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{{Short description|Official name for the US's war on terror}} | |||
{{mergefrom|United States war in Afghanistan}} | |||
{{Multiple issues| | |||
{{Lead too short|date=September 2024}} | |||
{{Infobox Military Conflict | |||
{{More citations needed|date=September 2024}} | |||
|conflict=Operation Enduring Freedom | |||
}} | |||
|campaign=Operation Enduring Freedom | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} | |||
|partof= the ] | |||
{{Infobox military conflict | |||
|image=] | |||
| |
| conflict = Operation Enduring Freedom | ||
| partof = the ] and ] | |||
|date=], ]- (conflict still ongoing) | |||
| image = U.S. Soldiers of the 10th Mountain Division during Operation Enduring Freedom.jpg | |||
|place=] | |||
| caption = U.S. soldiers of the Army's 10th Mountain Division deployed during Operation Enduring Freedom 2009 | |||
|casus= | |||
| date = 7 October 2001 – 28 December 2014 (in Afghanistan)<ref name="CRS">{{Cite book|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS21405.pdf|title=U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Recent Conflicts|last=Torreon|first=Barbara Salazar|publisher=Congressional Research Service|year=2017|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=7|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328222039/http://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS21405.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/terrorism/operation-enduring-freedom.html|title=Operation Enduring Freedom|website=Naval History and Heritage Command, United States Navy|access-date=2018-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115230322/https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/terrorism/operation-enduring-freedom.html|archive-date=15 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=07|year1=2001|year2=2014|month2=12|day2=28}}) | |||
|result=] regime toppled; continuing anti-government insurgency and guerilla campaign against occupying troops | |||
| result = | |||
|combatant1=], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] | |||
| place = ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
|combatant2=], ] regime of Afghanistan | |||
| combatant1 = ''']:''' ''(completed)'' | |||
|commander1=General ] | |||
* {{flag|NATO}} | |||
|commander2=]<br>] | |||
** {{flagicon image |Flag of the International Security Assistance Force.svg}} ] | |||
|strength1= | |||
*{{flagicon|Albania}} ]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.al/arkiv/eng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=899:afganistan&catid=103&Itemid=667|title=Afghanistan, ISAF Operations led by NATO|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620002228/http://www.mod.gov.al/arkiv/eng/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=899:afganistan&catid=103&Itemid=667|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
|strength2= | |||
* {{flag|Finland}} | |||
|casualties1= | |||
* {{flag|Denmark}} | |||
|casualties2= | |||
* {{flag|United States}} | |||
* {{flag|United Kingdom}} | |||
* {{flag|France}} | |||
* {{flag|Australia}} | |||
* {{flag|Canada}} | |||
* {{flag|Germany}} | |||
* {{flag|Belgium}} | |||
* {{flag|Norway}} | |||
* {{flag|Italy}} | |||
* {{flag|Georgia}} | |||
* {{flag|Spain}} | |||
* {{flag|Portugal}} | |||
* {{flag|Poland}} | |||
* {{flag|Armenia}} | |||
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}} | |||
* {{flag|Sweden}} | |||
* {{flag|Czech Republic}} | |||
* {{flag|New Zealand}} | |||
* {{flag|Netherlands}} | |||
* {{flag|Ukraine}} | |||
* {{flag|Turkey}} | |||
* {{flag|Uzbekistan}} | |||
* {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} | |||
* ''Former:'' | |||
** {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Afghanistan|1992}} ]}} | |||
''']:''' ''(completed)'' | |||
* {{flag|Philippines}} | |||
* {{flag|United States}} | |||
* {{flag|Australia}}<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.philippines.embassy.gov.au/mnla/medrel110506.html |title=Philippines |publisher=Embassy |place=Australia |access-date=7 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102175048/http://www.philippines.embassy.gov.au/mnla/medrel110506.html |archive-date=2 November 2013 |url-status=live }}.</ref> | |||
* {{flag|Indonesia}} | |||
''']:''' | |||
* {{flag|NATO}} | |||
* {{flag|European Union}} | |||
* {{flag|SADC}} | |||
* {{flag|Australia}} | |||
* {{flag|Azerbaijan}} | |||
* {{flag|Belarus}} | |||
* {{flag|Canada}} | |||
* {{flag|Djibouti}} | |||
* {{flag|Ethiopia}} | |||
* {{flag|France}} | |||
* {{flag|Georgia}} | |||
* {{flag|Germany}} | |||
* {{flag|Greece}} | |||
* {{flag|India}} | |||
* {{flag|Indonesia}} | |||
* {{flag|Italy}} | |||
* {{flag|Japan}} | |||
* {{flag|Kazakhstan}} | |||
* {{flag|Kenya}} | |||
* {{flag|South Korea}} | |||
* {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} | |||
* {{flag|Malaysia}} | |||
* {{flag|New Zealand}} | |||
* {{flag|Norway}} | |||
* {{flag|Pakistan}} | |||
* {{flag|Russia}} | |||
* {{flag|Seychelles}} | |||
* {{flag|Singapore}} | |||
* {{flag|South Africa}} | |||
* {{flag|Somalia}} | |||
* {{flag|Spain}} | |||
* {{flag|Tajikistan}} | |||
* {{flag|Thailand}} | |||
* {{flag|Turkey}} | |||
* {{flag|Turkmenistan}} | |||
* {{flag|Uganda}} | |||
* {{flag|Ukraine}} | |||
* {{flag|Uzbekistan}} | |||
* {{flag|United Kingdom}} | |||
* {{flag|United States}} | |||
''']:''' ''(completed)'' | |||
* {{flag|Georgia|size=23px}} | |||
* {{flag|United States|1960|size=23px}} | |||
''']:''' ''(completed)'' | |||
* {{flag|South Korea}} | |||
* {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} | |||
* {{flag|Russia}} | |||
* {{flag|United States|1960|size=23px}} | |||
''']''' | |||
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan}} '''In Afghanistan:''' | |||
* {{flag|Taliban}} | |||
* {{flag|al-Qaeda}} | |||
{{flagicon|Philippines}} '''In the Philippines:''' | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} ] <small>(from 2001)</small> | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} ] <small>(until 2024)</small> | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front.svg}} ] <small>(until 2012)</small> | |||
{{flagicon|Somalia}} '''In Somalia:''' | |||
* {{flagicon image|ShababFlag.svg}} ] <small>(from 2006)</small> | |||
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg}} ] <small>(until 2014)</small> | |||
'''In Sahara:''' | |||
* {{flagicon image|AQMI Flag.svg}} ] | |||
* {{flagicon image|AQMI Flag.svg}} ] | |||
| commander1 = {{Flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} CIC ] (2001–2009)<br /> | |||
{{Flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} CIC ] (2009–2014)<br /> {{Flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} GEN ] (2001–2003)<br />{{flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} GEN ] (2003–2007)<br />{{flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} ADM ] (2007–2008)<br />{{flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} GEN ] (2008–2015)<br />{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} ] Sir ] (2003–2011)<br />{{Flagicon|United States|1960|size=23px}} GEN ] (2008–2010) | |||
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Afghanistan|Taliban}} ] ]<br />{{Flagicon image|Flag of al-Qaeda.svg|size=23px}} ]{{KIA|Killing of Osama bin Laden}}<br />{{Flagicon image|Flag of al-Qaeda.svg|size=23px}} ]{{KIA|Killing of Ayman al-Zawahiri}}<br />{{Flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|size=23px}} ]{{KIA}}<br />{{Flagicon image|Flag of Jihad.svg|size=23px}} ]{{POW}} | |||
| strength1 = | |||
| strength2 = | |||
| casualties1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (2013–2021).svg}} '''45,000+''' killed<br />{{flagicon|United States}} '''2,380''' killed by January 2016<ref name=iCasualties>{{cite web |url=http://www.icasualties.org/OEF/index.aspx |title=Operation Enduring Freedom, Afghanistan |publisher=] |access-date=29 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126055652/http://www.icasualties.org/OEF/index.aspx |archive-date=26 January 2016}}</ref><br />{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} '''456''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Canada}} '''158''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|France}} '''90''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br /> | |||
{{flagicon|Germany}} '''57''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Italy}} '''53''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Denmark}} '''43''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Australia}} '''41''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Poland}} '''40''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Spain}} '''34''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/><br />{{flagicon|Georgia}} '''32''' killed<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=30328 |title=Civil.Ge | Georgian Soldier Killed in Afghanistan |access-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214172845/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=30328 |archive-date=14 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />Others '''200+''' killed<ref name=iCasualties/> | |||
| casualties2 = {{flagicon|Afghanistan}} '''In Afghanistan:''' | |||
* '''72,000+ killed'''<ref name="the Washington post">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/12/07/president-obama-likes-to-brag-about-the-terrorists-he-has-taken-out-how-many-is-that-exactly/|title=How many terrorists has President Obama actually 'taken out'? Probably over 30,000.|newspaper=the Washington post|date=7 December 2015|access-date=10 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307174957/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/12/07/president-obama-likes-to-brag-about-the-terrorists-he-has-taken-out-how-many-is-that-exactly/|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
{{flagicon|Philippines}} '''In the Philippines:''' | |||
* '''328'''+<ref>300 killed (2002–2007) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307044243/https://mikeinmanila.wordpress.com/2007/01/20/abu-sayyaf-leader-janjalani-dead-us-military-releases-dna-test-on-corpse/ |date=7 March 2016 }} 15 killed (February 2012) {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120229023655/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/NB29Ae01.html |date=29 February 2012 }}</ref> | |||
{{flagicon|Somalia}} '''In Somalia:''' | |||
* '''260 to 365 killed'''<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608135616/https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/category/projects/drones/drones-graphs/ |date=8 June 2015 }}, Somalia Datasheet. Retrieved 4 February 2016.</ref><ref>Cooper, Helene. " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217224149/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/08/world/africa/us-airstrikes-somalia.html|date=17 February 2017 }}</ref> | |||
| campaign = Operation Enduring Freedom | |||
}} | }} | ||
{{Campaignbox OEF}} | |||
'''Operation Enduring Freedom''' (OEF) is the official name used by the US government for its military response to the ] on the ]. It was previously planned to have been called Operation Infinite Justice but it is believed to have been changed because of concerns that this might offend the ] community as some believe that ] teaches that God is the only one who can provide Infinite Justice. | |||
