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{{Short description|National boundary between England and Wales}} | |||
The '''England–Wales border''' is the official border and mark of entry between ] and ], two of the four ] of the ].<ref name="Stats 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/geography/beginner-s-guide/administrative/the-countries-of-the-uk/index.html|title=The Countries of the UK|publisher=] |accessdate=31 March 2013}}</ref> It runs for <span style="white-space:nowrap">257 km (160 miles)</span> from the ], in the north, to the ] in the south. It has followed very broadly the same line since the 8th century, and in part generally follows the line of ], a linear ]. However, the modern boundary was essentially fixed in 1535/36, when the former ]ships which occupied the border area were abolished and new ] boundaries were created. | |||
{{For|the area loosely based around the border|Welsh Marches}} | |||
{{More citations needed|date=March 2024}} | |||
{{EngvarB|date=September 2015}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}} | |||
{{Infobox border | |||
| name = England–Wales border<br />''Ffin Cymru a Lloegr'' | |||
| image = File:Wales-England Border.svg | |||
| image_size = 280px | |||
| alt = | |||
| caption = Map showing the England–Wales border, and local authorities on either side | |||
| territory1 = {{ENG}} | |||
| territory2 = {{WLS}} | |||
| length = 160 miles (260 km) | |||
| enclaves = | |||
| established = 784 | |||
| establishedreason = Construction of ] | |||
| current = 1972 | |||
| currentreason = ] | |||
| disestablished = | |||
| disestablishedreason = | |||
| treaties =] | |||
| notes = | |||
}} | |||
The '''England–Wales border''', sometimes referred to as the '''Wales–England border''' or the '''Anglo-Welsh border''', runs for {{convert|160|mi}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmwelaf/95/9504.htm |publisher=] |title=Crossing the border: road and rail links between England and Wales - Welsh Affairs Committee |date=6 March 2013 |access-date=25 March 2017 |archive-date=25 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325202520/https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmwelaf/95/9504.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> from the ], in the north, to the ] in the south, separating ] and ].<ref name="Stats 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/geography/beginner-s-guide/administrative/the-countries-of-the-uk/index.html|title=The Countries of the UK|date=6 April 2010|publisher=]|access-date=31 March 2013|archive-date=5 January 2016|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/geography/beginner-s-guide/administrative/the-countries-of-the-uk/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-wales-politics-38706023/urgent-clarification-stamp-duty-call |publisher=] |title='Urgent clarification' over Wales stamp duty tax call |date=21 January 2017 |access-date=12 May 2017}}</ref> | |||
The administrative boundary of Wales was confirmed in the ] |
It has followed broadly the same line since the 8th century, and in part that of ]; the modern boundary was fixed in 1536, when the former ]ships which occupied the border area were abolished and new ] boundaries were created. The administrative boundary of Wales was confirmed in the ]. Whether ] was part of Wales, or an English county treated for most purposes as though it were Welsh, was also settled by the 1972 Act, which included it in Wales. | ||
== Geography == |
== Geography == | ||
] marking the |
] marking the border between ], England, to the left and ], Wales, to the right]] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
The modern boundary between Wales and England runs from the ]es of the Dee estuary adjoining the ], across reclaimed land to the ] at ] just west of ]. It then loops south to include within England an area southwest of Chester, before rejoining the Dee, and then loops east of the river to include within Wales a large area known as ] ({{gloss|English ]}}), formerly an ] of ], between ] (in Wales) and ] (in England). | |||
Returning to the River Dee as far as ], the boundary then loops to the west, following Offa's Dyke itself for about {{convert|2|mi|0}}, and including within England the town of ], before reaching the ] at ]. It follows the Vyrnwy to its confluence with the ], and then continues southwards, rising over ] east of ]. East of ], the boundary again follows the line of Offa's Dyke for about {{convert|2|mi|0}}, before looping eastwards to include within Wales a large area near ] including ]. It then runs westwards to the ], and follows the river southeastwards through ] before turning south towards the ] at ], which is within Wales.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | |||
The boundary continues southwards across hills to the ], and follows the river upstream for a short distance to ], on the Welsh side of the border. It continues southwards and rises through and across the ], following the ] past ] on the Welsh side and ] on the English side, to reach the ] near ]. It then generally follows the river, past ] (in England) and ] (in Wales), towards ], looping eastwards to include the town itself and a surrounding area within Wales. At ], the boundary again reaches the Wye, and follows the river southwards, past ] and ] on the Welsh side, to its confluence with the Severn at the ]. The boundary then continues down the ] towards the ], with the small island of ] being administered |
The boundary continues southwards across hills to the ], and follows the river upstream for a short distance to ], on the Welsh side of the border. It continues southwards and rises through and across the ], following the ] past ] on the Welsh side and ] on the English side, to reach the ] near ]. It then generally follows the river, past ] (in England) and ] (in Wales), towards ], looping eastwards to include the town itself and a surrounding area within Wales. At ], the boundary again reaches the Wye, and follows the river southwards, past ] and ] on the Welsh side, to its confluence with the Severn at the ]. The boundary then continues down the ] towards the ], with the small island of ] being administered as part of Wales and the neighbouring island of ] as part of England.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | ||
=== Administrative boundary === | === Administrative boundary === | ||
The boundary passes between |
The boundary passes between ], ], ] and ] in Wales, and ], ], ] and ] in England. | ||
In relation to the historic counties, it passes between the historic ] of ], ], ], ], ] and ] on the Welsh side; and ], ], ] and ] on the ]. | |||
There are several places where the border runs along the centre of a lane or street, resulting in properties on one side of the street being in Wales and those on the other side being in England. Notable examples include Boundary Lane in ] and the main street of ]. | |||
== History == | == History == | ||
=== Ancient Britain === | |||
] | |||
] and ].]] | |||
Before and during the ] occupation of ], all the native inhabitants of the island (other than the Pictish/Caledonian tribes of what is now northern Scotland—and also excepting the ] of greater south-east Britain{{dubious|date=April 2024}}) spoke ], a sub-family of the ], and were regarded as ]. The topographical contrast between the mountainous western areas and the generally lower-lying areas to the east is reflected in the nature of ancient settlements, with the majority of ] found in this western area.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Forde-Johnston |first1=J. |title=Hillforts of the Iron Age in England and Wales: A Survey of the Surface Evidence. |date=1976 |publisher=Liverpool University Press. |location=Liverpool}}</ref> | |||
=== |
=== Roman era === | ||
] | |||
Before and during the ] occupation of ], all the native inhabitants of the island (other than the Pictish and Caledonian tribes of what is now Scotland) spoke ], a sub-family of the ], and were regarded as ]. The clear geographical divide between the mountainous western areas of southern Britain and the generally lower-lying areas to the east was reflected in the pattern of Roman occupation. The main Roman military bases for the control of what became ] were beyond the mountains, at '']'' (]), '']'' (], near ]), and '']'' (], near ]), all located close to the later national border. | |||
During the Roman occupation, the tribes of Wales (], ], ], and especially the ]) were noted by Roman authors as fiercely resisting any occupation. As such the border area became a centre of military activity, with legions based at '']'' (]), '']'' (]), and '']'' (]).{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | |||
In most of Wales, the militaristic nature of the occupation was in stark contrast to that of southeast Britain. As such, by the ], there would have been a cultural border, between the highly Romanised ] in the east, and the more independent and tribal kingdoms to the west. This western area was, however, ], and a number of ] attempted to continue Roman practices. The most successful of these were the ] in the northwest, the ] and ] in the southeast, the ] in the southwest and the ] in the east. Powys roughly coincided with the territory of the Celtic ] tribe whose ''civitas'' or administrative centre during the Roman period was at ''Viroconium''. Gwynedd, at the height of its power, extended as far east as the Dee estuary. Gradually, from the 5th century onwards, ] tribes from the east, including the ] and ], conquered eastern and southern Britain, which later became England.<ref name=davies>{{cite book |title= A History of Wales|last= Davies|first= John|year= 1993|publisher= Penguin|isbn= 0-14-028475-3}}</ref><ref name=rowley>{{cite book |title= The Welsh Border – archaeology, history and landscape|last= Rowley|first= Trevor|year= 1986|publisher= Tempus Publishing|isbn= 0-7524-1917-X}}</ref> | |||
In the south, the Welsh ] broadly covered the same area as the pre-Roman ], traditionally the area between the rivers ], ] and the Severn estuary. It was centred at different times on '']'' (]), from which it derived its name, and ''Isca Augusta'' (Caerleon). Gwent generally allied with, and at various times was joined with, the smaller Welsh kingdom of ], centred in present-day southern Herefordshire west of the Wye (and deriving its name from the Roman town of '']''); and the larger kingdom of ] in modern ]. The name Glywysing may indicate that it was founded by a British native of '']'' (]). | In the south, the Welsh ] broadly covered the same area as the pre-Roman ], traditionally the area between the rivers ], ] and the Severn estuary. It was centred at different times on '']'' (]), from which it derived its name, and ''Isca Augusta'' (Caerleon). Gwent generally allied with, and at various times was joined with, the smaller Welsh kingdom of ], centred in present-day southern Herefordshire west of the Wye (and deriving its name from the Roman town of '']''); and the larger kingdom of ] in modern ]. The name Glywysing may indicate that it was founded by a British native of '']'' (]).{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | ||
=== Medieval era === | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
