a self-centered, ]-exhibitionist part", and that "tantrums at being frustrated thus represent ]"<ref name="I. Goldenberg, 2007 p. 172"/> at the blow to the inflated self-image. With "a child confronted with some refusal ... regardless of its justifications, the refusal automatically provokes fury, since it offends his sense of ]".<ref name="Gambling 1974 p. 182"/>

The willingness of the ] to throw tantrums whenever thwarted to the least degree<ref>Cooper Lawrence, ''The Cult of Celebrity'' (2009) p. 72</ref> is a kind of ]<ref>Simon Crompton, ''All About Me'' (London 2007) p. 176</ref> or tantrumical behavior.

If older people show tantrums, they might often be signs of immaturity or a mental or developmental disability; and often autistic or ADHD meltdowns are incorrectly labelled tantrums. It can also occur in neurotypical people under extreme stress.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/news/health-news/adult-temper-tantrums-1.1126134|title=North Jersey|website=North Jersey|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Acting out}}
* {{annotated link|Amok syndrome}}
* {{annotated link|Philippic}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
⚫ * {{wiktionary-inline|tantrum}}

]
⚫ ]
]
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]
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Latest revision as of 03:01, 27 September 2024

Type of anger outburst engaged in typically by young children For other uses, see Tantrum (disambiguation).
"Christina Rossetti in a Tantrum" by her brother, Dante Gabriel Rossetti

A tantrum, angry outburst, temper tantrum, lash out, meltdown, fit, or hissy fit is an emotional outburst, usually associated with those in emotional distress. It is typically characterized by stubbornness, crying, screaming, violence, defiance, angry ranting, a resistance to attempts at pacification, and, in some cases, hitting and other physically violent behavior. Physical control may be lost; the person may be unable to remain still; and even if the "goal" of the person is met, they may not be calmed. Throwing a temper tantrum can lead to a child getting detention or being suspended from school for older school age children, and can result in a timeout or grounding, complete with room or corner time, at home. A tantrum may be expressed in a tirade: a protracted, angry speech.

In early childhood

Tantrums are one of the most common forms of problematic behavior in young children but tend to decrease in frequency and intensity as the child gets older. For a toddler, tantrums can be considered as normal, and even as gauges of developing strength of character.

Child having a tantrum

While tantrums are sometimes seen as a predictor of future anti-social behavior, in another sense they are simply an age-appropriate sign of excessive frustration, and will diminish over time given a calm and consistent handling. Parental containment where a child cannot contain themself—rather than what the child is ostensibly demanding—may be what is really required.

Selma Fraiberg warned against "too much pressure or forceful methods of control from the outside" in child-rearing: "if we turn every instance of pants changing, treasure hunting, napping, puddle wading and garbage distribution into a governmental crisis we can easily bring on fierce defiance, tantrums, and all the fireworks of revolt in the nursery".

Intellectual and developmental disorders

Some people who have developmental disorders such as autism, Asperger syndrome, ADHD, and intellectual disability or even a developmental disability, could be more vulnerable to tantrums than others, although anyone experiencing brain damage (temporary or permanent) can suffer from tantrums. Anyone may be prone to tantrums once in a while, regardless of gender or age. However, a meltdown due to sensory overload (which even neurotypical children can experience) is not the same as a temper tantrum.

Aberrations

A Welsh Government video explaining the difference between tantrums and meltdowns

Freud considered that the Wolf Man's development of temper tantrums was connected with his seduction by his sister: he became "discontented, irritable and violent, took offence on every possible occasion, and then flew into a rage and screamed like a savage". Freud linked the tantrums to an unconscious need for punishment driven by feelings of guilt—something which he thought could be generalised to many other cases of childhood tantrums.

Heinz Kohut contended that tantrums were rages of anger, caused by the thwarting of the infant's grandiose-exhibitionist core. The blow to the inflated self-image, when a child's wishes are (however justifiably) refused, creates fury because it strikes at the feeling of omnipotence.