'''Operation Enduring Freedom''' ('''OEF''') was the official name used by the ] for both the first stage (2001–2014) of the ] and the larger-scale ]. On 7 October 2001, in response to the ], ] ] announced that airstrikes against ] and the ] had begun in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=CNN|title=Operation Enduring Freedom Fast Facts|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/28/world/operation-enduring-freedom-fast-facts/index.html|access-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822023919/http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/28/world/operation-enduring-freedom-fast-facts/index.html|archive-date=22 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Beyond the military actions in Afghanistan, Operation Enduring Freedom was also affiliated with ] operations in other countries, such as ] and ].<ref name=HELPING-GEORGIA>{{cite web |title=Helping Georgia? |url=http://www.bu.edu/iscip/vol12/areshidze.html |publisher=Boston University Institute for the Study of Conflict, Ideology and Policy |date=March–April 2002 |access-date=14 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907200921/http://www.bu.edu/iscip/vol12/areshidze.html |archive-date=7 September 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Lamothe>{{cite news|last1=Lamothe|first1=Dan|title=Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new mission in Afghanistan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2014/12/29/meet-operation-freedoms-sentinel-the-pentagons-new-mission-in-afghanistan/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=17 August 2017|date=29 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020025630/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2014/12/29/meet-operation-freedoms-sentinel-the-pentagons-new-mission-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=20 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
The Operation comprises several subordinate operations: | |||
#] (OEF-A) | |||
After 13 years, on 28 December 2014, ] announced the end of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|author1=DOD News, Defense Media Activity|title=Operation Enduring Freedom comes to an end|url=https://www.army.mil/article/140565/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_comes_to_an_end/|access-date=17 August 2017|work=U.S. Army|date=29 December 2014|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818013803/https://www.army.mil/article/140565/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_comes_to_an_end/|archive-date=18 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequent operations in Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both non-combat and combat, occurred under the name ].<ref name="Tilghman">{{cite news |last=Tilghman |first=Andrew |date=19 February 2015 |title=Despite war's end, Pentagon extends Afghanistan campaign medal |url=http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/pentagon/2015/02/19/afghanistan-campaign-medal-extended-pentagon/23674869/ |newspaper=MilitaryTimes |access-date=28 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221133600/http://www.militarytimes.com/story/military/pentagon/2015/02/19/afghanistan-campaign-medal-extended-pentagon/23674869/ |archive-date=21 February 2015 |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite news |last=Sisk |first=Richard |date=29 December 2014 |title=Amid Confusion, DoD Names New Mission 'Operation Freedom's Sentinel' |url=http://www.military.com/daily-news/2014/12/29/amid-confusion-dod-names-new-mission-operation-freedoms.html |newspaper=Military.com |access-date=28 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228145121/http://www.military.com/daily-news/2014/12/29/amid-confusion-dod-names-new-mission-operation-freedoms.html |archive-date=28 February 2015 |url-status=live }}<br />{{cite news |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Matthew |last2=Scmitt |first2=Eric |last3=Mazzetti |first3=Mark |date=12 February 2015 |title=U.S. Is Escalating a Secretive War in Afghanistan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/13/world/asia/data-from-seized-computer-fuels-a-surge-in-us-raids-on-al-qaeda.html |newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=28 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217052854/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/13/world/asia/data-from-seized-computer-fuels-a-surge-in-us-raids-on-al-qaeda.html |archive-date=17 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><!--It was also the name of a number of smaller military actions, under the umbrella of the Global "]" (GWOT), some of which remain ongoing.--> | |||
#] (OEF-P) (formerly Operation Freedom Eagle) | |||
#] (OEF-HOA) | |||
==Subordinate operations== | |||
The term "OEF" typically refers to the war in Afghanistan. | |||
Operation Enduring Freedom referred to the U.S.-led combat mission in Afghanistan.<ref name=Philipps>{{cite news |last1=Philipps |first1=Dave |title=Mission Ends in Afghanistan, but Sacrifices Are Not Over for U.S. Soldiers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/01/us/mission-ends-but-sacrifices-are-not-over-for-us-soldiers.html?mcubz=1&_r=0 |access-date=17 August 2017 |url-access=subscription |work=] |date=31 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818012206/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/01/us/mission-ends-but-sacrifices-are-not-over-for-us-soldiers.html?mcubz=1&_r=0 |archive-date=18 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Dempsey>{{cite news |last1=Dempsey |first1=Judy |title=NATO to add to Afghanistan troops |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/20/world/asia/nato-to-add-to-afghanistan-troops.html?mcubz=1 |access-date=17 August 2017 |url-access=subscription |work=] |date=20 July 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818012630/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/20/world/asia/nato-to-add-to-afghanistan-troops.html?mcubz=1 |archive-date=18 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The codename was also used for ] operations in other countries targeting ] and remnants of the ], such as ], ], and possibly in Georgia's ],<ref>{{cite book|author=Spencer C. Tucker|title=The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts [5 volumes]: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U05OvsOPeKMC&pg=PA415|date=8 October 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-948-1|page=415|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101094429/https://books.google.com/books?id=U05OvsOPeKMC&pg=PA415|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=live}}<br />{{cite book|author1=Raymond Monsour Scurfield|author2=Katherine Theresa Platoni|title=War Trauma and Its Wake: Expanding the Circle of Healing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T--SxPDKjh4C&pg=PA268|date=10 September 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45788-3|page=268|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611044449/https://books.google.com/books?id=T--SxPDKjh4C&pg=PA268|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> primarily through government funding vehicles.<ref name="HELPING-GEORGIA"/><ref name="Lamothe"/> | |||
* ] (OEF), 7 October 2001–31 December 2014. Succeeded by Operation Freedom's Sentinel.<ref name=OEFover>{{Cite web|title=Obama, Hagel Mark End of Operation Enduring Freedom|url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=123887|work=Defense|publisher=United States Department of Defense|author=United States Department of Defense|location=United States of America|date=December 2014|access-date=21 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314000513/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=123887|archive-date=14 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* ] (OEF-P, formerly Operation Freedom Eagle), 15 January 2002 – 24 February 2015<ref>{{citation|last1=Robinson|first1=Linda|last2=Johnston|first2=Patrick B.|last3=Oak|first3=Gillian S.|title=U.S. Special Operations Forces in the Philippines, 2001–2014|url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1200/RR1236/RAND_RR1236.pdf|isbn=978-0-8330-9210-6|publisher=RAND Corporation|access-date=17 August 2017|location=Santa Monica, California|date=6 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819170049/https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1200/RR1236/RAND_RR1236.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Turse|first1=Nick|title=US Special Operations Forces Are in More Countries Than You Can Imagine|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/us-special-forces-are-operating-more-countries-you-can-imagine/|access-date=17 August 2017|work=The Nation|date=20 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818045939/https://www.thenation.com/article/us-special-forces-are-operating-more-countries-you-can-imagine/|archive-date=18 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* ] (OEF-HOA) | |||
* ] (OEF-TS; see also ]) | |||
* ] (OEF-CCA)<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.dod.gov/dodgc/olc/docs/testStavridis080305.pdf |title=Statement of Admiral James G. Stavridis, United States Navy Commander, United States Southern Command Before the House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense |department=United States Southern Command|date=5 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101094429/http://www.dod.gov/dodgc/olc/docs/testStavridis080305.pdf|archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> | |||
* ], 18 December 2001 – 3 June 2014<ref name=Bolger>{{cite book|last1=Bolger|first1=Daniel P.|author-link=Daniel P. Bolger|title=Why We Lost: A General's Inside Account of the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars|date=2014|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=9780544370487|page=xiii, 415|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=keQBBQAAQBAJ&q=Operation%20Enduring%20Freedom%20%E2%80%93%20Caribbean%20and%20Central%20America%20(OEF-CCA)&pg=PR13}}</ref> | |||
==Etymology== | |||
The U.S. government used the term "Operation Enduring Freedom" to officially describe the ], from the period between 7 October 2001 and 31 December 2014.<ref name=OEFover/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/article/140565/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_comes_to_an_end/ |title=Operation Enduring Freedom comes to an end |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=29 December 2014 |publisher=United States Army |access-date=28 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224084435/http://www.army.mil/article/140565/Operation_Enduring_Freedom_comes_to_an_end/ |archive-date=24 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Subsequent operations in Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both non-combat and combat, occurred under the name ].<ref name="Tilghman"/><!--It was also the name of a number of smaller military actions, under the umbrella of the Global "]" (GWOT), some of which remain ongoing.--> | |||
