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{{Short description|Highest volcanic mountain in Asia}}
{{redirect|Damavand}}
{{Redirect|Damavand}}
{{Expand Persian|Kuhe Damāvand|date=January 2010}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox mountain {{Infobox mountain
| name = Damāvand | name =Damavand
| native_name = {{lang|fa|دماوند}}
| photo = Damavand in winter.jpg
| photo = 981012-Damavand-South-IMG 9861-2.jpg
| photo_caption = Damāvand in winter
| photo_caption = Mount Damavand, the south side, ], ], ]
| elevation_m = 5610
| elevation_m = 5609
| elevation_ref = <ref>The 5,610 metre height given here is from the , which states that "the highest point in Iran is Mount Damāvand being 5,610 metres high". This elevation is consistent with ] data. A 2007 ] measurement reports a slightly higher elevation, 5623 m, but also reports -17 m for the nearby ] despite its accepted -28 m. This suggests that there is slight local ] inaccuracy built into hand held GPS measurements in this area, and that the official Iranian elevation is accurate. An older elevation, 5,671 m, is not consistent with the above sources and there is no evidence that it is based on any modern measurement, although it is still the most frequently given elevation on the web.</ref><ref> Retrieved 27 September 2011</ref>
| elevation_ref = <ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150117111208/http://www.en.iran.ir/about/natural-regions |date=2015-01-17 }}</ref><ref name="peaklist"/>{{Disputed inline|text=elevation|Talk page section|date=February 2014}}<ref> gives {{convert|18,365|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} but states in the margin that all elevations are derived from ]. A is based on the Persian language 1999 Iranian government 1:50,000 mapping which plots two 5620 contour circles, with a 5628 m spot height for the highest spot on the crater rim (WNW side) and 5626 m for the highest point on the southeast side (and a 5610 m spot height in the due north position.) This is supported by ] and ] data.</ref>
| prominence_m = 4667 | prominence_m = 4667
| prominence_ref = <ref> peaklist.org. Retrieved 16 October 2011</ref><br/><small>]</small> | prominence_ref = <ref name="peaklist">{{cite web|url=http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/iran.html|title=Kuh-e Damavand – Iran Ultra Prominence|website=peaklist.org|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="peakbagger">{{cite pb|name=Damavand, Iran|id=10467}}</ref><br /><small>]</small>
| parent_peak = ]<ref> peakbagger.com. Retrieved 29 January 2016</ref>
| map = Iran |relief=1
| listing = {{ubl|]|]|]}}
| map_caption = Location in Iran
| range = ] – ]
| country = ]
| subdivision1_type = Province
| subdivision1 = ]
| subdivision2_type = County
| subdivision2 = ]
| map = Iran | map_caption = Location in Iran
| label_position = bottom | label_position = bottom
| coordinates = {{coord|35.951|N|52.109|E|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| listing = ]<br />]<br />]
| coordinates_ref = <ref name=GVP/>
| location = ], ], ]
| range = ]
| lat_d = 35 | lat_m = 57 | lat_s = 20 | lat_NS = N
| long_d = 52 | long_m = 06 | long_s = 36 | long_EW = E
| coordinates_ref = <ref>{{cite pb|name=Damavand, Iran|id=10467}}</ref>
| type = ] | type = ]
| age = | age =
| last_eruption = 5350 BCE ± 200 years | last_eruption = 5350 BC ± 200 years<ref name=GVP/>
| first_ascent = 905 by Abu Dolaf Kazraji<ref name="SummitPost">{{cite web|url=http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150400/damavand.html|title=SummitPost: Damavand|accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> | first_ascent = 905 by Abu Dolaf Kazraji<ref name="SummitPost">{{cite web|url=http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150400/damavand.html|title=SummitPost: Damavand|access-date=2010-04-28}}</ref>
| easiest_route = ] | easiest_route = ]
}} }}
]]]
'''Mount Damavand''' ({{langx|fa|]}} {{IPA|fa|dæmɒːvænd||Damavand pronounce.ogg}}) is a ] ] and is the highest peak in ] and ], the ] in ], and the 3rd highest volcano in the ] (after ] and ]), at an elevation of {{convert|5609|m|ft}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iranclimbingguide.com/ |title=Home |website=iranclimbingguide.com}}</ref><ref name="Mountain Damavand">{{cite web|url=http://persiaport.com/en/attractions/mountain-damavand|title=Mountain Damavand|website=PersiaPort|access-date=19 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705003921/http://persiaport.com/en/attractions/mountain-damavand|archive-date=5 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{efn|The ] in ] is higher than Damāvand, but are not considered to be volcanic mountains.}} Damāvand has a special place in ] and folklore. It is in the middle of the ] range, adjacent to ''Varārū'', ''Sesang'', ''Gol-e Zard'', and ''Mīānrūd''. It is near the southern coast of the ], in ], ], {{convert|66|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of the city of Tehran.<ref>''Microsoft Encarta World Atlas'', 2001, Microsoft Corporation</ref>
] from ]]]
] near ]]]
] ]]]
] in ] desert]]
Mount Damāvand is the ] in the world and is part of the ] mountaineering challenge.


==Symbolism and mythology==
'''Mount Damāvand''' (Pronounced /dæmävænd/) <!-- as IPA --> ({{lang-fa| دماوند }}), is a ] or ] and the highest peak in ], and has a special place in ] and folklore. It is located in the middle ] Range, adjacent to '']'', '']'', ''] {{Disambiguation needed|date=April 2012}}'' and '']'' and is the highest ] in all of ].
Damavand is a significant mountain in ]. It is the symbol of Iranian resistance against despotism and foreign rule in Persian poetry and literature. In ] texts and mythology, the three-headed dragon ] was chained within Mount Damāvand, there to remain until the end of the world. In a later version of the same legend, the tyrant ] was also chained in a cave somewhere in Mount Damāvand after being defeated by ] and ]. Persian poet ] depicts this event in his masterpiece, the '']'':
It is a potentially active volcano,<ref>{{cite gvp |1=0302-01-|2=Damavand}}</ref> since there are ]s near the ] ] emitting ], which were known to be active on July 6, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.summitpost.org/image/309028/150400/volcanic-hole.html |title= Volcanic Hole on Damavand|accessdate=2007-08-23}}</ref>