Jealousy over the birth of a sibling, and resulting aggression, may also provoke negativistic tantrums, as the effort at controlling the feelings overloads the child's system of self-regulation.

In later life

Writer William Makepeace Thackeray claimed that in later life "you may tell a tantrum as far as you can see one, by the distressed and dissatisfied expression of its countenance—'Tantrumical', if we may term it so".

Heinz Kohut contended that "the baby’s core is likely to contain a self-centered, grandiose-exhibitionist part", and that "tantrums at being frustrated thus represent narcissistic rages" at the blow to the inflated self-image. With "a child confronted with some refusal ... regardless of its justifications, the refusal automatically provokes fury, since it offends his sense of omnipotence".

The willingness of the celebrity to throw tantrums whenever thwarted to the least degree is a kind of acquired situational narcissism or tantrumical behavior.

If older people show tantrums, they might often be signs of immaturity or a mental or developmental disability; and often autistic or ADHD meltdowns are incorrectly labelled tantrums. It can also occur in neurotypical people under extreme stress.

See also

  • Acting out – Performing an action considered bad
  • Amok syndrome – Aggressive behavioral pattern
  • Philippic – fiery, damning speech, or tirade, delivered to condemn a particular political actorPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

References

  1. Album, Cabinet (1830). "The Cabinet Album A Collection of Original and Selected Literature". The. Hurst, Chance and Company: 92.
  2. Foote, Samuel (1765). "The Dramatic Works Volume 1". The Dramatic Works. 1. P. Vaillant: 40–41.
  3. Payn, James (1869). Married Beneath Him. A novel. By the author of "Lost Sir Massingberd" James Payn. The British Library. p. 369.
  4. O'Hara, Kane (1770). "Midas An English Burletta. As it is Performed at the Theatre-Royal, in Covent-Garden". Midas an English Burletta. As It is Performed at the Theatre-Royal, in Covent-Garden: 20.
  5. GOMBERT, A. J. (1825). "The French Drama ... with Notes Critical and Explanatory, by A. G. Volume 2 of The French Drama ... with Notes Critical and Explanatory, by A. G". The French Drama... 2. The British Library: 47.
  6. ^ Penelope Leach. "What is a tantrum?". BabyCentre. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
  7. ^ "Temper Tantrums". KidsHealth. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
  8. Karisa Ding (July 26, 2017). "Tantrums". BabyCenter. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
  9. Jan Hunt. "When a Child Has a Tantrum". The Natural Child Project. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
  10. Mullen, J.K. (1983). "Understanding and managing the temper tantrum". Child Care Quarterly. 12 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1007/BF01258080. S2CID 144110786.
  11. Geelerd, E.R. (1945). "Observations on temper tantrums in children". American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 15 (2): 238–246. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1945.tb04937.x.
  12. Daniels, Elizabeth; Mandleco, Barbara; Luthy, Karlen E. (2012). "Assessment, management, and prevention of childhood temper tantrums". Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 24 (10): 569–573. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2012.00755.x. PMID 23006014.
  13. Banham Bridges, Katharine M. (1932). "Emotional Development in Early Infancy". Child Development. 3 (4): 324–341. doi:10.2307/1125359. JSTOR 1125359.
  14. Robin Skynner; John Cleese (1993). Families and how to survive them. p. 177.
  15. Isaacs, S. (1940). "Temper tantrums in early childhood in their relation to internal objects". The International Journal of Psychoanalysis. 21: 280–293.
  16. Solter, A. (1992). "Understanding Tears and Tantrums". Young Children. 47 (4): 64–68. JSTOR 42725308.