The operation was originally called "Operation Infinite Justice," but as similar phrases have been used by adherents of several religions as an exclusive description of God, it is believed to have been changed to avoid offense to Muslims who are the majority religion in Afghanistan.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1563722.stm |title=Infinite Justice, out – Enduring Freedom |work=BBC News |date=25 September 2001 |access-date=30 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014221506/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1563722.stm |archive-date=14 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2001, U.S. President ]'s remark that "this ], this war on terrorism, is going to take a while," which prompted widespread criticism from the Islamic world, may also have contributed to the renaming of the operation.<ref name="BBC News" /> | |||
The term "OEF" typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the ], are only loosely or nominally connected, such as through government funding vehicles.<ref name=HELPING-GEORGIA/> All the operations, however, have a focus on ] activities. | |||
Operation Enduring Freedom, which was a joint U.S., U.K., and Afghan operation, was separate from the ] (ISAF), which was an operation of ] nations including the U.S. and the U.K.<ref>{{cite book|author=Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Defence Committee|title=The UK Deployment to Afghanistan: Fifth Report of Session 2005–06; Report, Together with Formal Minutes, Oral and Written Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7-OVQvYUOUC&pg=PA39|year=2006|publisher=The Stationery Office|isbn=978-0-215-02828-0|page=39|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101094429/https://books.google.com/books?id=q7-OVQvYUOUC&pg=PA39|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The two operations ran in parallel, although it had been suggested that they merge.<ref>{{cite book|author=David T. Zabecki PhD|title=Germany at War: 400 Years of Military History [4 volumes]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCWMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|date=28 October 2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-981-3|page=6|access-date=17 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101094429/https://books.google.com/books?id=rCWMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
In response to the ], the early combat operations that took place on 7 October 2001 to include a mix of strikes from land-based ], ] and ] bombers, carrier-based ] and ] fighters, and ] launched from both U.S. and British ships and submarines signaled the start of Operation Enduring Freedom. | |||
The initial military objectives of OEF, as articulated by President ] in his 20 September address to a Joint Session of Congress and his 7 October address to the country, included the destruction of ]s and ] within Afghanistan, the capture of ] leaders, and the cessation of terrorist activities in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information |first=Bureau of Public Affairs |title=The Global War on Terrorism: The First 100 Days |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/s/ct/rls/wh/6947.htm |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=2001-2009.state.gov |language=en}}</ref> | |||
In January 2002, over 1,200 soldiers from the ] (SOCPAC) deployed to the Philippines to support the ] (AFP) in their push to uproot terrorist forces on the island of ]. Of those groups included are ] (ASG), ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://131.84.1.218/speeches/sst2003/030210pasoc.shtml |title=PASOC 2003 Conference |first=Tom |last=Fargo |work=Speeches and Transcripts |publisher=U.S. Pacific Command |date=10 February 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513094615/http://131.84.1.218/speeches/sst2003/030210pasoc.shtml |archive-date=13 May 2008 }}</ref> The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the local people with humanitarian aid in ].<ref name=Smiles>{{cite web|url=http://131.84.1.218/piupdates/smiles.pdf |title=Operation Smiles |publisher=U.S. Pacific Command |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326131527/http://131.84.1.218/piupdates/smiles.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 }}</ref> | |||
On ], ], Secretary of Defense ] announced . However, on ], ], the U.S. military that it had "launched a major ground operation in Afghanistan in an effort to eliminate the remnants of al Qaeda and the ] regime overthrown in 2001." | |||
In October 2002, the ] and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at ]. The stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the ] to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. Similar to OEF-P, the goal of humanitarian aid was emphasized, ostensibly to prevent militant organizations from being able to take hold amongst the population as well as reemerge after being removed. | |||
==The Taliban== | |||
Seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their ], the ] ruled with an iron fist from 1996-2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, oppress women and children, and enforce harsh judicial penalties. Amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Women's rights groups around the world cried often and loudly as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home. They drew further criticism when they destroyed the ], historical statues nearly 2,000 years old, because the buddhas were considered idols. | |||
The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training and equipment to the armed forces in the region. The humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. | |||
==The connection between the Taliban and al-Qaeda== | |||
In ], Saudi ] ] moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the ] leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf. When the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his ] organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the ] were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001. The generally accepted view is that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. | |||
Since 2001, the cumulative expenditure by the U.S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion.<ref>{{Citation | title = FAS | url = https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33110.pdf | access-date = 17 November 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150501203337/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33110.pdf | archive-date = 1 May 2015 | url-status = live }}.</ref> | |||
==U.S. response in Afghanistan== | |||
{{Main|U.S. war in Afghanistan}} | |||
] | |||
==Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan== | |||
On September 20th 2001, as the U.S. confirmed Osama bin Laden was behind the ], the U.S. made a five point ultimatum to the Taliban: (1) Deliver to the US all of the leaders of Al Qaeda; (2) Release all imprisoned foreign nationals; (3) Close immediately every terrorist training camp; (4) Hand over every terrorist and their supporters to appropriate authorities; (5) Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps for inspection . | |||
On September 21, 2001 the Taliban rejected this ultimatum, stating there was no evidence in their possession linking Bin Laden to the September 11 attacks . | |||
===Taliban=== | |||
On ], ] the ] and later ] withdrew their recognition of the Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving neighboring ] as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties. | |||
Seizing upon a ] after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their ], the ] governed Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, and enforce harsh judicial penalties (See ]). Amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rawa.org/execute4.htm |title=Taliban publicly execute murderer, amputate two robbers |publisher=Rawa |date=14 August 1998 |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607162714/http://www.rawa.org/execute4.htm |archive-date=7 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0498/9804047.html |title=The Afghan Taliban: Like It or Not, It Occupies Two-Thirds of Afghanistan and Shows No Sign of Weakening |publisher=Washington report |access-date=27 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20100108013137/http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0498/9804047.html |archive-date=8 January 2010}}</ref> and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rawa.org/murder-w.htm |title=Filmed by RAWA: Taliban publicly execute an Afghan woman |publisher=Rawa |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510012809/http://www.rawa.org/murder-w.htm |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Asia |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/s/w_asia/70585.stm |publisher=BBC |place=United Kingdom |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040124024022/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/s/w_asia/70585.stm |archive-date=24 January 2004}}</ref> Women's rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} They drew further criticism<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=81406&page=1 |title = U.N. Confirms Destruction of Afghan Buddhas| website=] }}</ref> when they destroyed the ], historical statues nearly 1,500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols. | |||
On October 4, 2001 it is believed that the Taliban covertly offered to turn Bin Laden over to Pakistan for trial in an international tribunal that operated according to Islamic shar'ia law . Pakistan is believed to have rejected the offer. | |||
In 1996, Saudi ] ] moved to Afghanistan. When the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his ] organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the ] were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001. It has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections.<ref>{{Citation |publisher=9/11 commission |place=US |title=Report |chapter=5 |contribution-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.pdf }}.</ref> | |||
On October 7, 2001 the Taliban proposed to try bin Laden in Afghanistan in an Islamic court. This proposition was immediately rejected by the U.S. Shortly afterward, on October 7, 2001 the United States, supported by a coalition of other countries, initiated military action against the Taliban and bombed Taliban and Al Qaeda related terrorist training camps. On October 14 the Taliban proposed to hand bin Laden over to a third country for trial, but only if the Taliban were given evidence of bin Laden's involvement in 9/11. The U.S. rejected this proposal and continued with military operations. | |||
===U.S.-led coalition action=== | |||
The stated intent of OEF was to remove the Taliban from power because of the Taliban's refusal to hand over ] for his involvement in the September 11 attacks, and in retaliation for the Taliban's aid to him. The ground war was mainly fought by the ],the remaining elements of the anti-Taliban forces which the Taliban had routed over the previous years, and was aided by US special forces and precision airstrikes. Mazar-i-Sharif fell to U.S.-aided Northern Alliance forces on ], leading to a cascade of provinces falling with minimal resistance, and many local forces switching loyalties from the Taliban to the Northern Alliance. On the night of ], the Taliban panicked and retreated south in a rout from Kabul. On ], they released eight Western aid workers after three months in captivity (''see ]''). | |||
{{Main|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)}} | |||
