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{{Short description|Imperial Japanese Navy WWII fighter pilot (1916–2000)}}
{{refimprove|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox military person {{Infobox military person
|name= Saburō Sakai (坂井 三郎) | name = Saburō Sakai
| native_name = 坂井 三郎
|birth_date= {{Birth date|1916|8|25}}
| image = Saburo Sakai in A5M Signed 1939.png
|death_date= {{death date and age|2000|9|22|1916|8|25}}
| caption = Sakai in the cockpit of a ] Type 96 fighter (Hankow airfield, China in 1939)
|birth_place= ], ]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1916|8|25|df=y}}
|death_place= ], ]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2000|09|22|1916|08|25|df=y}}
|image= Sakai Cockpit A5M.jpg
| birth_place = ], Japan
|caption= PO2/c Sakai in the cockpit of a ] Type 96 fighter (Hankow airfield, China in 1939)
| death_place = ], Japan
|nickname=Sky Samurai
| nickname = Sky Samurai
|allegiance= {{flagicon|Japan|alt}} ]
| allegiance = Empire of Japan
|branch= ] ] (])
| branch = ] (])
|serviceyears= 1933–45
| serviceyears = 1933–45
|rank=]
| rank = ]
|commands=
|unit= Tainan Air Group<br/>Yokosuka Air Wing | unit = ]<br />Yokosuka Naval Air Wing<br/>]
| battles =
|aerial combat victories= 28 - 64
{{tree list}}
|battles= ]<br>]
* ] * ]
* ] ** ]
** ]
|awards=
* ]
|laterwork=
** ]
}}
*** ]

*** ]
] {{nihongo|'''Saburō Sakai'''|坂井 三郎|Sakai Saburō|August 25, 1916 &ndash; September 22, 2000}} was a ]ese naval aviator and ] (''"Gekitsui-O"'', 撃墜王) of the ] during ].
*** ]

*** ]{{WIA}}
Sakai had 28 aerial victories (including shared) by official Japanese records,<ref>Sakai saburo research book, pp.277.</ref> while his autobiography "]," co-written by ] and ], claims 64 aerial victories.<ref name="Samurai!"/> Such discrepancies are common, and pilots' official scores are often lower than those claimed by the pilots themselves, due to difficulties in providing appropriate witnesses or verifying wreckage, and variations in military reports due to loss or destruction. <ref>WORLD WAR II AERIAL VICTORY CREDITS</ref>
{{tree list/end}}
| awards =
| laterwork =
| spouse = Hatsuyo (1944-1947)<br/>Haru (1952-2000)
| children = 3}}
{{nihongo|'''Saburō Sakai'''|坂井 三郎|Sakai Saburō|25 August 1916 &ndash; 22 September 2000}} was a Japanese naval aviator and ] (''"Gekitsui-O"'', {{lang|ja|撃墜王}}) of the ] during ]. Sakai had 28 aerial victories, including shared ones, according to official Japanese records,<ref>Sakai saburo research book, pp.277.</ref><ref>{{cite book | first = Ikuhiko | last = Hata | title = ''Japanese Naval Fighter Aces: 1932-45'' | date=2013 | publisher=Stackpole Books | page=327 | isbn = 978-0-8117-1167-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4akomzp2ncC&dq=Japanese+Naval+Fighter+Aces%3A+1932-45+sakai&pg=PA327}}</ref> though he and his ghostwriter ] claimed much higher numbers.<ref>{{cite book | first = Saburo | last = Sakai | title = '']'' | date=1985 | publisher=Bantam | page=2. "I was at the time the leading live ace of my country, with an official total of sixty-four enemy planes shot down in aerial combat." (Caidin, writing as Sakai. In later interviews Sakai claimed the true number is unknown, possibly higher.)}}</ref>


==Early life== ==Early life==
Saburō Sakai was born on 25 August 1916 in ], ]. He was born into a family with an immediate affiliation to the ] and their warrior legacies. Their ancestors were themselves samurai and had taken part in the ] but were later forced to take up a livelihood of farming after '']'' in 1871.<ref>Sakai 1985, p. 1, 3.</ref> He was the third-born of four sons (his given name literally means "third son") and had three sisters. Sakai was 11 when his father died, which left his mother alone to raise seven children. With limited resources, Sakai was adopted by his maternal uncle, who financed his education in a ]. However, Sakai failed to do well in his studies and was sent back to Saga after his second year.
Saburō Sakai was born on August 25, 1916, in ], Japan.


<!---see Japanese autobiography in talk--->
According to "Samurai!", Saburō Sakai was born into a family of ] ancestry whose ancestors had taken part in the ] but who were forced to take a living as farmers following '']'' in 1871. he is the third born of four sons (his given name literally means "third son"), had three sisters.
On 31 May 1933, at the age of 16, Sakai enlisted in the ] as a Sailor Fourth Class (] Recruit) (四等水兵) at the ].<ref>Sakai 1985, p. 7.</ref> Sakai described his experiences as a naval recruit:

According to his Japanese biography, Saburō Sakai was born into a family of farmers. Because his family left the head family, his family was forced to take a poor living. Sakai, the second born of four sons (his given name from his grandfather's name "勝三郎 katsusaburō"), had three sisters.<ref>Sakai saburo kusen kiroku the first volume.</ref>

Saburō was 11 when his father died, leaving Saburō's mother alone to raise seven children. With limited resources, Sakai was adopted by his maternal uncle, who financed his education in a ]. However, Sakai failed to do well in his studies and was sent back to Saga after his second year.

With no other options, on May 31, 1933 at the age of 16, Sakai enlisted in the ] as a Sailor Fourth Class (Seaman Recruit) (四等水兵). Saburō Sakai describes his experiences as a naval recruit:<ref></ref>


] on his ] Type 96 fighter (Wuhan, 1939).]] ] on his ] Type 96 fighter (Wuhan, 1939).]]
:"The ]s would not hesitate to administer the severest beatings to recruits they felt deserving of punishment. Whenever I committed a breach of discipline or an error in training, I was dragged physically from my cot by a petty officer. 'Stand tall to the wall! Bend down, Recruit Sakai!' he would roar. 'I am not doing this because I hate you, but because I like you and want you to make a good seaman. ''Bend down!''' And with that he would swing a large stick of wood and with every ounce of strength he possessed would slam it against my upturned bottom. The pain was terrible, the force of the blows unremitting."<ref>Forquer, John A. ''globalsecurity.org''. Retrieved: 5 April 2015.</ref> "There was no choice but to grit my teeth and struggle desperately not to cry out. At times I counted up to forty crashing impacts into my buttocks. Often I fainted from the pain. A lapse into unconsciousness constituted no escape however. The petty officer simply hurled a bucket of cold water over my prostrate form and bellowed for me to resume position, whereupon he continued his 'discipline' until satisfied I would mend the error of my ways."<ref>Sakai 1985, p. 8.</ref>


After completing his training the following year, Sakai graduated as a Sailor Third Class (Ordinary Seaman) (三等水兵). He then served aboard the battleship {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Kirishima||2}} for one year. In 1935, he successfully passed the competitive examinations for the Naval Gunners' School. Sakai was promoted to Sailor Second Class (Able Seaman) (二等水兵) in 1936, and served on the battleship {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Haruna||2}} as a turret gunner. He received successive promotions to Sailor First Class (Leading Seaman) (一等水兵) and to Petty Officer Third Class (三等兵曹). In early 1937, he applied for and was accepted into the ]. He graduated first in his class at Tsuchiura in 1937 and earned a silver watch, which was presented to him by Emperor ]. Sakai graduated as a carrier pilot although he was never assigned to aircraft-carrier duty. One of Sakai's classmates was ], who graduated as a carrier pilot and served on the ] by flying ] torpedo bombers early in the war.<ref>Mori. 2015 Foreword.</ref>
:''"The petty officers would not hesitate to administer the severest beatings to recruits they felt deserving of punishment. Whenever I committed a breach of discipline or an error in training, I was dragged physically from my cot by a petty officer. 'Stand tall to the wall! Bend down, Recruit Sakai!' he would roar. 'I am not doing this because I hate you, but because I like you and want you to make a good seaman. Bend down!' And with that he would swing a large stick of wood and with every ounce of strength he possessed would slam it against my upturned bottom. The pain was terrible, the force of the blows unremitting."''

After completing his training the following year, Sakai was graduated as a Sailor Third Class (Ordinary Seaman) (三等水兵). Sakai then served aboard the battleship {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Kirishima||2}} for one year. In 1935, he successfully passed the competitive examinations for the Naval Gunners School. Sakai was promoted to Sailor Second Class (Able Seaman) (二等水兵) in 1936, and served on the battleship {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Haruna||2}} as a turret gunner. He received successive promotions to Sailor First Class (Leading Seaman) (一等水兵) and to Petty Officer Third Class (三等兵曹). In early 1937, he applied for and was accepted into a pilot training school. He graduated first in his Naval Class at Tsuchiura in 1937, earning a silver watch presented to him by ] himself. Sakai graduated as a carrier pilot, although he was never actually assigned to aircraft carrier duty.