<blockquote>{{lang|fa|بیاورد ضحاک را چون نَوَند}}<br />
The ] is located near the southern coast of the ], in ] county, ], 66 kilometres (41 miles) northeast of ].
{{lang|fa|به کوه دماوند کردش به‌بند}}</blockquote>


<blockquote>''biyāvard Zahhāk rā čon navand<br />be kuh-e Damāvand kardaš be-band''</blockquote>
==Symbolism and mythology==
Damavand is a significant mountain in Persian mythology. It is the symbol of Iranian resistance against despotism and foreign rule in Persian poetry and literature. In ] texts and mythology, the three-headed dragon ] was chained within Mount Damāvand, there to remain until the end of the world. In a later version of the same legend, the tyrant ] was also chained in a cave somewhere in Mount Damāvand after being defeated by ] and ]. Persian poet ] depicts this event in his masterpiece, the '']'':


<blockquote> He brought Zahhak like a horse to Mount Damavand,<br />And tied him at the peak tight and bound.</blockquote>
بیاورد ضحاک را چون نوند<br>
به کوه دماوند کردش ببند


The mountain is said to hold magical powers in the ''Shahnameh''. Damāvand has also been named in the Iranian legend of ] (as recounted by ]) as the location from which the hero shot his magical arrow to mark the border of ], during the border dispute between Iran and ]. The poem Damāvand by ] is also one fine example of the mountain's significance in ]. The first verse of this poem reads:
''He brings Zahhak, himself a mountain'' <br>
''to the peak of Damavand and binds his neck.''


<blockquote>{{lang|fa|ای دیو سپید پای‌دربند}}<br />
The mountain is said to hold magical powers in the ''Shahnameh''. Damāvand has also been named in the Iranian legend of ] as the location he fired his arrow to mark the ] border.
{{lang|fa|ای گنبد گیتی، ای دماوند}}</blockquote>
The famous poem Damāvand by ] is also one fine example of the mountain's significance in Persian literature. The first verse of this poem reads:


<blockquote>''ey div-e sepid-e pāy-dar-band,<br />ey gonbad-e giti, ey Damāvand''</blockquote>
ای دیو سپید پای در بند<br>
Ay dīve sepīde pāī dar band,<br>
''Oh white giant with feet in chains''<br>
ای گنبد گیتی، ای دماوند <br>
Ay gonbade gītī, ay Damāvand<br>
''Oh dome of the world, Oh Mount Damāvand''


<blockquote> O white giant with feet in chains,<br />O dome of the world, O Damāvand.</blockquote>
Mount Damavand is depicted on the ] of the Iranian 10,000 ] banknote.<ref>. Banknotes & Coins: . – Retrieved on 24 March 2009.</ref>


Mount Damavand is depicted on the ] of the Iranian 10,000 ] banknote.<ref>. Banknotes & Coins: . – Retrieved on 24 March 2009.</ref>
==Thermal springs==
]
] near the summit of Damavand, emitting ]]]
Mt Damavand has some thermal springs (''Abe Garm Larijan'')<ref>http://damavandmt.blogspot.com/search/label/Thermal%20Spring</ref> with therapeutic qualities. These mineral hot springs are mainly located on the volcano's flanks and at the base, giving evidence of volcanic heat comparatively near the surface of the earth. While no historic eruptions have been recorded, ] at the base and on the flanks, and ] and ] near the summit, indicate a hot or cooling magma body still present beneath the volcano, so that Damavand is a ].


The origins and meaning of the word "Damavand" are unclear, yet some prominent researchers{{who|date=March 2017}} have speculated that it probably means "The mountain from which smoke and ash arises", alluding to the volcanic nature of the mountain.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}
The most important of these hot springs are located in ''Abe Garm Larijan'' in a village by the name Larijan in the district of Larijan in Lar Valley . The water from this spring is useful in the treatment of chronic wounds and skin diseases. Near these springs there are public baths with small pools for public use.

]

==Geology==
===Setting and structure===
Mount Damavand rises within the ] range in northern Iran, separating the Iranian plateau to the south from the ] in the north. This range rises as a result of the collision between the ] and ] ]. This collision is similar to the collision between the ] and Eurasian plates to the east, which is causing the ] to rise and does not usually create volcanic activity. Despite this, recent research suggests that a hot region created by the collision is what caused the volcano to rise.<ref name="Davidson" />

Seismic wave patterns from earthquakes around the volcano indicate that a ] is present between {{convert|2|and|5|km|mi}} below the surface. This is separated into two areas - an inner region of hot, likely molten, magma between {{convert|3|and|4.5|km|mi}} depth that is surrounded by an area of dense cooled magma. The top of the chamber is believed to lie to the south of the summit, trending somewhat to the west with depth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shomali |first1=Z. Hossein |last2=Shirzad |first2=Taghi |title=Crustal structure of Damavand volcano, Iran, from ambient noise and earthquake tomography |journal=Journal of Seismology |date=January 2015 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=191–200 |doi=10.1007/s10950-014-9458-8|bibcode=2015JSeis..19..191S |s2cid=129297489 }}</ref>

Most volcanic activity originates from the summit area. A few flank vents have been noted, but these are largely on the upper slopes to the southwest and northeast of the summit. A secondary crater, termed Haji Dela, has some young lava flows {{convert|4|km|mi}} northeast of the summit.<ref name="Davidson" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghorbani |first1=Mansour |chapter=Young Volcanoes of Iran |title=The Geology of Iran: Tectonic, Magmatism and Metamorphism |series=Earth and Environmental Sciences Library |date=2021 |pages=277–319 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-71109-2_6|isbn=978-3-030-71108-5 |s2cid=235086218 }}</ref>

