Revision as of 15:25, 17 February 2015 view sourceJoshua Jonathan (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers107,099 edits →top: Correction. See Talk:Indo-Aryan migration theory#Single source or origin← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 05:30, 21 December 2024 view source A.j.roberts (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,755 edits →Linguistics: relationships between languages: imageTags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Migrations of Indo-Aryans into the Indian subcontinent}} | |||
{{pp-semi-indef}} | {{pp-semi-indef}} | ||
{{ |
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} | ||
] | <!--]--> | ||
{{Indo-European topics}} | {{Indo-European topics}} | ||
The '''Indo-Aryan migration theory'''{{refn|group=note|The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} The term "invasion" does not reflect the contemporary scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} and is merely being used in a polemical and distractive way.}} describes how the ] ] arrived in the Indian subcontinent, by proposing a migration from ] (present-day northern Afghanistan) into northern ancient ] (modern day India and ]). These migrations started approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly ]. It was part of the diffusion of ] from the ] at the ], a large area of ]s in far ], which started in the 5th to 4th millennia BCE, and the ] out of the Eurasian steppes, which started approximately 2,000 BCE. | |||
The '''Indo-Aryan migrations'''{{refn|group=note|The term "invasion", while it was once commonly used in regard to Indo-Aryan migration, is now usually used only by opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} The term "invasion" does not any longer reflect the scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} and is now generally regarded as polemical, distracting and unscholarly.}} were the migrations into the ] of ], an ] that spoke ].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=South Asia, 2000–1000 B.C. {{!}} Chronology {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/ssa.html |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |language=en}}</ref> These are the predominant languages of today's ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sahim |first=Sarmad |date=2022-05-31 |title=Evolution of Languages in South Asia - Scientia Magazine |url=https://scientiamag.org/evolution-of-languages-in-south-asia/ |access-date=2024-12-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
The theory posits that these Indo-Aryan speaking people may have been a genetically diverse group of people who were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as ''aryā'', "noble." Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturalisation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted. | |||
Indo-Aryan migration into the region, from ], is considered to have started after 2000 BCE as a slow diffusion during the ] period and led to a ] in the northern Indian subcontinent.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Sridhar |first=S. N. |title=Language contact and convergence in South Asia |date=2008 |work=Language in South Asia |pages=235–252 |editor-last=Kachru |editor-first=Braj B. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/language-in-south-asia/language-contact-and-convergence-in-south-asia/77225F175BF1D30E7E7A1C4B3064C6CA |access-date=2024-12-20 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-78141-1 |editor2-last=Sridhar |editor2-first=S. N. |editor3-last=Kachru |editor3-first=Yamuna}}</ref> Several hundred years later, the ] were brought into the ] by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans. | |||
The idea of an Indo-Aryan immigration was developed shortly after the discovery of the ] in the late 18th century, when similarities between western and Indian languages had been noted. Given these similarities, a ] was proposed, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland. This linguistic argument{{sfn|Bryant|2001}} is complemented with genetic,{{sfn|Wells|2002|pages=165-170}} archaeological, literary, and cultural evidence, and research and discussions on it continue. | |||
The ] culture, which gave rise to the ] and Iranians, developed on the ] north of the ] as the ] (c. 2200-1900 BCE),<ref name="Tkachev">{{cite journal |last=Tkachev |first=Vitaly V. |date=2020 |url=https://ras.jes.su/ra/s086960630009071-7-1-en |title=Radiocarbon Chronology of the Sintashta Culture Sites in the Steppe Cis-Urals |journal=Russian Archaeology |volume=2 |pages=31–44 |quote=The author presents the results of radiocarbon dating of burials from the Sintashta cemetery near Mount Berezovaya (Bulanovo) and Tanabergen II in the steppe Cis-Urals. The series consists of 10 calibrated radiocarbon dates, three of which were obtained using AMS accelerated technology. As a result of the implementation of statistical procedures, a chronological interval for the functioning of necropolises was established within the {{Circa|2200}}–1770 BCE}}</ref> in present-day Russia and Kazakhstan, and developed further as the ] (2000–1450 BCE).<ref name="Grigoriev">Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209201910/https://www.academia.edu/45686126/Andronovo%20Problem%20Studies%20of%20Cultural%20Genesis%20in%20the%20Eurasian%20Bronze%20Age |date=9 December 2021 }}, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), '''p.3:''' "...By Andronovo cultures we may understand only Fyodorovka and Alakul cultures..."</ref><ref name="Parpola">Parpola, Asko, (2020). , in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, Oct 23, 2020, '''p.188''': "...the Alakul’ culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture(c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."</ref> | |||
The proto-Indo-Iranians, from which the Indo-Aryans developed, are identified with the ] (2100–1800 BCE),{{sfn|Anthony|2009|p=390 (fig. 15.9), 405-411}} and the ],{{sfn|Anthony|2009|p=49}} which flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the ], present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the ], south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant and north-western India. | |||
The Indo-Aryans split off sometime between 2000 BCE and 1600 BCE from the Indo-Iranians,<ref name="Lubotsky">Lubotsky, Alexander (2020). , in Paul W. Kroll and Jonathan A. Silk (eds.), ''{{'}}At the Shores of the Sky': Asian Studies for Albert Hoffstädt'', Brill, Leiden/Boston, p. 6: "The breakdown of the Indo-Iranian branch into Indian and Iranian occurred somewhere between 2000 and 1600 bce, when future Indians left their tribesmen and crossed the Hindu Kush on their way to India..."</ref> and migrated southwards to the ] (BMAC), from which they borrowed some of their distinctive religious beliefs and practices.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} From the BMAC, the Indo-Aryans migrated into northern Syria and, possibly in multiple waves, into the ] (northern Pakistan and India), while the Iranians could have reached western Iran before 1300 BCE,<ref>Gopnik, Hilary, (2017). , in Touraj Daryaee (ed.), ''King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE)'', Ancient Iran Series, Vol. IV, UCI-Jordan Center for Persian Studies, '''p. 40:''' "...We can say for certain that the neighboring Assyrians recognized a group of people that they identified as coming from the 'land of the Medes' (māt madayya) as early as the reign of Shalmaneser III (858–824 BCE), and it is almost certain that Indo-Iranian-speaking peoples had settled in Western Iran at least some 500 years —if not 1,000 years—earlier than this..."</ref> both bringing with them the ]. | |||
The debate about the origin of Indo-Aryan peoples is controversial, resulting in political ] and inflamed sentiments.<ref>{{cite book|title=Religion and the Authority of the Past|page=52|publisher=University of Michigan Press|author=Tobin Siebers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC7SgGZCkzsC&pg=PA52&dq=%22indo-aryan%22+}}</ref> Some have rejected the theory of Indo-Aryan origins outside of India, maintaining that the Indo-Aryan people and languages originated in India. | |||
Migration by an ] was first hypothesized in the mid 17th century, by Dutch scholar ], in his Scythian language and people hypothesis, to explain the linguistic similarities of the ], that had been identified a century earlier; he proposed a ], which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland.{{sfn|Beekes|2011|loc= }} The language-family and migration theory were further developed, in the 18th century, by Jesuit missionary ], and later East India Company employee ], in 1786,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Poser |first1=William J. |last2=Campbell |first2=Lyle |date=1992 |chapter=Indo-European Practice and Historical Methodology |title=Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar |volume=18 |issue=1 |publisher=Berkeley Linguistics Society |pages=227–8 |doi=10.3765/bls.v18i1.1574 |access-date=20 December 2024 |url=http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/view/1574 }}</ref> through analysing similarities between European, West and ]. | |||
==Description of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory== | |||
] from ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the ]:<br>* The magenta area corresponds to the assumed '']'' (], ], ]).<br>* The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE.<br>* The orange area cooresponds to 1000 BCE.<br> Source: Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), ''Empires of the Silk Road'', Oxford University Press, p.30.]] | |||
The Aryan Migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research.{{sfn|Witzel|2005}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} This provides an overview of the development of indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | |||
This linguistic argument of this theory is supported by archaeological, anthropological, genetic, literary and ecological research. Genetic research reveals that those migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population. Literary research reveals similarities between various, geographically distinct, Indo-Aryan historical cultures. Ecological studies reveal that in the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the ],<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/> causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations, resulting in the merger of migrating peoples with the post-urban cultures.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/> | |||
===Linguistics: language change=== | |||
The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs proto-Indo-European. This is possible because the change of vowels is not random, but follows standard patterns. This makes it possible to see smiliarities between languages which are at first sight different.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | |||
The Indo-Aryan migrations started sometime in the period from approximately 2000 to 1600 BCE,<ref name="Lubotsky" /> after the invention of the ], and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the ] and possibly ]. It was part of the diffusion of ] from the ] at the ], a large area of ]s in far ], which started in the 5th to 4th millennia BCE, and the ] out of the ]s, which started approximately in 2000 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}} | |||
===Archaeology: migrations=== | |||
The archaeological part posits an ] at the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle at the steppes around 5,200 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} The oldest nucleus may have been the ] (late 6th and early 5th millennium BC), at a bend in the Wolga. | |||
These Indo-Aryan speaking people were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as ''ārya'', "noble". Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted. | |||
{{TOC limit|3}} | |||
==Fundamentals== | |||
].<br>– Center: Steppe cultures<br>1 (black): Anatolian languages (archaic PIE)<br>2 (black): Afanasievo culture (early PIE)<br>3 (black) Yamnaya culture expansion (Pontic-Caspian steppe, Danube Valley) (late PIE)<br>4A (black): Western Corded Ware<br>4B-C (blue & dark blue): Bell Beaker; adopted by Indo-European speakers<br>5A-B (red): Eastern Corded ware<br>5C (red): Sintashta (proto-Indo-Iranian)<br>6 (magenta): Andronovo<br>7A (purple): Indo-Aryans (Mittani)<br>7B (purple): Indo-Aryans (India)<br> (dark yellow): proto-Balto-Slavic<br>8 (grey): Greek<br>9 (yellow):Iranians<br>– : Armenian, expanding from western steppe]] | |||
The Indo-Aryan migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research.{{sfn|Witzel|2005}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} This provides an overview of the development of Indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | |||
===Linguistics: relationships between languages=== | |||
The linguistic part traces the connections between the various ], and reconstructs the ]. This is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are especially important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between related languages which at first sight might seem very different.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015}} Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, and point to a steppe origin.{{sfn|Anthony|Ringe|2015}} | |||
===Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat=== | |||
The archaeological part posits an "]" on the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle on the steppes around 5,200 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} The oldest nucleus may have been the ] (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), at a bend in the Volga. | |||
A wider "horizon" developed, called the ] by ] in the 1950s. She included several cultures in this "Kurgan Culture", including the Samara culture and the Yamna culture, although the ] (36th–23rd centuries BCE), also called "Pit Grave Culture", may more aptly be called the "nucleus" of the proto-Indo-European language.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4,000 BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=29}} These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | A wider "horizon" developed, called the ] by ] in the 1950s. She included several cultures in this "Kurgan Culture", including the Samara culture and the Yamna culture, although the ] (36th–23rd centuries BCE), also called "Pit Grave Culture", may more aptly be called the "nucleus" of the proto-Indo-European language.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4,000 BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=29}} These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | ||
Eastward emerged the ] ( |
Eastward emerged the ] (2200–1900 BCE), where common Indo-Iranian was spoken.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} Out of the Sintashta culture developed the ] (2000–1450 BCE), which interacted with the ] (2250–1700 BCE). This interaction further shaped the Indo-Iranians, which split at sometime between 2000 and 1600 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians.<ref name="Lubotsky" /> The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant and ].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}} The migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups{{sfn|Witzel|2005|pp=342–343}}{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: "Just one 'Afghan' IA tribe that did not return to the highlands but stayed in their Panjab winter quarters in spring was needed to set off a wave of acculturation in the plains, by transmitting its 'status kit' (Ehret) to its neighbors."{{sfn|Witzel|2005|pp=342–343}}<p>Compare Max Muller: "why should not one shepherd, with his servants and flocks, have transferred his peculiar dialect from one part of Asia or Europe to another? This may seem a very humble and modest view of what was formerly represented as the irresistible stream of mighty waves rolling forth from the Aryan centre and gradually overflowing the mountains and valleys of Asia and Europe, but it is, at all events, a possible view; nay, I should say a view far more in keeping with what we know of recent colonisation."{{sfn|Muller|1988|p=91}}}} which were genetically diverse.{{clarify|date=August 2020}} Their culture and language spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | ||
===Anthropology: elite recruitment=== | ===Anthropology: elite recruitment and language shift=== | ||
{{See also|Language shift}} | {{See also|Language shift}} | ||
Small groups can change a larger cultural area |
Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002}}{{sfn|Salmons|2015|pp=114–119}} Small groups can change a larger cultural area,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}} | ||
Shift," Antiquity, 62: 564–74; derived from Africa, cf. Diakonoff 1985.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}}} which stresses the ], or a "billiard ball," or Mallory’s "Kulturkugel", effect of cultural transmission.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}} According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relatively easy in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}} | |||
David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis"{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|p=205}} notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117}}{{refn|group=note|name="Anthony_Language_shift"}} a process which he calls "elite recruitment".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}} | |||
David Anthony notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations," but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117}}{{refn|group=note|David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|Compare the process of ] in India.}} Anthony gives the example of the Luo-speaking Acholi in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, who's language spread rapidly in the 19th century.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117-118}} Indo-European languages may have spread in a similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe, with Indo-European chiefs bringing with them an ideology of political clientage.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}} Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|Another example Anthony gives of how an open social system can encourage recruitment and language shift, are the Pathans in estern Afganistan. Traditionally status depended on agricultural surpluses and landownership. The neighbouring Baluch, outnumbered by the Pathans, were pastoral herders, and has hierarchical political system. Pathans who lost their land, could take refuge among the Baluch. As Anthony notes, "chronic tribal warfare might generally favor pastoralism over sedentary economics as herds can be defended by moving them, whereas agricultural fields are an immobile target."{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118-119}}}} | |||
According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European speaking migrants.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}} These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=67–68}} These new members were further incorporated by ] alliances.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002}} | |||
Witzel notes that "arya" does not mean a particular "people" or "racial group," but those people who had joined the Vedic Sanskrit speaking tribes, and followed their culture and religion.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=21}} According to Witzel, there must have been a long period of acculturation between the local population and the original immigrants speaking Indo-Aryan.{{sfn|Wiztel|2001|p=21}} Witzel also notes that the speakers of Indo-Aryan and the local population must have been bilingual, speaking each other's languages and interacting with each other, before the Rg Veda was composed in the Punjab.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=22}} | |||
According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by "dislocation" of language communities, in which the elite is taken over.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}} According to Salmons, this change is facilitated by "systematic changes in community structure", in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|name="dislocation"|Note the dislocation of the ] prior to the start of the Indo-Aryan migrations into northern India, and the onset of ] with the rise of the ], as described by Michael Witzel.{{sfn|Witzel|1995}} The "Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}} mixed between 4,200 to 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE–100 CE), whereafter a shift to endogamy took place.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}}}} | |||
==Development of the Aryan Migration theory== | |||
{{See also|Historical definitions of races in India|Indigenous Aryans}} | |||
===Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows=== | |||
===Similarities between Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian, Celtic and German=== | |||
{{See also|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia|Peopling of India}} | |||
When the British started to colonize India in the 18th century, they had to impose a legal system on both the British merchants and the Indians. The Indians already had a legal system, which was unknown to the British colonizers. To integrate these systems, the British had to learn Sanskrit, a task which was given to Sir ]. He learned Sanskrit, and studied Sanskrit texts, at the ancient Hindu university at Nadiya. He noted the similarities of Sanskrit with Persian, English, Latin, Greek and Gothic. After three years of studies, in an announcement to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, he made the famous statement: | |||
{{quote|The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquities of Persia.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=7}}<ref group=web></ref>}} | |||
The Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population, including various waves of admixture and language shift. Studies indicate north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999}}{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|2003}}{{sfn|Sharma|Saha|Rai|Bhat|2005}}{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006}} A series of studies show that the ] harbours two major ancestral components,{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} namely the ''Ancestral North Indians'' (ANI) which is "genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans", and the ''Ancestral South Indians'' (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{refn|group=note|Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1594}}}} These two groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), after which a shift to ] took place,{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} possibly by the enforcement of "social values and norms" during the ] (240-550 CE).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} | |||
Moorjani et al. (2013) describe three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups: ] before 8,000–9,000 years before present (BP); migration of ]{{refn|group=note|See also ], ] and ].}} ] together with the ], maybe up to 4,600 years BP; migrations of ] from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=422–423}} | |||
] | |||
While ] notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language,<ref group=web name="Reich-interview" /> according to Moorjani et al. (2013) these groups were present "unmixed" in India before the Indo-Aryan migrations.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} Gallego Romero et al. (2011) propose that the ANI component came from Iran and the Middle East,{{sfn|Gallego Romero|2011|p=9}} less than 10,000 years ago,<ref group=web name="ScienceLife2011" />{{refn|group=note|name="Dravidian"}} while according to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI is a mix of "early farmers of western Iran" and "people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}} Several studies also show traces of later influxes of maternal genetic material{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999}}<ref group=web name="Kivisild2000" /> and of paternal genetic material related to ANI and possibly the Indo-Europeans.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Jones|2016}}{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016}} While others have analysed the hereditary distribution of ], and specifically the presence of the -13910T ] mutation, found in Europe and Central Asia, across South Asia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Tandon |first1=R. K. |last2=Joshi |first2=Y. K. |last3=Singh |first3=D. S. |last4=Narendranathan |first4=M. |last5=Balakrishnan |first5=V. |last6=Lal |first6=K. |date=1 May 1981 |title=Lactose intolerance in North and South Indians |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=943–946 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/34.5.943 |issn=0002-9165 |pmid=7234720|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mapping the Consumption of Milk and Meat in India |url=https://thewire.in/uncategorised/mapping-the-consumption-of-milk-and-meat-in-india |access-date=2022-09-11 |website=The Wire}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> | |||
===Literary research: similarities, geography, and references to migration=== | |||
The oldest known inscribed ] words, and particularly invocations of the Indo-Aryan deities, date to mid second millennia BCE, as loan words in ] treaties of the ] kingdom, of present-day northern Syria.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000}}{{sfn|Mallory|1989}} | |||
The religious practices depicted in the ''Rigveda'' and those depicted in the '']'', the central religious text of ], show similarities.{{sfn|Mallory|1989}} Some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the ],<ref name="Ancient Indian Geography p.590">"Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Volume 2", by Subodh Kapoor, p.590</ref> while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati ] is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river.<ref name="Vedas p. 7">"Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights", p. 7, by Frits Staal</ref>{{Context inline|date=August 2020}} The Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland{{sfn|Majumdar|Pusalker|1951|p=220}} or to a migration,{{sfn|Cardona|2002|pp=33–35}} but later Vedic and Puranic texts do show the movement into the Gangetic plains. A number of Indologists and historians offering the ], as explicit recorded evidence of a migration:<ref name="Witzel 1995">{{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |date=2016-10-11 |title=Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State |url=https://hasp.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/ejvs/article/view/823 |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=1 |issue=4 |language=en |pages=1–26 Seiten |doi=10.11588/EJVS.1995.4.823}}</ref><ref name="Agarwal">{{cite journal | last = Agarwal | first = Vishal|url=http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/VedicEvidenceforAMT.pdf |title=Is there Vedic evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India |access-date=2008-05-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528001253/http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/VedicEvidenceforAMT.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2008 |df=dmy-all | journal =Dialogue (Journal of Astha Bharati) |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=July–September 2006 |pages=122–145 }}</ref><ref>H. Krick, Das Ritual der Feuergründung (Agnyādheya). Wien 1982</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Ram Sharan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSAwAQAAIAAJ&q=Baudh%C4%81yana+%C5%9Arauta+S%C5%ABtra |title=Advent of the Aryans in India |date=1999 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-263-8 |language=en}}</ref> | |||
{{blockquote|Then, there is the following direct statement contained in (the admittedly much later) BSS 18.44:397.9 sqq which has once again been overlooked, not having been translated yet: "Ayu went eastwards. His (people) are the Kuru Panchala and the Kasi-Videha. This is the Ayava (migration). (His other people) stayed at home. His people are the ], Parsu and Aratta. This is the Amavasava (group)" (Witzel 1989: 235).<ref>Witzel, M. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parameters In: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. G. Erdosy (ed.), (Indian Philology and South Asian Studies, A. Wezler and M. Witzel, eds), vol. 1, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter 1995, 85-125</ref>}} | |||