Promoted to Petty Officer Second Class (二等兵曹) in 1938, he first took part in aerial combat flying the ] in the beginning of the ] in 1938-1939 and was wounded. Sakai shot down a Soviet built ] bomber in October 1939. Later he was selected to fly the ] fighter in combat over ].


Promoted to Petty Officer Second Class (二等兵曹) in 1938, Sakai took part in aerial combat flying the ] at the beginning of the ] in 1938–1939 and was wounded in action. Later, he was selected to fly the ] fighter in combat over China.
==Service in World War II==


==World War II==
===Southeast Asia=== ===Southeast Asia===
] ]
]


When the war with the United States began, Sakai participated in the attack on the ] as a member of the ]. On 8 December 1941, Sakai flew one of 45 Zeros<ref></ref> from the ] (a ] was an ]) that attacked ] in the Philippines. In his first combat against Americans, he claimed a ] shot down and two B-17 strafed on the ground. Sakai flew missions the next day during heavy weather. When Japan attacked the Western Allies in 1941, Sakai participated in the attack on the ] as a member of the ]. On 8 December 1941, Sakai flew one of 45 Zeros<ref> ''imageshack.us''. Retrieved: 5 April 2015.</ref> from the ] (a ] was an ]) that attacked ] in the Philippines. In his first combat against Americans, he shot down a ] and destroyed two ] by strafing them on the ground. Sakai flew missions the next day during heavy weather.


In his books, on the third day of the battle, he shot down a ] flown by Captain ]. Sakai, who has often been credited with destroying this aircraft, was indeed a Shotai leader engaged in this fight with the bomber, but he and his two wingmen do not appear to have been given official credit for its despatch.<ref>Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, pp. 182.</ref> On the third day of the battle, Sakai claimed to have shot down a B-17, flown by Captain ]. Sakai, who has often been credited with the victory, was a Shotai leader engaged in this fight with the bomber although he and his two wingmen do not appear to have been given official credit for it.<ref>Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, p. 182.</ref>


Early in 1942, Sakai was transferred to ] in ] and fought in the ]. The Japanese high command had instructed fighter patrols to down all enemy aircraft encountered, whether they were armed or not. On a patrol with his Zero over Java, just after shooting down an enemy aircraft, Sakai encountered a civilian Dutch ] flying at low altitude over dense jungle. Sakai initially assumed it was transporting important people and signaled to its pilot to follow him; the pilot did not obey. Sakai came down and got much closer to the DC-3. He spotted a blonde woman and a young child through the window, along with other passengers. The woman reminded him of Mrs. Martin, an American who had occasionally taught him as a child in ] and had been good to him. He decided to ignore his orders and flew ahead of the pilot, signaling him to go ahead. The pilot and passengers saluted.<ref></ref> Sakai did not include this encounter in the aerial combat report.<ref>Japan Center for Asian Histrical Record, Tainan Air Group action report Reference code C08051602100.</ref> Early in 1942, Sakai was transferred to ] in ] and fought in the ]. The Japanese high command instructed fighter patrols to down all enemy aircraft that were encountered, whether they were armed or not. On a patrol with his Zero over Java, just after he had shot down an enemy aircraft, Sakai encountered a civilian Dutch ] flying at low altitude over dense jungle. Sakai initially assumed that it was transporting important people and signaled to its pilot to follow him, but the pilot did not obey. Sakai descended and approached the DC-3. He then saw a blonde woman and a young child through a window, along with other passengers. The woman reminded him of Mrs. Martin, an American who occasionally had taught him as a child in ] and had been kind to him. He ignored his orders, flew ahead of the pilot, and signaled him to go ahead. The pilot and the passengers saluted him.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070606152500/http://www.microsoft.com/games/combatfs2/articles_sakai.aspx |date=June 6, 2007}}</ref> Sakai did not mention the encounter in the aerial combat report.<ref>Japan Center for Asian Historical Record, Tainan Air Group action report Reference code C08051602100.</ref>


During the ], Sakai achieved 13 more victories before he was grounded by illness. When he recovered three months later in April, Petty Officer First Class Sakai joined a ] (''chutai'') of the Tainan Kōkūtai under Sub-Lieutenant ] at ], ]. Over the next four months, he scored the majority of his victories in flying against American and Australian pilots based at ].
]


A myth has been perpetuated over time but declared to be product of the imagination of Martin Caidin, the co-author of Sakai's book "Samurai." Supposedly, on the night of 16 May, Sakai and his colleagues, ] and ], were listening to a broadcast of an Australian radio program, and Nishizawa recognized the eerie ] of ]. Inspired, Nishizawa is said to have come up with the idea of doing demonstration loops over the enemy airfield. The next day, his squadron included fellow aces Hiroyoshi Nishizawa and ]. At the end of an attack on Port Moresby, which had involved 18 Zeros,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204134456/http://www.militaryimages.net/photopost/data/521/35A6M2_Tainan_Kokutai_01a1.jpg |date=2012-02-04}} ''militaryimages.net''. Retrieved: 9 April 2015.</ref> the trio performed three tight loops in close formation over the allied air base. Nishizawa indicated that he wanted to repeat the performance. Diving to {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, the three Zeros did three more loops without receiving any AA fire from the ground. The following day, a lone Allied bomber flew over the Lae airfield and dropped a note attached to a long cloth ribbon. A soldier picked up the note and delivered to the squadron commander. It read (paraphrased): "Thank you for the wonderful display of ] by three of your pilots. Please pass on our regards and inform them that we will have a warm reception ready for them, next time they fly over our airfield." The squadron commander was furious and reprimanded the three pilots for their stupidity, but the Tainan Kōkūtai's three leading aces felt that Nishizawa's aerial choreography of the ''Danse Macabre'' had been worth it.<ref>Guttman, Jon. ''historynet.com'', 12 June 2006 (originally published in ''Aviation History'', July 1998 issue). Retrieved: 27 December 2015.</ref>
During the Borneo campaign, Sakai achieved 13 air victories before he was grounded by illness. When he had recovered three months later in April, Petty Officer First Class Sakai joined a ] (''chutai'') of the Tainan Kōkūtai under Sub-Lieutenant ] at ], ]. Over the next four months, he scored the majority of his victories, flying against American and Australian pilots based at ].

On the night of May 16, Sakai, Nishizawa and Ota were listening to a broadcast of an Australian radio program, when Nishizawa recognized the eerie ] of ]. Inspired by this, Nishizawa came up with the idea of doing demonstration loops over the enemy airfield. The next day, his squadron included fellow aces ] and ]. At the end of an attack on Port Moresby that involved 18 Zeros,<ref></ref> the trio performed three tight loops in close formation over the allied air base. Nishizawa indicated he wanted to repeat the performance. Diving to {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, the three Zeros did three more loops, without receiving any AA fire from the ground. The following day, a lone allied bomber came roaring over the Lae airfield and dropped a note attached to a long ribbon of cloth. The soldiers picked up the note and delivered to the squadron commander. It read "Thank you for the wonderful display of aerobatics by three of your pilots. Please pass on our regards and inform them, that we will have a warm reception ready for them, next time they fly over our airfield". The squadron commander was furious and reprimanded the three pilots for their stupidity, but the Tainan Kōkūtai's three leading aces felt Nishizawa's aerial choreography of the ''"Danse Macabre"'' had been worth it.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}


===Pacific Theater=== ===Pacific Theater===
On 3 August, Sakai's air group was relocated from Lae to the airfield at ]. On 3 August 1942, Sakai's air group was relocated from Lae to the airfield at ].
] ]
On 7 August, word arrived that ] had landed that morning on ]. The initial Allied landings captured an airfield, later named ] by the Allies, that had been under construction by the Japanese. The airfield soon became the focus of months of fighting during the ], as it enabled US airpower to hinder the Japanese in their attempts at resupplying their troops. The Japanese made several attempts to retake Henderson Field that resulted in almost daily air battles for the Tainan Kōkūtai.


US Marines flying ]s from Henderson Field on Guadalcanal were using a new aerial combat tactic, the "]", which was developed in 1941 by the US Navy aviators ] and ]. The Japanese Zero pilots flying out of Rabaul were initially confounded by the tactic. Sakai described the reaction to the Thach Weave when they encountered Guadalcanal Wildcats using it:<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619150900/http://www.history.navy.mil/download/ww2-25.pdf |date=June 19, 2006}} at the ] (April 10, 2010).</ref>
On 7 August, word arrived that U.S. Marines had landed that morning on ]. The initial Allied landings captured an airfield, later called Henderson Field by the Allies, that was under construction by the Japanese. The airfield soon became the focus of months of fighting during the ], as it enabled U.S. airpower to hinder the Japanese attempts at resupplying their troops. The Japanese made several attempts to retake Henderson Field, resulting in continuous, almost daily air battles for the Tainan Kōkūtai.