On 20 September 2001, the U.S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the ] in 2001. The U.S. made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban:<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/gen.bush.transcript/ |title=Transcript of President Bush's address |publisher=CNN |date=21 September 2001 |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819021954/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/gen.bush.transcript/ |archive-date=19 August 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The ], on ], ], unanimously established an arms embargo and the freezing of identifiable assets belonging to bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining Taliban. | |||
:* Deliver to the U.S. all of the leaders of al-Qaeda | |||
:* Release all imprisoned foreign nationals | |||
:* Close immediately every terrorist training camp | |||
:* Hand over every terrorist and their supporters to appropriate authorities | |||
:* Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps for inspection | |||
On 21 September 2001, the ] rejected this ultimatum, stating there was no evidence in their possession linking bin Laden to the 11 September attacks.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/taliban-wont-turn-over-bin-laden/ |title=Taliban Won't Turn Over Bin Laden |publisher=CBS News |date=21 September 2001 |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415125820/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/11/world/main310852.shtml |archive-date=15 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The Taliban were later routed from ], and fled to the border region between ] and ]. Most post-invasion ] fighters are new recruits, drawn again from that region's '']s'' (madrassah means "school" in ]). The more traditional Qur'anic schools are suspected to be the primary source of the new fighters. | |||
On 22 September 2001 the United Arab Emirates and later Saudi Arabia withdrew their recognition of the Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties. | |||
==Effectiveness of the war in Afghanistan== | |||
The US-led Coalition is credited with removing the ] from power and seriously crippling the ] and associated militants in both ] and neighboring ]. Although some ] still attempt to discredit the legitimate Government of ], their actions are decentralized and mostly ineffective. | |||
On 4 October 2001, it was reported that the Taliban covertly offered to turn bin Laden over to Pakistan for trial in an international tribunal that operated according to Islamic ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.j-n-v.org/AW_briefings/ARROW_briefing005.htm |title=Briefing 05: The Smoking Gun |publisher=J-n-v.org |date=8 October 2001 |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225052439/http://www.j-n-v.org/AW_briefings/ARROW_briefing005.htm |archive-date=25 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 7 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to try bin Laden in Afghanistan in an Islamic court.<ref>{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415073508/http://articles.cnn.com/2001-10-07/us/ret.us.taliban_1_abdul-salam-zaeef-surrender-bin-taliban-offer?_s=PM%3AUS|archive-date=15 April 2011|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/07/ret.us.taliban/|title=U.S. rejects Taliban offer to try bin Laden|publisher=CNN|date=7 October 2001|access-date=6 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> This proposition was immediately rejected by the US.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/07/gen.america.under.attack/ |title=Bush to Taliban: 'Time is running out' |publisher=CNN |date=7 October 2001 |access-date=27 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916091256/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/10/07/gen.america.under.attack/ |archive-date=16 September 2010 }}</ref> | |||
On October 9, 2004, ] elected ] President in its first direct elections. The following year, Afghans conducted the ] on September 18, 2005. Since the invasion, hundreds of schools and ] have been constructed, millions of dollars in aid has been distributed, and the occurrence of violence has been greatly reduced. While military forces interdict ] and assure security, ] are tasked with infrastructure building, like constructing roads and bridges, assisting during floods, and providing food and water to refugees. Many warlords have participated in an allegiance program, recognizing the legitimacy of the Government of Afghanistan, and surrendering their soldiers and weapons, though some of their subsequent actions have led to serious questions about their true loyalties. The newly activated ], ], and ] are being trained to assume the task of securing their nation. However, the Taliban still wields strong influence in many regions, and Karzai's government is believed to hold little real power outside the capital city of ]. | |||
On 14 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to hand bin Laden over to a third country for trial, but only if they were given evidence of bin Laden's involvement in the events of 11 September 2001.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/waronterror/story/0,1361,573975,00.html |title=Bush rejects Taliban offer to hand Bin Laden over |work=The Guardian|location=UK |access-date=27 March 2011 |date=14 October 2001}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
The ], on 16 January 2002, unanimously established an arms embargo and the freezing of identifiable assets belonging to bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining Taliban. | |||
As with all wars, there is another perspective that is not as optimistic. | |||
], reporting on a news story in the Sunday, ], ], , wrote that retired Army Colonel ], "who served in the ] for more than 20 years, ... commissioned by ] to examine the war in Afghanistan concluded the conflict created conditions that have given 'warlordism, banditry and opium production a new lease on life' ...." | |||
===Combat operations start=== | |||
:Rothstein "wrote in a military analysis he gave to The Pentagon in January that the US failed to adapt to new conditions created by the Taliban's collapse, the weekly magazine reported. ... 'The failure to adjust US operations in line with the post-Taliban change in theater conditions cost the United States some of the fruits of victory and imposed additional, avoidable humanitarian and stability costs on Afghanistan,' Rothstein wrote in the report. ... 'Indeed,'" he wrote, "'the war's inadvertent effects may be more significant than we think.'" | |||
]]] | |||
On Sunday 7 October 2001, American and British warplanes began fighting Taliban forces and al-Qaeda. Cruise missiles were fired from warships.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/10/07/ret.attack.bush/|title=Bush announces opening of attacks – October 7, 2001|publisher=CNN|access-date=2018-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028004104/http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/10/07/ret.attack.bush/|archive-date=28 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Many would dispute this claim, and evidence does show another story. "Warlordism" has actually been greatly reduced through a reconciliation program known as Program Tahkim-E Solh, which translates to "Strengthening Peace Program". Additionally, UN data shows that since Rothstein's report, poppy production has dropped. The 2005 poppy season saw a 21% decline in production from the previous year . Poppy production was an all time low during the Taliban rule and increased drastically after their removal from power. Currently, poppy and opium production is a linchpin of the chaotic Afghan economy, and it is questionable whether the Afghanistan government, Coalition Forces or NATO forces are making credible efforts to curb such production. | |||
The ], aided by ] teams consisting of Green Berets from the ], aircrew members from the ] (SOAR), and ], fought against the Taliban. Aided by U.S. bombing and massive defections, they captured ] on 9 November. They then rapidly gained control of most of northern Afghanistan, and took control of Kabul on 13 November after the Taliban unexpectedly fled the city. The Taliban were restricted to a smaller and smaller region, with ], the last Taliban-held city in the north, captured on 26 November. Most of the Taliban fled to Pakistan. | |||
Rothstein continues to say that the "'military should have used ] to adapt to new conditions' and that the war 'effectively destroyed the Taliban but has been significantly less successful at being able to achieve the primary policy goal of ensuring that ] could no longer operate in Afghanistan.'" | |||
The war continued in the south of the country, where the Taliban retreated to ]. Whilst in Kandahar the Taliban agreed to surrender but the deal was rejected by Secretary of Defense ] as it would have provided amnesty to Taliban leader ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Knowlton|first=Brian|date=December 7, 2001|title=Rumsfeld Rejects PlanTo Allow Mullah Omar 'To Live in Dignity' : Taliban Fighters Agree to Surrender Kandahar|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/07/news/rumsfeld-rejects-planto-allow-mullah-omar-to-live-in-dignity-taliban.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/06/afghanistan.markoliver|title=Taliban leader to surrender Kandahar|website=] |date=6 December 2001}}</ref> After Kandahar fell in December,<ref>{{Cite book|title=From 9/11 to terror war : the dangers of the Bush legacy|last=Kellner|first=Douglas|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2003|isbn=0585463255|location=Lanham|pages=145|oclc=52802017}}</ref> remnants of the Taliban and al-Qaeda continued to ]. Meanwhile, in November 2001 the U.S. military and its allied forces established their first ground base in Afghanistan to the south west of ], known as ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/operation-enduring-freedom-the-first-49-days-8/|title=MEU(SOC)s in OEF-A – Special Operations Forces and Operation Enduring Freedom {{!}} Defense Media Network|work=Defense Media Network|access-date=2018-05-21|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620002020/https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/operation-enduring-freedom-the-first-49-days-8/|archive-date=20 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
'']'' reported that the "Pentagon returned the report to Rothstein with a request he cut it drastically and soften his conclusions ... 'There may be a kernel of truth in there, but our experts found the study rambling and not terribly informative,' Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense Joseph Collins told ''The New Yorker.''" Many Pentagon officials have quietly admitted since the report's release that it was far more accurate than initially characterized. | |||
The ], involving U.S., German, British and Northern Alliance forces took place in December 2001 to further destroy the Taliban and suspected al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. In early March 2002 the United States military, along with allied Afghan military forces, conducted a large operation to destroy al-Qaeda in an operation code-named ]. | |||