The ], circa 500, could have been fought near ] between the British, the victors, and Anglo-Saxons attempting to reach the Severn estuary, but its date and location are very uncertain and it may equally well have taken place in ] or ]. However, it is more certain that the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of ] emerged in the 6th and 7th centuries in the upper ] valley, ] and ] areas. In 577, the ] in the southern Cotswolds was won by the Anglo-Saxons, and led to Wessex extending its control to the Severn estuary and the cities of Gloucester, ], and Bath. This severed the land link between the Britons of Wales and ]. By about 600, however, the area of modern Gloucestershire east of the Severn, as well as most of ], was controlled by another group, the ], who may have arisen from intermarriage between Anglo-Saxon and British leading families, possibly the successors to the pre-Roman ]. The Hwicce came increasingly under Mercian hegemony. | The ], circa 500, could have been fought near ] between the British, the victors, and Anglo-Saxons attempting to reach the Severn estuary, but its date and location are very uncertain and it may equally well have taken place in ] or ]. However, it is more certain that the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of ] emerged in the 6th and 7th centuries in the upper ] valley, ] and ] areas. In 577, the ] in the southern Cotswolds was won by the Anglo-Saxons, and led to Wessex extending its control to the Severn estuary and the cities of Gloucester, ], and Bath. This severed the land link between the Britons of Wales and ]. By about 600, however, the area of modern Gloucestershire east of the Severn, as well as most of ], was controlled by another group, the ], who may have arisen from intermarriage between Anglo-Saxon and British leading families, possibly the successors to the pre-Roman ]. The Hwicce came increasingly under Mercian hegemony.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | ||
At the ] in 616, the forces of Powys and other allied Brythonic kingdoms were defeated by the ]ns under ]. This divided the Britons of Wales from those in |
At the ] in 616, the forces of Powys and other allied Brythonic kingdoms were defeated by the ]ns under ]. This divided the Britons of Wales from those in ], including ], Cumbria, and ], an area which became known as ''"Yr ]"'' or "the Old North". Within a few decades, the Welsh became engaged in further defensive warfare against the increasingly powerful kingdom of ], based at ] in what became the ] of England. The capital of Powys, ], at or near modern ], was conquered by ] in 656 when he had become overlord of the Mercians. Powys then withdrew from the lowland areas now in southern ], ] and ], which became known to Welsh poets as "The Paradise of Powys".<ref name=davies/> The areas were occupied by Anglo-Saxon groups who became sub-kingdoms of Mercia, the ''Wreocensǣte'' or ] in the northern part of what became Shropshire, and the '']'' in the southern part.<ref name=rowley/> Further south, the area north west of the Severn later known as the ] seems to have remained in British (that is, Welsh) hands until about 760.<ref>{{cite book |title= Forest Story|last= Mansfield|first= R. J.|year= 1964 |publisher=The Forest of Dean Newspaper |asin=B0006F5DCE}}</ref> | ||
=== Offa's Dyke === | ==== Offa's Dyke ==== | ||
] near ] in Shropshire]] | ] near ] in Shropshire]] | ||
{{main|Offa's Dyke}} | {{main|Offa's Dyke}} | ||
After ] abdicated in 726, ] established Mercia's hegemony over the Anglo-Saxons south of the ]. However, campaigns by Powys against Mercia led to the building of ], an earthwork boundary extending from the ] valley near Oswestry to the Dee at ] in what became ], perhaps to protect recently acquired lands.<ref name=davies/> After Æthelbald was killed in 757, a brief civil war in Mercia then ended in victory for his distant cousin, ]. As king, he rebuilt Mercia's hegemony over the southern English through military campaigns, and also caused the construction of Offa's Dyke, around the years 770 and 780.<ref name=hill>{{cite book |title= Offa's Dyke |
After ] abdicated in 726, ] established Mercia's hegemony over the Anglo-Saxons south of the ]. However, campaigns by Powys against Mercia led to the building of ], an earthwork boundary extending from the ] valley near Oswestry to the Dee at ] in what became ], perhaps to protect recently acquired lands.<ref name=davies/> After Æthelbald was killed in 757, a brief civil war in Mercia then ended in victory for his distant cousin, ]. As king, he rebuilt Mercia's hegemony over the southern English through military campaigns, and also caused the construction of Offa's Dyke, around the years 770 and 780.<ref name=hill>{{cite book |title= Offa's Dyke – history and guide|last1= Hill|first1= David|first2=Margaret |last2=Worthington|year= 2003|publisher= Tempus Publishing|isbn= 0-7524-1958-7}}</ref> | ||
] is a massive linear earthwork, up to 65 |
] is a massive linear earthwork, up to {{convert|65|ft}} wide (including its surrounding ditch) and {{convert|8|ft}} high. It is much larger and longer than Wat's Dyke, and runs roughly parallel to it. The earthwork was generally dug with the displaced soil piled into a bank on the Mercian (eastern) side, providing an open view into Wales and suggesting that it was built by Mercia to guard against attacks or raids from Powys. The late 9th-century writer ] wrote that Offa ''"terrified all the neighbouring kings and provinces around him, and ... had a great dyke built between Wales and Mercia from sea to sea"''. In the mid-20th century, Sir ] completed a major survey of the Dyke and stated that it ran from the Dee to the Severn, as Asser suggested, but with gaps, especially in the Herefordshire area, where natural barriers of strong rivers or dense forests provided sufficient defence. More recent research by David Hill and Margaret Worthington concluded that there is little evidence for the Dyke stretching "from sea to sea", but that the earthwork built by Offa stretched some {{convert|64|mi}} between ] near ] in Herefordshire, and ] in Flintshire. Earthworks in the far north and south, including sections overlooking the ] and east of the Wye at ], may in their view have been built for different purposes at different times, although their conclusions are themselves disputed.<ref name=hill/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpat.org.uk/offa/offrev.htm |title=The Final Word on Offa's Dyke? Review of ''Offa's Dyke: History and Guide'', by David Hill and Margaret Worthington |first=Ian |last=Bapty |publisher=Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181015/http://www.cpat.org.uk/offa/offrev.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | ||
] | |||
Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English in later centuries. By the 9th century, the expanding power of Mercia led to it gaining control over Ergyng and nearby ]. The system of ]s which was later to form the basis of local administration throughout England and eventually Wales originated in Wessex, where it became established during the 8th century. Wessex and Mercia gradually established an occasionally unstable alliance, with Wessex gaining the upper hand. According to Asser, the southern Welsh kings, including Hywel ap Rhys of Glywysing, commended themselves to ] of Wessex in about 885. Alfred's son ] also secured homage from the Welsh, although sporadic border unrest continued. In the early 10th century, a document known as ''The Ordinance Concerning the Dunsaete'' records procedures for dealing with disputes between the English and the Welsh, and implies that areas west of the Wye in ] were still culturally Welsh. It stated that the English should only cross into the Welsh side, and vice versa, in the presence of an appointed man who had the responsibility of making sure that the foreigner was safely escorted back to the crossing point.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.herefordshire.gov.uk/htt/1256.aspx |title=The end of the Romans and the beginning of the Saxons | |
Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English in later centuries. By the 9th century, the expanding power of Mercia led to it gaining control over Ergyng and nearby ]. The system of ]s which was later to form the basis of local administration throughout England and eventually Wales originated in Wessex, where it became established during the 8th century. Wessex and Mercia gradually established an occasionally unstable alliance, with Wessex gaining the upper hand. According to Asser, the southern Welsh kings, including Hywel ap Rhys of Glywysing, commended themselves to ] of Wessex in about 885. Alfred's son ] also secured homage from the Welsh, although sporadic border unrest continued. In the early 10th century, a document known as ''The Ordinance Concerning the Dunsaete'' records procedures for dealing with disputes between the English and the Welsh, and implies that areas west of the Wye in ] were still culturally Welsh. It stated that the English should only cross into the Welsh side, and vice versa, in the presence of an appointed man who had the responsibility of making sure that the foreigner was safely escorted back to the crossing point.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.herefordshire.gov.uk/htt/1256.aspx |title=The end of the Romans and the beginning of the Saxons |first=Miranda |last=Greene |publisher=Herefordshire Council |year=2005 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103173319/http://www.herefordshire.gov.uk/htt/1256.aspx |archive-date=3 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 926, Edward's successor ], "King of the English", summoned the Welsh kings including ] of ] to a meeting at Hereford, and according to ] laid down the boundary between England and Wales, particularly the disputed southern stretch where he specified that the eastern bank of the Wye should form the boundary.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | ||
By the mid-eleventh century, most of Wales had become united under the king of ], ]. In 1055, he marched on Hereford and sacked the city. He also seized ] and the Kingdom of Gwent, together with substantial territories east of Offa's Dyke, and raided as far as Chester and ].<ref name=rowley/> He claimed sovereignty over the whole of Wales, a claim recognised by the English, and historian ] states that Gruffudd was ''"the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales."''.<ref name=davies/> However, after his most powerful ally – Earl Elfgar of Mercia and East Anglia – died, Harold and Tostig Godwinson took advantage of the situation – Gruffudd being besieged in Snowdonia – and invaded Wales. In 1063, Gruffudd was killed by his own men. Harold returned many of the Welsh princes their lands, so that after Harold's death at the ], Wales was again divided without a leader to resist the Normans. | By the mid-eleventh century, most of Wales had become united under the king of ], ]. In 1055, he marched on Hereford and sacked the city. He also seized ] and the Kingdom of Gwent, together with substantial territories east of Offa's Dyke, and raided as far as Chester and ].<ref name=rowley/> He claimed sovereignty over the whole of Wales, a claim recognised by the English, and historian ] states that Gruffudd was ''"the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales."''.<ref name=davies/> However, after his most powerful ally – Earl Elfgar of Mercia and East Anglia – died, Harold and Tostig Godwinson took advantage of the situation – Gruffudd being besieged in Snowdonia – and invaded Wales. In 1063, Gruffudd was killed by his own men. Harold returned many of the Welsh princes their lands, so that after Harold's death at the ], Wales was again divided without a leader to resist the Normans.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | ||