{{cquote|For the first time Lt. Commander Tadashi Nakajima encountered what was to become a famous double-team maneuver on the part of the enemy. Two Wildcats jumped on the commander's plane. He had no trouble in getting on the tail of an enemy fighter, but never had a chance to fire before the Grumman's team-mate roared at him from the side. Nakajima was raging when he got back to Rabaul; he had been forced to dive and run for safety.}}
U.S. Marines flying ]s from ] on ] were using a new aerial combat tactic, the "]", developed in 1941 by the U.S. Navy aviators ] and ]. The Japanese Zero pilots flying out of ] were initially confounded by the tactic. Saburō Sakai described their reaction to the Thach Weave when they encountered Guadalcanal Wildcats using it:<ref></ref>


On 7 August, Sakai and three pilots shot down an F4F Wildcat flown by Lieutenant ] of Fighting Squadron Five (VF-5), who by the end of the war became an ace with five victories. Sakai, who did not know that Southerland's guns had jammed, recalled the duel in his autobiography:<ref>Sakai, S. "Samurai!" p. 160-162</ref>
{{cquote|For the first time Lt. Commander Tadashi Nakajima encountered what was to become a famous double-team maneuver on the part of the enemy. Two Wildcats jumped on the commander’s plane. He had no trouble in getting on the tail of an enemy fighter, but never had a chance to fire before the Grumman’s team-mate roared at him from the side. Nakajima was raging when he got back to Rabaul; he had been forced to dive and run for safety.}}

On 7 August, Sakai and 3 pilots shot down an F4F Wildcat flown by ], who by the end of the war became an ace with five victories. Sakai, who did not know Southerland's guns had jammed{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}, recalled the duel in his autobiography:


{{cquote|In desperation, I snapped out a burst. At once the Grumman snapped away in a roll to the right, clawed around in a tight turn, and ended up in a climb straight at my own plane. Never before had I seen an enemy plane move so quickly or gracefully before, and every second his guns were moving closer to the belly of my fighter. I snap-rolled in an effort to throw him off. He would not be shaken. He was using my favorite tactics, coming up from under.}} {{cquote|In desperation, I snapped out a burst. At once the Grumman snapped away in a roll to the right, clawed around in a tight turn, and ended up in a climb straight at my own plane. Never before had I seen an enemy plane move so quickly or gracefully before, and every second his guns were moving closer to the belly of my fighter. I snap-rolled in an effort to throw him off. He would not be shaken. He was using my favorite tactics, coming up from under.}}


They were soon engaged in a skillfully maneuvered dogfight. After an extended battle in which both pilots gained and lost the upper hand, Sakai shot down Southerland's Wildcat, striking it below the left wing root with his 20&nbsp;mm cannon. Southerland parachuted to safety.<ref></ref> They were soon engaged in a skillfully-maneuvered ]. After an extended battle in which both pilots gained and lost the upper hand, Sakai shot down Southerland's Wildcat and struck it below the left wing root with his 20&nbsp;mm cannon. Southerland parachuted to safety.<ref> ''Pacific Wrecks''. Retrieved: April 5, 2015.</ref>


Sakai was amazed at the Wildcat's ruggedness:<ref></ref> Sakai was amazed at the Wildcat's ruggedness:<ref></ref>
{{cquote| I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7&nbsp;mm machine guns. I turned the 20&nbsp;mm cannon switch to the 'off' position and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into the Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying. I thought this very odd — it had never happened before — and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been a ball of fire by now.}} {{cquote| I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7&nbsp;mm machine guns. I turned the 20&nbsp;mm cannon switch to the 'off' position and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into the Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying. I thought this very odd — it had never happened before — and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been a ball of fire by now.}}


Not long after he downed Southerland, Sakai was attacked by a lone ] ] flown by Lt. Dudley Adams of Scouting Squadron 71 (VS-71) from {{USS|Wasp|CV-7|6}}. Adams scored a near miss, sending a bullet through Sakai's canopy, but Sakai quickly gained the upper hand and succeeded in downing Adams. Adams bailed out and survived but his gunner, R3/c Harry Elliot, was killed in the encounter.<ref>Sakaida. ''Winged Samurai'', pp. 74-75.</ref> According to Saburō Sakai this was his 60th victory.<ref>''Samurai!''</ref> Not long after he had downed Southerland, Sakai was attacked by a lone ] ] flown by Lieutenant Dudley Adams of {{USS|Wasp|CV-7|6}}'s Scouting Squadron 71 (VS-71). Adams sent a bullet through Sakai's canopy, narrowly missing the ace's head, but Sakai quickly gained the upper hand and succeeded in downing Adams. Although Adams bailed out and survived, his gunner, RM3/c Harry Elliot, was killed in the encounter.<ref>Sakaida 1985, pp. 74-75.</ref> According to Sakai, that was his 60th victory.<ref name="Samurai!">Sakai et al. 1978 {{page needed|date=April 2015}}</ref>


===Serious wounds=== ===Serious wounds===
During the air group's first mission of the battle of Guadalcanal, having just shot down Southerland and Adams, Sakai was seriously wounded in a failed ambush near ] of eight SBDs, a mixed flight from Bombing Squadrons Five and Six (VB-5 and VB-6).<ref>''Winged Samurai'', pp. 74-76.</ref> Mistaking the SBDs for more ] fighters, Sakai approached from below and behind, targeting a VB-6 Dauntless flown by Ens. Robert C. Shaw. The sturdy dive bombers with their rear-mounted twin {{convert|7.62|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} machine guns proved tough adversaries, and a blast fired by one or more of the SBDs' rear gunners, possibly including Shaw's gunner, AO2/c Harold L. Jones, shattered and blew away the canopy of Sakai's Zero.<ref>''Winged Samurai'', pp. 76, 78-79.</ref> Shortly after he had shot down Southerland and Adams, Sakai spotted a flight of eight aircraft orbiting near ].<ref name="Winged Samurai, pp. 74-76">''Winged Samurai'', pp. 74-76.</ref> Believing it to be another group of Wildcats, Sakai approached them from below and behind, aiming to catch them by surprise. However, he soon realised that he had made a mistake - the planes were in fact carrier-based bombers with rear-mounted machine guns. Despite that realisation, he had progressed too far into the attack to back off, and had no choice but to see it through.<ref name="Winged Samurai, pp. 74-76"/>


The description of this aerial battle from Saburō Sakai is different.<ref name="Samurai!">'']''</ref> He spotted eight planes in two flights of four and initially identified them as F4F Wildcat fighters. When he attacked (followed by three other ] fighters), he discovered that the airplanes were ]s because he clearly distinguished the top turret and the ventral machine gun. He shot down in flames two of the TBF Avengers and these two victories (61st and 62nd) were verified by the other three Zero pilots but during this day, no TBF Avengers were reported lost.<ref name="Samurai!"/> This is an example how even an experienced pilot during the heat of battle, may not identify correctly enemy airplanes or receive verified credit for airplanes not shot down. In Sakai's account of the battle, he identified the aircraft as ]s and stated that he could clearly see the enclosed top turret. He claimed to have shot down two of the Avengers (his 61st and 62nd victories) before return fire had struck his plane. The kills were seemingly verified by the three Zero pilots following him, but no Avengers were reported lost that day.<ref name="Samurai!"/>


However, according to US Navy records, only one formation of bombers reported fighting Zeros under these circumstances. This was a group of eight SBD Dauntlesses from ''Enterprise'', led by Lieutenant Carl Horenberger of Bombing Squadron 6 (VB-6). The SBD crews reported being attacked by two Zeros, one of which came in from directly astern and flew into the concentrated fire from their rear-mounted twin {{convert|7.62|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} ] guns. The rear gunners claimed the Zero as a kill when it dived away in distress, in return for two planes damaged (one seriously).<ref>Stafford, ''The Big E'', p.134; Hammel, ''Carrier Clash'', pp.69-70; Lundstrom, ''The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign'', p.56; Basic report in (Flight 319)</ref>
Sakai sustained grievous injuries from the return fire; he was struck in the head by a {{convert|7.62|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} bullet, blinding him in the right eye and paralyzing the left side of his body. The Zero rolled over and headed upside down toward the sea. Unable to see out of his remaining good eye due to blood flowing from the head wound, Sakai's vision started to clear somewhat as tears cleared the blood from his eyes, and he was able to pull his plane out of the steep seaward dive. He considered crashing into one of the American warships: "If I must die, at least I could go out as a Samurai. My death would take several of the enemy with me. A ship. I needed a ship." Finally, the cold air blasting into the cockpit revived him enough to check his instruments, and he decided that by using a lean fuel mixture he might be able to make it back to the airfield at Rabaul.