  17. Potegal, Michael; Davidson, Richard J. (June 2003). "Temper Tantrums in Young Children". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 24 (3): 140–147. doi:10.1097/00004703-200306000-00002. PMID 12806225. S2CID 23682833.
  18. Green, J.A.; Whitney, P.G.; Potegal, M. (2011). "Screaming, yelling, whining, and crying: Categorical and intensity differences in vocal expressions of anger and sadness in children's tantrums". Emotion. 11 (5): 1124–1133. doi:10.1037/a0024173. PMC 3192404. PMID 21707157.
  19. Roy Benaroch (2008). Solving Health and Behavioural Problems from Birth Through Preschool. p. 157.
  20. Kopp, C.B. (1989). "Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view". Developmental Psychology. 25 (3): 343–354. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343.
  21. Levine, Linda (1995). "Young Children's Understanding of the Causes of Anger and Sadness". Child Development. 66 (3): 967–709. doi:10.2307/1131944. JSTOR 1131944. PMID 7789196.
  22. Patrick Casement (1990). Further Learning from the Patient. pp. 113–4.
  23. Selma H. Fraiberg (1987). The Magic Years. p. 65.
  24. Luiselli, J.; Murbach, L. (2002). "Providing Instruction from Novel Staff as an Antecedent Intervention for Child Tantrum Behavior in a Public School Classroom". Education and Treatment of Children. 25 (3): 356–365. JSTOR 42899711.
  25. Lancioni, G. E.; Smeets, P. M.; Ceccarani, P. S.; Capodaglio, L.; Campanari, G. (1984). "Effects of gross motor activities on the severe self-injurious tantrums of multihandicapped individuals". Applied Research in Mental Retardation. 5 (4): 471–482. doi:10.1016/S0270-3092(84)80039-9. PMID 6240965.
  26. Sandra Ketcham. "Temper Tantrums and Autism". LoveToKnow. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
  27. Osterman, Karin; Bjorkqvist, Kaj (April 1, 2010). "A Cross-Sectional Study of Onset, Cessation, Frequency, and Duration of Children's Temper Tantrums in a Nonclinical Sample". Psychological Reports. 106 (2): 448–454. doi:10.2466/pr0.106.2.448-454. PMID 20524545. S2CID 43291154.
  28. Bennie, Maureen (2 February 2016). "Tantrum vs Autistic Meltdown: What Is The Difference?". Autism Awareness. Autism Awareness Centre Inc. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
  29. Sigmund Freud. Case Histories II (PFL 9). p. 242.
  30. Sigmund Freud. Case Histories II (PFL 9). p. 257.
  31. Sigmund Freud. Case Histories II (PFL 9). pp. 242 & 257–8.
  32. M., R.J, Potegal, Davidson (1997). "Young children's post tantrum affiliation with their parents". Aggressive Behavior. 23 (5): 329–341. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1997)23:5<329::AID-AB3>3.0.CO;2-D.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ H. Goldenberg; I. Goldenberg (2007). Family Therapy. p. 172.
  34. ^ Edmund Bergler in J. Halliday/P. Fuller eds., The Psychology of Gambling (London 1974) p. 182
  35. J., H.A., Kagan, Moss (1962). "The stability of behavior: II. Aggression. In J. Kagan & H. A. Moss, Birth to maturity: A study in psychological development". Birth to Maturity: A Study in Psychological Development. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 85–119. doi:10.1037/13129-004.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. Selma H. Fraiberg (1987). The Magic Years. p. 152.
  37. Dennis, Tracy A. (2006). "Emotional self-regulation in preschoolers: The interplay approach reactivity, and control capacities". Developmental Psychology. 42 (1): 84–97. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.84. PMID 16420120. S2CID 14692506.
  38. William Makepeace Thackeray (1848). The Irish Sketch Book. J. Winchester. p. 138.
  39. Cooper Lawrence, The Cult of Celebrity (2009) p. 72
  40. Simon Crompton, All About Me (London 2007) p. 176
  41. "North Jersey". North Jersey. Retrieved 25 March 2018.

External links

  • The dictionary definition of tantrum at Wiktionary
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