===Eruptive activity===
Volcanic activity in the Mount Damavand region first occurred in the ] almost 1.78 million years ago, but the current edifice began to be built around 600,000 years ago.<ref name="Davidson">{{cite journal |last1=Davidson |first1=Jon |last2=Hassanzadeh |first2=Jamshid |last3=Berzins |first3=Reinis |last4=Stockli |first4=Daniel F. |last5=Bashukooh |first5=Behrooz |last6=Turrin |first6=Brent |last7=Pandamouz |first7=Ali |title=The geology of Damavand volcano, Alborz Mountains, northern Iran |journal= Geological Society of America Bulletin|date=January 1, 2004 |volume=116 |issue=1 |page=16 |doi=10.1130/b25344.1 |bibcode=2004GSAB..116...16D |url=https://doi.org/10.1130/B25344.1 |access-date=25 December 2022}}</ref>

Its last eruption was around 5300 BCE in the ]. Its steep cone is formed of ash and ] flows mainly of ], ], and ]. Most eruptive activity appears to be lava flows, though some small ] deposits have been noted in drainages radiating from the mountain. One major explosive event is known to have erupted about 280,000 years ago.<ref name=GVP />

] lavas are directly on the ] sediments.<ref>Geological Map of Iran, ], www.ngdir.ir</ref> The volcano is crowned by a small crater with sulfuric deposits. Despite the lack of historical eruptions, ongoing thermal activity at Mount Damavand suggests the volcano is not extinct.<ref name=GVP>{{cite gvp |1=232010|2=Damavand}}</ref> ] at a rate of {{convert|5|mm|in}} per year and horizontal expansion at {{convert|6|mm|in}} per year was observed there between 2003 and 2008, but was gravity driven rather than a result of magmatic activity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shirzaei |first1=M. |last2=Walter |first2=T.R. |last3=Nankali |first3=H.R. |last4=Holohan |first4=E.P. |title=Gravity-driven deformation of Damavand volcano, Iran, detected through InSAR time series |journal=Geology |date=March 2011 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=251–254 |doi=10.1130/G31779.1|bibcode=2011Geo....39..251S }}</ref>

===Thermal springs===
]
Mineral ] are mainly located on the volcano's flanks and at the base, giving evidence of volcanic heat comparatively near the surface of the earth. Hot springs at the base and on the flanks and ] near the summit indicate a hot or cooling magma body still present beneath the volcano.<ref name=GVP /><ref name="Iranica">{{cite web |title=ĀB-E GARM |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ab-e-garm-warm-water |website=iranicaonline.org |publisher=Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation |access-date=25 December 2022}}</ref> The area around the volcano is the most thermally active in Iran and the springs are being monitored to see if fluctuations in water volume and mineral content are useful in crude prediction of large regional earthquakes.<ref name="EQ">{{cite journal |last1=Mokhtari |first1=Mohammad |title=Earthquake prediction activities and Damavand earthquake precursor test site in Iran |journal=Natural Hazards |date=February 2010 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=351–368 |doi=10.1007/s11069-009-9375-2 |bibcode=2010NatHa..52..351M |s2cid=128613893 }}</ref>

The most important of these hot springs is ] in a village by the name of Larijan in the district of Larijan Amol in Lar Valley. The water from this spring is believed to be useful in the treatment of chronic wounds and skin diseases and is bottled for distribution throughout Iran. Near these springs there are public baths with small pools for public use.<ref name="Iranica" />

===Glaciers===
A few ]s are present on the upper slopes of Damavand, the largest of which is Yakhar Glacier.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moradi |first1=Anvar |last2=Maghsoudi |first2=Mehran |last3=Moghimi |first3=Ebrahim |last4=Yamani |first4=Mojtaba |last5=Rezaei |first5=Nasser |title=A Comprehensive Assessment of Geomorphodiversity and Geomorphological Heritage for Damavand Volcano Management, Iran |journal=Geoheritage |date=June 2021 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=39 |doi=10.1007/s12371-021-00551-1|bibcode=2021Geohe..13...39M |s2cid=233303860 }}</ref> During the ], the area covered by glaciation was much larger and the climatic snow line was between {{convert|600|and|1100|m|ft}} below what is seen in the present day.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Noroozi |first1=Jalil |last2=Talebi |first2=Amir |last3=Doostmohammadi |first3=Moslem |chapter=The Alborz Mountain Range |title=Plant Biogeography and Vegetation of High Mountains of Central and South-West Asia |series=Plant and Vegetation |date=2020 |volume=17 |pages=117–149 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-45212-4_4|isbn=978-3-030-45211-7 |s2cid=226738400 }}</ref> The glaciers on Damavand as well as a few other isolated locations are the source of the few permanently flowing rivers in Iran.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghorbani |first1=Mansour |chapter=Nature of Iran and Its Climate |title=The Economic Geology of Iran |series=Springer Geology |date=2013 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-5625-0_1|isbn=978-94-007-5624-3 }}</ref>


== Routes to the summit == == Routes to the summit ==
] in August]] ]


The best major settlement for ]s is the new ] in ] ], located on the south of the mountain. A major settlement for ]s is the new Iranian Mountain Federation Camp in the village of ], located on the southern side of the mountain.


There are at least 16 known routes<ref></ref> to the summit which have different difficulties. Some of them are very dangerous and require rock climbing. The most popular route is the Southern Route which has step stamps and also a camp midway called Bargah Sevom Camp/Shelter<ref></ref> at 4220&nbsp;m (about 13,845&nbsp;ft). The longest route is the Northeastern and it takes two whole days to reach the summit starting from downhill village of Nāndal and a night stay at Takht-e Fereydoun (elevation 4300&nbsp;m - about 13,000&nbsp;ft), a two-story shelter. The western route is famous for its sunset view. Sīmorgh shelter in this route at 4100&nbsp;m (about 13,500&nbsp;ft) is a newly constructed shelter with two stories. There is a frozen waterfall/Icefall<ref></ref> (Persian name Ābshār Yakhī)about 12 m tall and the elevation of 5100 m is the highest fall in Iran and Middle East. There are at least 16 known routes to the summit,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sogol.com/WHP/IINFO/Ready%20%20INT/DAMAVAND%20MAP2.jpg |title=Map of Damavand |access-date=2007-03-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311121019/http://www.sogol.com/WHP/IINFO/Ready%20%20INT/DAMAVAND%20MAP2.jpg |archive-date=2007-03-11 }}</ref> with varying levels of difficulty. Some of them are dangerous and require ice climbing. The most popular route is the southern route which has steps and a camp midway called Bargah Sevom Camp/Shelter<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://damavandmt.blogspot.com/search/label/Camp%2B3%2BBargah|title=Mount Damavand Guides}}</ref> at {{convert|4220|m|abbr=on}}. The Northeastern route is the longest and requires two days to reach the summit starting from the downhill village of Nāndal and a night stay at Takht-e Fereydoun (elevation {{convert|4300|m|abbr=on}}, a two-story shelter. The western route is noted for its sunset view. ] (Sīmorgh/Sīmurgh) shelter in this route at {{convert|4100|m|abbr=on}} is a newly constructed two-story shelter. There is a frozen waterfall/icefall<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://damavandmt.blogspot.com/search/label/Icefall|title = Mount Damavand Guides}}</ref> (] name Ābshār Yakhī) about {{convert|12|m|abbr=on}} tall.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}