Whatever the case, Sakai sustained serious wounds from the bombers' return fire. He was hit in the head by a .30 caliber bullet, which injured his skull and temporarily paralyzed the left side of his body.<ref name="nationalgeographic.com.hk"> {{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The wound is described elsewhere as having destroyed the metal frame of his goggles and "creased" his skull, a glancing blow that broke the skin and made a furrow, or even cracked the skull but did not actually penetrate it. Shattered glass from the canopy temporarily blinded him in his right eye and reduced vision in his left eye severely. The Zero rolled inverted and descended towards the sea. Unable to see out of his left eye because of the glass and the blood from his serious head wound, Sakai's vision started to clear somewhat as tears cleared the blood from his eyes, and he pulled his plane out of the dive. He considered ramming an American warship: "If I must die, at least I could go out as a samurai. My death would take several of the enemy with me. A ship. I needed a ship." Finally, the cold air blasting into the cockpit revived him enough to check his instruments, and he decided that by leaning the fuel mixture, he might be able to return to the airfield at Rabaul.
]


]
Although in agony from his injuries<ref></ref> from a bullet that had passed through his skull and the right side of his brain, leaving the entire left side of his body paralyzed, and was left blind in one eye.<ref name="nationalgeographic.com.hk"></ref>) (The wound is described elsewhere as having destroyed the metal frame of his goggles, and "creased" his skull, meaning a glancing blow that breaks the skin and makes a furrow in, or even cracks the skull, but does not actually penetrate it.) Sakai managed to fly his damaged Zero in a four-hour, 47-minute flight over {{convert|560|nmi|km mi|abbr=on}} back to his base on Rabaul, using familiar volcanic peaks as guides. When he attempted to land at the airfield he nearly crashed into a line of parked Zeros but, after circling four times, and with the fuel gauge reading empty, he put his Zero down on the runway on his second attempt. After landing, he insisted on making his mission report to his superior officer before collapsing. His squadron mate Hiroyoshi Nishizawa drove him, as quickly but as gently as possible, to a surgeon. Sakai was evacuated to Japan on 12 August, where he endured a long surgery without ]. The surgery repaired some of the damage to his head, but was unable to restore full vision to his right eye. Nishizawa visited Sakai while he was recuperating in the Yokosuka hospital in Japan.
Although in agony from his injuries<ref> ''www.j-aircraft.com''. Retrieved: April 5, 2015.</ref> Sakai managed to fly his damaged Zero in a 4 h 47 min flight over {{convert|560|nmi|km mi|abbr=on}} back to his base on Rabaul by using familiar volcanic peaks as guides. When he attempted to land at the airfield, he nearly crashed into a line of parked Zeros, but after circling four times and with the fuel gauge reading empty, he put his Zero down on the runway on his second attempt. After landing, he insisted on making his mission report to his superior officer and then collapsed. Nishizawa drove him to a surgeon. Sakai was evacuated to Japan on 12 August and there endured a long surgery without ]. The surgery repaired some of the damage to his head but was unable to restore full vision to his right eye. Nishizawa visited Sakai, who was recuperating in the hospital in Yokosuka.


===Recovery and return=== ===Recovery and return===
After his discharge from the hospital in January 1943, Sakai spent a year training new fighter pilots.<ref></ref> With Japan clearly losing the air war, he prevailed upon his superiors to let him fly in combat again. In November 1943, Sakai was promoted to the rank of Flying Warrant Officer (飛行兵曹長). In April 1944, he was transferred to Yokosuka Air Wing, which was deployed to ]. After his discharge from the hospital in January 1943, Sakai spent a year in training new fighter pilots.<ref>Hards, Scott. ''warbirdforum.com'', 1998. Retrieved: 9 April 2015.</ref> He found the new generation of student pilots, who typically outranked veteran instructors, to be arrogant and unskilled.<ref>{{cite book |last=Toll |first=Ian W. |title=The Conquering Tide |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-393-08064-3 |edition=1st |location=New York, NY, USA |pages=430–431}}</ref> With Japan clearly losing the air war, he prevailed upon his superiors to let him fly in combat again. In November 1943, Sakai was promoted to the rank of flying warrant officer (飛行兵曹長). In April 1944, he was transferred to Yokosuka Air Wing, which was posted to ].


On 24 June 1944, Sakai approached a formation of 15 U.S. Navy Grumman ]{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} fighters which he mistakenly assumed were friendly Japanese aircraft. In a chase that has become legendary, Sakai demonstrated his skill and experience. Despite his loss of one eye and facing superior enemy aircraft, Sakai eluded attacks by the Hellcats for more than 20 minutes, returning to his airfield untouched. On 24 June 1944, Sakai approached a formation of 15 US Navy ] fighters, which he had mistakenly assumed to be friendly Japanese aircraft. William A. McCormick saw four Hellcats on the Zero's tail but decided not to get involved. Despite facing superior enemy aircraft, Sakai demonstrated his skill and experience by eluding the attacks and returning to his airfield unscathed.<ref>Sakaida 1985.{{Page needed|date=April 2015}}</ref>


Sakai claimed to have never lost a wingman in combat; however, he lost at least two in Iwo Jima.<ref>Japan Center for Asian Historical Record, Yokosuka Air Group action report Reference code C13120487500.</ref> Sakai claimed to have never lost a wingman in combat, but he lost at least two of them over Iwo Jima.<ref name="ReferenceA">Japan Center for Asian Historical Record, Yokosuka Air Group action report Reference code C13120487500.</ref>


Sakai said as follows: he was ordered to lead a ''kamikaze'' mission on 5 July,{{Citation needed|date=January 2014}} but he failed to find the U.S. task force. He was engaged by Hellcat fighters near the task force's reported position, and all but one of the ] ]s in his flight were shot down. Sakai managed to shoot down one Hellcat, then escaped the umbrella of enemy aircraft by flying into a cloud. Rather than follow meaningless orders, in worsening weather and gathering darkness, Sakai led his small formation back to Iwo Jima, preserving the aircraft and pilots for another day. While, according to the aerial combat report, his mission was to escort bombers to and from their targets, and it was afternoon 24 June the day Sakai joined the attack on the U.S. task force.<ref>Japan Center for Asian Histrical Record, Yokosuka Air Group action report Reference code C13120487500.</ref> Sakai said that he had been ordered to lead a '']'' mission on 5 July but that he failed to find the US task force. He was engaged by Hellcat fighters near the task force's reported position, and all but one of the ] ]s in his flight were shot down. Sakai managed to shoot down one Hellcat and escaped the umbrella of enemy aircraft by flying into a cloud. Rather than follow meaningless orders in worsening weather and gathering darkness, Sakai led his small formation back to Iwo Jima.<ref>Sakaida 1998.{{Page needed|date=April 2015}}</ref> However, according to the aerial combat report, his mission was to escort bombers to and from their targets, and in the afternoon of 24 June, Sakai joined the attack on the US task force.{{clarify|date=May 2020|reason=Unclear and ungrammatical sentence}}<ref name="ReferenceA"/>


In August 1944, Sakai was commissioned an Ensign (少尉). After Sakai was transferred to 343rd Air Group, he returned to Yokosuka Air Wing again. In August 1944, Sakai was commissioned an ensign (少尉). He was transferred to 343rd Air Group and returned to the Yokosuka Air Wing again.


About the same time, Sakai married his cousin Hatsuyo, who asked him for a dagger so she could kill herself if he fell in battle. His autobiography, '']'', ends happily with Hatsuyo throwing away the dagger after Japan's surrender, saying she no longer needed it. About the same time, Sakai married his cousin Hatsuyo, who asked him for a dagger so that she could kill herself if he fell in battle. His autobiography, '']'', ends with Hatsuyo throwing away the dagger after Japan's surrender and saying that she no longer needed it.


Saburō Sakai participated in the IJNAS's last wartime mission by attacking two reconnaissance ]s on 18 August, which were conducting photo-reconnaissance and testing Japanese compliance with the ceasefire. He initially misidentified the planes as ]es. Both aircraft returned to their base at ], Okinawa. His encounter with the B-32 Dominators in the IJNAS's final mission was not included in ''Samurai!''.
He was promoted to Sub-Lieutenant (中尉), after the war ended.


Sakai was promoted to sub-lieutenant (中尉) after the war had ended.
Saburo Sakai participated in the IJNAF's last wartime mission, attacking two reconnaissance ]s, ''Hobo Queen II'' s/n ''42-108532,'' and unnamed ''42-108578,'' on 18 August, which were conducting photo-reconnaissance and testing Japanese compliance with the cease-fire. He initially misidentified the planes as a ]es. Both aircraft returned to their base at ], Okinawa. His encounter with the B-32 Dominators in the IJNAF's final mission was not included in "]."


==Back to civilian life== ==Post-war civilian life==
] in ]<ref name="REL/08378 - Mitsubishi A6M2 Model 21 Zero Fighter Aircraft : Japanese Navy Air Force">{{citation|title = REL/08378 - Mitsubishi A6M2 Model 21 Zero Fighter Aircraft : Japanese Navy Air Force|url = http://cas.awm.gov.au/item/REL/08378?image=2|publisher = Australian War Memorial|accessdate = 13 April 2012}}</ref>]] ], tail code V-173, preserved at the ] in ]<ref name="REL/08378 - Mitsubishi A6M2 Model 21 Zero Fighter Aircraft : Japanese Navy Air Force"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325132027/http://cas.awm.gov.au/item/REL/08378?image=2 |date=2012-03-25 }} ''Australian War Memorial''. Retrieved" 13 April 2012.</ref>]]
After the war, Sakai retired from the Navy. He became a ] acolyte and vowed he would never again kill any living thing, not even a mosquito.<ref name="nationalgeographic.com.hk"/> Sakai harbored no animosity toward those who had been "the enemy" during WWII, and urged others not to do so either. When asked about Japan's eventual surrender, he responded: "Had I been ordered to bomb Seattle or Los Angeles in order to end the war, I wouldn't have hesitated. So I perfectly understand why the Americans bombed ] and ]."{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} After the war, Sakai retired from the Navy. He became a ] acolyte and vowed never again to kill anything that lived, even a mosquito.<ref name="nationalgeographic.com.hk"/>


Likewise, although Japan had been defeated in the Second World War with great loss of life, Sakai serenely accepted that outcome: "Had I been ordered to bomb ] or ] in order to end the war, I wouldn't have hesitated. So I perfectly understand why the Americans bombed ] and ]."
Times were difficult for Sakai; finding a job was difficult for him because of conditions imposed by the Allies, and because of anti-military provisions placed into the new ]. Sakai's wife died in 1954;<ref> at HotlineCY.com</ref> he later remarried.He started a printing shop.