The conduct of US forces was criticised in a report entitled ] by US-based human rights group, ] in ]. Of note, the Human Rights Watch report failed to mention the many atrocities committed by Al Qaeda and Taliban forces on innocent civilians in Afghanistan. | |||
The operation was carried out by elements of the United States ], ], the ] groups TF 11, TF Bowie, TF Dagger, TF K-Bar, British ], the Norwegian '']'' (FSK), '']'' and '']'', Canada's 3rd Battalion ], Canada's ], the German ], and elements of the ] and of the ] and the ]. | |||
==Deployments== | |||
The United States has deployed tens of thousands of troops in support of Enduring Freedom, relying especially on light infantry units and special forces. Canada has deployed over 14,000 soldiers since operations began, including ] and various light infantry units. The United Kingdom deployed the famous ] special force unit and ], ], ] and ] have also deployed special forces. Light infantry units have also been deployed from ] and the ]. | |||
After managing to evade U.S. forces throughout the summer of 2002, the remnants of the Taliban gradually began to regain their confidence. A U.S. and Canadian led operation (supported by British and Dutch forces), ] was launched in May 2006 to counter renewed Taliban insurgency. | |||
It was announced on ] ] in the ] that a ] ] (ISAF) would be replacing the U.S troops in the province as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. The ] would be the core of the force in Southern Afghanistan, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada and the Netherlands. The force will consist of roughly 3,300 British, 2,000 Canadian, 1,400 from the Netherlands and 240 from Australia. | |||
French special forces were also deployed to the region. | |||
Since January 2006, the ] ] undertook combat duties from Operation Enduring Freedom in southern Afghanistan, the NATO force chiefly made up of British, Canadian and Dutch forces (and some smaller contributions from Denmark, Romania and Estonia and air support from Norway as well as air and artillery support from the U.S.) (''see the article ]''). The United States military also conducts military operations separate from NATO as part of Operation Enduring Freedom in other parts of Afghanistan, in areas such as Kandahar, Bagram, and Kabul (including ] and ].) | |||
==The Future of OEF== | |||
The US-led coalition continues to draw down its forces, being replaced largely by ] forces and Afghan led security forces like the ]. As of November 2005, ] and the ] were responsible for the northern and western sectors, with the south and east remaining under a US-led task force that continues to battle Taliban and rogue elements. ISAF continues to expand and will soon take over the south as well. According to the US Defense Department, the ANA continues to develop into a more capable force every day, which will soon be able to conduct any and all operations to ensure a secure Afghanistan, though this optimistic prediction is not held by many experts outside of the Pentagon. | |||
===International support=== | |||
==Casualties== | |||
{{Main|Participants in Operation Enduring Freedom}} | |||
Casualties among pro and anti-American groups in Afghanistan and the Philippines are unknown. Among the Western coalition, as of ], ], there have been 377 coalition deaths in ] and other theaters of war--295 ], 18 ], 17 ], 16 ], 8 ], 7 ], 5 ]s, 3 ], 3 ], 2 ], 1 ], 1 ] and 1 ]. | |||
The United States was supported by ] during Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan in 2001–2003 and in subsequent coalition operations directly or indirectly in support of OEF. See the article ] for the disposition of coalition forces in Afghanistan as of 2012. | |||
== |
===Result=== | ||
] from the ]' ] provide ] over ] in December 2012.]] | |||
Sean M. Maloney, ''Enduring The Freedom: A Rogue Historian In Afghanistan.''(Dulles: Potomac Books, Incorporated, 2005) | |||
The U.S.-led coalition initially removed the ] from power and seriously crippled ] and associated militants in Afghanistan. However, success in quelling the Taliban insurgency since the 2001 invasion has faltered. As the war dragged on, the Taliban demonstrated they could not be defeated also thanks to sanctuary in neighboring Pakistan.<ref>Brigitte L Nacos, 'Terrorism and Counterterrorism': Chapter 11, p.188</ref> | |||
{{War on Terrorism}} | |||
On 9 October 2004, Afghanistan elected ] president in its first direct elections. The following year, Afghans conducted the ] on 18 September. Since the invasion, hundreds of schools and mosques have been constructed, millions of dollars in aid have been distributed, and the occurrence of violence has been reduced. | |||
While military forces interdicted ] and assured some form of security, ]s were tasked with infrastructure building, such as constructing roads and bridges, assisting during floods, and providing food and water to ]. Many warlords have participated in an allegiance program, formally recognizing the legitimacy of the government of Afghanistan, and formally surrendering their soldiers and weapons. Subsequent actions have led to questions about their true loyalties. | |||
The ], ], and ] were being trained to assume the task of securing their nation. | |||
On 31 December 2014, Operation Enduring Freedom concluded, and was succeeded by ] on 1 January 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 February 2015|url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=128207|title=Operation Freedom's Sentinel Qualifies for Campaign Medal|work=Defense|publisher=United States Department of Defense|author=United States Department of Defense|location=United States of America|access-date=19 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220080926/http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=128207|archive-date=20 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bloomberg.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-18/trump-calls-biden-s-afghanistan-exit-greatest-embarrassment|title = Trump Calls Biden's Afghanistan Exit the 'Greatest Embarrassment'|newspaper = Bloomberg.com|date = 18 August 2021}}</ref> | |||
In 2020, the US left Afghanistan to the Taliban under an agreement ensuring a safe passage for American forces out of the country by mid 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/29/world/asia/us-taliban-deal.html|title=Taliban and U.S. Strike Deal to Withdraw American Troops from Afghanistan|newspaper=The New York Times|date=29 February 2020|last1=Mashal|first1=Mujib}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2021/08/17/afghanistan-trump-deal-robert-crews-sot-nr-intl-hnk-vpx.cnn|title = Historian: Trump's deal with Taliban created a 'roadmap toward a surrender' - CNN Video| date=17 August 2021 }}</ref> | |||
On 15 August 2021, all of Afghanistan, besides Kabul, was back in the hands of Taliban. By August 31, all US and allied forces departed the Hamid Karzai International Airport, thus ending any official operations within Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/16/world/asia/afghanistan-airport-evacuation-us-withdrawal.html|title = Chaos Ensues at Kabul Airport as Americans Abandon Afghanistan|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 16 August 2021|last1 = Gall|first1 = Carlotta|last2 = Khapalwak|first2 = Ruhullah}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/talibans-rapid-advance-across-afghanistan-2021-08-10/|title=Chaos, desperation at Kabul airport as Biden defends withdrawal from Afghanistan|newspaper=Reuters|date=17 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="bloomberg.com"/> | |||
===Criticism=== | |||
{{Main|Criticism of the War on Terror}} | |||
Hardliner newspapers in Iran and religious scholars in Lebanon suggested "Infinite Imperialism," "Infinite Arrogance," or "Infinite Injustice" might have been more appropriate name for the operation.<ref name="BBC News" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/1560903.stm|title=Analysis: Straw's visit divides Iran|date=2001-09-24|access-date=2019-02-19|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219073303/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/1560903.stm|archive-date=19 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Osama's revenge : the next 9-11 : what the media and the government haven't told you|last=Williams|first=Paul L.|date=2004|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=1591022525|location=Amherst, NY|pages=|oclc=54823028|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/osamasrevengenex00paul/page/68}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor / Hiroshima / 9-11 / Iraq|last=Dower|first=John W.|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2010|isbn=9780393080476|pages=466}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/Archive/2001/553/fall72.htm|title=As the British Foreign Secretary courts Iran to aid a US-led coalition against terrorism, Tehran struggles for consensus and considers the incentives for cooperation|last=Moaveni|first=Azadeh|date=27 September – 3 October 2001|work=Al-Ahram Weekly|access-date=2019-02-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219130115/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/Archive/2001/553/fall72.htm|archive-date=19 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
AFP, reporting on a news story in the Sunday, 3 April 2004, issue of '']'',<ref>{{Citation | title = South Asia | url = http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/southasia/view/78653/1/.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040405213413/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/southasia/view/78653/1/.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2004-04-05 | publisher = Channel NewsAsia}}.</ref> wrote that retired Army Colonel Hy Rothstein, "who served in the ] for more than 20 years commissioned by ] to examine the war in Afghanistan, concluded the conflict created conditions that have given 'warlordism, banditry and opium production a new lease on life.' " | |||
The conduct of U.S. forces was criticised in a report entitled ''Enduring Freedom – Abuses by U.S. Forces in Afghanistan'' by U.S.-based human rights group ] in 2004. Some Pakistani scholars, such as ], editor of ], have also provided a more specific form of criticism that relates to the consequences of the Global War on Terrorism on the region.<ref>{{cite journal | year =2009|title= The Rhetoric of Democracy and War on Terror: The Case of Pakistan | journal= Pakistaniaat: A Journal of Pakistan Studies |volume=1|issue=2|pages=60–65}}</ref> | |||
==Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines (OEF-P)== | |||
{{Main|Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines}} | |||
===Abu Sayyaf Group=== | |||
{{Main|Abu Sayyaf}} | |||