=== March of Wales === | === March of Wales === | ||
], ] and ] at ]. The river forms the boundary between ], ] (left) and ], |
], ] and ] at ]. The river forms the boundary between ], ] (left) and ], England (right)]]{{main|Welsh Marches}} | ||
Immediately after the ], King ] installed one of his most trusted confidants, ], as Earl of Hereford. By 1071 he had started the building of ], the first castle in Britain built of stone, near the mouth of the Wye. It served as a base from which the Normans continued to expand westward into ], establishing a castle at Caerleon and extinguishing the Welsh kingdom of Gwent. William also installed ] at Shrewsbury, and ] at Chester, creating a new expansionist ] in each case. |
Immediately after the ], King ] installed one of his most trusted confidants, ], as Earl of Hereford. By 1071 he had started the building of ], the first castle in Britain built of stone, near the mouth of the Wye. It served as a base from which the Normans continued to expand westward into ], establishing a castle at Caerleon and extinguishing the Welsh kingdom of Gwent. William also installed ] at Shrewsbury, and ] at Chester, creating a new expansionist ] in each case. In the ] of 1086, Norman lands are recorded west of the Wye at Chepstow and ] in the ] ({{langx|cy|Gwent Is-coed}}); over the whole of north east Wales as far west as the ], an area known to the Welsh as the '']''; and west of Offa's Dyke, especially in Powys where a new castle was named, after its lord, Montgomery.<ref name=davies/><ref>https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/domesday-book/</ref> | ||
] |
The ] records the extent of English penetration into Wales and suggests that Offa's Dyke still approximately represented the boundary between England and Wales. However, during the ] various Welsh princes were able to occupy lands beyond it, including ] (see ]) and ], hitherto in England. These lands were brought under English lordship by ], but became ]ships, and so part of Wales. This involved a loss of direct rule by the English crown.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=P. |last1=Brown |first2=P. |last2=King |first3=P. |last3=Remfry |title='Whittington Castle: the marcher fortress of the Fitz Warin family |journal=Shropshire Archaeology and History |volume=LXXIX |date=2004 |pages=106–8}}</ref> | ||
Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small lordships, at times numbering over 150, between the Dee and Severn and further west. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. Hundreds of small castles, mostly of the ] type, were built in the border area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders and rebels. Many new towns were established across the area, some such as Chepstow, ], ] and ] becoming successful trading centres, and these tended to be a focus of English settlement. However, the Welsh continued to attack English soil and supported rebellions against the Normans.<ref name=davies/><ref name=rowley/> | Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small lordships, at times numbering over 150, between the Dee and Severn and further west. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. Hundreds of small castles, mostly of the ] type, were built in the border area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders and rebels. Many new towns were established across the area, some such as Chepstow, ], ] and ] becoming successful trading centres, and these tended to be a focus of English settlement. However, the Welsh continued to attack English soil and supported rebellions against the Normans.<ref name=davies/><ref name=rowley/> | ||
[[File:CymruLlywelyn.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Principality of Wales around 1217 | |||
<ref name=celticlifeintl>{{cite web |url=https://celticlifeintl.com/the-story-of-llywelyn-the-great/ |title=The Story of Llywelyn the Great |publisher=celticlifeintl |date=2021 |access-date=21 March 2024 |archive-date=21 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321005306/https://celticlifeintl.com/the-story-of-llywelyn-the-great/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ]] | |||
The ], or ''Marchia Wallia'', were to a greater or lesser extent independent of both the English monarchy and the ], which remained based in Gwynedd in the north west of the country. By the early 12th century, they covered the areas which would later become ] and much of ], Montgomeryshire, ], Brecknockshire, ], Carmarthenshire and ]. Some of the lordships, such as Oswestry, ], ], and ] had been part of England at the time of Domesday, while others such as ] were Welsh principalities that passed by marriage into the hands of Norman barons. In ecclesiastical terms, the ancient ]s of ] and ] in the north, and ] and ] in the south, collectively defined an area which included both the Principality and the March, and coincided closely with later definitions of Wales.<ref name=davies/> | |||
The ] ({{langx|cy|Tywysogaeth Cymru}}) covered the lands ruled by the ] directly, and was formally founded in 1216, and later recognised by the 1218 Treaty of Worcester between ], ], and King ].{{dubious|date=September 2024}}{{Fix|text=John had died in 1216.}} Encompassing two-thirds of modern Wales, the principality operated as an effectively independent entity from the reign of Llywelyn until 1283 (though it underwent a period of contraction during the early part of the reign of ] in the 1240s, and again for several years from the beginning of ]'s rule in 1246). Features of its independence were its separate legal jurisprudence based on the well-established laws of '']'', and the increasingly sophisticated ] of the ] dynasty.<ref name=davies/> | |||
]; Grey: areas ruled by Llywelyn's vassels. Both the ], and also Anglo-Norman marcher lordships in Wales, are shown in green.]] | |||
The ] in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by ]. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "]" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The ], based at ], was also established in the 15th century to govern the area.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | |||
The ], or ''Marchia Wallia'', were to a greater or lesser extent independent of both the English monarchy and the ], which remained based in Gwynedd in the north west of the country. By the early 12th century, they covered the areas which would later become ] and much of ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Some of the lordships, such as Oswestry, ], ], and ] had been part of England at the time of Domesday, while others such as ] were Welsh principalities that passed by marriage into the hands of Norman barons. In ecclesiastical terms, the ancient ]s of ] and ] in the north, and ] and ] in the south, collectively defined an area which included both the Principality and the March, and coincided closely with later definitions of Wales.<ref name=davies/> | |||
=== Formation of "England and Wales" and county boundaries === | |||
The ] ({{lang-cy|Tywysogaeth Cymru}}) covered the lands ruled by the ] directly, and was formally founded in 1216, and later recognised by the 1218 Treaty of Worcester between ], ], and King ]. Encompassing two-thirds of modern Wales, the principality operated as an effectively independent entity from the reign of Llywelyn until 1283 (though it underwent a period of contraction during the early part of the reign of ] in the 1240s, and again for several years from the beginning of ]'s rule in 1246). Its independence was characterized by a separate legal jurisprudence based on the well established laws of '']'', and by the increasingly sophisticated ] of the ] dynasty.<ref name=davies/> | |||
{{main|Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542}} | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| width = 100 | |||
| image1 = Wales-England border 1539898.png | |||
| caption1= 1535{{efn|Flint, Maelor Saesneg and Hawarden are administered by Cheshire}} | |||
{{legend|red|]}}{{legend|blue|]}}{{legend|cyan|]}}{{efn|a power in England which was akin to a separate country, with its own legal system and courts, and an almost independent government}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chester.shoutwiki.com/Earls_of_Chester#The_Coming_of_the_Royal_Earls|title=Earls of Chester - Chesterwiki|website=chester.shoutwiki.com|access-date=18 April 2024|archive-date=18 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418125448/https://chester.shoutwiki.com/Earls_of_Chester#The_Coming_of_the_Royal_Earls|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
{{legend|orange|Tudor ]}}{{legend|green|Other lordships}}<ref name=TheNationallibraryofwales>{{cite web |url=https://journals.library.wales/view/1386666/1409425/33#?xywh=-2016%2C-209%2C6445%2C4136 |title=Laws in Wales Acts |publisher=The National library of wales |date=2024 |access-date=21 March 2024 |archive-date=21 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321010306/https://journals.library.wales/view/1386666/1409425/33#?xywh=-2016%2C-209%2C6445%2C4136 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| image2 = Wales-England border yighujkk.png | |||
| caption2 = 1536 | |||
{{legend|red|]}}{{legend|blue|]}}<ref name="Threapwood">{{cite web |url=http://www.threapwoodhistory.org/ |title=Threapwood |publisher=Threapwood history group |date=2010 |access-date=21 March 2024 |archive-date=21 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321004012/http://www.threapwoodhistory.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
However, the Marches remained outside the shire system, and at least nominally outside the control of the English monarchy, until the first ] was introduced in 1535 under ]. Henry had not seen the need to reform the government of Wales at the beginning of his reign, but gradually he perceived a threat from some of the remaining Marcher lords and therefore instructed his chief minister, ], to seek a solution. | |||
The ] in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by ]. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "]" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The ], based at ], was also established in the 15th century to govern the area. | |||
This, and a further Act in 1542, had the effect of annexing Wales to ] and creating a single state and legal ], commonly referred to as ]. The powers of the marcher lordships were abolished, and their areas formed into new counties, or amalgamated into existing ones, with the ] briefly returning from 1563 to 1588.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Nn5UY-RilEC&q=%22the+creation+of+the+shires+of+eastern+Wales%22&pg=PA253 | title=Leicester and the Court: Essays on Elizabethan Politics | isbn=978-0-7190-5325-2 | last1=Adams | first1=Simon | date=2002 | publisher=Manchester University Press }}</ref> At this point, the boundary between England and Wales, which has existed ever since, was effectively fixed. In the border areas, five new counties were created: Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire; and Flintshire gained some additional territory. However, several of the marcher lordships were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties. The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, ] and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; and ], ], ] and most of ] were included in Herefordshire. According to John Davies:<ref name=davies/> | |||