Times were difficult for Sakai. He had trouble finding a job, and Hatsuyo died in 1947.<ref>
He visited the US and met many of his former adversaries, including Harold "Lew" Jones, the tail-gunner who had wounded him.<ref>{{cite web| first=Justin R. |last= Taylan |url=http://www.pacificwrecks.com/people/veterans/jones/sakai-jones.html |title=Saburo Sakai and Harold "Lew" Jones meet on Memorial Day 1982. Sakai holds his tattered and damaged flight helmet from his near fatal mission to Guadalcanal |publisher= Pacific Wrecks |date=2012-10-26 |accessdate=2014-05-12}}</ref> In 2000, Sakai served briefly as a consultant for the popular computer game '']''.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}
* Sakaida, Henry. Phoenix, Arizona: Champlin Fighter Museum, 1985, {{ISBN|0-912173-05-X}}.</ref> He remarried in 1952 and started a printing shop.


Sakai sent his daughter to college in the United States "to learn English and democracy."<ref>Pike, Francis. ''Hirohitos War (The Pacific War, 1941-1945)'', p. 449</ref>
In his later years, Sakai was asked to appear as a motivational speaker at Japanese schools and corporations. His theme was always the same, the credo by which he lived his entire life: "Never give up."{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}


Sakai visited the US and met many of his former adversaries, including ] Harold "Lew" Jones (1921–2009), the SBD Dauntless rear-seat gunner (piloted by Ensign Robert C. Shaw), who had wounded him.<ref>Taylan, Justin R. ''Pacific Wrecks'', 26 October 2012. Retrieved: 5 April 2015.</ref>
Sakai expressed concern for Japan's collective inability to accept responsibility for starting the war{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}, and over the popular sentiment that only the military — not the political leaders — were responsible. He decried the ''kamikaze'' campaign as brutally wasteful of young lives; Sakai also drew attention with his critical comments about Emperor ]'s role. "Who gave the orders for that stupid war?" he asked in an ] interview, reported August 10, 2000. "The closer you get to the emperor, the fuzzier everything gets."{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}


After a ] formal dinner in 2000 at ] at which he had been an honored guest, Sakai died of a ] at the age of 84.
Just months before he died, Sakai officially admitted to reporters that he still prayed for the souls of the airmen (Chinese, American, Australian and Dutch alike) he had killed in action. "I pray every day for the souls of my enemies as well as my comrades," he said. "We all did our best for our respective countries...Glorifying death was a mistake; because I survived, I was able to move on — to make friends in the US and other countries."{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} He had sent his daughter to college in the United States "to learn English and democracy."


He was survived by his second wife, Haru, two daughters and a son.<ref> The New York Times 8 October 2000.</ref>
Following a ] formal dinner in 2000 at ] where he had been an honored guest, Saburō Sakai died of a ]. He was 84.


==In popular culture==
Sakai has been the subject of multiple controversies in the years following his death. His claims to Samurai ancestry have been disputed.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} Claims have been made that his autobiography "]" includes fictional stories, and that the number of kills specified in that work were increased to promote sales of the book by ]. "]" was not published in Japan, and differs from his biographies there.<ref>Zero Fighters of Our Grandfathers, pp.315-325.</ref>


===Books===
Sakai participated in ] ("the biggest pyramid scheme in history."). Sakai was accused of soliciting his junior pilots most and that they lost property because of Sakai. Sakai and his story were used an advertisement for ], and he is credited with making money from the scheme. It is also claimed that Sakai spread rumors about of his former boss, and that he was not liked by his former comrades.<ref>Zero Fighters of Our Grandfathers, pp.338-344.</ref>Sakai was disliked by junior pilots because of his preaching and violence. ], a fellow ace, also called him "a liar".<ref>Zero Fighters of Our Grandfathers, pp.329-332.</ref>Four former Japanese Navy pilots attended Sakai's funeral.<ref>Zero Fighters of Our Grandfathers, pp.345-346.</ref>
Claims have been made that his autobiography '']'' includes fictional stories, and that the number of kills specified in that work were increased to promote sales of the book by ]. The book was not published in Japan and differs from his biographies there.<ref>Kodachi 2010, pp. 315-325.</ref><!---<ref>Ruffato and Claringbould 2012. About the exaggerated victories and the difference from his biographies.</ref>---contentious, see talk--->


'']'' is a 1985 book by ] dealing with the wartime history of Saburō Sakai.
Sakai denied the existence of comfort women and The ]. Sakai said 'The purpose of the claimant is money.'<ref>"歴史通 2012年 01月号 別冊 零戦と坂井三郎"(in Japanese),WAC inc. December 15, 2011</ref>


==Notes== ===Film===
The 1976 movie ''Zero Pilot'' dramatized Saburō Sakai’s experiences as a WWII fighter pilot. In it, Sakai is portrayed by the actor ]. The screenplay is based on Sakai's book ''Samurai!''. {{cn|date=April 2022}}
{{reflist}}

==== Video games ====
In the year 2000, just before he died, Sakai (along with American Marine Corps fighter ace ]) served as a consultant for the development of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Co-Founder |first1=Gestalt |last2=Editor-in-Chief |first2=former |date=2000-09-05 |title=Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2 |url=https://www.eurogamer.net/p-cfs2 |access-date=2024-10-18 |website=Eurogamer.net |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Modofwar |date=2020-05-15 |title=Saburo Sakai: A Samurai on a plane |url=https://modofwar.com/history/historicalportraits/saburo-sakai/ |access-date=2024-10-18 |website=Scale Models Of War |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2000-11-02 |title=Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2 |website=] |url=http://www.microsoft.com/games/combatfs2/articles_sakai.asp |access-date=2024-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001102124329/http://www.microsoft.com/games/combatfs2/articles_sakai.asp |archive-date=2000-11-02 }}</ref>


==References== ==References==
'''Notes'''
*''"]"'' by Saburo Sakai, Martin Caidin and Fred Saito. Bantam. (1978)
{{Reflist}}
*''"Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No. 22 - Imperial Japanese Navy Aces 1937-45"'' by Henry Sakaida
'''Bibliography'''
*''"Sakai saburo kusen kiroku the first volume "(in Japanese) by saburo sakai,Kodansha(1995) ISBN978-4062560870
{{Refbegin}}
*''"Zero Fighters of Our Grandfathers"(in Japanese) by naoki kodachi, Kodansha Ltd (2010) ISBN978-4062163026
* Hammel, Eric. ''Carrier Clash: The Invasion of Guadalcanal & The Battle of the Eastern Solomons, August 1942''. St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-7603-2052-7}}.
*''"Sakai saburo research book"(in Japanese) by yositake kori,Kojinsha(2009) ISBN978-4769814429
* King, Dan. ''The Last Zero Fighter, Firsthand Accounts from WWII Japanese Fighter Pilots''. Oakland, California: Pacific Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4681-7880-7}}.
*''"Eagles of the Southern Sky - The Tainan Air Group in WWII - Volume One: New Guinea"'' by Luca Ruffato and Michael J Claringbould. Tainan Books.
* Kodachi, Naoki. ''Fighters of Our Grandfathers'' (in Japanese). Tokyo: Kodansha Ltd., 2010. {{ISBN|978-4-0621-6302-6}}.
*''" - Saburo Sakai and the Zero Fighter Pilots"'' by , Champlin Fighter Museum, 1985, ISBN 0-912173-05-X
* Leckie, Robert. ''Challenge for the Pacific: Guadalcanal: the Turning Point of the War''. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1968. {{ISBN|0-306-80911-7}}.
*"", a Toho about Sakai from 1976 (cover of German DVD version shown). Cinema poster:
* Lundstrom, John B. ''The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942''. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1994. {{ISBN|1-55750-526-8}}.
*''"Challenge for the Pacific: Guadalcanal: the Turning Point of the War"'' by Robert Leckie. Random House. 1968
* Mori, Juzo. ''The Miraculous Torpedo Squadron''. Kindle Edition, 2015 {{ASIN|B00THSCSS8}}.
*{{cite book
* Ruffato, Luca and Michael J Claringbould. ''Eagles of the Southern Sky: The Tainan Air Group in WWII, Volume One: New Guinea''. Tainan City, Taiwan: Tainan Books, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0-473-21763-1}}.
| last = King
* Sakaida, Henry. ''"Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No. 22 - Imperial Japanese Navy Aces 1937-45"'' London: Osprey Publishing, 1998. {{ISBN|978-1-8553-2727-6}}.
| first = Dan
* Sakaida, Henry. Phoenix, Arizona: Champlin Fighter Museum, 1985, {{ISBN|0-912173-05-X}}.
| authorlink =
* Sakai, Saburo, Martin Caidin and Fred Saito. '']''. New York: Bantam, 1978. {{ISBN|978-0-5531-1035-7}}.
| coauthors =
* Sakai, Saburo. ''Sakai saburo kusen kiroku, Volume 1'' (in Japanese). Tokyo: Kodansha, 1995. {{ISBN|978-4-0625-6087-0}}.
| year = 2012
* Shores, Christopher, Brian Cull and Yasuho Izawa. ''Bloody Shambles: Volume One: The Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore''. London: Grub Street, 1992. {{ISBN|0-948817-50-X}}.
| chapter =
* Stafford, Edward P. ''The Big E: The Story of the USS Enterprise''. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1962. {{ISBN|1-55750-998-0}}.
| title = The Last Zero Fighter, Firsthand Accounts from WWII Japanese Fighter Pilots
* Yositake, Kori. ''Saburo Sakai'' (in Japanese). Tokyo: Kojinsha, 2009. {{ISBN|978-4-7698-1442-9}}.
| publisher = Pacific Press
{{Refend}}
| location = California
| isbn = 978-1468178807
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Shores|first1=Christopher|last2=Cull|first2=Brian|last3=Izawa|first3=Yasuho |title=Bloody Shambles: Volume One: The Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore|year=1992|publisher=Grub Street|location=London|isbn=0-948817-50-X}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Commons category|Saburo Sakai}}
*{{YouTube|IQ6oDIJ6gmY|"Tainan Air Corps In Sakai Saburou"}} *{{YouTube|IQ6oDIJ6gmY|"Tainan Air Corps In Sakai Saburou"}}
* *
* *{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522005229/http://pacificwrecks.com/people/veterans/sakai.html|date=May 22, 2013|title=Saburo Sakai passed away September 22, 2000}}
* * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006155938/http://www.billybishop.net/sakai.html |date=2006-10-06 }}
*
*
* *
* *
*{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306102342/http://www.microsoft.com/games/combatfs2/articles_sakai.aspx|date=March 6, 2013|title=Interview with Sakai during the production of ''Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2''}}
*
*{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530071119/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/stevens.html|date=May 30, 2013|title=My Father and I and Saburo Sakai}}
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*{{IMDb title|qid=Q30806432|id=tt0074370|title=Zero Pilot}}