The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) Al Harakat Al Islamiyya, is deemed a "foreign terrorist organization" by the United States government. Specifically, it is an ] separatist group based in and around the southern islands of the Republic of the Philippines, primarily ], ], and ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/abu-sayyaf-group-philippines-islamist-separatists|title=Abu Sayyaf Group (Philippines, Islamist separatists)|work=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=2018-05-21|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522041635/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/abu-sayyaf-group-philippines-islamist-separatists|archive-date=22 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Since inception in the early 1990s, the group has carried out ]s, assassinations, ]s, and ] in their fight for an independent Islamic state in western ] and the ].<ref name=":0" /> Its claimed overarching goal is to create a Pan-Islamic superstate across the ''Malay'' portions of Southeast Asia, spanning, from east to west, the large island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago (Basilan and Jolo islands), the large island of ] (Malaysia and Indonesia), the ], and the ] (], Thailand and ]). | |||
===Jemaah Islamiyah=== | |||
{{Main|Jemaah Islamiyah}} | |||
Jemaah Islamiyah is a ]ic terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a fundamentalist Islamic ] in Southeast Asia, in particular Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, the south of Thailand and the Philippines. Jemaah Islamiyah originally used peaceful means to achieve its goals, but later resorted to terrorism because of its connections with al-Qaeda.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16850706|title=Profile: Jemaah Islamiah|date=2012-02-02|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-05-21|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719135826/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16850706|archive-date=19 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
Financial links between Jemaah Islamiyah and other terrorist groups, such as ] and ], have been found to exist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbr.org/publications/analysis/pdf/vol14no5.pdf |title=Funding Terrorism in Southeast Asia: The Financial Network of Al Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah |publisher=Nbr.org |access-date=27 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927184541/http://www.nbr.org/publications/analysis/pdf/vol14no5.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Jemaah Islamiyah means "Islamic Group" or "Islamic Community" and is often abbreviated JI. | |||
Jemaah Islamiyah is thought to have killed hundreds of civilians. Also, it is suspected of carrying out the ] on 12 October 2002, in which suicide bombers attacked a nightclub killing 202 people and wounding many more. Most of the casualties were Australian tourists. After this attack, the ] designated Jemaah Islamiyah as a ]. Jemaah Islamiyah is also suspected of carrying out the ], the ] bombings, the ] and the ]. | |||
===U.S. actions=== | |||
In January 2002, 1,200 Members of ] (SOCPAC) were deployed to the Philippines to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in uprooting al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf. The members of SOCPAC were assigned to assist in military operations against the terrorist forces as well as humanitarian operations for the island of Basilan, where most of the conflict was expected to take place. | |||
The United States Special Forces (SF) Unit trained and equipped special forces and scout rangers of the AFP, creating the ]. The LRC and elements of SOCPAC deployed to Basilan on completion of their training. The stated goals of the deployment were denying the ASG sanctuary, surveiling, controlling, and denying ASG routes, surveiling supporting villages and key personnel, conducting local training to overcome AFP weaknesses and sustain AFP strengths, supporting operations by the AFP "strike force" (LRC) in the area of responsibility (AOR), conducting and supporting civil affairs operations in the AOR.<ref name="autogeneratedmil">{{cite web|first=Colonel David S |last=Maxwell |url=http://www.army.mil/professionalwriting/volumes/volume2/june_2004/6_04_3.html |title=The U.S. Army Professional Writing Collection |publisher=Army |access-date=27 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412201517/http://www.army.mil/professionalwriting/volumes/volume2/june_2004/6_04_3.html |archive-date=12 April 2010 }}</ref> | |||
===Result=== | |||
The desired result was for the AFP to gain sufficient capability to locate and destroy the ASG, to recover hostages and to enhance the legitimacy of the Philippine government. Much of the operation was a success: the ASG was driven from Basilan and one U.S. hostage was recovered.<ref name="autogeneratedmil"/> The Abu Sayyaf Group's ranks, which once counted more than 800 members, was reduced to less than 100. The humanitarian portion of the operation, Operation Smiles, created 14 schools, 7 clinics, 3 hospitals and provided medical care to over 18,000 residents of Basilan. Humanitarian groups were able to continue their work without fear of further kidnappings and terrorists attacks by the Abu Sayyaf Group.<ref name = Smiles /><ref>{{Citation|title=Organisations |url=http://www.ict.org.il/organizations/orgdet.cfm?orgid=3 |publisher=ICT |place=Israel |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080525184544/http://www.ict.org.il/organizations/orgdet.cfm?orgid=3 |archive-date=25 May 2008 }}</ref> | |||
==Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA)== | |||
{{Main|Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa}} | |||
Unlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist organization as a target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the region and to work with host nations to deny the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities. Operations began in mid-2002 at ] by a ] (CJSOTF) augmented by support forces from ], ], and ]. In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (]) was established at Djibouti at ], taking over responsibilities from the CJSOTF. CJTF-HOA comprised approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF), and coalition force members, ] (CTF-150). The coalition force consists of ships from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, India, Italy, Pakistan, New Zealand, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region. Since 2003, the U.S. Military also conducts operations targeting Al-Qaeda-linked fighters in Somalia, these operations had reportedly killed between 113 and 136 militants by early 2016. On 7 March 2016, a further 150 were killed in U.S. airstrikes on an al Shabaab training camp north of Mogadishu.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/more-150-shebab-fighters-killed-us-drone-strike-171223047.html|title=US strike kills at least 150 al Shebab fighters in Somalia|publisher=Yahoo news|date=8 March 2016|access-date=15 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105201035/https://news.yahoo.com/more-150-shebab-fighters-killed-us-drone-strike-171223047.html|archive-date=5 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
CJTF-HOA has devoted the majority of its efforts to train selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include the rebuilding of schools and medical clinics, as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained. The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali.<ref>{{Citation|title=Terrorism |url=https://www.senate.gov/member/al/shelby/general/legislation/Terrorism.pdf |publisher=Senate |place=Washington, DC |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061011050803/https://www.senate.gov/member/al/shelby/general/legislation/Terrorism.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2006 }}</ref> | |||
===U.S. action=== | |||
"Operation Enduring Freedom" | |||
] | |||
* 7 October 2001 – 28 December 2014 | |||
* Casualties U.S. Coalition: 3,486 Dead | |||
* Taliban/Al-Qaeda:25,500–40,500 Dead | |||
Anti-piracy operations were undertaken by the coalition throughout 2006 with a ] when US vessels were attacked by pirates. In January 2007, during the ], an ] airstrike was conducted against ] members embedded with forces of the ] (ICU) operating in southern Somalia near ]. US naval forces, including the ] ], were positioned off the coast of Somalia to provide support and to prevent any al-Qaeda forces escaping by sea. Actions against pirates also occurred in June and October 2007 with varying amounts of success. | |||
"Operation Resolute Support/Freedom's Sentinel" | |||
* 1 January 2015 – Present | |||
* Casualties U.S. Coalition: 1 January 2015 – Present | 70 Dead* – Subject to change<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://icasualties.org/|title=iCasualties: Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom Casualties|website=icasualties.org|access-date=2018-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204203958/http://icasualties.org/|archive-date=4 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
* Taliban/Al-Qaeda: | |||
Effective 1 January 2015, Secretary of Defense Hagel announced that the new U.S. mission in Afghanistan will focus on training, advising, and assisting Afghan security forces and designated as Operation Freedom's Sentinel. | |||
19 About 13,500 U.S. troops are expected in Afghanistan through | |||
2015 and will be assisted by troops from NATO allies. | |||
==Military decorations== | |||
Since 2002, the United States military has created military awards and decorations related to Operation Enduring Freedom | |||
* ] | |||
] also created a military decoration related to Operation Enduring Freedom: | |||
* Non-Article 5 ] ] | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* ] | |||
*] | |||
* ] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
==Further reading== | |||
* {{Citation | last = Maloney | first = Sean M | title = Enduring the Freedom: A Rogue Historian in Afghanistan | place = Washington, DC | publisher = Potomac Books | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-57488-953-2}}. | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{Commons category}} | |||
* | |||
* | * | ||
* Moorthy, Neelesh (6 July 2016). . ]. | |||
* {{cite book | url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/enduring_voices/ | title = Enduring Voices: Oral Histories of the US Army Experience in Afghanistan, 2003–2005 | editor-first = Christopher N | editor-last = Koontz | id = CMH Pub 70-112-1 | year = 2008 | publisher = ] | location = Washington, DC | access-date = 4 August 2010 | archive-date = 24 September 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140924040645/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/enduring_voices/ | url-status = dead }} full text available online | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
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Latest revision as of 22:04, 11 December 2024
Official name for the US's war on terrorThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)
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Operation Enduring Freedom | |
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Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) was the official name used by the U.S. government for both the first stage (2001–2014) of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and the larger-scale Global War on Terrorism. On 7 October 2001, in response to the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush announced that airstrikes against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban had begun in Afghanistan. Beyond the military actions in Afghanistan, Operation Enduring Freedom was also affiliated with counterterrorism operations in other countries, such as OEF-Philippines and OEF-Trans Sahara.