===Ecological studies: widespread drought, urban collapse, and pastoral migrations=== | |||
Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133, 300, 336}}{{sfn|Demkina|2017}} | |||
Around 4200–4100 BCE ], manifesting in colder winters in Europe.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=227}} Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}} | |||
The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300, 336}} | |||
In the third millennium BCE widespread aridification led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the ].<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017">Rajesh Kochhar (2017), , ''The Indian Express''</ref>{{sfn|Demkina|2017}} On the steppes, humidification led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding".{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}{{refn|group=note|Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidification of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300, 336}}{{refn|group=note|See also Eurogenes Blogspot, .}} Water shortage also had a strong impact in the ], "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations".<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/> | |||
==Development of the theory== | |||
===Similarities between Sanskrit, Persian, Greek=== | |||
In the 16th century, European visitors to India became aware of similarities between Indian and European languages<ref name="auroux">{{cite book |first=Sylvain |last=Auroux |title=History of the Language Sciences |page=1156 |isbn=3-11-016735-2 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin, New York |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yasNy365EywC&q=3110167352&pg=PA1156}}</ref> and as early as 1653 ] had published a proposal for a ] ("Scythian") for ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and (incorrectly) ].<ref name=Blench>Roger Blench . In: ''A Companion To Archaeology''. J. Bintliff ed. 52–74. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2004.</ref> | |||
In a memoir sent to the French Academy of Sciences in 1767 ], a French Jesuit who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the existing analogy between ] and European languages.<ref>{{cite web|first=Kip|last=Wheeler|title=The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses|url=http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/IE_Main4_Sanskrit.html|publisher=Dr.Wheeler's Website|access-date=16 April 2013}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See: | |||
* {{citation|last=Duperron|first=Anquetil|title=Histoire et mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, de 1701 à 1793|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=It67j8ZjoZwC&pg=PA647|year=1808|publisher=imprimerie royale}} | |||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Godfrey | first1 = John J. | year = 1967 | title = Sir William Jones and Père Coeurdoux: A philological footnote | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 87 | issue = 1| pages = 57–59 | doi = 10.2307/596596 | jstor = 596596 }}}} | |||
In 1786 ], a judge in the ], Calcutta, linguist, and classics scholar, on studying ], postulated, in his ''Third Anniversary Discourse '' to the ], a proto-language uniting ], ], ], ], ] and ], but in many ways his work was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included ], ] and ] in the ], while omitting ]<ref name=Blench/> and ]:{{sfn|Campbell|Poser|2008|p=37}}<ref name=Patil>{{cite book|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy : a Commemoration Volume in Honour of Pandit Jankinath Kaul "Kamal" |year=2003 |page=249 |author=Patil, Narendranath B. |publisher=] Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC&pg=PA249|isbn=9788120819535 }}</ref> | |||
{{blockquote|The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquities of Persia.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=7}}<ref group=web> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030105123/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/general/histling.html |date=30 October 2007 }}</ref>}} | |||
Jones concluded that all these languages originated from the same source.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=7}} | Jones concluded that all these languages originated from the same source.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=7}} | ||
===Homeland=== | ===Homeland=== | ||
{{Main|Proto-Indo-European homeland}} | |||
Most scholars assumed a homeland either in Europe or in Western Asia, and ] must in this case have reached India by a language transfer from west to east.<ref name="SK" /><ref name="JH" /> | |||
Scholars assume a homeland either in central Asia or in Western Asia, and ] must in this case have reached India by a language transfer from west to east.{{sfn|Senthil Kumar|2012|p=123}}<ref name="JH" /> In 19th century ], the language of the ] was the most archaic Indo-European language known to scholars, indeed the only records of Indo-European that could reasonably claim to date to the ]. This primacy of Sanskrit inspired scholars such as ], to assume that the locus of the ] had been in India, with the other dialects spread to the west by historical migration. {{sfn|Senthil Kumar|2012|p=123}}<ref name="JH" /> | |||
With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze-Age attestations of Indo-European (], ]), ] lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known.{{sfn|Senthil Kumar|2012|p=123}}<ref name="JH">"Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages", by John Hewson, Page 229</ref> | |||
===Aryan invasion=== | |||
With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze-Age attestations of Indo-European (], ]), ] Sanskrit lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known.<ref name="SK">"Read Indussian", by Senthil Kumar A S, - Page 123</ref><ref name="JH">"Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages", by John Hewson, Page 229</ref> The excavation of the ], ] and ] sites of the ] (IVC) in the 1920,{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2001}} showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Inbdo-Aryans migrated inti this area. The theory changed from a migration of "advanced" Aryan people, towards a "primitive" aboriginal population, to a migration of nomadic people into an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the ], or the ] invasion of ].<ref name="GLP" /> | |||
===Aryan "race"=== | |||
The extreme position was the notion a hostile "invasion" into northern India. The ] of the ] at precisely the period in history for which the Indo-Aryan migration had been assumed provides independent support of such an "invasion theory". This argument was developed by the mid-20th century archaeologist ], who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated that the god "] stands accused" of the destruction of the Civilisation.<ref name="GLP" /> This notion of an "Aryan invasion" was criticised for its racist and colonialist undertones: | |||
{{Main|Aryan race|Scientific racism}} | |||
{{quote|The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}}} | |||
] | |||
In the 1850s ] introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, who migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomized the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this "eastern branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer".{{sfn|McGetchin|2015|p=116}} | |||
Scholarly critics noted that no "evidence" was found, and that the skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims.<ref name="GLP">{{cite book |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |author = Gregory L. Possehl |publisher=Rowman Altamira |year=2002 |ISBN=9780759101722| page = 238}}</ref> | |||
] expanded on Müller's two-race Indo-European speaking Aryan invasion theory, concluding that the caste system was a remnant of the Indo-Aryans domination of the native Dravidians, with observable variations in phenotypes between hereditary race-based castes.<ref name="Trautmann2006p203">{{harvnb|Trautmann|2006|p=203}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Study of Ethnology in India |first=Herbert Hope |last=Risley |journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=20 |year=1891 |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |jstor=2842267 |page=253 |doi=10.2307/2842267 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2197610 }}</ref> ] explains that Risley "found a direct relation between the proportion of Aryan blood and the nasal index, along a gradient from the highest castes to the lowest. This assimilation of caste to race proved very influential."{{sfn|Trautmann|2006|page=183}} | |||
Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in ] culture, which often set Indo-European ('Aryan') traditions in opposition to ] religions. He was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in ] terms", as this was far from his intention.{{sfn|Esleben|Kraenzle|Kulkarni|2008}}{{refn|group=note|Esleben: "In later years, especially before his death, he was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms."{{sfn|Esleben|Kraenzle|Kulkarni|2008}}}} For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians".<ref>F. Max Müller, ''Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas'' (1888), Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2004, p.120; Dorothy Matilda Figueira, ''Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity'', SUNY Press, 2002, p.45</ref> In his later work, Max Müller took great care to limit the use of the term "Aryan" to a strictly linguistic one.{{sfn|McGetchin|2015|p=117}} | |||
==="Aryan invasion"=== | |||
The excavation of the ], ] and ] sites of the ] (IVC) in the 1920,{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005}} showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Indo-Aryans migrated into the area. The theory changed from a migration of advanced Aryans towards a primitive aboriginal population, to a migration of nomadic people into an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations during the ], or the ] invasion of ].<ref name="GLP" /> | |||
This possibility was for a short time seen as a hostile invasion into northern India. The ] of the Indus Valley Civilisation at precisely the period in history in which the Indo-Aryan migrations probably took place, seemed to provide independent support of such an invasion. This argument was proposed by the mid-20th century archaeologist ], who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated that the god "] stands accused" of the destruction of the Civilisation.<ref name="GLP" /> | |||
This position was discarded after finding no evidence of wars. The skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims.<ref name="GLP">{{citation |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |first = Gregory L. |last = Possehl |publisher=Rowman Altamira |year=2002 |isbn=9780759101722| page = 238}}</ref> Wheeler himself also nuanced this interpretation in later publications, stating "This is a possibility, but it can't be proven, and it may not be correct."{{sfn|Wheeler|1967|p=76}} Wheeler further notes that the unburied corpses may indicate an event in the final phase of human occupation of Mohenjo-Daro, and that thereafter the place was uninhabited, but that the decay of Mohenjo-Daro has to be ascribed to structural causes such as salinisation.{{sfn|Wheeler|1967|pp=82–83}} | |||
Nevertheless, although 'invasion' was discredited, critics of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory continue to present the theory as an "Aryan Invasion Theory",{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}}{{refn|group=note|According to Bryant, keeping up-to-date is problematic for many Indian scholars, since most Indian universities don't have enough funds to keep up with current scholarship, and most Indian scholars are not able to gain access to recent western publications.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}} Bryant further notes that "while one would be lucky to find a book by Max Muller even in the antique book markets of London, one can find a plethora of recent-edition publications of his and other nineteenth-century scholars' works in just about any bookstore in India (some of these on their tenth or twelfth edition). Practically speaking, it is small Delhi publishers that are keeping the most crude versions of the Aryan invasion theory alive by their nineteenth-century reprints! These are some of the main sources available to most Indian readers."{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}}{{unbalanced opinion|date=August 2020}}}} presenting it as a racist and colonialist discourse: | |||
{{blockquote|The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}}} | |||
===Aryan migration=== | ===Aryan migration=== | ||
] | |||
In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and ] were seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans and their language and culture spread into northwest India around 1500 BC. The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} Michael Witzel: | |||
In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and ] were seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans and their language and culture spread into northwest India around 1500 BCE. The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents{{Who|date=August 2020}} of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=306}} Michael Witzel: | |||
{{quote|...it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: "In these views, though often for quite different reasons, any immigration or trickling in – nearly always called "invasion" – of the (Indo-)Aryans into the subcontinent is suspect or simply denied. The Arya of the RV are supposed to be just another tribe or group of tribes that have always been resident in India, next to Dravidians, Mundas, etc. The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.<br>However, present (European, American, Japanese, etc.) Indologists do not maintain anything like this now While the "invasion model" was still prominent in the work of archaeologists such as Wheeler (1966: "Indra stands accused"), it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades (see Kuiper 1955 sqq.; Thapar 1968; Witzel 1995). This development has not occurred because Indologists were reacting, as is now frequently alleged, to current Indian criticism of the older theory. Rather, philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}}}}} | |||
{{blockquote|...it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: "In these views, though often for quite different reasons, any immigration or trickling in – nearly always called "invasion" – of the (Indo-)Aryans into the subcontinent is suspect or simply denied. The ] of the Rigveda are supposed to be just another tribe or group of tribes that have always been resident in India, next to Dravidians, Mundas, etc. The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.<br />However, present (European, American, Japanese, etc.) Indologists do not maintain anything like this now While the "invasion model" was still prominent in the work of archaeologists such as Wheeler (1966: "Indra stands accused"), it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades (see Kuiper 1955 sqq.; Thapar 1968; Witzel 1995). This development has not occurred because Indologists were reacting, as is now frequently alleged, to current Indian criticism of the older theory. Rather, philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}}}}} | |||
The changed approach was in line with newly developed thinking about language transfer in general, such as the migration of the ] into Greece (between 2100 and 1600 BCE) and their adoption of a syllabic script, ], from the pre-existing ], with the purpose of writing ], or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe (in stages between 2200 and 1300 BCE). | |||
===Future directions=== | |||
==Stages of migrations== | |||
{{update section|date=May 2017}} | |||
{{Indo-European migration}} | |||
Mallory notes that with the development and the growing sophistication of the knowledge on the Indo-European migrations and their purported homeland, new questions arise, and that "it is evident that we still have a very long way to go."{{sfn|Mallory|2012|p=152}} One of those questions is the origin of the shared agricultural vocabulary, and the earliest dates for agriculturalism in areas settled by the Indo-Europeans. Those dates seem to be too late to account for the shared vocabulary, and raise the question what their origin is.{{sfn|Mallory|2012|pp=149–152}} | |||
{{Spread of IE-languages}} | |||
{{See also|Indo-European migrations}} | |||
==Linguistics: relationships between languages== | |||
About 6,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans started to spread-out from their ] in Central Eurasia, between the southern Ural Mountains, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=29}} About 4,000 years ago Indo-European speaking peoples started to migrate out of the Eurasian steppes.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30, 31}}{{refn|group=note|Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley as early as 4200-4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}}}} | |||
].]] | |||
Linguistic research traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs proto-Indo-European. Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into the ], some time in the ].{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|page=16}}<ref>{{cite book|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|first=Karl|last=Schmidt|page=14|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ|year=2015|isbn=978-1317476818}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Central Asia in World History |quote= coming through Afghanistan, entered South Asia around 1500 BCE |first=Peter |last=Golden |page=21 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0199722037 |year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |quote= entered South Asia in the course of the second millennium BCE |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-1139470216 |page=99 |first=Geoffrey |last=Samuel |year=2008}}</ref> The language of the ], the earliest stratum of ], is assigned to about 1500–1200 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2000}} | |||
===Comparative method=== | |||
===Diffusion from the "Urheimat"=== | |||
{{Main|Comparative method}} | |||
] | |||
{{Main|Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses|Kurgan hypothesis|Yamna culture}} | |||
Connections between languages can be traced because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | |||
Most scholars regard the middle Wolga, which was the location of the ] (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), and the ], to be the "Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans, as described by the ]. From this "Urheimat", Indo-European languages spread throughout the Eurasian steppes between ca. 4,500 and 2,500 BCE, forming the ]. | |||
Linguistics use the comparative method to study the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of ], which analyses the internal development of a single language over time.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1993|pp=31 ff}}.</ref> Ordinarily both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesized relationships between languages.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} | |||
===Three stages of Indo-European migrations out of the Eurasian steppes=== | |||
The migration out of Central Eurasia proper took place in three distinct stages.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30}} | |||
The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically ]s are descended from a single ] by comparing lists of ] terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular ]s can then be postulated, which allows the proto-language to be ]. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established with chance similarities ruled out.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} | |||
The first stage occurred at the end of the third millennium.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30}} Indo-European speakers spread to the Caucasus and the Black Sea regions, which were lready inhabited by non-Indo-European speaking peoples.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} Other groups moved out of Central Eurasia, and are the ancestors of the ] and the ].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} | |||
The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars ] and ] and the German scholar ]. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a ] was ], in his ''Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen'', originally published in 1861.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1993|p=26}}.</ref> | |||
New dialects arose in Central Eurasia, among them proto-Indo-Iranian.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the ],{{sfn|Anthony|2009|p=49}} that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in an area of the ]. Proto-Indo-Iranian was influenced linguistically by a non-Indo-European people, from whom the Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} This interaction took place in the area of the Bactria-Margiana Culture, south of the Andronovo-culture, in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} When the Proto-Indo-Iranian dialect had formed, the speakers of the Greek, Italic, Germanic and Armenian dialects, which would subsequently migrate west, and some speakers of the Indo-Iranian dialect, were in turn influenced by another non-Indo-European language.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}} In time, the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians were split not only by language, but also became enemies.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}} | |||
===Proto-Indo-European=== | |||
The second stage occurred around the 17th century BCE, with migrations both to western Europe, and to the Middle East and India.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30, 33}} Indo-European speaking people established themselves in part of Europe, the Near East, India, and China.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30}} The Indo-Aryans split-off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} where-after they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians,{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33 note 20, p.35}} who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}} and "chased to the extremities of Central Eurasia,"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}} to the Levant and India.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33 note 20}} | |||
] (PIE) is the ] of the common ancestor of the ]. ] 1861 reconstruction of PIE was the first proposed ] to be accepted by modern linguists.{{sfn|Lehmann|1993|p=26}} More work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language, and it is by far the best understood among all proto-languages of its age. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European or its daughter proto-languages such as ], and most of the current techniques of ] in ] (e.g., the ] and the method of ]) were developed as a result.<ref name="Fox">{{cite book |last1=Fox |first1=Anthony |title=Linguistic Reconstruction: An introduction to theory and method |date=1995 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |pages=17–19}}</ref> | |||
PIE must have been spoken as a single language or a group of related dialects (before divergence began), though estimates of when this was by different authorities can vary massively, from the 7th millennium BCE to the second.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mallory |first1=James |editor1-last=Blench |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=98–99 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H9qJAgAAQBAJ&dq=dating+proto+indo+european&pg=PA93 |access-date=26 December 2021 |chapter=The Homelands of the Indo-Europeans|isbn=9781134828777 }}</ref> A ] have been proposed for the origin and spread of the language, the most popular among linguists being the ], which postulates an origin in the ] of Eastern Europe in the 5th or 4th millennia BCE.<ref name="parpola">{{cite book |last1=Parpola|editor1-last=Blench |editor1-first=Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language, Vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts |publisher=Routledge |location=London |page=181}}</ref> Features of the culture of the speakers of PIE, known as ], have also been reconstructed based on the shared vocabulary of the early ] Indo-European languages.<ref name="parpola" /> | |||
The third stage occurred late in the second millennium, or beginning of the first millennium BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30}} It consisted of the Celtic, Slavic, Albanian, and Iranian peoples.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=34}} | |||
As mentioned above, the existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between ], ], and ]. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements).{{sfn|Lehmann|1993|p=26}} The largest developments of the 20th century were the discovery of the ] and ] and the acceptance of the ]. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo-European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} Relationships to other language families, including the ], have been proposed but remain controversial.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} | |||
===Formation of Indo-Iranians=== | |||
Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of ]s consisting of the ], ], ] and ]s; that is, speakers of ], a major branch of the ]. | |||
PIE is thought to have had a complex system of ] that included ] as well as ] (vowel alterations, as preserved in English ''sing, sang, sung''). Nouns and verbs had complex systems of ] and ] respectively.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} | |||
The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the ],{{sfn|Anthony|2009|p=49}} that flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in an area of the ] that borders the ] on the west, the ] on the east. The older ] (2100–1800), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon. | |||
===Arguments against an Indian origin of proto-Indo-European=== | |||
The Indo-Aryan migration was part of the Indo-Iranian migrations from the ] into Anatolia, Iran and South-Asia.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} | |||
==== |
====Diversity==== | ||
According to the linguistic center of gravity principle, the most likely point of origin of a language family is in the area of its greatest diversity.{{sfn|Sapir|1949|p=455}}{{refn|group=note|], as cited in {{harvnb|Mallory|1989|p=152}}}} By this criterion, Northern India, home to only a single branch of the Indo-European language family (i.e., ]), is an exceedingly unlikely candidate for the Indo-European homeland, compared to Central-Eastern Europe, for example, which is home to the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] branches of Indo-European.{{sfn|Mallory|1989|pp=152–153}} | |||
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right;" | |||
Both mainstream ] solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the ].{{sfn|Mallory|1989|pp=177–185}} | |||
====Dialectal variation==== | |||
{{Technical|section|date=August 2020}} | |||
It has been recognized since the mid-19th century, beginning with ] and ], that a binary ] cannot capture all linguistic alignments; certain ]s cut across language groups and are better explained through a model treating linguistic change like ] rippling out through a pond. This is true of the ] as well. Various features originated and spread while ] was still a ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Hock|1991|p=454}}</ref> These features sometimes cut across sub-families: for instance, the ], ] and ] plurals in ] and ] feature endings beginning with -m-, rather than the usual -*bh-, e.g. ] dative plural '']'' 'to the sons' and ] instrumental plural '']'' 'with sons',<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fortson|2004|p=106}}</ref> despite the fact that the Germanic languages are ], while Balto-Slavic languages are ]. | |||
The strong correspondence between the ] of the Indo-European languages and their actual geographical arrangement in their earliest attested forms makes an ] origin, as suggested by the ], unlikely.<ref name=hock1999>Hock (1996), "Out of India? The linguistic evidence", in {{Harvtxt|Bronkhorst|Deshpande|1999}}.</ref> | |||
====Substrate influence==== | |||
{{Main|Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit}} | |||