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{{Persondata
|NAME =Sakai, Saburo
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Japanese flying ace
|DATE OF BIRTH =August 25, 1916
|PLACE OF BIRTH =], ]
|DATE OF DEATH =September 22, 2000
|PLACE OF DEATH =], ]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sakai, Saburo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sakai, Saburo}}
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Latest revision as of 17:12, 6 November 2024

Imperial Japanese Navy WWII fighter pilot (1916–2000)
Saburō Sakai
Sakai in the cockpit of a Mitsubishi A5M Type 96 fighter (Hankow airfield, China in 1939)
Native name坂井 三郎
Nickname(s)Sky Samurai
Born(1916-08-25)25 August 1916
Saga, Japan
Died22 September 2000(2000-09-22) (aged 84)
Atsugi Naval Air Station, Japan
AllegianceEmpire of Japan
Service / branchImperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJN)
Years of service1933–45
RankLieutenant Junior Grade
UnitTainan Naval Air Wing
Yokosuka Naval Air Wing
343rd Naval Air Group
Battles / wars
Spouse(s)Hatsuyo (1944-1947)
Haru (1952-2000)
Children3

Saburō Sakai (坂井 三郎, Sakai Saburō, 25 August 1916 – 22 September 2000) was a Japanese naval aviator and flying ace ("Gekitsui-O", 撃墜王) of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II. Sakai had 28 aerial victories, including shared ones, according to official Japanese records, though he and his ghostwriter Martin Caidin claimed much higher numbers.

Early life

Saburō Sakai was born on 25 August 1916 in Saga Prefecture, Japan. He was born into a family with an immediate affiliation to the samurai and their warrior legacies. Their ancestors were themselves samurai and had taken part in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) but were later forced to take up a livelihood of farming after haihan-chiken in 1871. He was the third-born of four sons (his given name literally means "third son") and had three sisters. Sakai was 11 when his father died, which left his mother alone to raise seven children. With limited resources, Sakai was adopted by his maternal uncle, who financed his education in a Tokyo high school. However, Sakai failed to do well in his studies and was sent back to Saga after his second year.

On 31 May 1933, at the age of 16, Sakai enlisted in the Imperial Japanese Navy as a Sailor Fourth Class (Seaman Recruit) (四等水兵) at the Sasebo Naval Base. Sakai described his experiences as a naval recruit:

Sakai posing in front of the hinomaru on his Mitsubishi A5M Type 96 fighter (Wuhan, 1939).
"The petty officers would not hesitate to administer the severest beatings to recruits they felt deserving of punishment. Whenever I committed a breach of discipline or an error in training, I was dragged physically from my cot by a petty officer. 'Stand tall to the wall! Bend down, Recruit Sakai!' he would roar. 'I am not doing this because I hate you, but because I like you and want you to make a good seaman. Bend down!' And with that he would swing a large stick of wood and with every ounce of strength he possessed would slam it against my upturned bottom. The pain was terrible, the force of the blows unremitting." "There was no choice but to grit my teeth and struggle desperately not to cry out. At times I counted up to forty crashing impacts into my buttocks. Often I fainted from the pain. A lapse into unconsciousness constituted no escape however. The petty officer simply hurled a bucket of cold water over my prostrate form and bellowed for me to resume position, whereupon he continued his 'discipline' until satisfied I would mend the error of my ways."

After completing his training the following year, Sakai graduated as a Sailor Third Class (Ordinary Seaman) (三等水兵). He then served aboard the battleship Kirishima for one year. In 1935, he successfully passed the competitive examinations for the Naval Gunners' School. Sakai was promoted to Sailor Second Class (Able Seaman) (二等水兵) in 1936, and served on the battleship Haruna as a turret gunner. He received successive promotions to Sailor First Class (Leading Seaman) (一等水兵) and to Petty Officer Third Class (三等兵曹). In early 1937, he applied for and was accepted into the navy pilot training program. He graduated first in his class at Tsuchiura in 1937 and earned a silver watch, which was presented to him by Emperor Hirohito. Sakai graduated as a carrier pilot although he was never assigned to aircraft-carrier duty. One of Sakai's classmates was Jūzō Mori, who graduated as a carrier pilot and served on the Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū by flying Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers early in the war.

Promoted to Petty Officer Second Class (二等兵曹) in 1938, Sakai took part in aerial combat flying the Mitsubishi A5M at the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1938–1939 and was wounded in action. Later, he was selected to fly the Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero fighter in combat over China.

World War II

Southeast Asia

Saburō Sakai as a petty officer wearing a life jacket
Saburō Sakai posing in front of a bomber aircraft

When Japan attacked the Western Allies in 1941, Sakai participated in the attack on the Philippines as a member of the Tainan Air Group. On 8 December 1941, Sakai flew one of 45 Zeros from the Tainan Kōkūtai (a Kōkūtai was an Air Group) that attacked Clark Air Base in the Philippines. In his first combat against Americans, he shot down a Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and destroyed two B-17 Flying Fortresses by strafing them on the ground. Sakai flew missions the next day during heavy weather.

On the third day of the battle, Sakai claimed to have shot down a B-17, flown by Captain Colin P. Kelly. Sakai, who has often been credited with the victory, was a Shotai leader engaged in this fight with the bomber although he and his two wingmen do not appear to have been given official credit for it.

Early in 1942, Sakai was transferred to Tarakan Island in Borneo and fought in the Dutch East Indies. The Japanese high command instructed fighter patrols to down all enemy aircraft that were encountered, whether they were armed or not. On a patrol with his Zero over Java, just after he had shot down an enemy aircraft, Sakai encountered a civilian Dutch Douglas DC-3 flying at low altitude over dense jungle. Sakai initially assumed that it was transporting important people and signaled to its pilot to follow him, but the pilot did not obey. Sakai descended and approached the DC-3. He then saw a blonde woman and a young child through a window, along with other passengers. The woman reminded him of Mrs. Martin, an American who occasionally had taught him as a child in middle school and had been kind to him. He ignored his orders, flew ahead of the pilot, and signaled him to go ahead. The pilot and the passengers saluted him. Sakai did not mention the encounter in the aerial combat report.

During the Borneo Campaign, Sakai achieved 13 more victories before he was grounded by illness. When he recovered three months later in April, Petty Officer First Class Sakai joined a squadron (chutai) of the Tainan Kōkūtai under Sub-Lieutenant Junichi Sasai at Lae, New Guinea. Over the next four months, he scored the majority of his victories in flying against American and Australian pilots based at Port Moresby.