==Geographical location== ==Geographical location==
Line 69: Line 98:


{{Central Alborz}} {{Central Alborz}}
]]]


==Wildlife== ==Wildlife==


=== Fish ===
Damavand rivers and slopes are famous for the beautiful ] (''Salmo trutta''),<ref>Mohammadian, H. Freshwater Fishes of Iran. Sepehr Publishing Center. Iran. 2000.</ref><ref>Yazdani, A. Lar the Paradise I Knew. Payam Resan Publishing Institute. 2010.</ref> Red Sheep (''Ovis orientalis''), Wild Goats (''Capra aegagrus''), and many singing native and migratory birds. Leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and Brown Bear (''Ursus arctos'') live in this region. Some smaller mammals are Snow Vole (''Chionomys nivalis''), Mouse-like Hamster (''Calomyscus bailwardi'') and Rufesent Pika (''Ochoton rufescens'').<ref>Lay, D.M. A Study of the Mammals of Iran ( Resulting From the Street Expedition ). Field Museum of Natural History. Chicago .1967.</ref><ref>Mohammadian, H. The Life of Alborz Red Sheep. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2008. ISBN 978-600-5038-00-2.</ref><ref>Mohammadian, H. Mammals of Iran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2005. ISBN 964-94487-9-9.</ref>
Damavand ] and slopes are famous for ] (''Salmo trutta'').<ref>Mohammadian, H. Freshwater Fishes of Iran. Sepehr Publishing Center. Iran. 2000.</ref><ref>Yazdani, A. Lar the Paradise I Knew. Payam Resan Publishing Institute. 2010.</ref>
The very attractive and unreachable Caspian Snowcock (''Tetragallus caspius'') lives in high altitudes. Golden Eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') breeds in this are. Griffon vultures (''Gyps fulvus'') are common. Chukar Partridge (''Alectoris chukar'') has a high population and nests between stone and shrubs. Gold-fronted Serin (''Serinus pusillus''), Linnet (''Carduelis cannabina''), Snow finch (''Montifringilla nivalis''), Rock sparrow (''Petronia petronia''), Rock Bunting (''Emberiza cia'') and Horned Lark (''Eremophila alpestris'') are native; in winter they come to the lower hill sides. In each spring Wheatear (''Oenanthe oenanthe''), Rock Thrush (''Monticola saxatilis''), and Nightingale (''Luscinia megarhynchos'') come from Africa for breeding. Grey-necked Bunting (''Emberiza buchanani''), Black-headed Bunting (''Emberiza melanocephala'') and Common Rosefinch (''Carpodacus erythrinus'') come from India.<ref>Mohammadian, H. Mountain birds of Tehran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2008. ISBN 964-96358-9-0.</ref>
Lots of Marsh Frogs (''Rana ridibunda'') lives in Lar riversides. Meadow Viper (''vipera ursinii''), Blunt-nosed viper (''Macrovipera lebetina''), Iranian Valley Viper (''Vipera latifii'') and Caucasian Agama (‘’Laudakia caucasia’’) are among the reptiles of this mountainous region.<ref>Shahbazi, Y. Lar National Park Management Program. Natural Environment Department Library. 2004.</ref><ref>Mohammadian, H. Reptiles and Amphibians of Iran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2004. ISBN 964-94487-2-1.</ref>
In the southern slope of Damavand , there are remnants of Wild Pistachia Tree (''Pistacia atlantica'') ; In its riversides different kind of Salix trees like Willow (''Salix acomphylla'') and Oleaster (''Ellaegnus angustifoilia'') are found . Greek Juniper (''Juniperus excelsa'') is common all over the higher altitudes. In Northern slopes, because of higher humidity there are wild oak, beech and hazel trees like: Persian Oak (''Quercus macranthera''), Eastern Hornbean (''Carpinus orientalis''), and Oriental beech (''Fagus orientalis'').<ref>Mozaffarian, V. Trees and Shrubs of Iran. Farhang Moaser Publishers. 2005. ISBN 964-8637-03-2.</ref> There are also many beautiful wild flowers like: Mountain Tulip (''Tulipa Montana'') and Stone cress (''Aethionema grandiflorum''). In higher altitudes , shrubs tend to be sphere and cushion like , examples are : Astragalus species (like ''Astragalus microcephalus''), Mountain Sainfoin (''Onobrychis cornuta'') and Prickly (''Acantholimon erinaceum'') ; Different kind of grasses between them , complete this alpine scene .<ref>Mozaffarian, V. Lar National Park Management Program. Natural Environment Department Library. 2004.</ref>