Already in the 1870s the Neogrammarians{{Who|date=August 2020}} realised that the Greek/Latin vocalism couldn't be explained on the basis of the Sanskrit one, and therefore must be more original.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} The Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages influenced each other, with the Finno-Ugric languages containing Indo-European loan words. A telling example is the Finnish word ''vasara'', "hammer", which is related to '']'', the weapon of ]. Since the Finno-Ugric homeland was located in the northern forest zone in northern Europe, the contacts must have taken place – in line with the placement of the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic-Caspian steppes – between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/> | |||
Dravidian and other South Asian languages share with Indo-Aryan a number of ] and ] features that are alien to other Indo-European languages, including even its closest relative, ]. ], there is the introduction of ], which alternate with ] in Indo-Aryan; morphologically there are the ]s; and syntactically there is the use of a ] ] (''iti'').{{refn|group=note|Krishnamurti states: "Besides, the {{IAST|Ṛg}} ] has used the gerund, not found in ], with the same grammatical function as in ], as a non-finite verb for 'incomplete' action. {{IAST|Ṛg}} Vedic language also attests the use of it as a quotation clause complementary. All these features are not a consequence of simple borrowing but they indicate substratum influence (Kuiper 1991: ch 2)".}} These are taken as evidence of ] influence. | |||
It has been argued {{By whom|date=July 2012}} that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", whereby native Dravidian speakers learned and adopted Indic languages.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Erdosy|1995|p=18}}</ref> Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of ]; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=141–144}}</ref> | |||
A pre-Indo-European linguistic ] in the ] would be a good reason to exclude India as a potential Indo-European homeland.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=76}}</ref> However, several linguists{{Who|date=August 2020}}, all of whom accept the external origin of the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments rather than the result of substrate influences,<ref>Hamp 1996 and Jamison 1989, as cited in {{Harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|pp=81–82}}</ref> or as ] effects.<ref>Hock 1975/1984/1996 and Tikkanen 1987, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|pp=78–82}}</ref> | |||
{{anchor|Archaeological evidence}} | |||
==Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat== | |||
{{See also|Indo-European migrations}} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |||
! colspan=1 class="navbox-title" | Sintashta-Petrovka culture | |||
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0 auto;" | |||
|- | |||
! Indo-European migration | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
] 3500–2000 BCE.]] | |||
]. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed '']'' (], ]). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to c. 2500 BCE; the orange area to 1000 BCE. (Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), ''Empires of the Silk Road'', Oxford University Press, p.30)]] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
|- | |- | ||
|]-wheeled ] finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures (], ], ]) are shown in green.]] | |||
|} | |} | ||
|- | |||
| | |||
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0 auto;" | |||
|- | |||
! Spread of IE-languages | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
The Sintashta, Andronovo, ] and Yaz cultures have been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations in Central Asia.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The ], ], ] and ] cultures are candidates for subsequent cultures within South Asia associated with Indo-Aryan movements.{{Context inline|date=August 2020}} The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation predates the Indo-Aryan migrations, but archeological data show a cultural continuity in the archeological record. Together with the presence of Dravidian loanwords in the Rigveda, this{{Clarify|reason=|date=August 2020}} argues in favor of an interaction between post-Harappan and Indo-Aryan cultures.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} | |||
===Stages of migrations=== | |||
About 6,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans started to spread out from their ] in Central Eurasia, between the southern Ural Mountains, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=29}} About 4,000 years ago Indo-European speaking peoples started to migrate out of the Eurasian steppes.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30, 31}}{{refn|group=note|Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley as early as 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}}}} | |||
====Diffusion from the "Urheimat"==== | |||
{{Main|Proto-Indo-European homeland|Kurgan hypothesis|Yamnaya culture}} | |||
Scholars regard the middle Volga, which was the location of the ] (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), and the ], to be the "Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans, as described by the ]. From this "Urheimat", Indo-European languages spread throughout the Eurasian steppes between c. 4,500 and 2,500 BCE, forming the ]. | |||
====Sequence of migrations==== | |||
David Anthony gives an elaborate overview of the sequence of migrations. | |||
The oldest attested Indo-European language is Hittite, which belongs to the oldest written Indo-European languages, the Anatolian branch.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=43}} Although the Hittites are placed in the 2nd millennium BCE,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=43–46}} the Anatolian branch seems to predate Proto-Indo-European, and may have developed from an older Pre-Proto-Indo-European ancestor.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=47–48}} If it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it is likely to have done so between 4500 and 3500 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=48}} | |||
A migration of archaic Proto-Indo-European speaking steppe herders into the ] took place about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}} | |||
According to Mallory and Adams, migrations southward founded the Maykop culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE),{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=372}} and eastward the Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE),{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=4}} which developed into the Tocharians (c. 3700–3300 BCE).{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=101, 264–265}} | |||
According to Anthony, between 3100 and 2800/2600 BCE, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place toward the west, into the Danube Valley.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=345, 361–367}} These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=344}} According to Anthony, this was followed by a movement north, which split away Baltic-Slavic c. 2800 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=101}} Pre-Armenian split off at the same time.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=100}} According to Parpola, this migration is related to the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe in Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=37–38}} | |||
The ] in Middle Europe ( 2900–2450/2350 cal. BCE),<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.comp-archaeology.org/CordedWare.htm | last = Baldia | first = Maximilian O | title = The Corded Ware/Single Grave Culture | year = 2006 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020131212107/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/CordedWare.htm | archive-date = 31 January 2002 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> has been associated with some of the languages in the ] family. According to Haak et al. (2015) a massive migration took place from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe. ] This migration is closely associated with the Corded Ware culture.{{sfn|Haak|Lazaridis|Patterson|Rohland|2015}}<ref group="web" name="MPG-massive migration"></ref><ref group="web" name="Nature-EC"></ref> | |||
The Indo-Iranian language and culture emerged in the ] (c. 2050–1900 BCE),<ref name="cambridge.org">Lindner, Stephan, (2020). , in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 367: "...The 12 calibrated radiocarbon dates belonging to the Sintashta horizon range between 2050 and 1760 cal BC (at 95.4% confidence; Epimakhov & Krause 2013: 137). These dates correlate well with the seven AMS-sampled Sintashta graves in the associated KA-5cemetery, which date to 2040–1730 cal BC (95.4% confidence...)".</ref> where the chariot was invented.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} Allentoft et al. (2015) found close ] genetic relationship between peoples of ] and Sintashta culture, which "suggests similar genetic sources of the two", and may imply that "the Sintashta derives directly from an eastward migration of Corded Ware peoples".{{sfn|Allentoft|Sikora|Sjögren|Rasmussen|2015}} | |||
The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c. 2000–1450 BCE), and influenced by the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (c. 2250–1700 BCE). The Indo-Aryans split off sometime around 2000–1600 BCE from the Iranians,<ref name="Lubotsky" /> after which Indo-Aryan groups are thought to have moved to the Levant (]), the northern Indian subcontinent (], c. 1500 BCE), and China (]).{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}} Thereafter the Iranians migrated into Iran.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}} | |||
===Central Asia: formation of Indo-Iranians=== | |||
Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of ]s consisting of the ], ] and ]; that is, speakers of ]. | |||
The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the ],{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} that flourished c. 2000–1450 BCE in an area of the ] that borders the ] on the west, the ] on the east. The older ] (2200–1900), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon. | |||
The Indo-Aryan migration was part of the Indo-Iranian migrations from the ] into Anatolia, Iran and South Asia.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} | |||
====Sintashta-Petrovka culture==== | |||
{{Main|Sintashta culture}} | {{Main|Sintashta culture}} | ||
] | |||
]-wheeled ] finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures (], ] and ] cultures) are shown in green.]] | |||
The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture<ref name="Koryakova 1998b">{{Harvnb|Koryakova|1998b}}.</ref> or Sintashta-Arkaim culture,<ref name="Koryakova 1998a">{{Harvnb|Koryakova|1998a}}.</ref> is a ] ] of the northern ] on the borders of ] and ], dated to the period |
The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture<ref name="Koryakova 1998b">{{Harvnb|Koryakova|1998b}}.</ref> or Sintashta-Arkaim culture,<ref name="Koryakova 1998a">{{Harvnb|Koryakova|1998a}}.</ref> is a ] ] of the northern ] on the borders of ] and ], dated to the period 2200–1900 ].<ref name="cambridge.org"/> The Sintashta culture is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=390 (fig. 15.9), 405–411}} | ||
The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the ], an offshoot of the cattle-herding ] that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE.<ref name="Anthony 2007 pp. 385-388">{{Harvnb|Anthony|2007|pp=386–388}}</ref> Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltovka settlements or close to Poltovka cemeteries, and Poltovka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery. Sintashta ] also shows the influence of the late ], a collection of ] settlements in the ] zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=385–388}} Allentoft et al. (2015) also found close ] genetic relationship between peoples of ] and Sintashta culture.{{sfn|Allentoft|Sikora|Sjögren|Rasmussen|2015}} | |||
The earliest known ]s have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the ] and played an important role in ].<ref name="Kuznetsov 2006">{{Harvnb|Kuznetsov|2006}}.</ref> Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of ] mining and ] ] carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.<ref name="Hanks & Linduff 2009">{{Harvnb|Hanks|Linduff|2009}}.</ref> | The earliest known ]s have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the ] and played an important role in ].<ref name="Kuznetsov 2006">{{Harvnb|Kuznetsov|2006}}.</ref> Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of ] mining and ] ] carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.<ref name="Hanks & Linduff 2009">{{Harvnb|Hanks|Linduff|2009}}.</ref> | ||
Line 112: | Line 257: | ||
====Andronovo culture==== | ====Andronovo culture==== | ||
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right;" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=1 class="navbox-title" | Andronovo culture | |||
|- | |||
|] (] and ])(after ]). The ], ] and ] cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The ], ], ] and ] cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements.]] | |||
|} | |||
{{Main|Andronovo culture}} | {{Main|Andronovo culture}} | ||
] ] and ] migrations (after ]). The ], ] and ]s have often been associated with ] migrations. The ], ], ] and ] cultures are candidates for cultures associated with ] migrations.]] | |||
The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local ] ] cultures that flourished {{circa}} 2000–1450 BC in western ] and the central ].<ref name="Grigoriev"/><ref>Parpola, Asko, (2020). , in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, Oct 23, 2020, '''p.188''': "...the Alakul’ culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture | |||
(c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."</ref> It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or ]. The name derives from the village of Andronovo ({{coord|55|53|N|55|42|E}}), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. | |||
The older ] (2050–1900 BCE), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered{{By whom|date=August 2020}} separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon. | |||
Currently only two sub-cultures are considered as part of Andronovo culture: | |||
The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local ] ] cultures that flourished ''ca.'' 1800–1400 BCE in western ] and the west ]. It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or ]. The name derives from the village of Andronovo ({{coord|55|53|N|55|42|E|}}), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. | |||
*'''Alakul''' (2000–1700 BC)<ref name="Parpola" /> between ] (today ]), and ], ] | |||
The older ] (2100–1800), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon. | |||
*'''Fëdorovo''' (2000–1450 BC)<ref>Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209201910/https://www.academia.edu/45686126/Andronovo%20Problem%20Studies%20of%20Cultural%20Genesis%20in%20the%20Eurasian%20Bronze%20Age |date=9 December 2021 }}, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), '''p.28:''' ".... The Fyodorovka dates in the north of the forest- | |||
steppe Tobol region are close to the dates in the Southern Transurals and lie in the interval of the 20th–16th centuries | |||
BC...Fyodorovka culture, in general, is synchronous with Alakul..."</ref><ref name="Parpola" /> in southern Siberia (earliest evidence of ] and ]<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Diakonoff|Kuz'mina|Ivantchik|1995|p=473}}</ref>) | |||
Other authors identified previously the following sub-cultures also as part of Andronovo: | |||
Sub-cultures have been distinguished: | |||
*'''Eastern Fedorovo''' (1750–1500 BC)<ref>Jia, Peter W., Alison Betts, Dexin Cong, Xiaobing Jia, & Paula Doumani Dupuy, (2017). "Adunqiaolu: new evidence for the Andronovo in Xinjiang, China", in _Antiquity 91 (357)_, pp. 632, 634, 637.</ref> in ] mountains (Northwestern ], China), southeastern ], eastern ] | |||
*Alakul (1800–1400 BCE) | |||
*'''Alekseyevka''' (1200–1000 BC)<ref>Mallory, J.P., (1997). "Andronovo Culture", in J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams (eds.),_Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture_, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, London and Chicago, p. 20.</ref> "final Bronze Age phase" in eastern Kazakhstan, contacts with ] VI in Turkmenia | |||
*] (1700–1300 BCE) | |||
*] (1200–1000 BCE) | |||
The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, ] in the ] |
The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, ] in the ]–] interfluvial. To the east, it reaches into the ] depression, with some sites as far west as the southern ],<ref name=camhist>{{citation|chapter=Inner Asia at the dawn of history|last=Okladnikov|first=A. P.|title=The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24304-9|pages=83}}</ref> overlapping with the area of the earlier ].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Mallory|1989|p=62}}</ref> Additional sites are scattered as far south as the ] (]), the ] (]) and the ] (]). The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the ].<ref name="camhist" /> In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as ]. | ||
Towards the middle of the 2nd millennium, the Andronovo cultures begin to move intensively eastwards. They mined deposits of ] ore in the ] and lived in villages of as many as ten sunken log cabin houses measuring up to 30m by 60m in size. Burials were made in stone ]s or stone enclosures with buried timber chambers. | Towards the middle of the 2nd millennium, the Andronovo cultures begin to move intensively eastwards. They mined deposits of ] ore in the ] and lived in villages of as many as ten sunken log cabin houses measuring up to 30m by 60m in size. Burials were made in stone ]s or stone enclosures with buried timber chambers. | ||
In other respects, the economy was pastoral, based on ], ]s, ], and ]s.<ref name="camhist" /> While agricultural use has been posited, no clear evidence has been presented.<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: ] in ] is believed to have been constructed by Sintashta-Petrovka tribes some 4000 years ago.]] --> | In other respects, the economy was pastoral, based on ], ]s, ], and ]s.<ref name="camhist" /> While agricultural use has been posited,{{By whom|date=August 2020}} no clear evidence has been presented.<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: ] in ] is believed to have been constructed by Sintashta-Petrovka tribes some 4000 years ago.]] --> | ||
Studies associate the Andronovo horizon with early ], though it may have overlapped the early ]-speaking area at its northern fringe, including the ]-speaking area at its northeastern fringe.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224111409/http://turkic-languages.scienceontheweb.net/Proto_Turkic_Urheimat.html |date=24 December 2013}} (Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic from the archaeological perspective), 2009–2012.</ref><ref name="Johanson68">]. "The Reconstruction of Proto-Turkic and the Genetic Question." In: '''', pp. 67–80. 1998.</ref>{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=51-68}} | |||
Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19–20th century BCE attestation at the Andronovo site of ], Kuz'mina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian.{{sfn|Kuz'mina|1994}}{{refn|group=note|] (1974), as cited in {{Harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|p=206}}, acknowledges the Iranian identification of the Andronovo-culture, but finds the Andronovo culture too late for an Indo-Iranian identification, giving a later date for the start of the Andronovo-culture "in the 16th or 17th century BC, whereas the Aryans appeared in the Near East not later than the 15th to 16th century BCE.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=206}} Klejn (1974, p.58) further argues that "these regions contain nothing reminiscent of Timber-Frame Andronovo materials."{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=206}} Brentjes (1981) also gives a later dating for the Andronovo-culture.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}} Bryant further refers to Lyonnet (1993) and Francfort (1989), who point to the absence of archaeological remains of the Andronovians south of the Hindu Kush.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}} Bosch-Gimpera (1973) and Hiebert (1998) argue that there also no Andronovo-remains in Iran,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}} but Hiebert "agrees that the expansion of the BMAC people to the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley borderlands at the beginning of the second millennium BCE is 'the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia' (Hiebert 1995:192)".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=76}} Sarianidi states that the Andronovo-tribes "penetrated to a minimum extent".{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=207}}}} {{Harvcoltxt|Anthony|Vinogradov|1995}} dated a ] at ] to about 2000 BCE and a ] burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.<ref name ="Bryant chariot origin references">{{Harvcoltxt|Anthony|Vinogradov|1995}}; Kuzmina (1994), Klejn (1974), and Brentjes (1981), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=206}}</ref> | |||
====Bactria-Margiana Culture==== | |||
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right;" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan=1 class="navbox-title" | BMAC | |||
|- | |||
|]).]] | |||
|} | |||
{{Main|BMAC}} | |||
The Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex", was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-European groups of the second stage of the Indo-European migrations.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} | |||
Mallory acknowledges the difficulties of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures "only gets the ] to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the ], Persians or Indo-Aryans". He has developed the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over ] cultural traits but preserving their language and religion{{Contradictory inline|reason=Next section says - borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"|date=August 2020}} while moving into Iran and India.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=216}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=76}} Fred Hiebert also agrees that an expansion of the BMAC into Iran and the margin of the Indus Valley is "the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia."{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=76}} According to Narasimhan et al. (2018), the expansion of the Andronovo culture towards the BMAC took place via the ].{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018}} | |||
The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the ] (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} from the ].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god ] and the ritual drink ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454-455}} | |||
====Bactria-Margiana culture==== | |||
===Two waves of Indo-Aryan migration=== | |||
{{Main|Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex}} | |||
])]] | |||
The Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex", was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-Iranians.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} | |||
The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs{{Contradictory inline|reason="... the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over Bactria-Margiana cultural traits but preserving their language and religion ..."|date=August 2020}} and practices from this culture.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the ] (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=462}} which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} from the ].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god ] and the ritual drink ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}} | |||
The characteristically ] (southern ]/northern ]) artifacts found at burials in ] and ] are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Allchin|1995|pp=47–48}}<br />Hiebert & Lamberg-Karlovsky (1992), Kohl (1984), and Parpola (1994), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=215}}</ref> The Indo-Aryan tribes may have been present in the area of the BMAC from 1700 BCE at the latest (incidentally corresponding with the decline of that culture). | |||
From the BMAC, the Indo-Aryans moved into the ]. According to Bryant, the ] material inventory of the Mehrgarh and Baluchistan burials is "evidence of an archaeological intrusion into the subcontinent from Central Asia during the commonly accepted time frame for the arrival of the Indo-Aryans".{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=215}}{{refn|group=note|Nevertheless, archaeologists like B.B. Lal have seriously questioned the ] and Indo-Iranian "connections", and thoroughly disputed all the proclaimed relations.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/19th-century-paradigms.html|title=To Revert to the Theory of 'Aryan Invasion' (Part 1)|last=admin|date=29 April 2014}}</ref>}} | |||
====Multiple waves of migration into northern India==== | |||
{{see also|Inner–Outer hypothesis}} | |||
] and ] are associated with early ] migrations.]] | |||
According to ], Indo-Aryan clans migrated into South Asia in subsequent waves.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} This explains the diversity of views found in the Rig Veda, and may also explain the existence of various Indo-Aryan cultural complexes in the later Vedic period, namely the Vedic culture centered on the ] in the heartland of ] in the western Ganges plain, and the cultural complex of ] at the eastern Ganges plain, which gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} | |||
Writing in 1998, Parpola postulated a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the ] and the ], c.q. ], and an immigration to the Punjab . 1700–1400 BCE.{{sfn|Parpola|1998}}{{refn|group=note|However, this culture may also represent forerunners of the Indo-Iranians, similar to the ] and Kassite invasion of Mesopotamia early in the second millennium BCE.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}}} In 2020, Parpola proposed an even earlier wave of ] speaking people from the ]{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=186}} into India at c. 1900 BCE, related to the Copper Hoard Culture, followed by a pre-Rig Vedic Indo-Aryan wave of migration:{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=176, 191}} | |||
{{blockquote|It seems, then, that the earliest Aryan-speaking immigrants to South Asia, the ], came with bull-drawn carts (Sanauli and Daimabad) via the BMAC and had Proto-Indo-Iranian as their language. They were, however, soon followed (and probably at least partially absorbed) by early Indo-Aryans.{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=191}}}} | |||
This pre-Rig-Vedic wave of migration by early Indo-Aryans is associated by Parpola with "the early (Ghalegay IV–V) phase of the ]" and the ] tradition, and related to the ].{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=191-192}} The Rig-Vedic wave followed several centuries later, "perhaps in the fourteenth century BCE", and is associated by Parpola with the ].{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=192}} | |||
According to Kochhar there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase:{{sfn|Kochhar|2000|pp=185–186}} | |||
# the "Murghamu" (]) related people who entered ] at Pirak, Mehrgarh south cemetery, and other places, and later merged with the post-urban Harappans during the late Harappans Jhukar phase (2000–1800 BCE); | |||
# the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000–1800 BCE); | |||
# and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the ] (PGW) (to 1400 BCE). | |||
=====Gandhara grave culture and Ochre Coloured Pottery culture===== | |||
{{Main|Gandhara grave culture|Ochre Coloured Pottery culture}} | |||