<blockquote>Thus was created the border between Wales and England, a border which has survived until today. It did not follow the old line of Offa's Dyke nor the eastern boundary of the Welsh dioceses; it excluded districts such as Oswestry and Ewias, where the Welsh language would continue to be spoken for centuries, districts which it would not be wholly fanciful to consider as ''Cambria irredenta''. Yet, as the purpose of the statute was to incorporate Wales into England, the location of the Welsh border was irrelevant to the purposes of its framers.</blockquote> | |||
=== Formation of "England and Wales" and county boundaries === | |||
{{main|Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542}} | |||
====Changes to the border after 1536==== | |||
However, the Marches remained outside the shire system, and at least nominally outside the control of the English monarchy, until the first ] was introduced in 1535 under ]. This, and a further Act in 1542, had the effect of annexing Wales to ] and creating a single state and legal ], commonly referred to as ]. The powers of the marcher lordships were abolished, and their areas formed into new counties, or amalgamated into existing ones. | |||
{|class=wikitable | |||
|+Changes after 1536 | |||
!Date!!Details | |||
|- | |||
|1546||Clun transferred to England<ref>{{cite book |title=The_Journal_Life in Montgomeryshire_Murray Chapman |pages=17 |url=https://www.library.wales/fileadmin/docs_gwefan/amdanom_ni/cylchgrawn_llgc/cgr_erth_XXXVrh2_2011_1.pdf}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
At this point, the boundary between England and Wales, which has existed ever since, was effectively fixed. In the border areas, five new counties were created - Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire - and Flintshire gained some additional territory. However, several of the marcher lordships were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties. The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, ] and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; and ], ], ] and most of ] were included in Herefordshire. According to John Davies:<ref name=davies/> | |||
|rowspan=4|1844 | |||
|Litton and ] transferred to England from Wales | |||
|- | |||
|Bwlch Trewyn transferred to Wales from England | |||
|- | |||
|] transferred to England from Wales | |||
|- | |||
|Crooked Billet transferred to Wales from England<ref name=TheHistoricCountiesTrust>{{cite web |url=https://www.county-borders.co.uk/ |title=Historic boundaries |publisher=The Historic Counties Trust |date=2018 |access-date=21 March 2024 |archive-date=21 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321004012/https://www.county-borders.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
|1857||Threapwood incorporated partly into England and partly into Wales<ref>http://www.threapwoodhistory.org|access-date=19 April 2024</ref> | |||
|- | |||
|1865||Territorial waters extended to 3 nautical miles | |||
|- | |||
|1887||Stanford farm transferred to England from Wales | |||
|- | |||
|1887||Parts of the area around Ebbw Vale transferred to Monmouthshire from Wales | |||
|- | |||
|1891||Ffwddog transferred to Wales from England | |||
|- | |||
|1893||] ] transferred to England from Wales<ref name=AvisionofBritainthroughtime>{{cite web|url=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10142295|title=LlanrothalAP/CP|publisher=A vision of Britain through time|date=2009|access-date=21 March 2024|archive-date=18 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318114529/https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10142295|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
|1896||Part of Threapwood transferred to England from Wales<ref>https://www.clwydfhs.org.uk/en/churches/threapwood-2022-08-30|access-date=19 April 2024</ref> | |||
|- | |||
|1938||Rumney transferred to Wales from Monmouthshire | |||
|- | |||
|1972||Monmouthshire incorporated into Wales | |||
|- | |||
|1987||Territorial waters extended to 12 nautical miles<ref>{{cite web |title=Territorial Waters: Question for Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |url=https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-questions/detail/2017-07-03/2642 |website=] |access-date=18 April 2024 |date=3 July 2017 |archive-date=18 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418092021/https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-questions/detail/2017-07-03/2642 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
|} | |||
*There was a serious proposal to transfer English Maelor to England in the 19th century<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wrexham-history.com/ |title="Wrexham History" – Yesterday, today, forever |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225125106/https://www.wrexham-history.com/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> one of many changes proposed by the boundary commission. | |||
<blockquote>Thus was created the border between Wales and England, a border which has survived until today. It did not follow the old line of Offa's Dyke nor the eastern boundary of the Welsh dioceses; it excluded districts such as Oswestry and Ewias, where the Welsh language would continue to be spoken for centuries, districts which it would not be wholly fanciful to consider as ''Cambria irredenta''. Yet, as the purpose of the statute was to incorporate Wales into England, the location of the Welsh border was irrelevant to the purposes of its framers.</blockquote> | |||
*Due to outrage over plans for county reforms in 1971, the civil parish of ] was given the chance to vote on whether to join Wales or stay in England. They decided to remain in England.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/SundayTelegraph1971UKEnglish|title="the sunday telegraph , 1971, uk, english"|access-date=27 October 2024 }}</ref> | |||
An 1844 Act of Parliament later abolished several ]s. One of these, ], was an exclave of Monmouthshire between Gloucestershire and Herefordshire. | |||
=== Monmouthshire === | === Monmouthshire === | ||
{{main|Monmouthshire (historic)}} | {{main|Monmouthshire (historic)}} | ||
Although Monmouthshire was included in the 16th century legislation, it was treated anomalously, with the result that its legal status as a Welsh county fell into some ambiguity and doubt until the 20th century.<ref name=bbc>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/history/pages/counties_monmouth.shtml |title=Monmouthshire |publisher=BBC |date=August 2009 | |
Although Monmouthshire was included in the 16th century legislation, it was treated anomalously, with the result that its legal status as a Welsh county fell into some ambiguity and doubt until the 20th century.<ref name=bbc>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/history/pages/counties_monmouth.shtml |title=Monmouthshire |publisher=BBC |date=August 2009 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=26 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326085448/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/history/pages/counties_monmouth.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> It was omitted from the second Act of Union, which established the ], and like English shires it was given two ], rather than one as elsewhere in Wales. However, in ecclesiastical terms, almost all of the county remained within the ], and most of its residents at the time spoke ]. In the late 17th century under ] it was added to the Oxford circuit of the ], following which, according to the ], it gradually "came to be regarded as an English county".<ref name=eb1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Monmouthshire |volume=18 |page=729}}</ref> Under that interpretation, the boundary between England and Wales passed down the ], along Monmouthshire's western borders with Brecknockshire and Glamorgan, so including ], and other industrialised parts of what would now generally be considered to be ], within England.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} | ||
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica unambiguously described the county as part of England, but noted that |
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica unambiguously described the county as part of England, but noted that "whenever an act is intended to apply to alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouthshire". Some legislation and UK government decisions, such as the establishment of a "Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire" in 1908,<ref>{{cite web|title=National Archives: Welsh Office|url=http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/AH/6/detail.html|publisher=National Archives|access-date=18 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119193059/http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/AH/6/detail.html|archive-date=19 November 2007}}</ref> referred to "Wales and Monmouthshire", so that it was treated as one with Wales rather than as a legal part of Wales. The county's status continued to be a matter of debate in Parliament, especially as Welsh nationalism and devolution climbed the political agenda in the 20th century. In 1921 the area was included within the ]. The ], established in 1965, included Monmouthshire within its remit, and in 1969 ], ], proposed to fully incorporate Monmouthshire into Wales. The issue was finally clarified in law by the ],<ref name=bbc/> which provided that "in every act passed on or after 1 April 1974, and in every instrument made on or after that date under any enactment (whether before, on or after that date) "Wales", subject to any alterations of boundaries..." included "the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport".<ref>Local Government Act 1972 (c.70), sections 1, 20 and 269</ref> The legal boundary between England and Wales therefore passes along Monmouthshire's eastern boundaries with ] and ], essentially along the ] and ]. | ||
==The border today== | ==The border today== | ||
] speakers in Wales, showing the relatively lower proportions in areas close to the border with the longest history of English settlement and influence.]] | |||
=== English and Welsh boundaries === | |||
The first ] since the 16th century was passed in 1881. Consequently, the border between England and Wales has taken on increasing legal and political significance. In 1964 a separate ] was established for Wales - the ] - which assumed an increasing range of administrative responsibilities from ].<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff}}</ref> By 1992, the Welsh Office oversaw ], ], roads, historic buildings, ], education, ], ], ] and ],<ref name="encyclopedia"/> although the extent to which it was able to be autonomous from England in ] is a matter of debate.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1111/1467-9299.00180}}</ref> | |||
{{main|Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542}} | |||
] towards the ] with England on the left and Wales on the right. The ] is in the distance.<br />The ] is in the foreground.]] | |||