===Mammals===
== Nomination as National Heritage Site ==
] (''Ovis orientalis'') and ] (''Capra aegagrus'') live in the region of Damavand Mts. ] (''Panthera pardus saxicolor'') and ] (''Ursus arctos syriacus'') also inhabit in this region. Smaller mammals include the ] (''Chionomys nivalis''), ] (''Calomyscus bailwardi'') and ] (''Ochoton rufescens'').<ref>Lay, D.M. A Study of the Mammals of Iran (Resulting From the Street Expedition ). Field Museum of Natural History. Chicago .1967.</ref><ref>Mohammadian, H. The Life of Alborz Red Sheep. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2008. {{ISBN|978-600-5038-00-2}}.</ref><ref>Mohammadian, H. Mammals of Iran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2005. {{ISBN|964-94487-9-9}}.</ref>
An anthropologist of Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department, Touba Osanlou, has said that a proposal has been made by a group of Iranian mountaineers to register the highest peak in the Middle East, Mount Damavand as a national heritage site.
Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department has accepted the proposal, the Persian daily Jam-e Jam reported.
Osanlou noted that the ] is presently in the process of renaming an upcoming ancient festivity after Mount Damavand.
"We have proposed ] Festivity, ] ], to be named as Damavand National Day," he added.
Tirgan Festivity is held in ]’s ] region in ] province.<ref></ref>


===Birds===
==Cultural references==
The attractive and unreachable ] (''Tetraogallus caspius'') lives at high altitudes. ] (''Aquila chrysaetos'') breeds in this area. ]s (''Gyps fulvus'') are common. ] (''Alectoris chukar'') has a high population and nests between stone and shrubs. ] (''Serinus pusillus''), ] (''Carduelis cannabina''), ] (''Montifringilla nivalis''), ] (''Petronia petronia''), ] (''Emberiza cia'') and ] (''Eremophila alpestris'') are native; in winter they come to the lower hillsides. In spring ] (''Oenanthe oenanthe''), ] (''Monticola saxatilis''), and ] (''Luscinia megarhynchos'') come from ] for breeding. ] (''Emberiza buchanani''), ] (''Emberiza melanocephala'') and ] (''Carpodacus erythrinus'') come from ].<ref>Mohammadian, H. Mountain birds of Tehran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2008. {{ISBN|964-96358-9-0}}.</ref>
Mount Damavand is featured twice as an online multiplayer map in the game ]. In the game it is featured in Damavand Peak and Alborz Mountains.

===Reptiles and amphibians===
]s (''Rana ridibunda'') live in Lar riversides. ] (''Vipera ursinii''), ] (''Macrovipera lebetina''), ] (''Vipera latifii'') and ] (''Laudakia caucasia'') are among the reptiles of this mountainous region.<ref>Shahbazi, Y. Lar National Park Management Program. Natural Environment Department Library. 2004.</ref><ref>Mohammadian, H. Reptiles and Amphibians of Iran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2004. {{ISBN|964-94487-2-1}}.</ref>

===Flora===
]

On the southern slope of Damavand, there are remnants of wild pistachia trees ('']''). Along its riversides different kinds of ''Salix'' trees like willow ('']'') and oleaster ('']'') are found. Greek juniper ('']'') is common in the higher altitudes. On northern slopes, because of higher humidity, there are wild oak, beech, hornbean and hazel trees like: Persian oak ('']''), Oriental beech ('']''), Eastern hornbeam ('']''), and Turkish hazel ('']'').<ref>Mozaffarian, V. Trees and Shrubs of Iran. Farhang Moaser Publishers. 2005. {{ISBN|964-8637-03-2}}.</ref> There are also many wild flowers such as mountain tulip ('']'') and Persian stone cress ('']''). At higher altitudes, shrubs tend to be sphere and cushion like, examples are : ''Astragalus'' species ('']''), mountain sainfoin ('']'') and prickly ('']''). Different kinds of grasses complete this alpine scene.<ref>Mozaffarian, V. Lar National Park Management Program. Natural Environment Department Library. 2004.</ref>
'']'' (formerly ''Iris demawendica''), is found and named after the mountain.<ref name=Lynch>Richard Lynch {{Google books|grvYTul5CSUC|The Book of the Iris (1904)|page=115}}</ref><ref name=Wallis>{{cite web |title=Newsletter October 2009, Iran Caspian to Kopet Dag |first1=Dr |last1=Wallis |first2=Mrs |last2=Wallis |url=http://www.agscentralsussex.plus.com/2009-10.pdf |publisher=agscentralsussex.plus.com (The Alpine Garden Society) |access-date=7 June 2016}}</ref>

== National Heritage Site ==
An anthropologist of Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department, Touba Osanlou, has said that a proposal has been made by a group of Iranian mountaineers to register the highest peak in the Middle East, Mount Damavand as a national heritage site.
Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department has accepted the proposal, the Persian daily Jam-e Jam reported. Osanlou noted that the ] is presently in the process of renaming an upcoming ancient festivity after Mount Damavand. "We have proposed ] Festivity, ] ], to be named as Damavand National Day," she added. Tirgan Festivity is held in ]'s ] region in ] province.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irandaily.ir/1385/2605/html/art.htm |title=Irna |access-date=2007-06-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070619021442/http://www.irandaily.ir/1385/2605/html/art.htm |archive-date=2007-06-19 }}</ref>


== Gallery ==
Mount Damavand featured in a photo release by Iranian state news. The photo, purporting to show a new stealth jet in flight, has been accused of being a fake as the image of the mountain appears to have come from a stock wallpaper site.
<gallery>
File:030915-Damavand-Polour-IMG 3449-3.jpg|Damavand, Polour, December 2024
File:030915-Damavand-Polour-IMG 3449-4.jpg|Damavand, Polour, December 2024
File:030130-Polour-Damavand-IMG 5309-2.jpg|Mount Damavand
File:981012-Damavand-South-IMG 9861-2.jpg|Mount Damavand, January
File:990513-Damavand-IMG 4857-2.jpg|Damavand Summit
File:990513-Damavand-IMG 4854-2.jpg|Damavand Summit, Lar Lake
File:990512-Damavand-Sardagh-IMG 4818-2.jpg|Yaledagh, Mount Damavand
File:Mount Damavand in sunrise - view from Tochal summit, Iran 2017.jpg|Damavand west side, view from Tochal summit
</gallery>


==See also== ==See also==
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]


== Explanatory notes ==
==Notes==
{{reflist}} {{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|26em}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons and category|Mount Damavand}} {{Commons and category|Mount Damavand}}
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* {{cite opentopomap|Mount Damavand|35.95366|52.10974|2023-04-21}}
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/damavand|title=Damāvand|publisher=]}}
* {{cite gvp |1=0302-01-|2=Damavand}}
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{{Volcanic Seven Summits}} {{Volcanic Seven Summits}}
{{National symbols of Iran}}
{{Protected Areas of Iran}} {{Protected Areas of Iran}}
{{Highest points of Asia}}
{{Zoroastrianism}}
{{Mazandaran Province}}
{{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 05:45, 10 December 2024

Highest volcanic mountain in Asia "Damavand" redirects here. For other uses, see Damavand (disambiguation).