The standard model{{By whom|date=August 2020}} for the entry of the Indo-European languages into India is that Indo-Aryan migrants went over the ], forming the ] or Swat culture, in present-day ], into the headwaters of either the ] or the ] (probably both). The ], which emerged c. 1600 BCE and flourished from c. 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in Gandhara, modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, is thus the most likely locus of the earliest bearers of ]. About 1800 BCE, there is a major cultural change in the ] with the emergence of the ]. With its introduction of new ceramics, new burial rites, and the horse, the ] grave culture is a major candidate for early Indo-Aryan presence. The two new burial rites—flexed inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an urn—were, according to early Vedic literature, both practiced in early Indo-Aryan society. Horse-trappings indicate the importance of the horse to the economy of the Gandharan grave culture. Two horse burials indicate the importance of the horse in other respects. Horse burial is a custom that Gandharan grave culture has in common with Andronovo, though not within the distinctive timber-frame graves of the steppe.<ref name = M1989>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}</ref> | |||
Parpola (2020) states: | |||
{{blockquote|The dramatic new discovery of cart burials dated to c. 1900 at ] have been reviewed in this paper, and they support my proposal of a pre-Ṛvedic wave (now set of waves) of Aryan speakers arriving in South Asia and their making contact with the Late Harappans.{{sfn|Parpola|2020|p=194}}}} | |||
===Two waves of Indo-Iranian migration=== | |||
{{See also|Indo-Iranians}} | {{See also|Indo-Iranians}} | ||
The Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves,{{sfn|Burrow|1973}}{{sfn|Parpola|1999}} belonging to the second and the third stage of the Indo-European migrations.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009| |
The Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves,{{sfn|Burrow|1973}}{{sfn|Parpola|1999}} belonging to the second and the third stage of Beckwith's description of the Indo-European migrations.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=32–34}} The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant, seemingly founding the ] kingdom in northern Syria{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}} (c. 1600–1350 BCE),<ref name="academia.edu"/> and the migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33 note 20}} ] suggests that the ], an ] ] people of ] in ], were also of Indo-Aryan origin.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}} The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.{{sfn|Mallory|1989|pp=42–43}} | ||
===First wave |
===First wave – Indo-Aryan migrations=== | ||
====Mittani==== | ====Mittani==== | ||
] | |||
{{Main|Mitanni}} | {{Main|Mitanni}} | ||
] | |||
''Mitanni'' (]{{transl|hit|]<sup>]</sup>''Mi-ta-an-ni''}}), also ''Mittani'' ({{transl|hit|Mi-it-ta-ni}}) or ''Hanigalbat'' (]n ''Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat'' cuneiform ''{{transl|akk|Ḫa-ni-gal-bat}}'') or ''Naharin'' in ancient Egyptian texts was an ]-speaking state in northern ] and south-east ] from ca. 1500 BC–1300 BC. | |||
Mitanni (] {{transliteration|hit|]<sup>]</sup>Mi-ta-an-ni}}), also Mittani ({{transliteration|hit|Mi-it-ta-ni}}) or Hanigalbat (]n Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform {{transliteration|akk|Ḫa-ni-gal-bat}}) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was a ]-speaking state in northern ] and south-east ] from {{Circa|1600 BCE}} – 1350 BCE.<ref name="academia.edu">Novák, Mirko, (2013). , in Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie I, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, p. 349.</ref> | |||
According to one hypothesis, founded by an ] ruling class governing a predominately ] population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of ]<ref>{{citation |title = The Kingdom of the Hittites |first=Trevor |last=Bryce |publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2005 | page = 98}}</ref> ] and a series of ineffectual ]n kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At the beginning of its history, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the ]. However, with the ascent of the ] empire, Mitanni and Egypt made an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} | |||
At the height of its power, during the 14th century |
At the height of its power, during the 14th century BCE, Mitanni had outposts centered on its capital, ], whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the ]. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the ] of a distinct pottery type. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and was reduced to the status of a province of the ].{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} | ||
The earliest written evidence for an Indo-Aryan language is found not in Northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and |
The earliest written evidence for an ] is found not in Northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} The Old Indic term ], meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rigveda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} Old Indic gods, including ], were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=50}}{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=1412}} | ||
====North-India |
====North-India – Vedic culture==== | ||
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right;margin:0 auto;" | |||
{{Spread of Vedic culture}} | |||
|- | |||
! Spread of Vedic culture | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] (1200–600 BCE)]] | |||
] of the Late Vedic Period.]] | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===== |
=====Spread of Vedic-Brahmanic culture===== | ||
{{Main|Vedic period}} | |||
The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into India is that Indo-Aryan migrants went over the ], forming the Gandhara grave (or ]) culture, either into the headwaters of the ] or the ] (probably both). The Gandhara grave culture is thus the most likely locus of the earliest bearers of Rigvedic culture, and based on this {{Harvcoltxt|Parpola|1998}} assumes an immigration to the Punjab ca. 1700-1400 BC, but he also postulates a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BC, corresponding to the ]. {{refn|group=note|However, this culture may also represent forerunners of the Indo-Iranians, similar to the ] and Kassite invasion of Mesopotamia early in the second millennium BC.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}}} | |||
]; the extent of the ] and Cemetery H cultures are indicated.]] | |||
Kochhar argues that there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase:{{sfn|Kochhar|2000|pp=185-186}} | |||
During the Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–800 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Early Vedic period" />) the Indo-Aryan culture was centered in the northern Punjab, or ].<ref group=web name="EB-Early Vedic period"></ref> During the Later Vedic Period (c. 800–500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period" />) the Indo-Aryan culture started to extend into the western Ganges Plain,<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period"></ref> centering on the Vedic ] and ] area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} and had some influence{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} at the central Ganges Plain after 500 BCE.<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period"></ref> Sixteen ] developed at the Ganges Plain, of which the ] and ] became the most notable developed centers of Vedic culture, at the western Ganges Plain.<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period" />{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} | |||
# the "Murghamu" (]) related people who entered ] at Pirak, Mehrgarh south cemetery, etc. and later merged with the post-urban Harappans during the late Harappans Jhukar phase (2000-1800 BCE); | |||
# the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000-1800 BCE); | |||
# and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the Painted Grey Ware culture (to 1400 BCE). | |||
The Central Ganges Plain, where ] gained prominence, forming the base of the ], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} with new states arising after 500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period" /> during the so-called "Second urbanisation".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=42–48}}{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in the ] and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region the ] movements flourished, and ] and ] originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} | |||
Among proponents of Indo-Aryan origin outside of the Indian Subcontinent, there is varying opinion on whether the migrants originated ] literature such as the ],<ref name ="Bryant, 2001, Page 91">{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=91}}</ref> cultural and social constructs such as ],<ref name ="Bamshad, et al. (2001)">{{Harvcoltxt|Bamshad|2001}}</ref> and technology such as chariots<ref name ="Bryant chariot origin references">{{Harvcoltxt|Anthony|Vinogradov|1995}}<br>Kuzmina (1994), Klejn (1974), and Brentjes (1981), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=206}}</ref> and weaponry. | |||
==== |
====Indus Valley Civilization==== | ||
The Indo-Aryan migration into the northern ] started shortly after the decline of the ] (IVC). According to the "Aryan Invasion Theory" this decline was caused by "invasions" of barbaric and violent Aryans who conquered the IVC. This "Aryan Invasion Theory" is not supported by the archeological and genetic data, and is not representative of the "Indo-Aryan migration theory".{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}} | |||
{{Main|Vedic period}} | |||
=====Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation===== | |||
During the Early Vedic Period (ca.1500-800 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Early Vedic period" />) the Vedic culture was centered in the northern Punjab, or ].<ref group=web name="EB-Early Vedic period"></ref> During the Later Vedic Period (ca.800-500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period" />) the Vedic culture started to extend into the western Ganges Plain,<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period"></ref> centering around ] and ],{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} and had some influence{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} at the central Ganges Plain after 500 BCE.<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period"></ref> Sixteen ] developed at the Ganges Plain, of which the ] and ] became the most notable developed centers of Vedic culture, at the western Ganges Plain<ref group=web name="EB-Later Vedic Period" />{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} | |||
The decline of the IVC from about 1900 BCE started before the onset of the Indo-Aryan migrations, caused by aridisation due to shifting mossoons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malik|first=Nishant|date=2020|title=Uncovering transitions in paleoclimate time series and the climate driven demise of an ancient civilization.|journal=Chaos|volume=30|issue=8|page=083108|doi=10.1063/5.0012059|pmid=32872795|bibcode=2020Chaos..30h3108M|s2cid=221468124}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=New mathematical method shows how climate change led to the fall of an ancient civilization|url=https://www.rit.edu/news/new-mathematical-method-shows-how-climate-change-led-fall-ancient-civilization}}</ref> A regional cultural discontinuity occurred during the second millennium BCE and many Indus Valley cities were abandoned during this period, while many new settlements began to appear in ] and East Punjab and other settlements such as in the western ] region increased in size.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} | |||
] and Lichtenstein contend that in the second millennium BCE considerable "location processes" took place. In the eastern Punjab 79.9% and in ] 96% of sites changed settlement status. According to Shaffer & Lichtenstein, | |||
The Central Ganges Plain, were ] gained prominence, forming the base of the ], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48-51}} with new states arising after 500 BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period" /> during the socalled "Second urbanisation".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=42-48}}{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48-51}} It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region the ] movements flourished, and ] and ] originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}{{refn|group=note|name="Jainism-Buddhism"}} | |||
{{blockquote|It is evident that a major geographic population shift accompanied this 2nd millennium BCE localisation process. This shift by Harappan and, perhaps, other Indus Valley cultural mosaic groups, is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in the ] before the first half of the first millennium B.C.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=139}}}} | |||
==== |
=====Continuity of Indus Valley civilization===== | ||
According to Erdosy, the ancient Harappans were not markedly different from modern populations in Northwestern India and present-day Pakistan. Craniometric data showed similarity with prehistoric peoples of the Iranian plateau and Western Asia,{{refn|group=note|Comparing the ]n and ] cultures, Kennedy states: "Our multivariate approach does not define the biological identity of an ancient Aryan population, but it does indicate that the Indus Valley and ] peoples shared a number of craniometric, odontometric and discrete traits that point to a high degree of biological affinity." Kennedy in {{harvnb|Erdosy|1995|p=49}}}} although ] was distinct from the other areas of the Indus Valley.{{refn|group=note|]: "Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia? Biological anthropology and concepts of ancient races", in {{harvnb|Erdosy|1995}} at p. 49.}}{{refn|group=note|Cephalic measures, however, may not be a good indicator as they do not necessarily indicate ethnicity and they might vary in different environments. On the use of which, however, see {{sfn|Holloway|2002}}}} | |||
] suggests that the ], an ] ] people of ] in ], were of Indo-Aryan origin.<ref name="Beckwith376">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}}</ref> From the ] term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the ] *âswin, which he compares to the ] aśvin "the horsemen," the name of the ] ].<ref name="Beckwith376"/> Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremeties of the ] by the ] in the 2nd millennium bc.<ref name="Beckwith29">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=29–38}}</ref> | |||
According to Kennedy, there is no evidence of "demographic disruptions" after the decline of the Harappa culture.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=54}}{{refn|group=note|Kennedy: "there is no evidence of demographic disruptions in the north-western sector of the ] during and immediately after the decline of the ]n culture. If ] were a biological entity represented by the skeletons from Timargarha, then their biological features of cranial and dental anatomy were not distinct to a marked degree from what we encountered in the ancient Harappans." Kennedy in {{harvnb|Erdosy|1995|p=54}}}} Kenoyer notes that no biological evidence can be found for major new populations in post-Harappan communities.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=231}}{{refn|group=note|Kenoyer: "there was an overlap between Late ]n and post-Harappan communities ... with no biological evidence for major new populations." Kenoyer as quoted in {{harvnb|Bryant|2001|p=231}}}} Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between ] and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange".{{refn|group=note|Hemphill: "the data provide no support for any model of massive migration and gene flow between the oases of ] and the Indus Valley. Rather, patterns of phonetic affinity best conform to a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange. {{cite journal | last1 = Hemphill | year = 1998 | title = Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. An initial craniometric assessment | journal = ] | volume = 106 | issue = 3| pages = 329–348 | doi = 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199807)106:3<329::aid-ajpa6>3.0.co;2-h | pmid = 9696149}}; {{cite journal | last1 = Hemphill | year = 1999 | title = Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. A Craniometric Investigation of Bactrian Origins | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 108 | issue = 2| pages = 173–192 | doi = 10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199902)108:2<173::aid-ajpa4>3.0.co;2-3 | pmid = 9988380}} }} | |||
The Wusun are first mentioned by ] sources as vassals in the ] of the ],<ref name="Beckwith84">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=84–85}}</ref> an Indo-European Europoid people of possible ] stock.<ref name="Cambridge">{{harvnb|Loewe|Shaughnessy|1999|pp=87–88}}</ref><ref name="Beckwith380">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=380–383}}</ref> Around 175 bc, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the ], also former vassals of the Yuezhi.<ref name="Beckwith380"/><ref name="ChineseHistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/wusun.html |title=Chinese History - Wusun 烏孫 |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |website=Chinaknowledge |publisher= |accessdate=1 January 2015}}</ref> The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo {{lang-zh|昆彌}} or Kunmi {{lang-zh|昆莫}}) Nandoumi ({{lang-zh|難兜靡}}), capturing the ] from the ] (]) shortly afterwards.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/><ref name="Beckwith6">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=6–7}}</ref> The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> Around 130 bc he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> Soon afterwards they became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the ] and powerful force in the region for centuries.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> With the emerging steppe federations of the ], the Wusun migrated into the ] in the 5th century ad.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> They are last mentioned in 938 ad when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the ].<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> | |||
According to Kennedy, the ] "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.<ref>{{harvnb|Kennedy|2000|p=312}}; {{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|pp=103, 310}}</ref> The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past."<ref>{{harvnb|Kenoyer|1991b|p=56}}</ref> Recent excavations in 2008 at Alamgirpur, Meerut District, appeared to show an overlap between the Harappan and ] (PGW) pottery<ref>Singh, R.N., Cameron Petrie et al., (2013). , in Man and Environment 38(1), pp. 32-54.</ref> indicating cultural continuity. | |||
===Second wave - Iranians=== | |||
The first Iranians to reach the ] may have been the ] in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the ], who are considered a western branch of the Central Asian ]s. Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the ] (Rhoxolani), ] (Jazyges) and the ] (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The ]). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the ], dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq. | |||
=====Relation with Indo-Aryan migrations===== | |||
The ], ] and ]ns begin to appear on the ] from c. 800 BC, and the ]s replaced ] rule from 559 BC. Around the first millennium of the ] (AD), the ], the ] and the ] began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western ], displacing the earlier ] from the area. | |||
According to Kenoyer, the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation is not explained by Aryan migrations,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=190}}{{refn|group=note|Kenoyer: "Although the overall socioeconomic organization changed, continuities in ], subsistence practices, settlement organization, and some regional ] show that the indigenous population was not displaced by invading hordes of ] speaking people. For many years, the 'invasions' or 'migrations' of these Indo-Aryan-speaking Vedic/Aryan tribes explained the decline of the Indus civilization and the sudden rise of urbanization in the ]-] valley. This was based on simplistic models of culture change and an uncritical reading of Vedic texts...",{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=190}}}} which took place after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Yet, according to Erdosy, | |||
{{blockquote|Evidence in material culture for systems collapse, abandonment of old beliefs and large-scale, if localised, population shifts in response to ecological catastrophe in the 2nd millennium B.C. must all now be related to the spread of Indo-Aryan languages.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=5}}}} | |||
Erdosy, testing hypotheses derived from linguistic evidence against hypotheses derived from archaeological data,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=24}} states that there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military superiority",{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=23}} but "some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central Asia to the ] in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BCE".{{sfn|Erdosy|1995}} According to Erdosy, the postulated movements within Central Asia can be placed within a processional framework, replacing simplistic concepts of "diffusion", "migrations" and "invasions".{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|pp=5–6}} | |||
In Central Asia, the ] have marginalized ] as a result of the ] of the early centuries AD. Extant major Iranian languages are ], ], ] and ], besides numerous smaller ones. | |||
Scholars have argued that the historical ] is the result of an amalgamation of the immigrating Indo-Aryans with the remnants of the indigenous civilization, such as the ]. | |||
==Linguistic evidence== | |||
Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into South Asia, some time in the ]. The language of the ], the earliest stratum of ], is assigned to about 1500–1200 BC.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> | |||
====Inner Asia – Wusun and Yuezhi==== | |||
===Language=== | |||
{{Main|Wusun|Yuezhi}} | |||
] | |||
] until the 1st century.]] | |||
] | |||
According to ] the ], an ] ] people of ] in ], were also of Indo-Aryan origin.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}} From the ] term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the ] *âswin, which he compares to the ] aśvin "the horsemen", the name of the ] ].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=376–377}} Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremeties of the ] by the ] in the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=29–38}} | |||
====Diversity==== | |||
According to the linguistic center of gravity principle, the most likely point of origin of a language family is in the area of its greatest diversity.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sapir|1949|p=455}}<br>], as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989|p=152}}</ref> By this criterion, India, home to only a single branch of the Indo-European language family (i. e., ]), is an exceedingly unlikely candidate for the Indo-European homeland, compared to Central-Eastern Europe, for example, which is home to the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] branches of Indo-European.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989|pp=152–153}}</ref> | |||
The Wusun are first mentioned{{When|date=August 2020}} by Chinese sources as vassals in the ] of the ],{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|pp=84–85}} another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible ] stock.{{sfn|Loewe|Shaughnessy|1999|p=83–88}}<ref name="Beckwith380">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=380–383}}</ref> Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the ], also former vassals of the Yuezhi.<ref name="Beckwith380"/><ref name="ChineseHistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/wusun.html |title=Chinese History – Wusun 烏孫 |website=Chinaknowledge |access-date=1 January 2015}}</ref> The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo {{zh|昆莫}} or Kunmi {{zh|昆彌}}) Nandoumi ({{zh|難兜靡}}), capturing the ] from the ] (]) shortly afterwards.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/><ref name="Beckwith6">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|pp=6–7}}</ref> | |||
Both mainstream ] solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the ].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989|pp=177–185}}</ref> | |||
The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> Around 130 BCE he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> After the Yuezhi were defeated by the ], in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to ] and then ], where they are often identified with the ''Tókharoi'' (Τοχάριοι) and '']'' of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern ], where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the ]. The Kushan empire stretched from ] in the Tarim Basin to ] on the ] at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the ] and the ] to ]. | |||
====Dialectical variation==== | |||
] (blue and red, respectively), ], PIE *-tt- > -ss-, *-tt- > -st-, and m-endings.]] | |||
Soon after 130 BCE the Wusun became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the ] and powerful force in the region for centuries.<ref name="Beckwith6"/> With the emerging steppe federations of the ], the Wusun migrated into the ] in the 5th century CE.<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> They are last mentioned in 938 when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the ].<ref name="ChineseHistory"/> | |||
It has been recognized since the mid-19th century, beginning with ] and ], that a binary ] cannot capture all linguistic alignments; certain ] cut across language groups and are better explained through a model treating linguistic change like ] rippling out through a pond. This is true of the ] as well. Various features originated and spread while ] was still a ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Hock|1991|p=454}}</ref> These features sometimes cut across sub-families: for instance, the ], ] and ] plurals in ] and ] feature endings beginning with -m-, rather than the usual -*bh-, e.g. ] instrumental plural '']'' 'with sons',<ref>{{Harvtxt|Fortson|2004|p=106}}</ref> despite the fact that the Germanic languages are ], while Balto-Slavic languages are ]. | |||
===Second wave – Iranians=== | |||
The strong correspondence between the ] of the Indo-European languages and their actual geographical arrangement in their earliest attested forms makes an ] origin for the family unlikely.<ref name=hock1999>Hock (1996), "Out of India? The linguistic evidence", in {{Harvtxt|Bronkhorst|Deshpande|1999}}.</ref> | |||
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2020}} | |||
The first Iranians to reach the ] may have been the ] in the 8th century BCE, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the ]{{When|date=August 2020}}, who would dominate the area, at their height, from the ] in the west, to the easternmost fringes of ] in the east. For most of their existence, the Scythians were based in what is modern-day Ukraine and southern European ]. ] tribes, of whom the best known are the ] (Rhoxolani), ] (Jazyges) and the ], followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The ]). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the ], dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Scythians occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq. | |||
The ], ]ns and ] begin to appear on the western ] from c. 800 BCE, after which they remained under ]n rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the ]. The ] replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Around the first millennium of the ] (AD), the ], the ] and the ] began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian Plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western ], displacing the earlier ] from the area. | |||
====Substrate influence==== | |||
{{Main|Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit}} | |||