After 13 years, on 28 December 2014, President Barack Obama announced the end of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Subsequent operations in Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both non-combat and combat, occurred under the name Operation Freedom's Sentinel.
Subordinate operations
Operation Enduring Freedom referred to the U.S.-led combat mission in Afghanistan. The codename was also used for counter-terrorism operations in other countries targeting Al Qaeda and remnants of the Taliban, such as OEF-Philippines, OEF-Trans Sahara, and possibly in Georgia's Pankisi Gorge, primarily through government funding vehicles.
- Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), 7 October 2001–31 December 2014. Succeeded by Operation Freedom's Sentinel.
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines (OEF-P, formerly Operation Freedom Eagle), 15 January 2002 – 24 February 2015
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA)
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS; see also Insurgency in the Maghreb)
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Caribbean and Central America (OEF-CCA)
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Kyrgyzstan, 18 December 2001 – 3 June 2014
Etymology
The U.S. government used the term "Operation Enduring Freedom" to officially describe the War in Afghanistan, from the period between 7 October 2001 and 31 December 2014. Subsequent operations in Afghanistan by the United States' military forces, both non-combat and combat, occurred under the name Operation Freedom's Sentinel.
The operation was originally called "Operation Infinite Justice," but as similar phrases have been used by adherents of several religions as an exclusive description of God, it is believed to have been changed to avoid offense to Muslims who are the majority religion in Afghanistan. In September 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush's remark that "this crusade, this war on terrorism, is going to take a while," which prompted widespread criticism from the Islamic world, may also have contributed to the renaming of the operation.
The term "OEF" typically refers to the phase of the War in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are only loosely or nominally connected, such as through government funding vehicles. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities.
Operation Enduring Freedom, which was a joint U.S., U.K., and Afghan operation, was separate from the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which was an operation of North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations including the U.S. and the U.K. The two operations ran in parallel, although it had been suggested that they merge.
Overview
In response to the September 11 attacks, the early combat operations that took place on 7 October 2001 to include a mix of strikes from land-based B-1 Lancer, B-2 Spirit and B-52 Stratofortress bombers, carrier-based F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet fighters, and Tomahawk cruise missiles launched from both U.S. and British ships and submarines signaled the start of Operation Enduring Freedom.
The initial military objectives of OEF, as articulated by President George W. Bush in his 20 September address to a Joint Session of Congress and his 7 October address to the country, included the destruction of terrorist training camps and infrastructure within Afghanistan, the capture of al-Qaeda leaders, and the cessation of terrorist activities in Afghanistan.
In January 2002, over 1,200 soldiers from the United States Special Operations Command Pacific (SOCPAC) deployed to the Philippines to support the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in their push to uproot terrorist forces on the island of Basilan. Of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the local people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles.
In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier. The stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. Similar to OEF-P, the goal of humanitarian aid was emphasized, ostensibly to prevent militant organizations from being able to take hold amongst the population as well as reemerge after being removed.
The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training and equipment to the armed forces in the region. The humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people.
Since 2001, the cumulative expenditure by the U.S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 billion.
Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan
Taliban
Seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban governed Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, and enforce harsh judicial penalties (See Human rights in Afghanistan). Amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Women's rights groups around the world were frequently critical as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home. They drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1,500 years old, because the Buddhas were considered idols.
In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan. When the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001. It has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections.
U.S.-led coalition action
Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)On 20 September 2001, the U.S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the 11 September attacks in 2001. The U.S. made a five-point ultimatum to the Taliban:
- Deliver to the U.S. all of the leaders of al-Qaeda
- Release all imprisoned foreign nationals
- Close immediately every terrorist training camp
- Hand over every terrorist and their supporters to appropriate authorities
- Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps for inspection
On 21 September 2001, the Taliban rejected this ultimatum, stating there was no evidence in their possession linking bin Laden to the 11 September attacks.
On 22 September 2001 the United Arab Emirates and later Saudi Arabia withdrew their recognition of the Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties.
On 4 October 2001, it was reported that the Taliban covertly offered to turn bin Laden over to Pakistan for trial in an international tribunal that operated according to Islamic shar'ia law. On 7 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to try bin Laden in Afghanistan in an Islamic court. This proposition was immediately rejected by the US.
On 14 October 2001, the Taliban proposed to hand bin Laden over to a third country for trial, but only if they were given evidence of bin Laden's involvement in the events of 11 September 2001.
The UN Security Council, on 16 January 2002, unanimously established an arms embargo and the freezing of identifiable assets belonging to bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining Taliban.
Combat operations start
On Sunday 7 October 2001, American and British warplanes began fighting Taliban forces and al-Qaeda. Cruise missiles were fired from warships.
The Northern Alliance, aided by Joint Special Operations teams consisting of Green Berets from the 5th Special Forces Group, aircrew members from the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR), and Air Force Combat Controllers, fought against the Taliban. Aided by U.S. bombing and massive defections, they captured Mazar-i-Sharif on 9 November. They then rapidly gained control of most of northern Afghanistan, and took control of Kabul on 13 November after the Taliban unexpectedly fled the city. The Taliban were restricted to a smaller and smaller region, with Kunduz, the last Taliban-held city in the north, captured on 26 November. Most of the Taliban fled to Pakistan.
The war continued in the south of the country, where the Taliban retreated to Kandahar. Whilst in Kandahar the Taliban agreed to surrender but the deal was rejected by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld as it would have provided amnesty to Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar. After Kandahar fell in December, remnants of the Taliban and al-Qaeda continued to mount resistance. Meanwhile, in November 2001 the U.S. military and its allied forces established their first ground base in Afghanistan to the south west of Kandahar, known as FOB Rhino.
The Battle of Tora Bora, involving U.S., German, British and Northern Alliance forces took place in December 2001 to further destroy the Taliban and suspected al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. In early March 2002 the United States military, along with allied Afghan military forces, conducted a large operation to destroy al-Qaeda in an operation code-named Operation Anaconda.
The operation was carried out by elements of the United States 10th Mountain Division, 101st Airborne Division, the U.S. special forces groups TF 11, TF Bowie, TF Dagger, TF K-Bar, British Royal Marines, the Norwegian Forsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK), Hærens Jegerkommando and Marinejegerkommandoen, Canada's 3rd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Canada's Joint Task Force 2, the German KSK, and elements of the Australian Special Air Service Regiment and of the New Zealand Special Air Service and the Afghan National Army.
After managing to evade U.S. forces throughout the summer of 2002, the remnants of the Taliban gradually began to regain their confidence. A U.S. and Canadian led operation (supported by British and Dutch forces), Operation Mountain Thrust was launched in May 2006 to counter renewed Taliban insurgency.
Since January 2006, the NATO International Security Assistance Force undertook combat duties from Operation Enduring Freedom in southern Afghanistan, the NATO force chiefly made up of British, Canadian and Dutch forces (and some smaller contributions from Denmark, Romania and Estonia and air support from Norway as well as air and artillery support from the U.S.) (see the article Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006). The United States military also conducts military operations separate from NATO as part of Operation Enduring Freedom in other parts of Afghanistan, in areas such as Kandahar, Bagram, and Kabul (including Camp Eggers and Camp Phoenix.)
International support
Main article: Participants in Operation Enduring FreedomThe United States was supported by several nations during Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan in 2001–2003 and in subsequent coalition operations directly or indirectly in support of OEF. See the article Afghanistan War order of battle for the disposition of coalition forces in Afghanistan as of 2012.