Damavand
Mount Damavand, the south side, Amol, Mazandaran province, Iran
Highest point
Elevation5,609 m (18,402 ft)
Prominence4,667 m (15,312 ft)
Ranked 12th
Parent peakMount Elbrus
Listing
Coordinates35°57′04″N 52°06′32″E / 35.951°N 52.109°E / 35.951; 52.109
Naming
Native nameدماوند
Geography
Damavand is located in IranDamavandDamavandLocation in Iran
CountryIran
ProvinceMāzandarān
CountyAmol
Parent rangeAlborz – Mazandaran
Geology
Mountain typeStratovolcano
Last eruption5350 BC ± 200 years
Climbing
First ascent905 by Abu Dolaf Kazraji
Easiest routeHike
Damavand from Polour Village Amol

Mount Damavand (Persian: دماوند [dæmɒːvænd] ) is a dormant stratovolcano and is the highest peak in Iran and Western Asia, the highest volcano in Asia, and the 3rd highest volcano in the Eastern Hemisphere (after Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Elbrus), at an elevation of 5,609 metres (18,402 ft). Damāvand has a special place in Persian mythology and folklore. It is in the middle of the Alborz range, adjacent to Varārū, Sesang, Gol-e Zard, and Mīānrūd. It is near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, in Amol City, Mazandaran State, 66 km (41 mi) northeast of the city of Tehran.

View of Damavand peak Mazandaran from Tehran
view of damavand peak from Babol near Caspian Sea
view of Damavand peak from Lar river Mazandaran
damavand peak from Deir-e Gachin Caravansarai in Qom desert

Mount Damāvand is the 12th most prominent peak in the world and is part of the Volcanic Seven Summits mountaineering challenge.

Symbolism and mythology

Damavand is a significant mountain in Persian mythology. It is the symbol of Iranian resistance against despotism and foreign rule in Persian poetry and literature. In Zoroastrian texts and mythology, the three-headed dragon Aži Dahāka was chained within Mount Damāvand, there to remain until the end of the world. In a later version of the same legend, the tyrant Zahhāk was also chained in a cave somewhere in Mount Damāvand after being defeated by Kāveh and Fereydūn. Persian poet Ferdowsi depicts this event in his masterpiece, the Shahnameh:

بیاورد ضحاک را چون نَوَند
به کوه دماوند کردش به‌بند

biyāvard Zahhāk rā čon navand
be kuh-e Damāvand kardaš be-band

He brought Zahhak like a horse to Mount Damavand,
And tied him at the peak tight and bound.

The mountain is said to hold magical powers in the Shahnameh. Damāvand has also been named in the Iranian legend of Arash (as recounted by Bal'ami) as the location from which the hero shot his magical arrow to mark the border of Iran, during the border dispute between Iran and Turan. The poem Damāvand by Mohammad Taqī Bahār is also one fine example of the mountain's significance in Persian literature. The first verse of this poem reads:

ای دیو سپید پای‌دربند
ای گنبد گیتی، ای دماوند

ey div-e sepid-e pāy-dar-band,
ey gonbad-e giti, ey Damāvand

O white giant with feet in chains,
O dome of the world, O Damāvand.

Mount Damavand is depicted on the reverse of the Iranian 10,000 rial banknote.

The origins and meaning of the word "Damavand" are unclear, yet some prominent researchers have speculated that it probably means "The mountain from which smoke and ash arises", alluding to the volcanic nature of the mountain.

Fumarole at 5,550 metres (18,210 ft) elevation on the volcano's slope

Geology

Setting and structure

Mount Damavand rises within the Alborz range in northern Iran, separating the Iranian plateau to the south from the Caspian Sea in the north. This range rises as a result of the collision between the Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates. This collision is similar to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates to the east, which is causing the Himalaya to rise and does not usually create volcanic activity. Despite this, recent research suggests that a hot region created by the collision is what caused the volcano to rise.

Seismic wave patterns from earthquakes around the volcano indicate that a magma chamber is present between 2 and 5 kilometres (1.2 and 3.1 mi) below the surface. This is separated into two areas - an inner region of hot, likely molten, magma between 3 and 4.5 kilometres (1.9 and 2.8 mi) depth that is surrounded by an area of dense cooled magma. The top of the chamber is believed to lie to the south of the summit, trending somewhat to the west with depth.

Most volcanic activity originates from the summit area. A few flank vents have been noted, but these are largely on the upper slopes to the southwest and northeast of the summit. A secondary crater, termed Haji Dela, has some young lava flows 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) northeast of the summit.

Eruptive activity

Volcanic activity in the Mount Damavand region first occurred in the Pleistocene almost 1.78 million years ago, but the current edifice began to be built around 600,000 years ago.

Its last eruption was around 5300 BCE in the Holocene. Its steep cone is formed of ash and lava flows mainly of trachyte, andesite, and basalt. Most eruptive activity appears to be lava flows, though some small pyroclastic flow deposits have been noted in drainages radiating from the mountain. One major explosive event is known to have erupted about 280,000 years ago.

Quaternary lavas are directly on the Jurassic sediments. The volcano is crowned by a small crater with sulfuric deposits. Despite the lack of historical eruptions, ongoing thermal activity at Mount Damavand suggests the volcano is not extinct. Subsidence at a rate of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) per year and horizontal expansion at 6 millimetres (0.24 in) per year was observed there between 2003 and 2008, but was gravity driven rather than a result of magmatic activity.

Thermal springs

Fumaroles near the summit crater of Mount Damavand in May 2014

Mineral hot springs are mainly located on the volcano's flanks and at the base, giving evidence of volcanic heat comparatively near the surface of the earth. Hot springs at the base and on the flanks and fumaroles near the summit indicate a hot or cooling magma body still present beneath the volcano. The area around the volcano is the most thermally active in Iran and the springs are being monitored to see if fluctuations in water volume and mineral content are useful in crude prediction of large regional earthquakes.