Dravidian and other South Asian languages share with Indo-Aryan a number of ] and ] features that are alien to other Indo-European languages, including even its closest relative, ]. ], there is the introduction of ]es, which alternate with ] in Indo-Aryan; morphologically there are the ]s; and syntactically there is the use of a ] ] (''iti'').{{refn|group=note|Krishnamurti states: "Besides, the {{IAST|Ṛg}} ] has used the gerund, not found in ], with the same grammatical function as in ], as a non-finite verb for 'incomplete' action. {{IAST|Ṛg}} Vedic language also attests the use of it as a quotation clause complementary. All these features are not a consequence of simple borrowing but they indicate substratum influence (Kuiper 1991: ch 2)".}} These are taken as evidence of ] influence. | |||
In Central Asia, the ] have marginalized ] as a result of the ] of the early centuries CE. In Eastern Europe, ] and ] assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are ], ], ], and ], besides numerous smaller ones. | |||
It has been argued {{By whom|date=July 2012}} that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", whereby native Dravidian speakers learned and adopted Indic languages.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Erdosy|1995|p=18}}</ref> Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of ]; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|pp=141–144}}</ref> | |||
==Anthropology: elite recruitment and language shift== | |||
A pre-Indo-European linguistic ] in South Asia would be a good reason to exclude India as a potential Indo-European homeland.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=76}}</ref> However, several linguists, all of whom accept the external origin of the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments rather than the result of substrate influences,<ref>Hamp 1996 and Jamison 1989, as cited in {{Harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|pp=81–82}}</ref> or as ] effects.<ref>Hock 1975/1984/1996 and Tikkanen 1987, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|pp=78–82}}</ref> | |||
{{See also|Language shift}} | |||
=== |
===Elite dominance=== | ||
Small groups can change a larger cultural area,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}}{{refn|group=note|Basu et al. (2003) refer to Renfrew (1992), ''Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity'', stating: "Renfrew (1992) has suggested that the elite dominance model, which envisages the intrusion of a relatively small but well-organized group that takes over an existing system by the use of force, may be appropriate to explain the distribution of the IE languages in north India and Pakistan."{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}} Anthony explains that small elite groups may effect significant social changes because their social organisation allows for the recruitment of new members via patronage-systems, which may be attractive for outsiders.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}}}} Thapar notes that Indo-Aryan chiefs may have provided protection to non-Aryan agriculturalists, offering a system of patronage placing the chiefs in a superior position. This would have involved bilingualism, resulting in the adoption of Indo-Aryan languages by local populations.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=23-24}} According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European speaking migrants.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}} These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=67–68}} These new members were further incorporated by ] alliances.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002}} | |||
===Renfrew: models of "linguistic replacement"=== | |||
====Mitanni==== | |||
Basu et al. refer to Renfrew, who described four models for "linguistic replacement":{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Renfrew|1992|pp=453–454}} | |||
{{See also|Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni}} | |||
# The demographic-subsistence model, exemplified by the process of agricultural dispersal, in which the incoming group has exploitive technologies which makes them dominant. It may lead to significant gene flow, and significant genetic changes in the population. But it may also lead to acculturalisation, in which case the technologies are taken over, but there is less change in the genetic composition of the population; | |||
# The existence of extended trading systems which led to the development of a lingua franca, in which case some gene flow is to be expected; | |||
# The elite dominance model, in which "a relatively small but well-organized group take over the system".{{sfn|Renfrew|1992|p=454}} Given the small size of the elite, its genetic influence may also be small, though "preferential access to marriage partners" may result in a relatively strong influence on the gene pool. Sexual asymmetry may also be of influence: incoming elites often consist mostly of males, who have no influence on the mitochondrial DNA of the gene pool, but may influence the Y chromosomes of the gene pool; | |||
# System collapse, in which territorial boundaries are changed, and elite dominance may appear for a while. | |||
===David Anthony: elite recruitment=== | |||
The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, is found not in India, but in northern Syria in ] records regarding one of their neighbors, the ]-speaking Mitanni. In a treaty with the Hittites, the king of Mitanni, after swearing by a series of Hurrian gods, swears by the gods Mitrašil, Uruvanaššil, Indara, and Našatianna, who correspond to the Vedic gods ], ], ], and ] (]). Contemporary equestrian terminology, as recorded in a horse-training manual whose author is identified as "]," contains Indo-Aryan loanwords. The personal names and gods of the Mitanni aristocracy also bear significant traces of Indo-Aryan. Because of the association of Indo-Aryan with horsemanship and the ] aristocracy, it is presumed that, after superimposing themselves as rulers on a native ]-speaking population about the 15th-16th centuries BC, Indo-Aryan charioteers were absorbed into the local population and adopted the ] language.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}<br>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}<br>] (1995)<br>Thieme, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=136}}</ref> | |||
David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis"{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|p=205}} notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117}}{{refn|group=note|name="Anthony_Language_shift"|David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|Compare the process of ] in India.}} Anthony gives the example of the ]-speaking ] in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}} Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in a similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe", carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}} Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|Another example Anthony gives of how an open social system can encourage recruitment and language shift, are the Pathans in western Afghanistan. Traditionally status depended on agricultural surpluses and landownership. The neighbouring Baluch, outnumbered by the Pathans, were pastoral herders, and has hierarchical political system. Pathans who lost their land, could take refuge among the Baluch. As Anthony notes, "chronic tribal warfare might generally favor pastoralism over sedentary economics as herds can be defended by moving them, whereas agricultural fields are an immobile target."{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=118–119}}}} | |||
===Michael Witzel: small groups and acculturation=== | |||
Brentjes argues that there is not a single cultural element of central Asian, eastern European, or Caucasian origin in the Mitannian area; he also associates with an Indo-Aryan presence the peacock motif found in the Middle East from before 1600 BC and quite likely from before 2100 BC.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=137}} | |||
Michael Witzel refers to Ehret's model{{refn|group=note|Michael Witzel: Ehret, Ch., 1988. "Language Change and the Material Correlates of Language and Ethnic Shift," ''Antiquity'', 62: 564–74; derived from Africa, cf. Diakonoff 1985.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}}} "which stresses the ], or a 'billiard ball', or Mallory's ''Kulturkugel'', effect of cultural transmission".{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}} According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relative ease in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}} | |||
Witzel notes that "arya/ārya does not mean a particular 'people' or even a particular 'racial' group but all those who had joined the tribes speaking Vedic Sanskrit and adhering to their cultural norms (such as ritual, poetry, etc.)."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=21}} According to Witzel, "there must have been a long period of acculturation between the local population and the 'original' immigrants speaking Indo-Aryan."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=21}} Witzel also notes that the speakers of Indo-Aryan and the local population must have been bilingual, speaking each other's languages and interacting with each other, before the Rg Veda was composed in the Punjab.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=22}} | |||
Most scholars reject the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of Mitanni came from the Indian subcontinent as well as the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of the Indian subcontinent came from the territory of Mitanni, leaving migration from the north the only likely scenario.{{refn|group=note|Mallory: "It is highly probable that the Indo-Aryans of Western Asia migrated eastwards, for example with the collapse of the Mitanni, and wandered into India, since there is not a shred of evidence — for example, names of non-Indic deities, personal names, loan words — that the Indo-Aryans of India ever had any contacts with their west Asian neighbours. The reverse possibility, that a small group broke off and wandered from India into Western Asia is readily dismissed as an improbably long migration, again without the least bit of evidence."{{sfn|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}}} The presence of some BMAC loan words in Mitanni, Old Iranian and Vedic further strengthens this scenario.<ref>{{Harvnb|Witzel|2003}}</ref> | |||
===Salmons: systematic changes in community structure=== | |||
====Rigveda==== | |||
Joseph Salmons notes that Anthony presents scarce concrete evidence or arguments.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=116}} Salmons is critical about the notion of "prestige" as a central factor in the shift to Indo-European languages, referring to Milroy who notes that "prestige" is "a cover term for a variety of very distinct notions".{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=116}} Instead, Milroy offers "arguments built around network structure", though Salmons also notes that Anthony includes several of those arguments, "including political and technological advantages".{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=116}} According to Salmons, the best model is offered by Fishman,{{refn|group=note|Joshua Fisfman (1991), ''Reversing language shift''}} who | |||
], with ]; the extent of the ] and ] cultures are indicated.]] | |||
{{blockquote|... understands shift in terms of geographical, social, and cultural "dislocation" of language communities. Social dislocation, to give the most relevant example, involves "siphoning off the talented, the enterprising, the imaginative and the creative" ( 1991: 61), and sounds strikingly like Anthony's 'recruitment' scenario.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}}} | |||
Salmons himself argues that | |||
The ] is by far the most archaic testimony of ]. Bryant suggests that the Rigveda represents a pastoral or ], mobile culture,<ref name="Bryant, 2001, Page 91"/> centered on the ] ] cult and ] worship. The purpose of hymns of the Rigveda is ritualistic, not historiographical or ethnographical, and any information about the way of life or the habitat of their authors is incidental and philologically extrapolated from the context.{{refn|group=note|{{Harvcoltxt|Leach|1990}} as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=222}}<br>"Ancient Indian history has been fashioned out of compositions, which are purely religious and priestly, which notoriously do not deal with history, and which totally lack the historical sense.(...)." F.E. Pargiter 1922. However "the Vedic literature confines itself to religious subjects and notices political and secular occurrences only incidentally (...)". Cited in {{harvnb|Majumdar|Pusalker|1951|p=315}}}} Nevertheless, Rigvedic data must be used, cautiously, as they are the earliest available textual evidence from India. | |||
{{blockquote|... systematic changes in community structure are what drive language shift, incorporating Milroy's network structures as well. The heart of the view is the quintessential element of modernization, namely a shift from local community-internal organization to regional (state or national or international, in modern settings), extra-community organizations. Shift correlates with this move from pre-dominantly "horizontal" community structures to more "vertical" ones.{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}{{refn|group=note|name="dislocation"}}}} | |||
==Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows== | |||
=====Views on Rigvedic society (pastoral or urban?)===== | |||
{{See also|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia|Peopling of India}} | |||
Fortifications (''{{IAST|púr}}''), mostly made of mud and wood (palisades)<ref>Rau 1976</ref> are mentioned in the Rigveda. ''{{IAST|púr}}''s sometimes refer to the abode of hostile peoples, but can also suggest settlements of Aryans themselves. Aryan tribes have more often been mentioned to live in ''{{IAST|víś}}'', a term translated as "settlement, homestead, house, dwelling", but also "community, tribe, troops".{{refn|group=note|{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} "...the culture represented in the earliest Vedic hymns bears little similarity to that of the urban society found at Harappa or Mohenjo-daro. It is illiterate, non-urban, non-maritime, basically uninterested in exchange other than that involving cattle, and lacking in any forms of political complexity beyond that of a king whose primary function seems to be concerned with warfare and ritual."}}{{Failed verification|date=September 2010}} ] in particular is described as destroyer of fortifications, e.g. RV 4.30.20ab: | |||
:''{{IAST|satám asmanmáyinām / purām índro ví asiyat}}'' | |||
:"Indra overthrew a hundred fortresses of stone." | |||
This has led some scholars to believe that the civilization of Aryans was not an urban one. | |||
India has one of the most genetically diverse populations in the world, and the history of this genetic diversity is the topic of continued research and debate. The Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetical puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population, including various waves of admixture and language shift. The genetic impact of the Indo-Aryans may have been marginal, but this is not at odds with the cultural and linguistic influence, since language shift is possible without a change in genetics.<ref name="Chaubey2008">Gyaneshwer Chaubey et al. (2008), ''Language Shift by Indigenous Population: A Model Genetic Study in South Asia'', Int J Hum Genet, 8(1–2): 41–50 (2008) </ref> | |||
However, the Rigveda is seen by some as containing phrases referring to elements of an urban civilization, other than the mere viewpoint of an invader aiming at sacking the fortresses. For example, in ]'s translation of the Rigveda, Indra is compared to the lord of a fortification (''pūrpati'') in RV 1.173.10,<ref group=web>... Like true friends of some city's lord within them held in good rule with sacrifice they help him. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv01173.htm</ref> while quotations such as a ''ship with a hundred oars'' in 1.116.5<ref group=web>"... What time ye carried Bhujyu to his dwelling, borne in a ship with hundred oars, O Aśvins." </ref> and ''metal forts'' (''puras ayasis'') in 10.101.8 all occur in mythological contexts only.<ref group=web>"... Make iron forts, secure from all assailants let not your pitcher leak: stay it securely." </ref> | |||
===Ancestral groups=== | |||
There are other views such as, according to Gupta (as quoted in {{Harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|p=190}}), "ancient civilizations had both the components, the village and the city, and numerically villages were many times more than the cities. (...) if the Vedic literature reflects primarily the village life and not the urban life, it does not at all surprise us.". ] (as cited in {{Harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|p=195}}) argued that the "extraordinary empty spaces between the Harappan settlement clusters" indicates that pastoralists may have "formed the bulk of the population during Harappan times". | |||
====Common maternal ancestry==== | |||
=====Views on Rigvedic reference to migration===== | |||
{{harvtxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}} states that "there is general agreement that Indian caste and tribal populations share a common late ] maternal ancestry in India." | |||
{{harvtxt|Kivisild et al.|1999}} concluded that there is "an extensive deep late Pleistocene{{Technical inline|date=August 2020}} genetic link between contemporary Europeans and Indians" via the ], that is, DNA which is inherited from the mother. According to them, the two groups split at the time of the peopling of Asia and Eurasia and before modern humans entered Europe.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999}} Kivisild et al. (2000) note that "the sum of any recent (the last 15,000 years) western mtDNA gene flow to India comprises, in average, less than 10 percent of the contemporary Indian mtDNA lineages."<ref group=web name="Kivisild2000"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604021826/http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/Kivisild2000.pdf |date=4 June 2013 }} (referring to Kivisild et al. (1999), "Deep common ancestry")</ref> | |||
Just as the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland{{sfn|Majumdar|Pusalker|1951|p=220}} or to a migration.{{sfn|Cardona|2002|p=33-35}}{{refn|group=note|According to Cardona, "there is no textual evidence in the early literary traditions unambiguously showing a trace" of an Indo-Aryan migration.{{sfn|Cardona|2002|p=33-35}}}} Later Hindu texts, such as the ], ], ], and ], are centered in the ] region (rather than Haryana and the Punjab) and mention regions still further to the south and east, suggesting a later movement or expansion of the Vedic religion and culture to the east. There are also references in later literature to tribes moving to the north and west. Talageri speculates that some of the tribes that fought against king Sudas and his army on the banks of the ] during the ] have migrated to western countries in later times,<ref>Talageri, The Aryan invasion theory: a reappraisal, p.319-328 2000{{Request quotation|date=January 2011}}</ref> as they are connected with what he assumes are Iranian peoples (e.g. the ], ]).<ref>e.g. MacDonnel and Keith, Vedic Index, 1912</ref> However, there is no clear indication of general movement in either direction in the Rigveda itself; searching for indirect references in the text, or by correlating geographic references with the proposed order of composition of its hymns, has not led to any consensus on the issue. | |||
{{harvtxt|Kivisild et al.|2003}} and {{harvtxt|Sharma|Saha|Rai|Bhat|2005}} note that north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry: Kivisild et al. (2003) further note that "these results show that Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of Pleistocene{{Technical inline|date=August 2020}} southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene.{{Technical inline|date=August 2020}}{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|2003}} | |||
=====Rigvedic Rivers and Reference of Samudra===== | |||
]. See for a more detailed map.]] | |||
===="Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"==== | |||
{{Main|Sarasvati River|Samudra}} | |||
{{harvtxt|Reich et al.|2009}}, in a collaborative effort between the ] and the ] (CCMB), examined the entire genomes worth 560,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as compared to 420 SNPs in prior work. They also cross-compared them with the genomes of other regions available in the global genome database.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chakravarti |first=Aravinda |title=Tracing India's invisible lthreads |newspaper=Nature (News & Views) |date=24 September 2009 |url=http://genepath.med.harvard.edu/~reich/Press/2009_Nature_India_Chakravarti_News_and_Views.pdf |access-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903021818/http://genepath.med.harvard.edu/%7Ereich/Press/2009_Nature_India_Chakravarti_News_and_Views.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Through this study, they were able to discern two genetic groups in the majority of populations in India, which they called "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI) and "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI).<ref group=note>{{harvtxt|Reich et al.|2009}} excluded the ] and ] speakers from their analysis in order to avoid interference.</ref> They found that the ANI genes are close to those of Middle Easterners, Central Asians and Europeans whereas the ASI genes are dissimilar to all other known populations outside India, though the indigenous ] were determined to be the most closely related to the ASI population of any living group (albeit distinct from the ASI).{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Reich et al.|2009}}: "We analyze 25 diverse groups to provide strong evidence for two ancient populations, genetically divergent, that are ancestral to most Indians today. One, the "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI), is genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans{{Contradictory inline|reason="southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene."|date=September 2020}}, while the other, the "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI), is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other."}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Moorjani et al.|2013}}: "Most Indian groups descend from a mixture of two genetically divergent populations: Ancestral North Indians (ANI) related to Central Asians, Middle Easterners, Caucasians, and Europeans; and Ancestral South Indians (ASI) not closely related to groups outside the subcontinent."}} These two distinct groups, which had split ca. 50,000 years ago, formed the basis for the present population of India.<ref group=web name="Dolgin"></ref> | |||
The two groups mixed between 1,900 and 4,200 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), where-after a shift to endogamy took place and admixture became rare.{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Moorjani et al.|2013}}: "We report genome-wide data from 73 groups from the Indian subcontinent and analyze linkage disequilibrium to estimate ANI-ASI mixture dates ranging from about 1,900 to 4,200 years ago. In a subset of groups, 100% of the mixture is consistent with having occurred during this period. These results show that India experienced a demographic transformation several thousand years ago, from a region in which major population mixture was common to one in which mixture even between closely related groups became rare because of a shift to endogamy."}} Speaking to Fountain Ink, David Reich stated, "Prior to 4,200 years ago, there were unmixed groups in India. Sometime between 1,900 to 4,200 years ago, profound, pervasive convulsive mixture occurred, affecting every Indo-European and Dravidian group in India without exception." Reich pointed out that their work does not show that a substantial migration occurred during this time.<ref group=web name=Perur/> | |||
The geography of the Rigveda seems to be centered around the land of the ]. While the geography of the ] is unclear in some of the early books of the Rigveda, the ] hymn is an important source for the geography of late Rigvedic society. | |||
{{harvtxt|Metspalu et al.|2011}}, representing a collaboration between the Estonian Biocenter and CCMB, confirmed that the Indian populations are characterized by two major ancestry components. One of them is spread at comparable frequency and haplotype diversity in populations of South and West Asia and the Caucasus. The second component is more restricted to South Asia and accounts for more than 50% of the ancestry in Indian populations. Haplotype diversity associated with these South Asian ancestry components is significantly higher than that of the components dominating the West Eurasian ancestry palette.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}} | |||
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief ]. The ] hymn in the ] mentions the Sarasvati between the ] in the east and the ] in the west, and later texts like the ] and ] mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.<ref>e.g. ].12; ].28; ].24</ref> | |||
Segurel et al. (2020)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Segurel |first1=Laure |last2=Guarino-Vignon |first2=Perle |last3=Marchi |first3=Nina |last4=Lafosse |first4=Sophie |last5=Laurent |first5=Romain |last6=Bon |first6=Céline |last7=Fabre |first7=Alexandre |last8=Hegay |first8=Tatyana |last9=Heyer |first9=Evelyne |date=2020-06-08 |title=Why and when was lactase persistence selected for? Insights from Central Asian herders and ancient DNA |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=e3000742 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000742 |issn=1544-9173 |pmc=7302802 |pmid=32511234 |doi-access=free }}</ref> notes the -13910*T ] mutation, found in present-day South Asia, first appeared approximately 3,960 BCE, in Ukraine, and spread between 2,000 and 1,500 BCE throughout Eurasia. Earlier Tandon et al. (1981) had studied the distribution of lactase toleration in North and South Indians.<ref name=":1" /> Romero et al.(2011)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Romero |first=Irene G |title=Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share Their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/molbev/msr190 |access-date=2022-09-13 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |year=2012 |volume=29 |pages=249–260 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msr190|pmid=21836184 }}</ref> later plotting a decreasing North West to South East Indian cline for the mutations frequency . | |||
Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the ],<ref>"Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Volume 2", by Subodh Kapoor, p.590</ref> while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati ] is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river.<ref>"Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights", p. 7, by Frits Staal</ref> Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra is a matter of dispute. Identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra before its assumed drying up early in the second millennium would place the Rigveda BC,<ref group=web></ref> well outside the range commonly assumed by Indo-Aryan migration theory. | |||
====Additional components==== | |||
A non-Indo-Aryan ] in the ]-names and place-names of the Rigvedic homeland would support an external origin of the Indo-Aryans.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} However, most place-names in the Rigveda and the vast majority of the river-names in the north-west of South Asia are Indo-Aryan.<ref name=B2001>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001}}</ref> Non-Indo-Aryan names are, however, frequent in the Ghaggar and Kabul River areas,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Witzel|1999}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> the first being a post-Harappan stronghold of Indus populations.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} | |||
{{harvtxt|ArunKumar et al.|2015}} discern three major ancestry components, which they call "Southwest Asian", "Southeast Asian" and "Northeast Asian". The Southwest Asian component seems to be a native Indian component, while the Southeast Asian component is related to East Asian populations.{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=496}} Brahmin{{Context inline|date=September 2020}} populations "contained 11.4 and 10.6% of Northern Eurasian and Mediterranean components, thereby suggesting a shared ancestry with the Europeans". They note that this fits with earlier studies which "suggested similar shared ancestries with Europeans and Mediterraneans".{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=496}} They further note that | |||