The establishment of ] in Wales through the ], set up in 1999, has led to a divergence between England and Wales on some Government policies. One such is the fact that ] were abolished in Wales in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |title=Prescription charges end in Wales |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/6513579.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=1 April 2007 |accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref> In 2008, residents of the village of ], Cheshire, 9 miles from the border, "voted" to become part of Wales in what was originally a joke ballot. Some residents sought to make a case for securing Welsh benefits such as free hospital parking and prescriptions.<ref>{{cite news|title=English village votes to be Welsh |author=Brendon Williams |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/7364464.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=25 April 2008 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> The modern border has a number of anomalies - for instance, it separates ], ], from its railway station, and divides the village of ] where a ] straddles the line. Knighton is the only town that can claim to be on the border as well as on ]. The postal and ecclesiastical borders are slightly different - for example the Shropshire village of ] has ], as its ], but ], Powys, is in the English ]. | |||
The first ] since the 16th century was passed in 1881. Subsequently, the border between England and Wales has taken on increasing legal and political significance. | |||
] ] seen from the English side of the ]]] | |||
Until the ] in 1920, the ] included parts of north-west Shropshire. The parishes transferred to the Diocese of Lichfield were: Criftins, Hengoed, Kinnerley, Knockin, Llanyblodwell, Llanymynech, Melverley, Morton, Oswestry, St Martins, Selattyn, Trefonen, Weston Rhyn and Whittington.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} | |||
The main road links over the border in the south are across the ] ] and the ] ]. A ] must be paid on both routes, when travelling from England into Wales. The continuing existence and size of these tolls, which are set by legislation and revised annually, is a contentious issue; some businesses and politicians in south Wales arguing that they stunt the growth of Wales' economy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Councillor’s campaign to end Severn Bridge toll |url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/south-wales-news/neath/2008/11/06/councillor-s-campaign-to-end-severn-bridge-toll-91466-22179892/ |newspaper=Wales Online |date=6 November 2008 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Drivers fear 'hammer blow' rise in toll fees at Severn bridges |url=http://www.thisisbristol.co.uk/Drivers-fear-hammer-blow-rise-toll-fees-Severn-bridges/story-11298159-detail/story.html |newspaper=This is Bristol |date=15 October 2008 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> | |||
In 1965, a separate government department, the ], was established for Wales, and it assumed an increasing range of administrative responsibilities.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff}}</ref> By 1992, the Welsh Office oversaw ], ], roads, historic buildings, ], education, ], ], ] and ],<ref name="encyclopedia"/> although the extent to which it was autonomous from England in ] is a matter of debate.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Griffiths | first1 = D. | title = The Welsh Office and Welsh Autonomy | doi = 10.1111/1467-9299.00180 | journal = Public Administration | volume = 77 | issue = 4 | pages = 793–807 | year = 1999 }}</ref> | |||
A competition was launched in 2005 to design one or more new iconic images, along the same lines as the "]", to be placed at the borders of Wales.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gateway sculpture plan for Wales |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/4512153.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=5 May 2005 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> This became known as the "Landmark Wales" project, and a shortlist of 15 proposals was unveiled in 2007.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gateway sculptures artists chosen |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/6343161.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=8 February 2007 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Iconic Welsh gateways |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/6553145.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=13 April 2007 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> However, the proposal was shelved after it failed to receive ] funding.<ref>{{cite news|title=Giant postcard misses shortlist |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_west/7058142.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=23 October 2007 |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> | |||
The establishment of ] in Wales through the ], set up in 1999, has led to a divergence between England and Wales on some government policies. For example, ] were abolished in Wales in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |title=Prescription charges end in Wales |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/6513579.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=1 April 2007 |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-date=13 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413003303/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/6513579.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2008, residents of the village of ], Cheshire, {{convert|9|mi|0}} from the border, "voted" to become part of Wales in what was originally a joke ballot. Some residents sought to make a case for securing Welsh benefits such as free hospital parking and prescriptions.<ref>{{cite news |title=English village votes to be Welsh |first=Brendon |last=Williams |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/7364464.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=25 April 2008 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=3 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903203707/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/7364464.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The modern border lies between the town of ] and its railway station, and divides the village of ] where a ] straddles the line. Knighton is the only town that can claim to be on the border as well as on ]. The postal and ecclesiastical borders are in places slightly different – for example the Shropshire village of ] has ] as its ], and the Welsh town of ] is in the English ]. | |||
== Place names == | |||
In general, ] are found to the west of the border, and those of English origin to the east. However, many historically Welsh names are also found east of the border, particularly around ] in northern Shropshire, such as ]; in southern Shropshire, such as ]; and in southern Herefordshire, such as ] and ]. Most of these areas were not incorporated fully into England until the 16th century, and native Welsh speakers still lived there until at least the 19th century. Equally, placenames of English origin can be found on the Welsh side of the border where there was Mercian and Norman settlement, particularly in the north east, such as ] and ]; in ], such as ]; in central Powys, such as ] and ]; in south ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/whatsinaname/sites/themes/pages/english.shtml |title=Wales - What's in a name - English influences |publisher=BBC |accessdate=May 18, 2012}}</ref> and ];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/gower/english/Gower_Features.htm |title=Gower Historical Processes, Themes and Background |publisher=Ggat.org.uk |accessdate=18 May 2012}}</ref> and in south-eastern Monmouthshire, including Chepstow and ]. | |||
] football club ]'s ground at ] straddles the border, with the car park and some of the offices in England but the pitch in Wales. In the 2021–22 season, the club was threatened with legal action for failing to apply the ] and allowing crowds to attend matches at the ground.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/jan/07/english-football-club-warned-for-breaking-welsh-covid-rules |first=Paul |last=MacInnes |title=English football club Chester warned for breaking Welsh Covid rules |newspaper=The Guardian |date=7 January 2022 |access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref> | |||
==Metaphorical significance== | |||
The poet, playwright and prominent Welsh Nationalist, ], referring to the Englishness of ] in his youth and the Welsh-speaking environment of his native ], addressed Cardiff university students with the words "The border between England and Wales runs through this room".{{cn|date=March 2014}} | |||
A competition was launched in 2005 to design one or more new iconic images, along the same lines as the "]", to be placed at the borders of Wales.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gateway sculpture plan for Wales |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/4512153.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=5 May 2005 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306071020/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/4512153.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> This became known as the "Landmark Wales" project, and a shortlist of 15 proposals was unveiled in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gateway sculptures artists chosen |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/6343161.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=8 February 2007 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306140328/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/6343161.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Iconic Welsh gateways |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/6553145.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=13 April 2007 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611070354/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/6553145.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the proposal was shelved after it failed to receive ] funding.<ref>{{cite news |title=Giant postcard misses shortlist |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_west/7058142.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=23 October 2007 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306013009/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_west/7058142.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
The main road links over the border in the south are the ] ] and the ] ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Councillor's campaign to end Severn Bridge toll |url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/south-wales-news/neath/2008/11/06/councillor-s-campaign-to-end-severn-bridge-toll-91466-22179892/ |newspaper=Wales Online |date=6 November 2008 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314011738/http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/south-wales-news/neath/2008/11/06/councillor-s-campaign-to-end-severn-bridge-toll-91466-22179892/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Drivers fear "hammer blow" rise in toll fees at Severn bridges |url=http://www.thisisbristol.co.uk/Drivers-fear-hammer-blow-rise-toll-fees-Severn-bridges/story-11298159-detail/story.html |newspaper=This is Bristol |date=15 October 2008 |access-date=18 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415154040/http://www.thisisbristol.co.uk/Drivers-fear-hammer-blow-rise-toll-fees-Severn-bridges/story-11298159-detail/story.html |archive-date=15 April 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