The most important of these hot springs is Larijan Hot Spring in a village by the name of Larijan in the district of Larijan Amol in Lar Valley. The water from this spring is believed to be useful in the treatment of chronic wounds and skin diseases and is bottled for distribution throughout Iran. Near these springs there are public baths with small pools for public use.

Glaciers

A few glaciers are present on the upper slopes of Damavand, the largest of which is Yakhar Glacier. During the Last Glacial Maximum, the area covered by glaciation was much larger and the climatic snow line was between 600 and 1,100 metres (2,000 and 3,600 ft) below what is seen in the present day. The glaciers on Damavand as well as a few other isolated locations are the source of the few permanently flowing rivers in Iran.

Routes to the summit

Damavand volcanic crater in August 2009

A major settlement for mountain climbers is the new Iranian Mountain Federation Camp in the village of Polour, located on the southern side of the mountain.

There are at least 16 known routes to the summit, with varying levels of difficulty. Some of them are dangerous and require ice climbing. The most popular route is the southern route which has steps and a camp midway called Bargah Sevom Camp/Shelter at 4,220 m (13,850 ft). The Northeastern route is the longest and requires two days to reach the summit starting from the downhill village of Nāndal and a night stay at Takht-e Fereydoun (elevation 4,300 m (14,100 ft), a two-story shelter. The western route is noted for its sunset view. Simurgh (Sīmorgh/Sīmurgh) shelter in this route at 4,100 m (13,500 ft) is a newly constructed two-story shelter. There is a frozen waterfall/icefall (Persian name Ābshār Yakhī) about 12 m (39 ft) tall.

Geographical location

Map of Māzandarān province showing the location of mount Damāvand in the south
Map of central Alborz Peaks: 1 Alam-Kuh
  −25 to 500 m (−82 to 1,640 ft)  500 to 1,500 m (1,600 to 4,900 ft)  1,500 to 2,500 m (4,900 to 8,200 ft)  2,500 to 3,500 m (8,200 to 11,500 ft)  3,500 to 4,500 m (11,500 to 14,800 ft)  4,500 to 5,610 m (14,760 to 18,410 ft)
 2 Azad Kuh 3 Damavand
4 Do Berar 5 Do Khaharan
6 Ghal'eh Gardan 7 Gorg
8 Kholeno 9 Mehr Chal
10 Mishineh Marg 11 Naz
12 Shah Alborz 13 Sialan
14 Tochal 15 Varavašt
Rivers: 0
1 Alamut 2 Chalus
3 Do Hezar 4 Haraz
5 Jajrood 6 Karaj
7 Kojoor 8 Lar
9 Noor 10 Sardab
11 Seh Hazar 12 Shahrood
Cities: 1 Amol
2 Chalus 3 Karaj
Other: D Dizin
E Emamzadeh Hashem K Kandovan Tunnel
* Latyan Dam ** Lar Dam
A view of Damavand peak from Tehran

Wildlife

Fish

Damavand rivers and slopes are famous for brown trout (Salmo trutta).

Mammals

Armenian mouflon (Ovis orientalis) and wild goat (Capra aegagrus) live in the region of Damavand Mts. Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) and Syrian brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus) also inhabit in this region. Smaller mammals include the snow vole (Chionomys nivalis), mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus bailwardi) and Afghan pika (Ochoton rufescens).

Birds

The attractive and unreachable Caspian snowcock (Tetraogallus caspius) lives at high altitudes. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) breeds in this area. Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) are common. Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) has a high population and nests between stone and shrubs. Red-fronted serin (Serinus pusillus), linnet (Carduelis cannabina), snow finch (Montifringilla nivalis), rock sparrow (Petronia petronia), rock bunting (Emberiza cia) and horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) are native; in winter they come to the lower hillsides. In spring northern wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), rock thrush (Monticola saxatilis), and nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) come from Africa for breeding. Grey-necked bunting (Emberiza buchanani), black-headed bunting (Emberiza melanocephala) and common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus) come from India.

Reptiles and amphibians

Marsh frogs (Rana ridibunda) live in Lar riversides. Meadow viper (Vipera ursinii), blunt-nosed viper (Macrovipera lebetina), Iranian valley viper (Vipera latifii) and Caucasian agama (Laudakia caucasia) are among the reptiles of this mountainous region.

Flora

From mid-May to mid-June the foothills of Damavand are covered in red poppies

On the southern slope of Damavand, there are remnants of wild pistachia trees (Pistacia atlantica). Along its riversides different kinds of Salix trees like willow (Salix acomphylla) and oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia) are found. Greek juniper (Juniperus excelsa) is common in the higher altitudes. On northern slopes, because of higher humidity, there are wild oak, beech, hornbean and hazel trees like: Persian oak (Quercus macranthera), Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis), Eastern hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis), and Turkish hazel (Corylus colurna). There are also many wild flowers such as mountain tulip (Tulipa montana) and Persian stone cress (Aethionema grandiflorum). At higher altitudes, shrubs tend to be sphere and cushion like, examples are : Astragalus species (Astragalus microcephalus), mountain sainfoin (Onobrychis cornuta) and prickly (Acantholimon erinaceum). Different kinds of grasses complete this alpine scene. Iris barnumiae demawendica (formerly Iris demawendica), is found and named after the mountain.

National Heritage Site

An anthropologist of Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department, Touba Osanlou, has said that a proposal has been made by a group of Iranian mountaineers to register the highest peak in the Middle East, Mount Damavand as a national heritage site. Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department has accepted the proposal, the Persian daily Jam-e Jam reported. Osanlou noted that the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization is presently in the process of renaming an upcoming ancient festivity after Mount Damavand. "We have proposed Tirgan Festivity, Tabari Nowruz, to be named as Damavand National Day," she added. Tirgan Festivity is held in Amol County's Rineh region in Mazandaran province.