{{blockquote|Studies based on uni-parental marker have shown diverse Y-chromosomal haplogroups making up the Indian gene pool. Many of these Y-chromosomal markers show a strong correlation to the linguistic affiliation of the population. The genome-wide variation of the Indian samples in the present study correlated with the linguistic affiliation of the sample.{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=497}}}} | |||
They conclude that, while there may have been an ancient settlement in the subcontinent, "male-dominated genetic elements shap the Indian gene pool", and that these elements "have earlier been correlated to various languages", and further note "the fluidity of female gene pools when in a patriarchal and patrilocal society, such as that of India".{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|pp=497–498}} | |||
====Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana==== | |||
According to Romila Thapar, the Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana... | |||
{{quote|... refers to the Parasus and the arattas who stayed behind and others who moved eastwards to the middle Ganges valley and the places equivalent such as the Kasi, the Videhas and the Kuru Pancalas, and so on. In fact, when one looks for them, there are evidence for migration.<ref group=web name="Agarwal" />}} | |||
{{harvtxt|Basu et al.|2016}} extend the study of {{harvtxt|Reich et al.|2009}} by postulating two other populations in addition to the ANI and ASI: "Ancestral Austro-Asiatic" (AAA) and "Ancestral Tibeto-Burman" (ATB), corresponding to the ] and ] language speakers.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1594}} According to them, ancestral populations seem to have occupied geographically separated habitats.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} The ASI and the AAA were early{{When|date=September 2020}} settlers, who possibly arrived via the southern wave out of Africa.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} The ANI are related to Central South Asians and entered India through the northwest, while the ATB are related to East Asians and entered India through northeast corridors.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} They further note that | |||
] notes that ] had two sons by Urvasi, named Ayus and Amavasu, Ayus went to east and Amavasu went to west.<ref group=web name="Agarwal"></ref> | |||
{{blockquote|The asymmetry of admixture, with ANI populations providing genomic inputs to tribal populations (AA, Dravidian tribe, and TB) but not vice versa, is consistent with elite dominance and patriarchy. Males from dominant populations, possibly upper castes, with high ANI component, mated outside of their caste, but their offspring were not allowed to be inducted into the caste. This phenomenon has been previously observed as asymmetry in homogeneity of mtDNA and heterogeneity of Y-chromosomal haplotypes in tribal populations of India as well as the African Americans in United States.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}}}} | |||
==== |
====Male-mediated migration==== | ||
Reich et al. (2009), citing {{harvtxt|Kivisild et al.|1999}}, indicate that there has been a low influx of female genetic material since 50,000 years ago, but a "male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less".{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{refn|group=note|Reich et al.: "The stronger gradient in males, replicating previous reports, could reflect either male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less, or female gene flow in the reverse direction. However, extensive female gene flow in India would be expected to homogenize ANI ancestry on the autosomes just as in mtDNA, which we do not observe. Supporting the view of little female ANI ancestry in India, Kivisild et al. reported that mtDNA 'haplogroup U' splits into two deep clades. 'U2i' accounts for 77% of copies in India but ~0% in Europe, and 'U2e' accounts for 0% of all copies in India but ~10% in Europe. The split is ~50,000 years old, indicating low female gene flow between Europe and India since that time."{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}}} | |||
The religious practices depicted in the ''Rgveda'' and those depicted in the '']'', the central religious text of ]—the ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet ]—have in common the deity ], priests called ''hotṛ'' in the ''Rgveda'' and ''zaotar'' in the ''Avesta'', and the use of a ritual substance that the ''Rgveda'' calls '']'' and the ''Avesta'' '']''. However, the Indo-Aryan '']'' 'god' is cognate with the Iranian '']'' 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan '']'' 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon') is cognate with the Iranian '']'' 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.<ref>] as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}.</ref> | |||
{{harvtxt|ArunKumar et al.|2015}} "suggest that ancient male-mediated migratory events and settlement in various regional niches led to the present day scenario and peopling of India."{{sfn|ArunKumar et al.|2015|p=493}} | |||
Most linguists such as Burrow argue that the strong similarity between the ] of the ''Gāthās''—the oldest part of the ''Avesta''—and the ] of the ''Rgveda'' pushes the dating of Zarathustra or at least the ''Gathas'' closer to the conventional ''Rgveda'' dating of 1500–1200 BC, i.e. 1100 BC, possibly earlier. Boyce concurs with a lower date of 1100 BC and tentatively proposes an upper date of 1500 BC. Gnoli dates the ''Gathas'' to around 1000 BC, as does {{Harvtxt|Mallory|1989}}, with the caveat of a 400 year leeway on either side, i.e. between 1400 and 600 BC. Therefore the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of the Rigveda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=131}}<br>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}<br>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}<br>], as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}<br>Boyce and Gnoli, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=132}}</ref> | |||
Mahl (2021), in a study of the Brahmin ethnic group, identified the ancient male protagonists of the sampled population could be traced to twelve geographic locations, eleven of which were outside South Asia. Of the Y-DNA haplogroups identified, four were carried by ~83% of those sampled, and of these four, two were of Central Asian origin and one of the ]. All sampled groups were admixed with populations of South Asian origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahal |first=David G. |date=2021 |title=Y-DNA genetic evidence reveals several different ancient origins in the Brahmin population |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00438-020-01725-2 |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=296 |issue=1 |pages=67–78 |doi=10.1007/s00438-020-01725-2 |pmid=32978661 |s2cid=253981863 |issn=1617-4615}}</ref> | |||
There is mention in the ''Avesta'' of ''Airyan Vaejah'', one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans'.<ref>{{cite book|title=Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective|page=189|author=Abbas Amanat, Farzin Vejdani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRzIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA189&dq=16+nation+of+aryans+avesta&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WPOiVNbCEImlNqbsgaAN&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=16%20nation%20of%20aryans%20avesta&f=false}}</ref> Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the ''Avesta'' situates the ''Airyanem Vaejah'' in the ]. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the ] and western Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vaējah from ]s of the Vedic root "vij," suggesting the region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the ] to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to {{Harvtxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}, the probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=133}}<br>Gnoli, Boyce, Skjaervo, and Witzel, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=133}}<br>Humbach and Gnoli, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=327}}<br>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}</ref> | |||
===North-south cline=== | |||
====Later Vedic and Hindu texts==== | |||
According to {{harvtxt|Metspalu et al.|2011}} there is "a general principal component cline stretching from Europe to south India". This northwest component is shared with populations from the Middle East, Europe and Central Asia, and is thought to represent at least one ancient influx of people from the northwest.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003}}{{clarify|reason=Why is a 2003 paper commenting on a 2011 paper?|date=March 2016}} According to Saraswathy et al. (2010), there is "a major genetic contribution from Eurasia to North Indian upper castes" and a "greater genetic inflow among North Indian caste populations than is observed among South Indian caste and tribal populations".<ref group=web name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com"/> According to {{harvtxt|Basu et al.|2003}} and Saraswathy et al. (2010) certain sample populations of upper caste North Indians show a stronger affinity to Central Asian caucasians, whereas southern Indian Brahmins show a less stronger affinity.<ref group=web name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21246 | pmid=20091846 | title=Brief communication: Allelic and haplotypic structure at the DRD2 locus among five North Indian caste populations | year=2010 | journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume=141 | issue=4 | pages=651–657 | last1 = Saraswathy | first1 = Kallur N.}}</ref> | |||
Texts like the Puranas and Mahabharata belong to a much later period than the Rigveda, making their evidence less than sufficient to be used for or against the Indo-Aryan migration theory. | |||
=== |
===Scenarios=== | ||
While Reich notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language,<!--**START OF NOTE**--><ref group=web name="Reich-interview"></ref>{{refn|group=note|David reich: "This mystery of how Indo-Europeans spread over such a vast region and what the historical underpinnings of it would have been is ongoing and remains a mystery. The fact that these languages are in India has led to the hypothesis that they came in from somewhere else, from the north, from the west, and that perhaps maybe this would be a vector for the movement of these people.<br /><br />Another reason that people think that is that when you have languages coming in, not always but usually, they're brought by large movements of people. Hungarian is an exception. The Hungarians are mostly not descended from the people who brought Hungarian to Hungary. In general, languages typically tend to follow large movements of people.<br /><br />On the other hand, once agriculture is established, as it has been for 5000 to 8000 years in India, it's very hard for a group to make a dent on it. The British didn't make any demographic dent on India even though they politically ruled it for a couple of hundred years.<br /><br />It's a mystery how this occurred, and it remains a mystery. What we know is that the likely timing of this event is probably around 3000 to 4000 years ago. The timing of the arrival of Indo-European language corresponds to the timing of the mixture event.<ref group=web name="Reich-interview" />}}<!--**END OF NOTE**--> according to Metspalu (2011), the commonalities of the ANI with European genes cannot be explained by the influx of Indo-Aryans at ca. 3,500 ] alone.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=741}} They state that the split of ASI and ANI predates the Indo-Aryan migration,{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}} both of these ancestry components being older than 3,500 BP."{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=731}}<ref group=web name="indiatoday">{{cite web | title =Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study | date=10 December 2011| url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/indians-are-not-descendants-of-aryans-study/1/163645.html}}</ref> Moorjani (2013) states that "We have further shown that groups with unmixed ANI and ASI ancestry were plausibly living in India until this time."{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=429}} Moorjani (2013) describes three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups:{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=422–423}} | |||
Later Vedic texts show a shift{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} of location from the Panjab to the East: according to the ], ] (a Vedic ritualist and philosopher) lived in the eastern region of ].{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=64}} ] 33.6.1. records that ]'s sons migrated to the north, and in ] 1:2:4:10 the ] were driven to the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Elst|1999}} with reference to L.N. Renou</ref> In much later texts, ] was said to be a king from ].<ref>e.g. Bhagavata Purana (VIII.24.13)</ref> In the legend of the flood he stranded with his ship in Northwestern India or the Himalayas.<ref>e.g. Satapatha Brahmana, Atharva Veda</ref> | |||
# "migrations that occurred prior to the development of agriculture . Evidence for this comes from mitochondrial DNA studies, which have shown that the mitochondrial haplogroups (hg U2, U7, and W) that are most closely shared between Indians and West Eurasians diverged about 30,000–40,000 years BP." | |||
The Vedic lands (e.g. ], Brahmavarta) are located in Northern India or at the Sarasvati and ].<ref>e.g. RV 3.23.4., Manu 2.22, etc. Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975</ref> However, in a post-Vedic text the ] Udyoga Parva (108), the East is described as the homeland of the Vedic culture, where "the divine Creator of the universe first sang the Vedas."<ref>Talageri 1993, The Aryan Invasion Theory, A Reappraisal</ref> The legends of ], ] and other Hindu legends may have their origin in ].<ref>Elst 1999, chapter 5, with reference to Bernard Sergent</ref> | |||
# "Western Asian peoples migrated to India along with the spread of agriculture Any such agriculture related migrations would probably have begun at least 8,000–9,000 years BP (based on the dates for Mehrgarh) and may have continued into the period of the Indus civilization that began around 4,600 years BP and depended upon West Asian crops." | |||
# "migrations from Western or Central Asia from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP, a time during which it is likely that Indo-European languages began to be spoken in the subcontinent. A difficulty with this theory, however, is that by this time India was a densely populated region with widespread agriculture, so the number of migrants of West Eurasian ancestry must have been extraordinarily large to explain the fact that today about half the ancestry in India derives from the ANI." | |||
==== |
====Pre-agricultural migrations==== | ||
{{See also|Peopling of India}} | |||
The Puranas record that ] left ] (confluence of the Ganges & Yamuna) and conquered the region of Sapta Sindhu.<ref>Talageri, ''The Aryan invasion theory: a reappraisal'', 1993</ref><ref>''Update on the Aryan invasion debate'', Elst 1999</ref> His five sons ], ], ], ] and ] correspond to the main tribes of the Rigveda. | |||
Metspalu et al. (2011) detected a genetic component in India, k5, which "distributed across the Indus Valley, Central Asia, and the Caucasus".{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|pp=734–735}} According to Metspalu et al. (2011), k5 "might represent the genetic vestige of the ANI", though they also note that the geographic cline of this component within India "is very weak, which is unexpected under the ASI-ANI model", explaining that the ASI-ANI model implies an ANI contribution which decreases toward southern India.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} According to Metspalu et al. (2011), "regardless of where this component was from (the Caucasus, Near East, Indus Valley, or Central Asia), its spread to other regions must have occurred well before our detection limits at 12,500 years."{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=740}} Speaking to Fountain Ink, Metspalu said, "the West Eurasian component in Indians appears to come from a population that diverged genetically from people actually living in Eurasia, and this separation happened at least 12,500 years ago."<ref group=web name=Perur />{{refn|group=note|Note that according to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasian Hunter Gatherers and "the ancestors of Neolithic farmers" split circa 25,000 years ago: "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. CHG genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe B3,000 BC, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture."{{sfn|Jones|2016}}}} Moorjani et al. (2013) refer to Metspalu (2011)<!--**START OF NOTE**-->{{refn|group=note|The reference is to a "recent study", and gives Kivisild et al. (1999). Kivisild (1999) does not mention the number 12,500, nor does it explicitly make such a statement. What it does state is that western-Eurasian and Indian mtDNA lineages overlap in haplogroup U;{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} that the split between the western-Eurasian and Indian U2 lineages appeared circa 53,000 ± 4,000 years before present;{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} and that "despite their equally deep time depth, the Indian U2 has not penetrated western Eurasia, and the European U5 has almost not reached India."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1332}} They further note that wester-Eurasian mtDNA lineages did spread in India at the time of the spread of agricultural crops from the fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|pp=1332–1333}} Metspalu et al. (2011) ''do'' refer to 12,500 years ago.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=740}} Apparently, the reference to Kivisld (1999) is incorrect, and was not noticed by the authors.}}<!--**END OF NOTE**--> as "fail to find any evidence for shared ancestry between the ANI and groups in West Eurasia within the past 12,500 years".{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}} CCMB researcher Thangaraj believes that "it was much longer ago", and that "the ANI came to India in a second wave of migration{{refn|group=note|After the initial settlement of India by the ASI.}} that happened perhaps 40,000 years ago."<ref group=web name=Perur> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073824/http://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reich/Reich_Lab/Press_files/Fountain%20Ink%20-%20December%202013%20-%20Cover.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> | |||
The Puranas also record that the ] were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by ] and that their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as ]. The sons of the later Druhyu king ] are supposed by some to have 'migrated' to the region north of Afghanistan though the Puranic texts only speak of an "adjacent" settlement.<ref>] 9.23.15-16; ] 4.17.5; ] 99.11-12; ] 3.74.11-12 and ] 48.9.</ref>{{refn|see e.g. {{harvnb|Pargiter|1979}}, {{harvnb|Talageri|1993}}, {{harvnb|Talageri|2000}}, {{harvnb|Bryant|2001}}, {{harvnb|Elst|1999}}}} | |||
{{harvtxt|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} conclude that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019}} They were preceded by IVC-people, a mixture of AASI (ancient ancestral south Indians, that is, hunter-gatherers related), and people related to but distinct from Iranian agri-culturalists, lacking the Anatolian farmer-related ancestry which was common in Iranian farmers after 6000 BCE.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|Narasimhan et al.: " Iranian farmer–related ancestry in this group was characteristic of the Indus Valley hunter-gatherers in the same way as it was characteristic of northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers. The presence of such ancestry in hunter-gatherers from Belt and Hotu Caves in northeastern Iran increases the plausibility that this ancestry could have existed in hunter-gatherers farther east."{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=11}}<br>Shinde et al. (2019) note that these Iranian people "had little if any genetic contribution from western Iranian farmers or herders";{{sfn|Shinde|Narasimhan|Rohland|Mallick|2019|p=6}} they split from each other more than 12,000 years ago.{{sfn|Shinde|Narasimhan|Rohland|Mallick|2019|p=4}}<br>See also Razib Kkan, : "...it may, in fact, be the case that ANI-like quasi-Iranians occupied northwest South Asia for a long time, and AHG populations hugged the southern and eastern fringes, during the height of the Pleistocene."}}{{refn|group=note|There was a rapid increase of the ]-related south Caucasian population at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, about 18,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Margaryan |first1=Ashot |last2=Derenko |first2=Miroslava |last3=Hovhannisyan |first3=Hrant |last4=Malyarchuk |first4=Boris |last5=Heller |first5=Rasmus |last6=Khachatryan |first6=Zaruhi |last7=Avetisyan |first7=Pavel |last8=Badalyan |first8=Ruben |last9=Bobokhyan |first9=Arsen |last10=Melikyan |first10=Varduhi |last11=Sargsyan |first11=Gagik |last12=Piliposyan |first12=Ashot |last13=Simonyan |first13=Hakob |last14=Mkrtchyan |first14=Ruzan |last15=Denisova |first15=Galina |last16=Yepiskoposyan |first16=Levon |last17=Willerslev |first17=Eske |last18=Allentoft |first18=Morten E. |title=Eight Millennia of Matrilineal Genetic Continuity in the South Caucasus |journal=Current Biology |date=July 2017 |volume=27 |issue=13 |pages=2023–2028.e7 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.087 |pmid=28669760 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017CBio...27E2023M }}</ref> and ] and ] people probably also migrated to Europe during the ], around 14,000 years ago.{{sfn|Fu|Posth|Hajdinjak|Petr|2016}}}} Those Iranian farmers-related people may have arrived in India before the advent of farming in northern India,{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=11}} and mixed with people related to Indian hunter-gatherers ca. 5400 to 3700 BCE, before the advent of the mature IVC.{{sfn|Narasimhan|Patterson|Moorjani|Rohland|2019|p=5}}{{refn|group=note|Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE)."{{sfn|Mascarenhas|Raina|Aston|Sanghera|2015|p=9}}}} This mixed IVC-population, which probably was native to the Indus Valley Civilisation, "contributed in large proportions to both the ANI and ASI", which took shape during the 2nd millennium BCE. ANI formed out of a mixture of "''Indus_Periphery''-related groups" and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of "''Indus_Periphery''-related groups" who moved south and mixed with hunter-gatherers.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} | |||
==Archaeological evidence== | |||
]).]] | |||
====Agricultural migrations==== | |||
Attempts have been made to supplement the linguistic evidence with archaeological data.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995}} Erdosy notes that | |||
{{quote|... combining the discoveries of archaeology and linguistics has been complicated by mutual ignorance of the aims, complexity and limitations of the respective disciplines.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=24}}}} | |||
=====Near-Eastern migrations===== | |||
The two disciplines focus on two different problems: linguistics tries to explain the linguistic map of south Asia, while archaeology tries to understand the transition between the Indus Valley Civilisation and the ].{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=2}} Archaeological artifacts may not prove or disprove migrations an sich,{{refn|group=note|name="Continuity"}} and it may not be possible to identify language within material culture,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=5}} but archaeological remains can reflect cultural and societal change,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=5}} which may correspond to changes in the population: | |||
] | |||
{{quote|Evidence in material culture for systems collapse, abandonement of old beliefs and large-scale, if localised, population shifts in response to ecological catastrophe in the 2nd millennium B.C. must all now be related to the spread of Indo-Aryan languages.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=5}}}} | |||
] | |||
{{See also|Neolithic Revolution|Fertile Crescent|Dravidian languages#Prehistory}} | |||
{{harvtxt|Kivisild et al.|1999}} note that "a small fraction of the 'Caucasoid-specific' mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present,{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1333}} which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the ]" and "lends credence to the suggested ] between Elamite and Dravidic populations".{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1333}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dravidian"|Both Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza propose that proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|Menozzi|Piazza|1994|pp=221–222}} The Dravidian language was present in northern India at the time of the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, who borrowed a substantial number of words from the Dravidian language.}} | |||
According to Erdosy, the postulated movements within Central Asia can be placed within a processional framework, replacing simplistic concepts of "diffusion", "migrations" and "invasions".{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=5-6}} | |||
According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East."{{sfn|Gallego Romero|2011|p=9}} Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation".<ref group=web name="ScienceLife2011"></ref> According to Gallego Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."<ref group=web name="ScienceLife2011" /> In contrast, Allentoft et al. (2015) found that lactose-tolerance was absent in the Yamnaya culture, noting that while "the Yamnaya and these other Bronze Age cultures herded cattle, goats, and sheep, they couldn't digest raw milk as adults. Lactose tolerance was still rare among Europeans and Asians at the end of the Bronze Age, just 2000 years ago."<ref group=web></ref>{{sfn|Allentoft|Sikora|Sjögren|Rasmussen|2015}} | |||
===Population movements=== | |||
Erdosy, testing hypotheses derived from linguistic evidence against hypotheses derived from arcaeological data,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=24}} states that there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military superiority",{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=23}} but | |||
{{quote|...some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central to South Asia in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BC."{{sfn|Erdosy|1995}}}} | |||
According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), "farmers related to those from Iran spread northward into the Eurasian steppe; and people related to both the early farmers of Iran and to the pastoralists of the Eurasian steppe spread eastward into South Asia."{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}} They further note that ANI "can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of ] and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}{{refn|group=note|See also eurogenes.blogspot, .}} | |||
] and Lichtenstein contend that in the second millennium BCE considerable "location processes" took place. In the eastern Punjab 79,9% and in ] 96% of sites changed settlement status. According to Shaffer & Lichtenstein, | |||
{{quote|It is evident that a major geographic population shift accompanied this 2nd millennium BCE localisation process. This shift by Harappan and, perhaps, other Indus Valley cultural mosaic groups, is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in South Asia before the first half of the first millennium B.C.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=139}}}} | |||
=====Haplogroup R1a and related haplogroups===== | |||
===Associated cultures=== | |||
] | |||