In July 2017, the ], ], announced that tolls would be abolished at the end of 2018, claiming that this would boost the ] economy by around £100m a year.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jul/21/severn-crossings-tolls-to-be-scrapped-next-year|title=Severn crossings tolls to be scrapped next year|first=Nicola|last=Slawson|date=21 July 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=16 December 2018|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219004008/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jul/21/severn-crossings-tolls-to-be-scrapped-next-year|url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2017, Cairns confirmed that tolls would be reduced in January 2018 when ] was removed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Severn Bridge tolls to be reduced in January 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-41271239 |publisher=BBC News |date=15 September 2017 |access-date=27 January 2019 |archive-date=22 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022222102/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-41271239 |url-status=live }}</ref> All tolls ceased on 17 December 2018.<ref>{{cite news | title = Severn tolls axed | publisher = ] | date = 2 October 2018 | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-45467656 | access-date = 2 October 2018 | archive-date = 2 October 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181002024442/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-45467656 | url-status = live }}</ref> | |||
== Place names == | |||
] speakers in Wales according to the 2021 census<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/maps/|title=Census Maps - Census 2021 data interactive, ONS|website=www.ons.gov.uk|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=19 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419133926/https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/maps/|url-status=live}}</ref>]] | |||
In general, ] are found to the west of the border, and those of English origin to the east. However, many historically Welsh names are also found east of the border, particularly around ]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wales.ac.uk/centre-advanced-welsh-celtic-studies/research-projects/place-names-shropshire|title=Place-Names of Shropshire|website=University of Wales|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116001547/https://www.wales.ac.uk/centre-advanced-welsh-celtic-studies/research-projects/place-names-shropshire|url-status=live}}</ref> in northern Shropshire, such as ] and ]; in southern Shropshire, such as ]; and in southern Herefordshire, such as ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.rootsweb.com/~englanfc/more/welsh-placenames-chp.html|title=FreeCEN Lancashire - Welsh place names|website=sites.rootsweb.com|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=19 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419133927/https://sites.rootsweb.com/~englanfc/more/welsh-placenames-chp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Most of these areas were not incorporated fully into England until the 16th century,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://exploringcelticciv.web.unc.edu/laws-in-wales-acts-1535-42/|title=Laws in Wales Acts (1535-42) | Exploring Celtic Civilizations|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=19 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419133928/https://exploringcelticciv.web.unc.edu/laws-in-wales-acts-1535-42/|url-status=live}}</ref> and native Welsh speakers still lived there until at least the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qhg9t|title=A History|author=Davies, Janet|year=2014|publisher=University of Wales Press|jstor=j.ctt9qhg9t|isbn=978-1-78316-019-8|via=JSTOR|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=19 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419133931/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qhg9t|url-status=live}}</ref> Equally, placenames of English origin can be found on the Welsh side of the border where there was Mercian and Norman settlement, particularly in the north east, such as ], ] and ]; in ], such as ]; in central Powys, such as ] and ];<!-- in south ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/whatsinaname/sites/themes/pages/english.shtml |title=Wales – What's in a name – English influences |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 May 2012}}</ref> and ];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/gower/english/Gower_Features.htm |title=Gower Historical Processes, Themes and Background |publisher=Ggat.org.uk |access-date=18 May 2012}}</ref>--> and in southeastern Monmouthshire, including ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/lifestyle/fun-stuff/unique-origins-most-well-known-24720317|title=The unique origins of our most well-known Welsh place names|first=Branwen|last=Jones|date=18 August 2022|website=Wales Online|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=19 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419133925/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/lifestyle/fun-stuff/unique-origins-most-well-known-24720317|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
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* ] | * ] | ||
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== Notes == | |||
{{notelist}} | |||
== References == | == References == | ||
{{Reflist |
{{Reflist}} | ||
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== Further reading == | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Quinault |first1=Roland |title=Borderlands in World History, 1700–1914 |date=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-32058-2 |pages=279–292 |language=en |chapter=Unofficial Frontiers: Welsh-English Borderlands in the Victorian Period}} | |||
* | |||
{{Borders of the United Kingdom}} | |||
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{{DEFAULTSORT:England-Wales border}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:England-Wales border}} | ||
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Latest revision as of 11:19, 10 December 2024
National boundary between England and Wales For the area loosely based around the border, see Welsh Marches.This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "England–Wales border" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
England–Wales border Ffin Cymru a Lloegr | |
---|---|
Map showing the England–Wales border, and local authorities on either side | |
Characteristics | |
Entities | England Wales |
Length | 160 miles (260 km) |
History | |
Established | 784 Construction of Offa's Dyke |
Current shape | 1972 Local Government Act 1972 |
Treaties | Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 |
The England–Wales border, sometimes referred to as the Wales–England border or the Anglo-Welsh border, runs for 160 miles (260 km) from the Dee estuary, in the north, to the Severn estuary in the south, separating England and Wales.
It has followed broadly the same line since the 8th century, and in part that of Offa's Dyke; the modern boundary was fixed in 1536, when the former marcher lordships which occupied the border area were abolished and new county boundaries were created. The administrative boundary of Wales was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1972. Whether Monmouthshire was part of Wales, or an English county treated for most purposes as though it were Welsh, was also settled by the 1972 Act, which included it in Wales.
Geography
The modern boundary between Wales and England runs from the salt marshes of the Dee estuary adjoining the Wirral Peninsula, across reclaimed land to the River Dee at Saltney just west of Chester. It then loops south to include within England an area southwest of Chester, before rejoining the Dee, and then loops east of the river to include within Wales a large area known as Maelor Saesneg ('English Maelor'), formerly an exclave of Flintshire, between Bangor-on-Dee (in Wales) and Whitchurch, Shropshire (in England).
Returning to the River Dee as far as Chirk, the boundary then loops to the west, following Offa's Dyke itself for about 2 miles (3 km), and including within England the town of Oswestry, before reaching the River Vyrnwy at Llanymynech. It follows the Vyrnwy to its confluence with the River Severn, and then continues southwards, rising over Long Mountain east of Welshpool. East of Montgomery, the boundary again follows the line of Offa's Dyke for about 2 miles (3 km), before looping eastwards to include within Wales a large area near Churchstoke including Corndon Hill. It then runs westwards to the River Teme, and follows the river southeastwards through Knighton before turning south towards the River Lugg at Presteigne, which is within Wales.
The boundary continues southwards across hills to the River Wye, and follows the river upstream for a short distance to Hay-on-Wye, on the Welsh side of the border. It continues southwards and rises through and across the Black Mountains, following the Hatterall Ridge past Llanthony on the Welsh side and Longtown, Herefordshire on the English side, to reach the River Monnow near Pandy. It then generally follows the river, past Pontrilas (in England) and Skenfrith (in Wales), towards Monmouth, looping eastwards to include the town itself and a surrounding area within Wales. At Redbrook, the boundary again reaches the Wye, and follows the river southwards, past Tintern and Chepstow on the Welsh side, to its confluence with the Severn at the Severn Bridge. The boundary then continues down the Severn estuary towards the Bristol Channel, with the small island of Flat Holm being administered as part of Wales and the neighbouring island of Steep Holm as part of England.
Administrative boundary
The boundary passes between Flintshire, Wrexham County Borough, Powys and Monmouthshire in Wales, and Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire and Gloucestershire in England.
History
Ancient Britain
Before and during the Roman occupation of Britain, all the native inhabitants of the island (other than the Pictish/Caledonian tribes of what is now northern Scotland—and also excepting the Lloegyr of greater south-east Britain) spoke Brythonic languages, a sub-family of the Insular Celtic languages, and were regarded as Britons. The topographical contrast between the mountainous western areas and the generally lower-lying areas to the east is reflected in the nature of ancient settlements, with the majority of hillforts in Britain found in this western area.
Roman era
During the Roman occupation, the tribes of Wales (Ordovices, Deceangli, Demetae, and especially the Silures) were noted by Roman authors as fiercely resisting any occupation. As such the border area became a centre of military activity, with legions based at Deva (Chester), Viroconium (Wroxeter), and Isca Augusta (Caerleon).
In most of Wales, the militaristic nature of the occupation was in stark contrast to that of southeast Britain. As such, by the end of Roman rule, there would have been a cultural border, between the highly Romanised Romano-British in the east, and the more independent and tribal kingdoms to the west. This western area was, however, largely Christian, and a number of successor states attempted to continue Roman practices. The most successful of these were the Kingdom of Gwynedd in the northwest, the Kingdom of Gwent and Glywysing in the southeast, the Kingdom of Dyfed in the southwest and the Kingdom of Powys in the east. Powys roughly coincided with the territory of the Celtic Cornovii tribe whose civitas or administrative centre during the Roman period was at Viroconium. Gwynedd, at the height of its power, extended as far east as the Dee estuary. Gradually, from the 5th century onwards, pagan tribes from the east, including the Angles and Saxons, conquered eastern and southern Britain, which later became England.