Gallery

  • Damavand, Polour, December 2024 Damavand, Polour, December 2024
  • Damavand, Polour, December 2024 Damavand, Polour, December 2024
  • Mount Damavand Mount Damavand
  • Mount Damavand, January Mount Damavand, January
  • Damavand Summit Damavand Summit
  • Damavand Summit, Lar Lake Damavand Summit, Lar Lake
  • Yaledagh, Mount Damavand Yaledagh, Mount Damavand
  • Damavand west side, view from Tochal summit Damavand west side, view from Tochal summit

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. The Kunlun Volcanic Group in Tibet is higher than Damāvand, but are not considered to be volcanic mountains.

References

  1. Geography of Iran Archived 2015-01-17 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ^ "Kuh-e Damavand – Iran Ultra Prominence". peaklist.org. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
  3. 2009 U.S. military topographic mapping gives 18,365 feet (5,598 meters) but states in the margin that all elevations are derived from SRTM. A summitpost map is based on the Persian language 1999 Iranian government 1:50,000 mapping which plots two 5620 contour circles, with a 5628 m spot height for the highest spot on the crater rim (WNW side) and 5626 m for the highest point on the southeast side (and a 5610 m spot height in the due north position.) This is supported by GPS evidence and SRTM data.
  4. "Damavand, Iran". Peakbagger.com.
  5. Pona, Georgia – Key col for Damavand peakbagger.com. Retrieved 29 January 2016
  6. ^ "Damavand". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  7. "SummitPost: Damavand". Retrieved 28 April 2010.
  8. "Home". iranclimbingguide.com.
  9. "Mountain Damavand". PersiaPort. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
  10. Microsoft Encarta World Atlas, 2001, Microsoft Corporation
  11. Central Bank of Iran. Banknotes & Coins: 10000 Rials. – Retrieved on 24 March 2009.
  12. ^ Davidson, Jon; Hassanzadeh, Jamshid; Berzins, Reinis; Stockli, Daniel F.; Bashukooh, Behrooz; Turrin, Brent; Pandamouz, Ali (1 January 2004). "The geology of Damavand volcano, Alborz Mountains, northern Iran". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 116 (1): 16. Bibcode:2004GSAB..116...16D. doi:10.1130/b25344.1. Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  13. Shomali, Z. Hossein; Shirzad, Taghi (January 2015). "Crustal structure of Damavand volcano, Iran, from ambient noise and earthquake tomography". Journal of Seismology. 19 (1): 191–200. Bibcode:2015JSeis..19..191S. doi:10.1007/s10950-014-9458-8. S2CID 129297489.
  14. Ghorbani, Mansour (2021). "Young Volcanoes of Iran". The Geology of Iran: Tectonic, Magmatism and Metamorphism. Earth and Environmental Sciences Library. pp. 277–319. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71109-2_6. ISBN 978-3-030-71108-5. S2CID 235086218.
  15. Geological Map of Iran, National Geoscience Database of Iran, www.ngdir.ir
  16. Shirzaei, M.; Walter, T.R.; Nankali, H.R.; Holohan, E.P. (March 2011). "Gravity-driven deformation of Damavand volcano, Iran, detected through InSAR time series". Geology. 39 (3): 251–254. Bibcode:2011Geo....39..251S. doi:10.1130/G31779.1.
  17. ^ "ĀB-E GARM". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  18. Mokhtari, Mohammad (February 2010). "Earthquake prediction activities and Damavand earthquake precursor test site in Iran". Natural Hazards. 52 (2): 351–368. Bibcode:2010NatHa..52..351M. doi:10.1007/s11069-009-9375-2. S2CID 128613893.
  19. Moradi, Anvar; Maghsoudi, Mehran; Moghimi, Ebrahim; Yamani, Mojtaba; Rezaei, Nasser (June 2021). "A Comprehensive Assessment of Geomorphodiversity and Geomorphological Heritage for Damavand Volcano Management, Iran". Geoheritage. 13 (2): 39. Bibcode:2021Geohe..13...39M. doi:10.1007/s12371-021-00551-1. S2CID 233303860.
  20. Noroozi, Jalil; Talebi, Amir; Doostmohammadi, Moslem (2020). "The Alborz Mountain Range". Plant Biogeography and Vegetation of High Mountains of Central and South-West Asia. Plant and Vegetation. Vol. 17. pp. 117–149. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45212-4_4. ISBN 978-3-030-45211-7. S2CID 226738400.
  21. Ghorbani, Mansour (2013). "Nature of Iran and Its Climate". The Economic Geology of Iran. Springer Geology. pp. 1–44. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5625-0_1. ISBN 978-94-007-5624-3.
  22. "Map of Damavand". Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
  23. "Mount Damavand Guides".
  24. "Mount Damavand Guides".
  25. Mohammadian, H. Freshwater Fishes of Iran. Sepehr Publishing Center. Iran. 2000.
  26. Yazdani, A. Lar the Paradise I Knew. Payam Resan Publishing Institute. 2010.
  27. Lay, D.M. A Study of the Mammals of Iran (Resulting From the Street Expedition ). Field Museum of Natural History. Chicago .1967.
  28. Mohammadian, H. The Life of Alborz Red Sheep. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2008. ISBN 978-600-5038-00-2.
  29. Mohammadian, H. Mammals of Iran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2005. ISBN 964-94487-9-9.
  30. Mohammadian, H. Mountain birds of Tehran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2008. ISBN 964-96358-9-0.
  31. Shahbazi, Y. Lar National Park Management Program. Natural Environment Department Library. 2004.
  32. Mohammadian, H. Reptiles and Amphibians of Iran. Shabpareh Publishing Institute. 2004. ISBN 964-94487-2-1.
  33. Mozaffarian, V. Trees and Shrubs of Iran. Farhang Moaser Publishers. 2005. ISBN 964-8637-03-2.
  34. Mozaffarian, V. Lar National Park Management Program. Natural Environment Department Library. 2004.
  35. Richard Lynch The Book of the Iris (1904), p. 115, at Google Books
  36. Wallis, Dr; Wallis, Mrs. "Newsletter October 2009, Iran Caspian to Kopet Dag" (PDF). agscentralsussex.plus.com (The Alpine Garden Society). Retrieved 7 June 2016.
  37. "Irna". Archived from the original on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007.

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