The Andronovo, ] and Yaz cultures have been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations, with separation of Indo-Aryans proper from ]s dated to roughly 2000–1800 BC. The ], ], ] and ] cultures are candidates for subsequent cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements, their arrival in the Indian subcontinent being dated to the ] period. | |||
{{Main|Haplogroup R1a}} | |||
It is believed that Indo-Aryans reached ] in the west and the ] in the east before 1500 BC: the Hurrite speaking ] rulers, influenced by Indo-Aryan, appear from 1500 in northern ], and the Gandhara grave culture emerges from 1600. This suggests that Indo-Aryan tribes would have had to be present in the area of the ] (southern ]/northern ]) from 1700 BC at the latest (incidentally corresponding with the decline of that culture). | |||
The distribution and proposed origin of haplogroup R1a, more specifically R1a1a1b, is often being used as an argument pro or contra the Indo-Aryan migrations. It is found in high frequencies in Eastern Europe (Z282) and south Asia (Z93), the areas of the Indo-European migrations. The place of origin of this haplogroup may give an indication of the "homeland" of the Indo-Europeans, and the direction of the first migrations.{{sfn|Underhill|2015}} | |||
====Andronovo==== | |||
] | |||
{{Main|Andronovo culture}} | |||
{{harvtxt|Cordeaux et al.|2004}}, based on the spread of a cluster of haplogroups (J2, R1a, R2, and L) in India, with higher rates in northern India,{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}} argue that agriculture in south India spread with migrating agriculturalists, which also influenced the genepool in south India.{{sfn|Cordeaux et al.|2004|p=1125}}{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}} | |||
The conventional identification of the Andronovo culture as ] is disputed by those who point to the absence south of the ] of the characteristic timber graves of the steppe.<ref>Klejn (1974), Lyonnet (1993), Francfort (1989), Bosch-Gimpera (1973), Hiebert (1998), and Sarianidi (1993), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|pp=206–207}}</ref> | |||
{{harvtxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}, in response to Cordeaux et al. (2004), suggest that those haplogroups originated in India, based on the spread of these various haplogroups in India. According to Sahoo et al. (2006), this spread "argue against any major influx, from regions north and west of India, of people associated either with the development of agriculture or the spread of the Indo-Aryan language family".{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}} They further propose that "the high incidence of R1* and R1a throughout Central Asian and East European populations (without R2 and R* in most cases) is more parsimoniously explained by gene flow in the opposite direction",{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|pp=845–846}} which according to Sahoo et al. (2006) explains the "sharing of some Y-chromosomal haplogroups between Indian and Central Asian populations".{{sfn|Sahoo et al.|2006|p=843}} | |||
Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19-20th century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of ], Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian. ] (1974) and Brentjes (1981) find the Andronovo culture much too late for an Indo-Iranian identification since chariot-wielding Aryans appear in ] by the 15th to 16th century BC. However, {{Harvcoltxt|Anthony|Vinogradov|1995}} dated a ] at ] to about 2000 BC and a BMAC burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.<ref name="Bryant chariot origin references"/> | |||
Sengupta et al. (2006) also comment on Cordeaux et al. (2004), stating that "the influence of Central Asia on the pre-existing gene pool was minor", and arguing for "a peninsular origin of Dravidian speakers than a source with proximity to the Indus and with significant genetic input resulting from demic diffusion associated with agriculture".{{sfn|Sengupta|2006}} | |||
Mallory (as cited in {{Harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|p=216}}) admits the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures "only gets the ] to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the ], Persians or Indo-Aryans". However he has also developed the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over BMAC cultural traits but preserving their language and religion while moving into Iran and India. | |||
Sharma et al. (2009) found a high frequency of R1a1 in India. They therefore argue for an Indian origin of R1a1, and dispute "the origin of Indian higher most castes from Central Asian and Eurasian regions, supporting their origin within the Indian subcontinent".{{sfn|Sharma et al.|2009}} | |||
====Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)==== | |||
{{Main|Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex}} | |||
Some scholars have suggested that the characteristically BMAC artifacts found at burials in ] and ] are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Allchin|1995|pp=47–48}}<br>Hiebert & Lamberg-Karlovsky (1992), Kohl (1984), and Parpola (1994), as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=215}}</ref> | |||
Underhill et al. (2014/2015) conclude that R1a1a1, the most frequent subclade of R1a, split into Z282 (Europe) and Z93 (Asia) at circe 5,800 before present.{{sfn|Underhill|2015|p=124}} According to Underhill et al. (2014/2015), "his suggests the possibility that R1a lineages accompanied ] initiated during the Copper, Bronze, and Iron ages."{{sfn|Underhill|2014}} They further note that the diversification of Z93 and the "early urbanization within the Indus Valley also occurred at this time and the geographic distribution of R1a-M780 (Figure 3d) may reflect this".{{sfn|Underhill|2014}} | |||
Jarrige and Hassan argue instead that the BMAC artifacts are explained "within the framework of fruitful intercourse" by "a wide distribution of common beliefs and ritual practices" and "the economic dynamism of the area extending from South-Central Asia to the Indus Valley."{{sfn|Bryant|2001|pp=215–216}} | |||
Palanichamy et al. (2015), while responding to Cordeaux et al. (2004), Sahoo et al. (2006) and Sengupta et al. (2006), elaborated on Kivisild et al.'s (1999) suggestion that West Eurasian haplogroups "may have been spread by the early Neolithic migrations of proto-Dravidian farmers spreading from the eastern horn of the Fertile Crescent into India".{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=638}} They conclude that "the L1a lineage arrived from western Asia during the Neolithic period and perhaps was associated with the spread of the Dravidian language to India", indicating that "the Dravidian language originated outside India and may have been introduced by pastoralists coming from western Asia (Iran)."{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}} They further conclude that two subhalogroups originated with the Dravidian speaking peoples, and may have come to South India when the Dravidian language spread.{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015}} | |||
According to Bryant, the exclusively Central Asian BMAC material inventory of the Mehrgarh and Baluchistan burials is "evidence of an archaeological intrusion into the subcontinent from Central Asia during the commonly accepted time frame for the arrival of the Indo-Aryans".{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=215}}{{refn|group=note|Nevertheless, archaeologists like B.B. Lal have seriously questioned the BMAC and Indo-Iranian "connections", and thoroughly disputed all the proclaimed relations.<ref group=web>http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/19th-century-paradigms.html</ref>}} | |||
Poznik et al. (2016) note that "striking expansions" occurred within R1a-Z93 at ~4,500–4,000 years ago, which "predates by a few centuries the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation".{{sfn|Poznik|2016|p=7}} Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that the expansion of Z93 from ] into South Asia is compatible with "the archeological records of eastward expansion of West Asian populations in the 4th millennium BCE culminating in the so-called ] migrations in the post-]".{{sfn|Mascarenhas|Raina|Aston|Sanghera|2015|p=9}} | |||
====Gandhara grave culture==== | |||
]; the extent of the ] and ] cultures are also indicated.]] | |||
{{Main|Gandhara grave culture}} | |||
About 1800 BC, there is a major cultural change in the ] with the emergence of the ]. With its introduction of new ceramics, new burial rites, and the horse, the ] grave culture is a major candidate for early Indo-Aryan presence. The two new burial rites—flexed inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an urn—were, according to early Vedic literature, both practiced in early Indo-Aryan society. Horse-trappings indicate the importance of the horse to the economy of the Gandharan grave culture. Two horse burials indicate the importance of the horse in other respects. Horse burial is a custom that Gandharan grave culture has in common with Andronovo, though not within the distinctive timber-frame graves of the steppe.<ref name = M1989>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}</ref> | |||
====Indo-European migrations==== | |||
===Indus Valley Civilization=== | |||
Indo-Aryan migration into the northern ] is approximately contemporaneous to the final phase of the decline of the ] (IVC). | |||
=====Genetic impact of Indo-Aryan migrations===== | |||
====Continuity==== | |||
{{harvtxt|Bamshad et al.|2001}}, Wells et al. (2002) and {{harvtxt|Basu et al.|2003}} argue for an influx of Indo-European migrants into the Indian subcontinent, but not necessarily an "invasion of any kind".<ref group="web" name="FOSA"></ref> {{harvtxt|Bamshad et al.|2001}} notice that the correlation between caste-status and West Eurasian DNA may be explained by subsequent male immigration into the Indian subcontinent. {{harvtxt|Basu et al.|2003}} argue that the Indian subcontinent was subjected to a series of Indo-European migrations about 1500 BCE. | |||
According to Erdosy, the ancient Harappans were not markedly different from modern populations in Northwestern India and present-day Pakistan. Craniometric data showed similarity with prehistoric peoples of the Iranian plateau and Western Asia,{{refn|group=note|Comparing the ]n and ] cultures, Kennedy states: "Our multivariate approach does not define the biological identity of an ancient Aryan population, but it does indicate that the Indus Valley and ] peoples shared a number of craniometric, odontometric and discrete traits that point to a high degree of biological affinity." Kennedy in {{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=49}}}} although ] was distinct from the other areas of the Indus Valley.{{refn|group=note|]: "Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia? Biological anthropology and concepts of ancient races", in ,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995}} at p. 49.}} {{refn|group=note|Cephalic measures, however, may not be a good indicator as they do not necessarily indicate ethnicity and they might vary in different environments. On the use of which, however, see {{sfn|Holloway|2002}}}} | |||
Zerjal et al. (2002) argue that "multiple recent events" may have reshaped India's genetic landscape.<ref name="Zerjal2002" group="web">{{cite journal|last1=Zerjal|display-authors=etal|date=Sep 2002|title=A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia|journal=Am J Hum Genet|volume=71|issue=3|pages=466–482|doi=10.1086/342096|pmc=419996|pmid=12145751}}</ref> | |||
Many scholars{{Citation needed|reason=Feb 2010|date=February 2010}} have argued that the historical ] is the result of an amalgamation of the immigrating Indo-Aryans with the remnants of the indigenous civilization, such as the ]. Such remnants of IVC culture are not prominent in the ], with its focus on chariot warfare and nomadic pastoralism in stark contrast with an urban civilization. | |||
Metspalu et al. (2011) note that "any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to South Asia should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India" (although this presupposes the unproven assumption that East Asian ancestry was present – to a significant extent – in prehistorical Central Asia), which is not the case, and conclude that if there was a major migration of Eurasians into India, this happened before the rise of the Yamna culture.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} Based on Metspalu (2011), Lalji Singh, a co-author of Metspalu, concludes that "here is no genetic evidence that Indo-Aryans invaded or migrated to India".<ref group=web name="IT"></ref><ref group=web></ref><ref group=web></ref>{{refn|group=note|Metspalu et al (2011): "However, any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to the ] should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India (see Figure 2B). Because this ancestry component is absent from the region, we have to conclude that if such a dispersal event nevertheless took place, it occurred before the East Asian ancestry component reached Central Asia. The demographic history of Central Asia is, however, complex, and although it has been shown that demic diffusion coupled with influx of Turkic speakers during historical times has shaped the genetic makeup of Uzbeks75 it is not clear what was the extent of East Asian ancestry in Central Asian populations prior to these events.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} See also Dinesh C. Sharma (2011), "", ''India Today''}} | |||
====Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation==== | |||
The decline of the IVC from about 1900 BC is not universally accepted to be connected with Indo-Aryan immigration. A regional cultural discontinuity occurred during the second millennium BC and many Indus Valley cities were abandoned during this period, while many new settlements began to appear in ] and East Punjab and other settlements such as in the western ] region increased in size. | |||
Moorjani et al. (2013) notes that the period of 4,200–1,900 years BP was a time of dramatic changes in northern India, and coincides with the "likely first appearance of Indo-European languages and Vedic religion in the subcontinent".{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}}<!--***START OF NOTE***-->{{refn|group=note|Moorjani: "The period of around 1,900–4,200 years BP was a time of profound change in India, characterized by the deurbanization of the Indus civilization, increasing population density in the central and downstream portions of the Gangetic system,40 shifts in burial practices, and the likely first appearance of Indo-European languages and Vedic religion in the subcontinent."{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}} Note that according to Salmons, language shift is driven by "systematic changes in community structure namely a shift from local community-internal organization to regional (state or national or international, in modern settings), extra-community organizations. Shift correlates with this move from pre-dominantly 'horizontal' community structures to more 'vertical' ones."{{sfn|Salmons|2015|p=118}}}}<!--***END OF NOTE***--> Moorjani further notes that there must have been multiple waves of admixture, which had more impact on higher-caste and northern Indians and took place more recently.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=429}}<!--***START OF NOTE***-->{{refn|group=note|Moorjani: "Further evidence for multiple waves of admixture in the history of many traditionally middle- and upper-caste groups (as well as Indo-European and northern groups) comes from the more recent admixture dates we observe in these groups (Table 1) and the fact that a sum of two exponential functions often produces a better fit to the decay of admixture LD than does a single exponential (as noted above for some northern groups; Appendix B). Evidence for multiple components of West Eurasian-related ancestry in northern Indian populations has also been reported by Metspalu et al. based on clustering analysis."{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=429}}}}<!--***END OF NOTE***--> This may be explained by "additional gene flow", related to the spread of languages:{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=429–430}} | |||
Kenoyer notes that the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation is not explained by Aryan migrations,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=190}}{{refn|group=note|Kenoyer: "Although the overall socioeconomic organization changed, continuities in ], subsistence practices, settlement organization, and some regional ] show that the indigenous population was not displaced by invading hordes of ] speaking people. For many years, the 'invasions' or 'migrations' of these Indo-Aryan-speaking Vedic/Aryan tribes explained the decline of the Indus civilization and the sudden rise of urbanization in the ]-] valley. This was based on simplistic models of culture change and an uncritical reading of Vedic texts...",{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=190}}}} which took place after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. | |||
{{blockquote|...at least some of the history of population mixture in India is related to the spread of languages in the subcontinent. One possible explanation for the generally younger dates in northern Indians is that after an original mixture event of ANI and ASI that contributed to all present-day Indians, some northern groups received additional gene flow from groups with high proportions of West Eurasian ancestry, bringing down their average mixture date.{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|pp=429–430}}{{refn|group=note|The "original mixture event of ANI and ASI" may have been the spread of Dravidian languages to the south, followed by the (still ongoing) ] of India.<ref>] (2013), "", Gene expression</ref> Note that ] proposes that the Harappans spoke ],<ref group=web></ref> and Mikhail Andronov proposes that the Proto-Dravidian language was introduced by migrations at the beginning of the third millennium BCE.{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} See Dieneke's blogspot, "" and ] (8 August 2013), "" for various proposals and discussions, and for the complexities of the Indian (and European) genepool.}}}} | |||
Palanichamy et al. (2015), elaborating on Kivisild et al. (1999) conclude that "A large proportion of the west Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups observed among the higher-ranked caste groups, their phylogenetic affinity and age estimate indicate recent Indo-Aryan migration to India from west Asia.{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}} According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "the west Eurasian admixture was restricted to caste rank. It is likely that Indo-Aryan migration has influenced the social stratification in the pre-existing populations and helped in building the Hindu caste system, but it should not be inferred that the contemporary Indian caste groups have directly descended from Indo-Aryan immigrants.{{sfn|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}}{{refn|group=note|According to George Hart, there existed an "Early South Indian Caste System", which differed from the well-known classic north Indian ''vanas''.{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=86}}}} | |||
According to Kennedy, there is no evidence of "demographic disruptions" after the decline of the Harappa culture.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=54}}{{refn|group=note|Kennedy: "there is no evidence of demographic disruptions in the north-western sector of the ] during and immediately after the decline of the ]n culture. If ] were a biological entity represented by the skeletons from Timargarha, then their biological features of cranial and dental anatomy were not distinct to a marked degree from what we encountered in the ancient Harappans." Kennedy in {{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=54}}}} Kenoyer notes that no biological evidence can be found for major new populations in post-Harappan communities.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=231}}{{refn|group=note|Kenoyer: "there was an overlap between Late ]n and post-Harappan communities...with no biological evidence for major new populations." Kenoyer as quoted in {{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=231}}}} Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between ] and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange."{{refn|group=note|Hemphill: "the data provide no support for any model of massive migration and gene flow between the oases of ] and the Indus Valley. Rather, patterns of phonetic affinity best conform to a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange. "Hemphill 1998 "Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. An initial craniometric assessment", '']'', 106, 329-348.; Hemphill 1999 "Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. A Craniometric Investigation of Bactrian Origins", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 108, 173-192}} | |||
Jones et al. (2015) state that ](CHG){{refn|group=note|Caucasus Hunter Gatherers, one of the contributors to the Indo-Aryan gene-pool. According to Jones et al. (2015), "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum."{{sfn|Jones|2016|p=1}}}} was "a major contributor to the Ancestral North Indian component". According to Jones et al. (2015), it "may be linked with the spread of Indo-European languages", but they also note that "earlier movements associated with other developments such as that of cereal farming and herding are also plausible".{{sfn|Jones|2016|p=5}} | |||
==Controversy== | |||
The debate about the origin of Indo-Aryan peoples is controversial in the Indian subcontinent, relating to the indigenous origin of peoples and culture, thus inflaming political and religious sentiments. | |||
{{harvtxt|Basu et al.|2016}} note that the ANI are inseparable from Central-South Asian populations in present-day Pakistan. They hypothesise that "the root of ANI is in Central Asia".{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1597}} | |||
==="Indigenous Aryans"=== | |||
{{Main|Indigenous Aryan Theory}} | |||
According to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI "can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of western Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}} | |||
Opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory have questioned it, defending the notion of ''Indigenous Aryans'', which posits that speakers of Indo-Aryan languages are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Fosse|2005}} Within India, alternative visions on the origins of the Aryan language and culture have been developed, which emphasize indigenous origins.{{sfn|Bryant|2001}} They are rejected by mainstream scholars, since they neglect linguistic research,{{sfn|Bryant|2001}} and are contradicted by a broad range of research on ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} | |||
Silva et al. (2017) state that "the recently refined Y-chromosome tree strongly suggests that R1a is indeed a highly plausible marker for the long-contested Bronze Age spread of Indo-Aryan speakers into South Asia."{{sfn|Silva et al.|2017}}{{refn|group=note|See also Eurogenes Blog, .}} Silva et al. (2017) further notes "they likely spread from a single ]n source pool, there do seem to be at least three and probably more R1a founder clades within the Subcontinent, consistent with multiple waves of arrival." | |||
The proposing "Indigenous Aryan" scenario are based on specific interpretations of archaeological, genetic, and linguistic data, and on literary interpretations of the ].<ref name="Kazanas - The Collapse of the AIT and the prevalence of Indigenism">{{cite web|last1=Kazanas|first1=Nicholas|title=The Collapse of the AIT and the prevalence of Indigenism: archaeological, genetic, linguistic and literary evidences.|url=http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/The_Collapse_of_the_AIT_13_2_2013.pdf|website=www.omilosmeleton.gr|accessdate=23 January 2015}}</ref> Standard arguments, both in support of the "Indigenous Aryans" theory, and in opposition the mainstream indo-Aryan Migration theory, are: | |||
* Questioning the Indo-Aryan Migration theory: | |||
:* Presenting the Indo-Aryan Migration theory as an "Indo-Aryan Invasion theory";{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|name="invasion"|The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} The term "invasion" does not reflect the contemporary scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations;{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} and is merely being used in a polemical and distractive way.}} | |||
:* Questioning the methodology of linguistics;{{sfn|Elst|2005}}<ref name="Kak-The Wishing Tree">{{cite book|last1=Kak|first1=Subhash|title=The Wishing Tree: Presence and Promise of India|date=2001|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|isbn=0595490948|pages=10–16|url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=_k9uAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=The+Wishing+Tree%3A+The+Presence+and+Promise+of+India|accessdate=29 January 2015}}</ref> | |||
:* Reinterpretation of the linguistic data, arguing for the ancient, indigenous origins of Sanskrit;{{sfn|Elst|1999}}{{sfn|Elst|2005}} | |||
:* Pointing to the supposed lack of ] and ] evidence to support such an "invasion" into North West India;{{sfn|Elst|2005}}{{refn|group=note|Arcaeological arguments: | |||
* Scholars like ] and B.B. Lal note the absence of archaeological remains of an Aryan "conquest", and the high degree of physical continuity between Harappan and Post-Harappan society.<ref group=web name="EB-IAS" /> They support the controversial<ref group=web name="EB-IAS"></ref> theory that the Aryan civilization was not introduced by Aryan migrations, but originated in pre-Vedic India.<ref group=web name="EB-IAS" /> | |||
* ] has noted several problems with the arguments that the ancient Harappans were Aryans.{{sfn|Kennedy|2000|p=371}} According to Shaffer, archaeological evidence consistent with a mass population movement, or an invasion of South Asia in the pre- or proto- historic periods, has not been found. Instead, Shaffer proposes a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods.{{sfn|Shaffer|1984}}{{refn|group=note|Shaffer: "Current archaeological data do not support the existence of an Indo-Aryan or European invasion into South Asia any time in the pre- or protohistoric periods. Instead, it is possible to document archaeologically a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods". Shaffer{{sfn|Shaffer|1984}} as cited in {{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=232}}}} Shaffer contends: | |||
{{quote|There were no invasions from central or western South Asia. Rather there were several internal cultural adjustments reflecting altered ecological, social and economic conditions affecting northwestern and north-central South Asia.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=192}}{{refn|group=note|name="Continuity"|Archaeological evidence of continuity need not be conclusive. A similar case has been Central Europe, where the archaeological evidence shows continuous linear development, with no marked external influences.{{refn|group=note|Häusler, as cited in {{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=141}}}} Archaeological continuity can be supported for every Indo-European-speaking region of ], not just India.{{refn|group=note|Mallory, in {{sfn|Blench|Spriggs|1997}}}}{{refn|group=note|Bryant: "India is not the only Indo-European-speaking area that has not revealed any archaeological traces of immigration." As {{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=235}}}} Several historically documented migrations, such as those of the ] to ], the ] into ], or ]-speakers into ] are not attested in the archaeological record.{{refn|group=note|,{{sfn|Anthony|1986}}{{sfn|Sinor|1990|p=203}}{{sfn|Mallory|1989|p=166}} as cited in {{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=235}}}}> As {{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|2000}} sums up, "archaeology can verify the occurrence of migration only in exceptional cases".}}}} | |||
* Lal notes that at ] (at the ] river) the remains of what some writers claim to be ] ]s have been unearthed that are claimed to have been used for ]s, although the presence of animal bones does not seem consistent with Vedic rites. In addition the remains of a bathing place (suggestive of ceremonial bathing) have been found near the altars in Kalibangan.{{sfn|Lal|1984|pp=57-58}} S.R. Rao found similar "fire altars" in ] which he thinks could have served no other purpose than ].{{sfn|Rao|1993|p=175}} The sites in Kalibangan are dated back to pre-Harappan times i.e. 3500 BC, well before any likely date for the Indo-Aryan migrations, so this may suggest that Vedic rites are indigenous to India and not brought in from outside.<ref>"Advent of the Aryans in India", p. 24, by Ram Sharan Sharma, year = 1999</ref>}} | |||