In the south, the Welsh kingdom of Gwent broadly covered the same area as the pre-Roman Silures, traditionally the area between the rivers Usk, Wye and the Severn estuary. It was centred at different times on Venta (Caerwent), from which it derived its name, and Isca Augusta (Caerleon). Gwent generally allied with, and at various times was joined with, the smaller Welsh kingdom of Ergyng, centred in present-day southern Herefordshire west of the Wye (and deriving its name from the Roman town of Ariconium); and the larger kingdom of Glywysing in modern Glamorgan. The name Glywysing may indicate that it was founded by a British native of Glevum (Gloucester).
Medieval era
The Battle of Mons Badonicus, circa 500, could have been fought near Bath between the British, the victors, and Anglo-Saxons attempting to reach the Severn estuary, but its date and location are very uncertain and it may equally well have taken place in Somerset or Dorset. However, it is more certain that the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged in the 6th and 7th centuries in the upper Thames valley, Cotswolds and Hampshire areas. In 577, the Battle of Deorham in the southern Cotswolds was won by the Anglo-Saxons, and led to Wessex extending its control to the Severn estuary and the cities of Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath. This severed the land link between the Britons of Wales and those of the south west peninsula. By about 600, however, the area of modern Gloucestershire east of the Severn, as well as most of Worcestershire, was controlled by another group, the Hwicce, who may have arisen from intermarriage between Anglo-Saxon and British leading families, possibly the successors to the pre-Roman Dobunni. The Hwicce came increasingly under Mercian hegemony.
At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other allied Brythonic kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith. This divided the Britons of Wales from those in Northern England, including Lancashire, Cumbria, and south west Scotland, an area which became known as "Yr Hen Ogledd" or "the Old North". Within a few decades, the Welsh became engaged in further defensive warfare against the increasingly powerful kingdom of Mercia, based at Tamworth in what became the West Midlands of England. The capital of Powys, Pengwern, at or near modern Shrewsbury, was conquered by Oswiu of Northumbria in 656 when he had become overlord of the Mercians. Powys then withdrew from the lowland areas now in southern Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire, which became known to Welsh poets as "The Paradise of Powys". The areas were occupied by Anglo-Saxon groups who became sub-kingdoms of Mercia, the Wreocensǣte or Wrekinset in the northern part of what became Shropshire, and the Magonsæte in the southern part. Further south, the area north west of the Severn later known as the Forest of Dean seems to have remained in British (that is, Welsh) hands until about 760.
Offa's Dyke
Main article: Offa's DykeAfter Ine of Wessex abdicated in 726, Æthelbald of Mercia established Mercia's hegemony over the Anglo-Saxons south of the Humber. However, campaigns by Powys against Mercia led to the building of Wat's Dyke, an earthwork boundary extending from the Severn valley near Oswestry to the Dee at Basingwerk in what became Flintshire, perhaps to protect recently acquired lands. After Æthelbald was killed in 757, a brief civil war in Mercia then ended in victory for his distant cousin, Offa. As king, he rebuilt Mercia's hegemony over the southern English through military campaigns, and also caused the construction of Offa's Dyke, around the years 770 and 780.
Offa's Dyke is a massive linear earthwork, up to 65 feet (20 m) wide (including its surrounding ditch) and 8 feet (2.4 m) high. It is much larger and longer than Wat's Dyke, and runs roughly parallel to it. The earthwork was generally dug with the displaced soil piled into a bank on the Mercian (eastern) side, providing an open view into Wales and suggesting that it was built by Mercia to guard against attacks or raids from Powys. The late 9th-century writer Asser wrote that Offa "terrified all the neighbouring kings and provinces around him, and ... had a great dyke built between Wales and Mercia from sea to sea". In the mid-20th century, Sir Cyril Fox completed a major survey of the Dyke and stated that it ran from the Dee to the Severn, as Asser suggested, but with gaps, especially in the Herefordshire area, where natural barriers of strong rivers or dense forests provided sufficient defence. More recent research by David Hill and Margaret Worthington concluded that there is little evidence for the Dyke stretching "from sea to sea", but that the earthwork built by Offa stretched some 64 miles (103 km) between Rushock Hill near Kington in Herefordshire, and Treuddyn in Flintshire. Earthworks in the far north and south, including sections overlooking the Wye valley and east of the Wye at Beachley, may in their view have been built for different purposes at different times, although their conclusions are themselves disputed.
Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English in later centuries. By the 9th century, the expanding power of Mercia led to it gaining control over Ergyng and nearby Hereford. The system of shires which was later to form the basis of local administration throughout England and eventually Wales originated in Wessex, where it became established during the 8th century. Wessex and Mercia gradually established an occasionally unstable alliance, with Wessex gaining the upper hand. According to Asser, the southern Welsh kings, including Hywel ap Rhys of Glywysing, commended themselves to Alfred the Great of Wessex in about 885. Alfred's son Edward the Elder also secured homage from the Welsh, although sporadic border unrest continued. In the early 10th century, a document known as The Ordinance Concerning the Dunsaete records procedures for dealing with disputes between the English and the Welsh, and implies that areas west of the Wye in Archenfield were still culturally Welsh. It stated that the English should only cross into the Welsh side, and vice versa, in the presence of an appointed man who had the responsibility of making sure that the foreigner was safely escorted back to the crossing point. In 926, Edward's successor Athelstan, "King of the English", summoned the Welsh kings including Hywel Dda of Deheubarth to a meeting at Hereford, and according to William of Malmesbury laid down the boundary between England and Wales, particularly the disputed southern stretch where he specified that the eastern bank of the Wye should form the boundary.
By the mid-eleventh century, most of Wales had become united under the king of Gwynedd, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. In 1055, he marched on Hereford and sacked the city. He also seized Morgannwg and the Kingdom of Gwent, together with substantial territories east of Offa's Dyke, and raided as far as Chester and Leominster. He claimed sovereignty over the whole of Wales, a claim recognised by the English, and historian John Davies states that Gruffudd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales.". However, after his most powerful ally – Earl Elfgar of Mercia and East Anglia – died, Harold and Tostig Godwinson took advantage of the situation – Gruffudd being besieged in Snowdonia – and invaded Wales. In 1063, Gruffudd was killed by his own men. Harold returned many of the Welsh princes their lands, so that after Harold's death at the Battle of Hastings, Wales was again divided without a leader to resist the Normans.
March of Wales
Main article: Welsh MarchesImmediately after the Norman conquest of England, King William installed one of his most trusted confidants, William FitzOsbern, as Earl of Hereford. By 1071 he had started the building of Chepstow Castle, the first castle in Britain built of stone, near the mouth of the Wye. It served as a base from which the Normans continued to expand westward into south Wales, establishing a castle at Caerleon and extinguishing the Welsh kingdom of Gwent. William also installed Roger de Montgomerie at Shrewsbury, and Hugh d'Avranches at Chester, creating a new expansionist earldom in each case. In the Domesday Book of 1086, Norman lands are recorded west of the Wye at Chepstow and Caldicot in the Gwent Levels (Welsh: Gwent Is-coed); over the whole of north east Wales as far west as the River Clwyd, an area known to the Welsh as the Perfeddwlad; and west of Offa's Dyke, especially in Powys where a new castle was named, after its lord, Montgomery.
The Domesday Book records the extent of English penetration into Wales and suggests that Offa's Dyke still approximately represented the boundary between England and Wales. However, during the anarchy of Stephen various Welsh princes were able to occupy lands beyond it, including Whittington, Shropshire (see Whittington Castle) and Maelor Saesneg, hitherto in England. These lands were brought under English lordship by Henry II of England, but became Marcher lordships, and so part of Wales. This involved a loss of direct rule by the English crown.
Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small lordships, at times numbering over 150, between the Dee and Severn and further west. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. Hundreds of small castles, mostly of the motte and bailey type, were built in the border area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders and rebels. Many new towns were established across the area, some such as Chepstow, Monmouth, Ludlow and Newtown becoming successful trading centres, and these tended to be a focus of English settlement. However, the Welsh continued to attack English soil and supported rebellions against the Normans.
The Marches, or Marchia Wallia, were to a greater or lesser extent independent of both the English monarchy and the Principality of Wales, which remained based in Gwynedd in the north west of the country. By the early 12th century, they covered the areas which would later become Monmouthshire and much of Flintshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Glamorgan, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire. Some of the lordships, such as Oswestry, Whittington, Clun, and Wigmore had been part of England at the time of Domesday, while others such as the Lordship of Powys were Welsh principalities that passed by marriage into the hands of Norman barons. In ecclesiastical terms, the ancient dioceses of Bangor and St. Asaph in the north, and St. David's and Llandaff in the south, collectively defined an area which included both the Principality and the March, and coincided closely with later definitions of Wales.
The Principality of Wales (Welsh: Tywysogaeth Cymru) covered the lands ruled by the Prince of Wales directly, and was formally founded in 1216, and later recognised by the 1218 Treaty of Worcester between Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, Prince of Gwynedd, and King John of England. Encompassing two-thirds of modern Wales, the principality operated as an effectively independent entity from the reign of Llywelyn until 1283 (though it underwent a period of contraction during the early part of the reign of Dafydd ap Llywelyn in the 1240s, and again for several years from the beginning of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's rule in 1246). Features of its independence were its separate legal jurisprudence based on the well-established laws of Cyfraith Hywel, and the increasingly sophisticated court of the Aberffraw dynasty.