Result
The U.S.-led coalition initially removed the Taliban from power and seriously crippled al-Qaeda and associated militants in Afghanistan. However, success in quelling the Taliban insurgency since the 2001 invasion has faltered. As the war dragged on, the Taliban demonstrated they could not be defeated also thanks to sanctuary in neighboring Pakistan.
On 9 October 2004, Afghanistan elected Hamid Karzai president in its first direct elections. The following year, Afghans conducted the 2005 Afghan parliamentary election on 18 September. Since the invasion, hundreds of schools and mosques have been constructed, millions of dollars in aid have been distributed, and the occurrence of violence has been reduced.
While military forces interdicted insurgents and assured some form of security, Provincial reconstruction teams were tasked with infrastructure building, such as constructing roads and bridges, assisting during floods, and providing food and water to refugees. Many warlords have participated in an allegiance program, formally recognizing the legitimacy of the government of Afghanistan, and formally surrendering their soldiers and weapons. Subsequent actions have led to questions about their true loyalties.
The Afghan National Army, Afghan National Police, and Afghan Border Police were being trained to assume the task of securing their nation.
On 31 December 2014, Operation Enduring Freedom concluded, and was succeeded by Operation Freedom's Sentinel on 1 January 2015.
In 2020, the US left Afghanistan to the Taliban under an agreement ensuring a safe passage for American forces out of the country by mid 2021. On 15 August 2021, all of Afghanistan, besides Kabul, was back in the hands of Taliban. By August 31, all US and allied forces departed the Hamid Karzai International Airport, thus ending any official operations within Afghanistan.
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of the War on TerrorHardliner newspapers in Iran and religious scholars in Lebanon suggested "Infinite Imperialism," "Infinite Arrogance," or "Infinite Injustice" might have been more appropriate name for the operation.
AFP, reporting on a news story in the Sunday, 3 April 2004, issue of The New Yorker, wrote that retired Army Colonel Hy Rothstein, "who served in the Army Special Forces for more than 20 years commissioned by the Pentagon to examine the war in Afghanistan, concluded the conflict created conditions that have given 'warlordism, banditry and opium production a new lease on life.' "
The conduct of U.S. forces was criticised in a report entitled Enduring Freedom – Abuses by U.S. Forces in Afghanistan by U.S.-based human rights group Human Rights Watch in 2004. Some Pakistani scholars, such as Masood Ashraf Raja, editor of Pakistaniaat, have also provided a more specific form of criticism that relates to the consequences of the Global War on Terrorism on the region.
Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines (OEF-P)
Main article: Operation Enduring Freedom – PhilippinesAbu Sayyaf Group
Main article: Abu SayyafThe Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) Al Harakat Al Islamiyya, is deemed a "foreign terrorist organization" by the United States government. Specifically, it is an Islamist separatist group based in and around the southern islands of the Republic of the Philippines, primarily Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao.
Since inception in the early 1990s, the group has carried out bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, and extortion in their fight for an independent Islamic state in western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. Its claimed overarching goal is to create a Pan-Islamic superstate across the Malay portions of Southeast Asia, spanning, from east to west, the large island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago (Basilan and Jolo islands), the large island of Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia), the South China Sea, and the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar).
Jemaah Islamiyah
Main article: Jemaah IslamiyahJemaah Islamiyah is a militant Islamic terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a fundamentalist Islamic theocracy in Southeast Asia, in particular Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, the south of Thailand and the Philippines. Jemaah Islamiyah originally used peaceful means to achieve its goals, but later resorted to terrorism because of its connections with al-Qaeda.
Financial links between Jemaah Islamiyah and other terrorist groups, such as Abu Sayyaf and al-Qaeda, have been found to exist. Jemaah Islamiyah means "Islamic Group" or "Islamic Community" and is often abbreviated JI.
Jemaah Islamiyah is thought to have killed hundreds of civilians. Also, it is suspected of carrying out the Bali car bombing on 12 October 2002, in which suicide bombers attacked a nightclub killing 202 people and wounding many more. Most of the casualties were Australian tourists. After this attack, the U.S. State Department designated Jemaah Islamiyah as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. Jemaah Islamiyah is also suspected of carrying out the Zamboanga bombings, the Metro Manila bombings, the 2004 Australian embassy bombing and the 2005 Bali terrorist bombing.
U.S. actions
In January 2002, 1,200 Members of United States Special Operations Command, Pacific (SOCPAC) were deployed to the Philippines to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in uprooting al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf. The members of SOCPAC were assigned to assist in military operations against the terrorist forces as well as humanitarian operations for the island of Basilan, where most of the conflict was expected to take place.
The United States Special Forces (SF) Unit trained and equipped special forces and scout rangers of the AFP, creating the Light Reaction Company (LRC). The LRC and elements of SOCPAC deployed to Basilan on completion of their training. The stated goals of the deployment were denying the ASG sanctuary, surveiling, controlling, and denying ASG routes, surveiling supporting villages and key personnel, conducting local training to overcome AFP weaknesses and sustain AFP strengths, supporting operations by the AFP "strike force" (LRC) in the area of responsibility (AOR), conducting and supporting civil affairs operations in the AOR.
Result
The desired result was for the AFP to gain sufficient capability to locate and destroy the ASG, to recover hostages and to enhance the legitimacy of the Philippine government. Much of the operation was a success: the ASG was driven from Basilan and one U.S. hostage was recovered. The Abu Sayyaf Group's ranks, which once counted more than 800 members, was reduced to less than 100. The humanitarian portion of the operation, Operation Smiles, created 14 schools, 7 clinics, 3 hospitals and provided medical care to over 18,000 residents of Basilan. Humanitarian groups were able to continue their work without fear of further kidnappings and terrorists attacks by the Abu Sayyaf Group.
Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA)
Main article: Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of AfricaUnlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist organization as a target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the region and to work with host nations to deny the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities. Operations began in mid-2002 at Camp Lemonnier by a Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force (CJSOTF) augmented by support forces from Fort Stewart, Fort Hood, and Fort Story. In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was established at Djibouti at Camp Lemonnier, taking over responsibilities from the CJSOTF. CJTF-HOA comprised approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF), and coalition force members, Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150). The coalition force consists of ships from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, India, Italy, Pakistan, New Zealand, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region. Since 2003, the U.S. Military also conducts operations targeting Al-Qaeda-linked fighters in Somalia, these operations had reportedly killed between 113 and 136 militants by early 2016. On 7 March 2016, a further 150 were killed in U.S. airstrikes on an al Shabaab training camp north of Mogadishu.
CJTF-HOA has devoted the majority of its efforts to train selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include the rebuilding of schools and medical clinics, as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained. The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali.
U.S. action
"Operation Enduring Freedom"
- 7 October 2001 – 28 December 2014
- Casualties U.S. Coalition: 3,486 Dead
- Taliban/Al-Qaeda:25,500–40,500 Dead
Anti-piracy operations were undertaken by the coalition throughout 2006 with a battle fought in March when US vessels were attacked by pirates. In January 2007, during the war in Somalia, an AC-130 airstrike was conducted against al-Qaeda members embedded with forces of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) operating in southern Somalia near Ras Kamboni. US naval forces, including the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, were positioned off the coast of Somalia to provide support and to prevent any al-Qaeda forces escaping by sea. Actions against pirates also occurred in June and October 2007 with varying amounts of success.
"Operation Resolute Support/Freedom's Sentinel"
- 1 January 2015 – Present
- Casualties U.S. Coalition: 1 January 2015 – Present | 70 Dead* – Subject to change
- Taliban/Al-Qaeda:
Effective 1 January 2015, Secretary of Defense Hagel announced that the new U.S. mission in Afghanistan will focus on training, advising, and assisting Afghan security forces and designated as Operation Freedom's Sentinel. 19 About 13,500 U.S. troops are expected in Afghanistan through 2015 and will be assisted by troops from NATO allies.
Military decorations
Since 2002, the United States military has created military awards and decorations related to Operation Enduring Freedom
NATO also created a military decoration related to Operation Enduring Freedom:
- Non-Article 5 ISAF NATO Medal
See also
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Further reading
- Maloney, Sean M (2005), Enduring the Freedom: A Rogue Historian in Afghanistan, Washington, DC: Potomac Books, ISBN 1-57488-953-2.
External links
- The Enduring Freedom Foundation
- Moorthy, Neelesh (6 July 2016). "Obama increases U.S. troops to remain in Afghanistan past 2016". Politifact.
- Koontz, Christopher N, ed. (2008). Enduring Voices: Oral Histories of the US Army Experience in Afghanistan, 2003–2005. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 70-112-1. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 4 August 2010. full text available online