A myth has been perpetuated over time but declared to be product of the imagination of Martin Caidin, the co-author of Sakai's book "Samurai." Supposedly, on the night of 16 May, Sakai and his colleagues, Hiroyoshi Nishizawa and Toshio Ota, were listening to a broadcast of an Australian radio program, and Nishizawa recognized the eerie "Danse Macabre" of Camille Saint-Saëns. Inspired, Nishizawa is said to have come up with the idea of doing demonstration loops over the enemy airfield. The next day, his squadron included fellow aces Hiroyoshi Nishizawa and Toshio Ōta. At the end of an attack on Port Moresby, which had involved 18 Zeros, the trio performed three tight loops in close formation over the allied air base. Nishizawa indicated that he wanted to repeat the performance. Diving to 6,000 ft (1,800 m), the three Zeros did three more loops without receiving any AA fire from the ground. The following day, a lone Allied bomber flew over the Lae airfield and dropped a note attached to a long cloth ribbon. A soldier picked up the note and delivered to the squadron commander. It read (paraphrased): "Thank you for the wonderful display of aerobatics by three of your pilots. Please pass on our regards and inform them that we will have a warm reception ready for them, next time they fly over our airfield." The squadron commander was furious and reprimanded the three pilots for their stupidity, but the Tainan Kōkūtai's three leading aces felt that Nishizawa's aerial choreography of the Danse Macabre had been worth it.

Pacific Theater

On 3 August 1942, Sakai's air group was relocated from Lae to the airfield at Rabaul.

Sakai in flightsuit

On 7 August, word arrived that US Marines had landed that morning on Guadalcanal. The initial Allied landings captured an airfield, later named Henderson Field by the Allies, that had been under construction by the Japanese. The airfield soon became the focus of months of fighting during the Guadalcanal Campaign, as it enabled US airpower to hinder the Japanese in their attempts at resupplying their troops. The Japanese made several attempts to retake Henderson Field that resulted in almost daily air battles for the Tainan Kōkūtai.

US Marines flying Grumman F4F Wildcats from Henderson Field on Guadalcanal were using a new aerial combat tactic, the "Thach Weave", which was developed in 1941 by the US Navy aviators John Thach and Edward O'Hare. The Japanese Zero pilots flying out of Rabaul were initially confounded by the tactic. Sakai described the reaction to the Thach Weave when they encountered Guadalcanal Wildcats using it:

For the first time Lt. Commander Tadashi Nakajima encountered what was to become a famous double-team maneuver on the part of the enemy. Two Wildcats jumped on the commander's plane. He had no trouble in getting on the tail of an enemy fighter, but never had a chance to fire before the Grumman's team-mate roared at him from the side. Nakajima was raging when he got back to Rabaul; he had been forced to dive and run for safety.

On 7 August, Sakai and three pilots shot down an F4F Wildcat flown by Lieutenant James "Pug" Southerland of Fighting Squadron Five (VF-5), who by the end of the war became an ace with five victories. Sakai, who did not know that Southerland's guns had jammed, recalled the duel in his autobiography:

In desperation, I snapped out a burst. At once the Grumman snapped away in a roll to the right, clawed around in a tight turn, and ended up in a climb straight at my own plane. Never before had I seen an enemy plane move so quickly or gracefully before, and every second his guns were moving closer to the belly of my fighter. I snap-rolled in an effort to throw him off. He would not be shaken. He was using my favorite tactics, coming up from under.

They were soon engaged in a skillfully-maneuvered dogfight. After an extended battle in which both pilots gained and lost the upper hand, Sakai shot down Southerland's Wildcat and struck it below the left wing root with his 20 mm cannon. Southerland parachuted to safety.

Sakai was amazed at the Wildcat's ruggedness:

I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7 mm machine guns. I turned the 20 mm cannon switch to the 'off' position and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into the Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying. I thought this very odd — it had never happened before — and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been a ball of fire by now.

Not long after he had downed Southerland, Sakai was attacked by a lone Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bomber flown by Lieutenant Dudley Adams of USS Wasp's Scouting Squadron 71 (VS-71). Adams sent a bullet through Sakai's canopy, narrowly missing the ace's head, but Sakai quickly gained the upper hand and succeeded in downing Adams. Although Adams bailed out and survived, his gunner, RM3/c Harry Elliot, was killed in the encounter. According to Sakai, that was his 60th victory.

Serious wounds

Shortly after he had shot down Southerland and Adams, Sakai spotted a flight of eight aircraft orbiting near Tulagi. Believing it to be another group of Wildcats, Sakai approached them from below and behind, aiming to catch them by surprise. However, he soon realised that he had made a mistake - the planes were in fact carrier-based bombers with rear-mounted machine guns. Despite that realisation, he had progressed too far into the attack to back off, and had no choice but to see it through.

In Sakai's account of the battle, he identified the aircraft as Grumman TBF Avengers and stated that he could clearly see the enclosed top turret. He claimed to have shot down two of the Avengers (his 61st and 62nd victories) before return fire had struck his plane. The kills were seemingly verified by the three Zero pilots following him, but no Avengers were reported lost that day.

However, according to US Navy records, only one formation of bombers reported fighting Zeros under these circumstances. This was a group of eight SBD Dauntlesses from Enterprise, led by Lieutenant Carl Horenberger of Bombing Squadron 6 (VB-6). The SBD crews reported being attacked by two Zeros, one of which came in from directly astern and flew into the concentrated fire from their rear-mounted twin 7.62 mm (0.3 in) .30 AN/M2 guns. The rear gunners claimed the Zero as a kill when it dived away in distress, in return for two planes damaged (one seriously).

Whatever the case, Sakai sustained serious wounds from the bombers' return fire. He was hit in the head by a .30 caliber bullet, which injured his skull and temporarily paralyzed the left side of his body. The wound is described elsewhere as having destroyed the metal frame of his goggles and "creased" his skull, a glancing blow that broke the skin and made a furrow, or even cracked the skull but did not actually penetrate it. Shattered glass from the canopy temporarily blinded him in his right eye and reduced vision in his left eye severely. The Zero rolled inverted and descended towards the sea. Unable to see out of his left eye because of the glass and the blood from his serious head wound, Sakai's vision started to clear somewhat as tears cleared the blood from his eyes, and he pulled his plane out of the dive. He considered ramming an American warship: "If I must die, at least I could go out as a samurai. My death would take several of the enemy with me. A ship. I needed a ship." Finally, the cold air blasting into the cockpit revived him enough to check his instruments, and he decided that by leaning the fuel mixture, he might be able to return to the airfield at Rabaul.

Rabaul, 8 August 1942: A seriously-wounded Sakai returns to Rabaul with his damaged Zero after a 4 h 47 min flight over 560 nmi (1,040 km; 640 mi). Sakai's skull was creased by a machine-gun bullet, he was blind in one eye, and his face was swollen and burned by exposure to the wind through his shattered canopy. Sakai walks towards the flight operations building as he insisted on making his mission report before accepting medical treatment.

Although in agony from his injuries Sakai managed to fly his damaged Zero in a 4 h 47 min flight over 560 nmi (1,040 km; 640 mi) back to his base on Rabaul by using familiar volcanic peaks as guides. When he attempted to land at the airfield, he nearly crashed into a line of parked Zeros, but after circling four times and with the fuel gauge reading empty, he put his Zero down on the runway on his second attempt. After landing, he insisted on making his mission report to his superior officer and then collapsed. Nishizawa drove him to a surgeon. Sakai was evacuated to Japan on 12 August and there endured a long surgery without anesthesia. The surgery repaired some of the damage to his head but was unable to restore full vision to his right eye. Nishizawa visited Sakai, who was recuperating in the hospital in Yokosuka.

Recovery and return

After his discharge from the hospital in January 1943, Sakai spent a year in training new fighter pilots. He found the new generation of student pilots, who typically outranked veteran instructors, to be arrogant and unskilled. With Japan clearly losing the air war, he prevailed upon his superiors to let him fly in combat again. In November 1943, Sakai was promoted to the rank of flying warrant officer (飛行兵曹長). In April 1944, he was transferred to Yokosuka Air Wing, which was posted to Iwo Jima.

On 24 June 1944, Sakai approached a formation of 15 US Navy Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters, which he had mistakenly assumed to be friendly Japanese aircraft. William A. McCormick saw four Hellcats on the Zero's tail but decided not to get involved. Despite facing superior enemy aircraft, Sakai demonstrated his skill and experience by eluding the attacks and returning to his airfield unscathed.

Sakai claimed to have never lost a wingman in combat, but he lost at least two of them over Iwo Jima.

Sakai said that he had been ordered to lead a kamikaze mission on 5 July but that he failed to find the US task force. He was engaged by Hellcat fighters near the task force's reported position, and all but one of the Nakajima B6N2 "Jill" torpedo bombers in his flight were shot down. Sakai managed to shoot down one Hellcat and escaped the umbrella of enemy aircraft by flying into a cloud. Rather than follow meaningless orders in worsening weather and gathering darkness, Sakai led his small formation back to Iwo Jima. However, according to the aerial combat report, his mission was to escort bombers to and from their targets, and in the afternoon of 24 June, Sakai joined the attack on the US task force.

In August 1944, Sakai was commissioned an ensign (少尉). He was transferred to 343rd Air Group and returned to the Yokosuka Air Wing again.