The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by Edward I of England. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "Prince of Wales" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The Council of Wales, based at Ludlow Castle, was also established in the 15th century to govern the area.
Formation of "England and Wales" and county boundaries
Main article: Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 1535 Principality of Wales England Earldom of Chester Tudor marcher lordships Other lordships1536 Wales EnglandHowever, the Marches remained outside the shire system, and at least nominally outside the control of the English monarchy, until the first Laws in Wales Act was introduced in 1535 under Henry VIII. Henry had not seen the need to reform the government of Wales at the beginning of his reign, but gradually he perceived a threat from some of the remaining Marcher lords and therefore instructed his chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, to seek a solution. This, and a further Act in 1542, had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction, commonly referred to as England and Wales. The powers of the marcher lordships were abolished, and their areas formed into new counties, or amalgamated into existing ones, with the Lordship of Denbigh briefly returning from 1563 to 1588. At this point, the boundary between England and Wales, which has existed ever since, was effectively fixed. In the border areas, five new counties were created: Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire; and Flintshire gained some additional territory. However, several of the marcher lordships were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties. The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, Caus and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; and Wigmore, Huntington, Clifford and most of Ewyas were included in Herefordshire. According to John Davies:
Thus was created the border between Wales and England, a border which has survived until today. It did not follow the old line of Offa's Dyke nor the eastern boundary of the Welsh dioceses; it excluded districts such as Oswestry and Ewias, where the Welsh language would continue to be spoken for centuries, districts which it would not be wholly fanciful to consider as Cambria irredenta. Yet, as the purpose of the statute was to incorporate Wales into England, the location of the Welsh border was irrelevant to the purposes of its framers.
Changes to the border after 1536
Date | Details |
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1546 | Clun transferred to England |
1844 | Litton and Cascob transferred to England from Wales |
Bwlch Trewyn transferred to Wales from England | |
Welsh Bicknor transferred to England from Wales | |
Crooked Billet transferred to Wales from England | |
1857 | Threapwood incorporated partly into England and partly into Wales |
1865 | Territorial waters extended to 3 nautical miles |
1887 | Stanford farm transferred to England from Wales |
1887 | Parts of the area around Ebbw Vale transferred to Monmouthshire from Wales |
1891 | Ffwddog transferred to Wales from England |
1893 | Llanrothal CP transferred to England from Wales |
1896 | Part of Threapwood transferred to England from Wales |
1938 | Rumney transferred to Wales from Monmouthshire |
1972 | Monmouthshire incorporated into Wales |
1987 | Territorial waters extended to 12 nautical miles |
- There was a serious proposal to transfer English Maelor to England in the 19th century one of many changes proposed by the boundary commission.
- Due to outrage over plans for county reforms in 1971, the civil parish of Brilley was given the chance to vote on whether to join Wales or stay in England. They decided to remain in England.
Monmouthshire
Main article: Monmouthshire (historic)Although Monmouthshire was included in the 16th century legislation, it was treated anomalously, with the result that its legal status as a Welsh county fell into some ambiguity and doubt until the 20th century. It was omitted from the second Act of Union, which established the Court of Great Sessions, and like English shires it was given two Knights of the Shire, rather than one as elsewhere in Wales. However, in ecclesiastical terms, almost all of the county remained within the Diocese of Llandaff, and most of its residents at the time spoke Welsh. In the late 17th century under Charles II it was added to the Oxford circuit of the English Assizes, following which, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, it gradually "came to be regarded as an English county". Under that interpretation, the boundary between England and Wales passed down the Rhymney valley, along Monmouthshire's western borders with Brecknockshire and Glamorgan, so including Newport, and other industrialised parts of what would now generally be considered to be South Wales, within England.
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica unambiguously described the county as part of England, but noted that "whenever an act is intended to apply to alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouthshire". Some legislation and UK government decisions, such as the establishment of a "Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire" in 1908, referred to "Wales and Monmouthshire", so that it was treated as one with Wales rather than as a legal part of Wales. The county's status continued to be a matter of debate in Parliament, especially as Welsh nationalism and devolution climbed the political agenda in the 20th century. In 1921 the area was included within the Church in Wales. The Welsh Office, established in 1965, included Monmouthshire within its remit, and in 1969 George Thomas, Secretary of State for Wales, proposed to fully incorporate Monmouthshire into Wales. The issue was finally clarified in law by the Local Government Act 1972, which provided that "in every act passed on or after 1 April 1974, and in every instrument made on or after that date under any enactment (whether before, on or after that date) "Wales", subject to any alterations of boundaries..." included "the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport". The legal boundary between England and Wales therefore passes along Monmouthshire's eastern boundaries with Herefordshire and Gloucestershire, essentially along the River Monnow and River Wye.
The border today
English and Welsh boundaries
Main article: Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542The first legislation applying solely to Wales since the 16th century was passed in 1881. Subsequently, the border between England and Wales has taken on increasing legal and political significance.
Until the Welsh Disestablishment in 1920, the Diocese of St Asaph included parts of north-west Shropshire. The parishes transferred to the Diocese of Lichfield were: Criftins, Hengoed, Kinnerley, Knockin, Llanyblodwell, Llanymynech, Melverley, Morton, Oswestry, St Martins, Selattyn, Trefonen, Weston Rhyn and Whittington.
In 1965, a separate government department, the Welsh Office, was established for Wales, and it assumed an increasing range of administrative responsibilities. By 1992, the Welsh Office oversaw housing, local government, roads, historic buildings, health, education, economic development, agriculture, fisheries and urban regeneration, although the extent to which it was autonomous from England in public policy is a matter of debate.
The establishment of devolved government in Wales through the Welsh Assembly, set up in 1999, has led to a divergence between England and Wales on some government policies. For example, prescription charges were abolished in Wales in 2007. In 2008, residents of the village of Audlem, Cheshire, 9 miles (14 km) from the border, "voted" to become part of Wales in what was originally a joke ballot. Some residents sought to make a case for securing Welsh benefits such as free hospital parking and prescriptions. The modern border lies between the town of Knighton and its railway station, and divides the village of Llanymynech where a pub straddles the line. Knighton is the only town that can claim to be on the border as well as on Offa's Dyke. The postal and ecclesiastical borders are in places slightly different – for example the Shropshire village of Chirbury has Montgomery as its post town, and the Welsh town of Presteigne is in the English Diocese of Hereford.
National League North football club Chester F.C.'s ground at Deva Stadium straddles the border, with the car park and some of the offices in England but the pitch in Wales. In the 2021–22 season, the club was threatened with legal action for failing to apply the COVID-19 regulations applying in Wales and allowing crowds to attend matches at the ground.
A competition was launched in 2005 to design one or more new iconic images, along the same lines as the "Angel of the North", to be placed at the borders of Wales. This became known as the "Landmark Wales" project, and a shortlist of 15 proposals was unveiled in 2007. However, the proposal was shelved after it failed to receive Lottery funding.
The main road links over the border in the south are the M4 Second Severn Crossing and the M48 Severn Bridge. In July 2017, the Welsh Secretary, Alun Cairns, announced that tolls would be abolished at the end of 2018, claiming that this would boost the South Wales economy by around £100m a year. In September 2017, Cairns confirmed that tolls would be reduced in January 2018 when VAT was removed. All tolls ceased on 17 December 2018.
Place names
In general, placenames of Welsh origin are found to the west of the border, and those of English origin to the east. However, many historically Welsh names are also found east of the border, particularly around Oswestry in northern Shropshire, such as Gobowen and Trefonen; in southern Shropshire, such as Clun; and in southern Herefordshire, such as Kilpeck and Pontrilas. Most of these areas were not incorporated fully into England until the 16th century, and native Welsh speakers still lived there until at least the 19th century. Equally, placenames of English origin can be found on the Welsh side of the border where there was Mercian and Norman settlement, particularly in the north east, such as Flint, Wrexham and Prestatyn; in English Maelor, such as Overton; in central Powys, such as Newtown and Knighton; and in southeastern Monmouthshire, including Chepstow and Shirenewton.
See also
- Anglo-Scottish border
- Berwick upon Tweed
- Church of England border polls 1915–1916
- Cross-border derby
- Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English
- Debatable lands
- History of Wales
- List of Anglo-Welsh Wars
- Little England beyond Wales
- Lloegyr
- Monmouthshire (historic)
- Offa's Dyke Path
- Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border
- Severnside derby
- Welsh Marches
Notes
- Flint, Maelor Saesneg and Hawarden are administered by Cheshire
- a power in England which was akin to a separate country, with its own legal system and courts, and an almost independent government
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Further reading
- Quinault, Roland (2014). "Unofficial Frontiers: Welsh-English Borderlands in the Victorian Period". Borderlands in World History, 1700–1914. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 279–292. ISBN 978-1-137-32058-2.
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