About the same time, Sakai married his cousin Hatsuyo, who asked him for a dagger so that she could kill herself if he fell in battle. His autobiography, Samurai!, ends with Hatsuyo throwing away the dagger after Japan's surrender and saying that she no longer needed it.

Saburō Sakai participated in the IJNAS's last wartime mission by attacking two reconnaissance Consolidated B-32 Dominators on 18 August, which were conducting photo-reconnaissance and testing Japanese compliance with the ceasefire. He initially misidentified the planes as Boeing B-29 Superfortresses. Both aircraft returned to their base at Yontan Airfield, Okinawa. His encounter with the B-32 Dominators in the IJNAS's final mission was not included in Samurai!.

Sakai was promoted to sub-lieutenant (中尉) after the war had ended.

Post-war civilian life

Sakai's A6M2 Zero, tail code V-173, preserved at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra

After the war, Sakai retired from the Navy. He became a Buddhist acolyte and vowed never again to kill anything that lived, even a mosquito.

Likewise, although Japan had been defeated in the Second World War with great loss of life, Sakai serenely accepted that outcome: "Had I been ordered to bomb Seattle or Los Angeles in order to end the war, I wouldn't have hesitated. So I perfectly understand why the Americans bombed Nagasaki and Hiroshima."

Times were difficult for Sakai. He had trouble finding a job, and Hatsuyo died in 1947. He remarried in 1952 and started a printing shop.

Sakai sent his daughter to college in the United States "to learn English and democracy."

Sakai visited the US and met many of his former adversaries, including Lieutenant Commander Harold "Lew" Jones (1921–2009), the SBD Dauntless rear-seat gunner (piloted by Ensign Robert C. Shaw), who had wounded him.

After a US Navy formal dinner in 2000 at Atsugi Naval Air Station at which he had been an honored guest, Sakai died of a heart attack at the age of 84.

He was survived by his second wife, Haru, two daughters and a son.

In popular culture

Books

Claims have been made that his autobiography Samurai! includes fictional stories, and that the number of kills specified in that work were increased to promote sales of the book by Martin Caidin. The book was not published in Japan and differs from his biographies there.

Winged Samurai: Saburo Sakai and the Zero Fighter Pilots is a 1985 book by Henry Sakaida dealing with the wartime history of Saburō Sakai.

Film

The 1976 movie Zero Pilot dramatized Saburō Sakai’s experiences as a WWII fighter pilot. In it, Sakai is portrayed by the actor Hiroshi Fujioka. The screenplay is based on Sakai's book Samurai!.

Video games

In the year 2000, just before he died, Sakai (along with American Marine Corps fighter ace Joe Foss) served as a consultant for the development of Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2.

References

Notes

  1. Sakai saburo research book, pp.277.
  2. Hata, Ikuhiko (2013). Japanese Naval Fighter Aces: 1932-45. Stackpole Books. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-8117-1167-8.
  3. Sakai, Saburo (1985). Samurai!. Bantam. p. 2. "I was at the time the leading live ace of my country, with an official total of sixty-four enemy planes shot down in aerial combat." (Caidin, writing as Sakai. In later interviews Sakai claimed the true number is unknown, possibly higher.).
  4. Sakai 1985, p. 1, 3.
  5. Sakai 1985, p. 7.
  6. Forquer, John A. "The Kamikaze: Samurai Warrior, A New Appraisal." globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 5 April 2015.
  7. Sakai 1985, p. 8.
  8. Mori. 2015 Foreword.
  9. "A6M2b Zero Model 21 - Saburō Sakai, V-107, Tainan Kōkūtai." imageshack.us. Retrieved: 5 April 2015.
  10. Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, p. 182.
  11. Interview from April 2000 Archived June 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  12. Japan Center for Asian Historical Record, Tainan Air Group action report Reference code C08051602100.
  13. "V-173, a Mitsubishi Zero A6M2, flown by Sakai during summer of 1942." Archived 2012-02-04 at the Wayback Machine militaryimages.net. Retrieved: 9 April 2015.
  14. Guttman, Jon. "Hiroyoshi Nishizawa: Japan's World War II Ace of Aces." historynet.com, 12 June 2006 (originally published in Aviation History, July 1998 issue). Retrieved: 27 December 2015.
  15. "Naval Aviation News" July/August 1993 Archived June 19, 2006, at the Wayback Machine Archived copy at the Library of Congress (April 10, 2010).
  16. Sakai, S. "Samurai!" p. 160-162
  17. "Dogfight with James Southerland flying F4F Wildcat." Pacific Wrecks. Retrieved: April 5, 2015.
  18. Saburo Sakai: "Zero"
  19. Sakaida 1985, pp. 74-75.
  20. ^ Sakai et al. 1978
  21. ^ Winged Samurai, pp. 74-76.
  22. Stafford, The Big E, p.134; Hammel, Carrier Clash, pp.69-70; Lundstrom, The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign, p.56; Basic report in Enterprise Action Report for August 7, 1942 (Flight 319)
  23. ^ "
  24. "Original flight helmet Sakai wore on his fateful mission when he was wounded." www.j-aircraft.com. Retrieved: April 5, 2015.
  25. Hards, Scott."An afternoon with Saburo Sakai." warbirdforum.com, 1998. Retrieved: 9 April 2015.
  26. Toll, Ian W. (2015). The Conquering Tide (1st ed.). New York, NY, USA: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. pp. 430–431. ISBN 978-0-393-08064-3.
  27. Sakaida 1985.
  28. ^ Japan Center for Asian Historical Record, Yokosuka Air Group action report Reference code C13120487500.
  29. Sakaida 1998.
  30. "REL/08378 - Mitsubishi A6M2 Model 21 Zero Fighter Aircraft: Japanese Navy Air Force." Archived 2012-03-25 at the Wayback Machine Australian War Memorial. Retrieved" 13 April 2012.
  31. Pike, Francis. Hirohitos War (The Pacific War, 1941-1945), p. 449
  32. Taylan, Justin R. "Saburo Sakai and Harold 'Lew' Jones meet on Memorial Day 1982. Sakai holds his tattered and damaged flight helmet from his near fatal mission to Guadalcanal." Pacific Wrecks, 26 October 2012. Retrieved: 5 April 2015.
  33. The New York Times 8 October 2000.
  34. Kodachi 2010, pp. 315-325.
  35. Co-Founder, Gestalt; Editor-in-Chief, former (2000-09-05). "Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2". Eurogamer.net. Retrieved 2024-10-18. {{cite web}}: |last2= has generic name (help)
  36. Modofwar (2020-05-15). "Saburo Sakai: A Samurai on a plane". Scale Models Of War. Retrieved 2024-10-18.
  37. "Microsoft Combat Flight Simulator 2". Microsoft. 2000-11-02. Archived from the original on 2000-11-02. Retrieved 2024-10-18.

Bibliography

  • Hammel, Eric. Carrier Clash: The Invasion of Guadalcanal & The Battle of the Eastern Solomons, August 1942. St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7603-2052-7.
  • King, Dan. The Last Zero Fighter, Firsthand Accounts from WWII Japanese Fighter Pilots. Oakland, California: Pacific Press, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4681-7880-7.
  • Kodachi, Naoki. Fighters of Our Grandfathers (in Japanese). Tokyo: Kodansha Ltd., 2010. ISBN 978-4-0621-6302-6.
  • Leckie, Robert. Challenge for the Pacific: Guadalcanal: the Turning Point of the War. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1968. ISBN 0-306-80911-7.
  • Lundstrom, John B. The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-526-8.
  • Mori, Juzo. The Miraculous Torpedo Squadron. Kindle Edition, 2015 ASIN B00THSCSS8.
  • Ruffato, Luca and Michael J Claringbould. Eagles of the Southern Sky: The Tainan Air Group in WWII, Volume One: New Guinea. Tainan City, Taiwan: Tainan Books, 2014. ISBN 978-0-473-21763-1.
  • Sakaida, Henry. "Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No. 22 - Imperial Japanese Navy Aces 1937-45" London: Osprey Publishing, 1998. ISBN 978-1-8553-2727-6.
  • Sakaida, Henry. Winged Samurai: Saburo Sakai and the Zero Fighter Pilots. Phoenix, Arizona: Champlin Fighter Museum, 1985, ISBN 0-912173-05-X.
  • Sakai, Saburo, Martin Caidin and Fred Saito. Samurai!. New York: Bantam, 1978. ISBN 978-0-5531-1035-7.
  • Sakai, Saburo. Sakai saburo kusen kiroku, Volume 1 (in Japanese). Tokyo: Kodansha, 1995. ISBN 978-4-0625-6087-0.
  • Shores, Christopher, Brian Cull and Yasuho Izawa. Bloody Shambles: Volume One: The Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore. London: Grub Street, 1992. ISBN 0-948817-50-X.
  • Stafford, Edward P. The Big E: The Story of the USS Enterprise. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1962. ISBN 1-55750-998-0.
  • Yositake, Kori. Saburo Sakai (in Japanese). Tokyo: Kojinsha, 2009. ISBN 978-4-7698-1442-9.

External links

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