:* Contesting the possibility that small groups can change culture and languages in a major way;{{sfn|Kazanas|year unknown}} | |||
* Redating India's chronology, re-establishing the Vedic-Puranic chronology: | |||
:* Dating the Rg Veda and the Vedic people to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier;<ref>Kak 1987; Kak 1996; Kak 2008</ref> | |||
:* Identifying the ] with the ], which dried-up at ca. 2000 BCE;{{sfn|Danino|2010}} | |||
:* Identifying the Vedic people with the Harappan Civilisation;<ref name="Kak - On the Chronological Framework for Indian Culture">{{cite web|last1=Kak|first1=Subhash|title=On the Chronological Framework for Indian Culture|url=http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/chro.pdf|accessdate=22 January 2015}}</ref> | |||
:* Equating the Harappan Civilisation, Vedic Culture and the Vedic-Puranic chronology.<ref name="Kak - The Mahabharata and the Sindhu-Sarasvati Tradition">{{cite web|last1=Kak|first1=Subhash|title=The Mahabharata and the Sindhu-Sarasvati Tradition|url=http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/MahabharataII.pdf|accessdate=22 January 2015}}</ref> | |||
{{harvtxt|Narasimhan et al.|2018}} conclude that pastoralists spread southwards from the Eurasian steppe during the period 2300–1500 BCE. These pastoralists during the 2nd millennium BCE, who were likely associated with Indo-European languages, presumably mixed with the descendants of the Indus Valley Civilisation, who in turn were a mix of Iranian agriculturalists and South Asian hunter-gatherers forming "the single most important source of ancestry in South Asia."{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} | |||
These ideas have been answered and rejected in mainstream scholarship.{{sfn|Witzel|2001}}{{sfn|Witzel|2005}}{{sfn|Jamison|2007}} | |||
=== |
====Origins of R1a-Z93==== | ||
Ornella Semino et al. (2000) proposed Ukrainian origins of R1a1, and a postglacial spread of the R1a1 gene during the ], subsequently magnified by the expansion of the Kurgan culture into Europe and eastward.<ref>Ornella Semino, Giuseppe Passarino, Peter J. Oefner, Alice A. Lin, Svetlana Arbuzova, Lars E. Beckman, Giovanna De Benedictis, Paolo Francalacci, Anastasia Kouvatsi, Svetlana Limborska, Mladen Marciki, Anna Mika, Barbara Mika, Dragan Primorac, A. Silvana Santachiara-Benerecetti, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Peter A. Underhill, The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective, '']'', vol. 290 (10 November 2000), pp. 1155–1159.</ref> Spencer Wells proposes central Asian origins, suggesting that the distribution and age of R1a1 points to an ancient migration corresponding to the spread by the ] people in their expansion from the ].{{sfn|Wells|2001}} According to Pamjav et al. (2012), "Inner and Central Asia is an overlap zone for the R1a1-Z280 and R1a1-Z93 lineages implies that an early differentiation zone of R1a1-M198 conceivably occurred somewhere within the Eurasian Steppes or the Middle East and Caucasus region as they lie between South Asia and Eastern Europe."{{sfn|Pamjav|2012}}{{sfn|Silva et al.|2017}} | |||
{{Main|Hindu nationalism|Hindu politics|Hindutva}} | |||
A 2014 study by Peter A. Underhill et al., using 16,244 individuals from over 126 populations from across Eurasia, concluded that there was compelling evidence that "the initial episodes of haplogroup R1a diversification likely occurred in the vicinity of present-day ]."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underhill | first1 = Peter A | year = 2014 | title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = ] | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 124–131 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 }}</ref> | |||
Nationalistic movements in India oppose the idea that ] has partly endogenous origins.{{sfn|Bryant|2001}}<ref>Witzel, Michael (2006), "Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian History", in Fagan, Garrett, Archaeological Fantasies: How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-30592-6</ref>{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=108-109}}{{refn|group=note|See also "Dr. S. Kalyanaraman, .}} For the founders of the contemporary Hindutva movement, the Aryan migration theory presented a problem.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=108}} The Hindutva-notion that the Hindu-culture originated in India was threatened by the notion that the Aryans originated outside India.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=108}} Later Indian writers regarded the Aryan migration theory to be a product of colonialism, aimed to denigrate Hindus.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=109}} According to them, Hindus had existed in India from times immemorial, as expressed by ]:{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=109}} | |||
{{quote|Undoubtedly ... we Hindus have been in undisputed and undisturbed possession of this land for over 8 or even 10 thousand years before the land was invaded by any foreign race. (Golwakar 1944){{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=109}}{{refn|group=note|See also "Savarkar, '''', and Edwin Bryant, ''The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate''}}{{refn|group=note|Hindutva-theory faces other challenges as well. It includes Jainism and Buddhism into its notions of 'Hinduness', as part of the Indian heritage. A recent strategy, exemplified by ], is the use of the term ''dhamma'' as a common denominator, which also includes Jainism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Springer|2012}} Nevertheless, Jainism and Buddhism have distinct origins.{{sfn|Zimmer|1951}}{{refn|group=note|name="Jainism-Buddhism"|Jainism and Buddhism did ''not'' originate from the ], but are indigenous to India itself, just like ] and ].{{refn|group=note|Zimmer: does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."{{sfn|Zimmer|1951|p=217}}}} Hinduism itself is "a fusion of ] and ] cultures".{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=50}} Among its roots are the ] of ],<ref group=web name="bbc-religions">. BBC. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.</ref> but also the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,{{sfn|Narayanan|2009|p=11}}{{sfn|Lockard|2007|p=52}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013|p=3}}{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=xviii}} the ]{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} or renouncer traditions{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}}of ],{{sfn|Gomez|2013|p=42}} and "popular or ]".{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=16}} The "Hindu synthesis" emerged around the beginning of the Common Era.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}}{{sfn|Larson|2009}}}}}}}} | |||
According to Martin P. Richards, co-author of {{harvp|Silva et al.|2017}}, " very powerful evidence for a substantial Bronze Age migration from central Asia that most likely brought Indo-European speakers to India."<ref name="Joseph 2017">{{cite news |first=Tony |last=Joseph |date=16 June 2017 |url= https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article19090301.ece |title=How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate |work=The Hindu}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See also: {{cite web |website=Eurogenes Blog |date=March 28, 2017 |url= http://eurogenes.blogspot.com/2017/03/heavily-sex-biased-population.html |title="Heavily sex-biased" population dispersals into the Indian Subcontinent (Silva et al. 2017)}}}} | |||
===Racism=== | |||
{{Main|Aryan|Aryan race}} | |||
==Literary research: similarities, geography, and references to migration== | |||
The debate inflames issues around racism and the idea of race, as the origin of the theory was intertwined with the desire of many in the ] to find the origin of a pure ], the division of castes by racial basis, and the idea of an Indo-Aryan and Dravidian relating to language families rather than race.<ref name="Thapar">{{citation|last=Thapar|first=Romila|title=The Theory of Aryan Race and India: History and Politics|journal=Social Scientist|volume=24|issue=1/3|date= January 1, 1996 |pages=3–29|doi=10.2307/3520116|issn=09700293|publisher=Social Scientist|jstor=3520116}}.</ref><ref name="Leopold">{{citation|last=Leopold|first=Joan|title=British Applications of the Aryan Theory of Race to India, 1850–1870|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=89|issue=352|year=1974|pages=578–603|doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXXIX.CCCLII.578}}.</ref> | |||
=== |
===Similarities=== | ||
{{Main|Dravidian Movement|Self-Respect Movement}} | |||
====Mitanni==== | |||
The Dravidian Movement bases much of its identity on the idea of the indigenous origin of ] as opposed to transgressing Indo-Aryans.<ref name="Saraswathi-3.4">Saraswathi. ''Towards Self-Respect'', pp. 89 & 90.</ref> This in turn lead to further responses from Indian nationalists: | |||
{{See also|Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni}} | |||
{{quote|From a nationalist point of view, it is clear that the concept of an Aryan-Dravidian divide is pernicious to the unity of the Hindu state, and an important aim for Hindutva and neo-Hindu scholarship is therefor to introduce a counter-narrative to the one presented by Western academic scholarship.{{sfn|Fosse|2013|p=454}}{{refn|group=note|See also ]}}}} | |||
The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, is found not in India, but in northern Syria in ] records{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}} regarding one of their neighbors, the ]-speaking Mitanni. In a treaty with the Hittites, the king of Mitanni, after swearing by a series of Hurrian gods, swears by the gods Mitrašil, Uruvanaššil, Indara, and Našatianna, who correspond to the Vedic gods ], ], ], and Nāsatya (Aśvin). Contemporary{{When|date=September 2020}} equestrian terminology, as recorded in a horse-training manual whose author is identified as "]", contains Indo-Aryan loanwords. The personal names and gods of the Mitanni aristocracy also bear significant traces of Indo-Aryan. Because of the association of Indo-Aryan with horsemanship and the ] aristocracy, it is presumed that, after superimposing themselves as rulers on a native ]-speaking population about the 15th–16th centuries BCE, Indo-Aryan charioteers were absorbed into the local population and adopted the ].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}<br />{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}<br />] '''41''' (1995)<br />Thieme, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=136}}</ref> | |||
==See also== | |||
{{div col|cols=3}} | |||
* ] by ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
{{div col end}} | |||
Brentjes argues that there is not a single cultural element of central Asian, Eastern European, or Caucasian origin in the Mitannian area; he also associates with an Indo-Aryan presence the peacock motif found in the Middle East from before 1600 BCE and quite likely from before 2100 BCE.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=137}} | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{reflist|group=note|2}} | |||
Scholars reject the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of Mitanni came from the Indian subcontinent as well as the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of the Indian subcontinent came from the territory of Mitanni, leaving migration from the north the only likely scenario.{{refn|group=note|Mallory: "It is highly improbable that the Indo-Aryans of Western Asia migrated eastwards, for example with the collapse of the Mitanni, and wandered into India, since there is not a shred of evidence — for example, names of non-Indic deities, personal names, loan words — that the Indo-Aryans of India ever had any contacts with their west Asian neighbours. The reverse possibility, that a small group broke off and wandered from India into Western Asia is readily dismissed as an improbably long migration, again without the least bit of evidence."{{sfn|Mallory|1989}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}}} The presence of some ] loan words in Mitanni, Old Iranian and Vedic further strengthens this scenario.<ref>{{Harvnb|Witzel|2003}}</ref> | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist|2}} | |||
====Iranian Avesta==== | |||
==Sources== | |||
The religious practices depicted in the ''Rigveda'' and those depicted in the '']'', the central religious text of ]—the ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet ]—have in common the deity ], priests called ''hotṛ'' in the ''Rigveda'' and ''zaotar'' in the ''Avesta'', and the use of a ritual substance that the ''Rigveda'' calls '']'' and the ''Avesta'' '']''. However, the Indo-Aryan '']'' 'god' is cognate with the Iranian '']'' 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan '']'' 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon') is cognate with the Iranian '']'' 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.<ref>] as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}.</ref> | |||
<!-- attributed, sort by author --> | |||
Linguists such as Burrow argue that the strong similarity between the ] of the ''Gāthās''—the oldest part of the ''Avesta''—and the ] of the ''Rigveda'' pushes the dating of Zarathustra or at least the ''Gathas'' closer to the conventional ''Rigveda'' dating of 1500–1200 BCE, i.e. 1100 BCE, possibly earlier. Boyce concurs with a lower date of 1100 BCE and tentatively proposes an upper date of 1500 BCE. Gnoli dates the ''Gathas'' to around 1000 BCE, as does {{Harvtxt|Mallory|1989}}, with the caveat of a 400-year leeway on either side, i.e. between 1400 and 600 BCE. Therefore, the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of the Rigveda.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=131}}<br />{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}<br />{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}<br />], as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|1989}}<br />Boyce and Gnoli, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=132}}</ref> | |||
===Published sources=== | |||
{{Refbegin}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =] | author-link = | year =1995 | title =The Archaeology of Early History South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn = |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last=Anthony | first=David | last2=Vinogradov | first2=Nikolai | year=1995 | title=Birth of the Chariot | periodical=Archaeology |volume=48 |issue=2 | pages=36–41 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Anthony | first =David W. | year =2007 | title =The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World | publisher =Princeton University Press |ref=harv}} | |||
There is mention in the ''Avesta'' of ''Airyan Vaejah'', one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans'.<ref>{{citation|title=Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective|page=189|first1=Abbas |last1=Amanat |first2=Farzin |last2=Vejdani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRzIAAAAQBAJ&q=16+nation+of+aryans+avesta&pg=PA189|isbn=9781137013408|date=13 February 2012|publisher=Springer }}</ref> Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the ''Avesta'' situates the ''Airyanem Vaejah'' in the ]. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the ] and western Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vaējah from ]s of the Vedic root "vij", suggesting the region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the ] to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to {{Harvtxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}, the probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=133}}<br />Gnoli, Boyce, Skjaervo, and Witzel, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=133}}<br />Humbach and Gnoli, as cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001|p=327}}<br />{{Harvcoltxt|Mallory|Mair|2000}}</ref> | |||
* {{Citation | last = Bamshad | first = Michael | coauthors = et al. | year = 2001 | title = Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations | journal = Genome Res. | volume = 11 | pages = 994–1004 | doi = 10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR | pmid = 11381027 | issue = 6 | pmc = 311057 | postscript = . |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |authorlink=Christopher I. Beckwith |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url=http://books.google.no/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C |date=16 March 2009 |publisher=] |isbn=1400829941 |accessdate=30 December 2014 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | year=1997 | editor-last=Blench | editor-first=Roger | editor2-last=Spriggs | editor2-first=Matthew | title=Archaeology and Language | publication-place=London | publisher=Routledge |volume=I: ''Theoretical and Methodological Orientations'' |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | editor-last=Bronkhorst | editor-first=J. | editor2-last=Deshpande | editor2-first=M.M. | title=Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia: Evidence, Interpretation, and Ideology | publisher=Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University | publication-date=1999 | isbn=1-888789-04-2 | author=edited by Johannes Bronkhorst & Madhav M. Deshpande. | year=1999 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Bryant | first =Edwin | author-link =Edwin Bryant (author) | year =2001 | title =]: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =0-19-513777-9 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | year=2005 | editor-last =Bryant | editor-first =Edwin F. | editor-link=Edwin Bryant (author) | editor2-last=Patton | editor2-first =Laurie L. | editor2-link= | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history | publication-place =London | publisher =Routledge | isbn=0-7007-1463-4 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Burrow | first =T. | year =1973 | title =The Proto-Indoaryans | journal =Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society NS2: 123-140 |ref=harv}} | |||
===Geographical location of Rigvedic rivers=== | |||
* {{Citation | last =Cardona | first =George | year =2002 | title =The Indo-Aryan languages | publisher =RoutledgeCurzon | isbn =0-7007-1130-9 |ref=harv}} | |||
] and the ] in India and Pakistan. See for a more detailed map.]] | |||
* {{Citation | last =Cavalli-Sforza | first =Luigi Luca | year =2000 | title =Genes, Peoples, and Languages | edition = | place =New York | publisher =North Point Press | isbn = |ref=harv}}. | |||
{{Main|Sarasvati River|Samudra}} | |||
*{{cite book |authorlink=D. K. Chakrabarti |last=Chakrabarti |first=D.K. |title=The Early use of Iron In India |year=1992 |location=New Delhi |publisher=The Oxford University Press |ref=harv}} | |||
*{{cite book |authorlink=D. K. Chakrabarti |last=Chakrabarti |first=D.K |year=1977 |title=India and West Asia: An Alternative Approach |journal=Man and Environment |volume=1 |pp=25–38 |ref=harv}} | |||
*{{Citation | author=Chaubey | author-link=Toomas Kivisild | year=2007 | title=Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste-tribe continuum in India | periodical=BioEssays |volume=29 |issue=1 | pages=91–100 | url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/114030416/ABSTRACT | doi=10.1002/bies.20525 | pmid=17187379 | last2=Metspalu | first2=M | last3=Kivisild | first3=T | last4=Villems | first4=R | display-authors=1 |ref=harv}}. | |||
The geography of the Rigveda seems to be centered on the land of the ]. While the geography of the ] is unclear in some of the early books of the Rigveda, the ] is an important source for the geography of late Rigvedic society. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Danino | first =Michel | year =2010 | title =The Lost River - On the trail of the Sarasvati | publisher =Penguin Books India}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Dhavalikar |first=M. K. |year=1995 |chapter=Fire Altars or Fire Pits? |title=Sri Nagabhinandanam |editor1=V. Shivananda |editor2=M. K. Visweswara |location=Bangalore}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Diakonoff | first=Igor M. | author-link=Igor Diakonov | year=1995 | title=Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins | periodical=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=115 |issue=3 | pages=473–477 | doi=10.2307/606224 | publisher=Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 115, No. 3 | last2=Kuz'mina | first2=E. E. | last3=Ivantchik | first3=Askold I. | jstor=606224 |ref=harv}}. | |||
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief ]. The ] in the ] mentions the Sarasvati between the ] in the east and the ] in the west, and later texts like the ]s and ] mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.<ref>e.g. ].12; ].28; ].24</ref> | |||
* {{Citation | last =Elst | first =Koenraad | author-link =Koenraad Elst | year =1999 | title =Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate | place =New Delhi | publisher =] | isbn =81-86471-77-4 | url =http://voi.org/books/ait/ |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Elst | first =Koenraad | chapter =LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF THE ARYAN NON-INVASION THEORY | editor-last1 =Bryant | editor-first1 =Edwin | editor-last2 =Patton | editor-first2 =Laurie L. | year =2005 | title =THE INDO-ARYAN CONTROVERSY. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher =Rouetledge}}* {{Citation | editor-last =Erdosy | editor-first =George | year =1995 | title =The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity | place =Berlin/New York | publisher =Walter de Gruyter | isbn =3-11-014447-6 | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC&printsec=frontcover&hl=nl#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
Scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the ],<ref name="Ancient Indian Geography p.590"/> while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati ] is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river.<ref name="Vedas p. 7"/> Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra is a matter of dispute. Identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra before its assumed drying up early in the second millennium would place the Rigveda BCE,<ref group=web></ref> well outside the range commonly assumed by Indo-Aryan migration theory. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=introduction+to+hinduism&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=dKU4Us7XCOag4gTIjIG4Bw&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=introduction%20to%20hinduism&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin | year =2008 | title =The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism | publisher =John Wiley & Sons}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Fortson | first =Benjamin W. IV | year =2004 | title =Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction | place =Oxford | publisher =Blackwell | isbn =1-4051-0316-7 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Fosse | first =Lars Martin | year =2005 | chapter =ARYAN PAST AND POST-COLONIAL PRESENT. The polemics and politics of indigenous Aryanism | editor-last1 =Bryant | editor-first1 =Edwin | editor-last2 =Patton | editor-first2 =Laurie L. | title =TheE Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher =Routledge}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Fosse | first =L.M. | year =2013 | title =Aryan past and post-colonial present: the polemics and politics of indigenous Aryanism. In: Edwin Bryant & Laurie Patton, "The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History", pp. 434-467 | publisher =Routledge | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=NDRRNGj17EMC&pg=PA454&dq=aryan-dravidian+divide&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=IAtZUr8-5ZbRBZfVgIAG&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=aryan-dravidian%20divide&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
A non-Indo-Aryan ] in the river-names and place-names of the Rigvedic homeland would support an external origin of the Indo-Aryans.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} However, most place-names in the Rigveda and the vast majority of the river-names in the north-west of the ] are Indo-Aryan.<ref name=B2001>{{Harvcoltxt|Bryant|2001}}</ref> Non-Indo-Aryan names are, however, frequent in the Ghaggar and Kabul River areas,<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Witzel|1999}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> the first being a post-Harappan stronghold of Indus populations.{{Citation needed|date=July 2012}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Gomez | first =Luis O. | year =2013 | title =Buddhism in India. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture" | publisher =Routledge | url=http://books.google.nl/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Gupta | first =Tania Das | year=2007 | title =Race and Racialization: Essential Readings | publisher =Canadian Scholars’ Press | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=yitBhzsd9OIC&dq=hindutva+aryan+migration&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s |ref=harv}} | |||
===Textual references to migrations=== | |||
* {{Citation | last =Hiltebeitel | first =Alf | year =2002 | title =Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture" | publisher =Routledge | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Religious+Traditions+of+Asia:+Religion,+History,+and+Culture&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=Gc9XUs7TF8eX1AXw8IHADg&ved=0CDkQuwUwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Religious%20Traditions%20of%20Asia%3A%20Religion%2C%20History%2C%20and%20Culture&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation| surname=Hock | given=Hans | title=Principles of Historical Linguistics | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | year=1991 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Holloway| first=Ralph L.| title=Head to head with Boas: Did he err on the plasticity of head form?| journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.|volume=99|issue=23 |pages=14622–14623| doi=10.1073/pnas.242622399| date=November 2002 | pmid=12419854 | pmc=137467 | postscript=.|bibcode = 2002PNAS...9914622H |ref=harv}} | |||
====Rigveda==== | |||
* {{Citation | last=Jamison | first=Stephanie W. | title=Review of Bryant & Patton 2005 | journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=34 | year=2006 | url=http://www.safarmer.com/Indo-Eurasian/Bryant_Patton.review.pdf |pp=255–261 |ref=harv}} | |||
] | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Jones | first1 =Constance | last2 =Ryan | first2 =James D. | year =2006 | title =Encyclopedia of Hinduism | publisher =Infobase Publishing | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17&dq=hinduism+neolithic&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=AfRbUvW5Msqb0AWXx4DYBw&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=hinduism%20neolithic&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
Just as the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland{{sfn|Majumdar|Pusalker|1951|p=220}} or to a migration.{{sfn|Cardona|2002|pp=33–35}}{{refn|group=note|According to Cardona, "there is no textual evidence in the early literary traditions unambiguously showing a trace" of an Indo-Aryan migration.{{sfn|Cardona|2002|pp=33–35}}}} Later Hindu texts, such as the ]s, ], ], and ], are centered in the ] region (rather than Haryana and Punjab) and mention regions still further to the south and east, suggesting a later movement or expansion of the Vedic religion and culture to the east. There is no clear indication of general movement in either direction in the Rigveda itself; searching for indirect references in the text, or by correlating geographic references with the proposed order of composition of its hymns, has not led to any consensus on the issue.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Kennedy | first =Kenneth A. R. | year =2000 | title =God-apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia | publisher =University of Michigan Press | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=W6zQHNavWlsC&dq=jim+shaffer+aryan&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s |ref=harv}} | |||
*{{Citation | last = Kivisild | first = T. | coauthors = S. Rootsi, M. Metspalu, S. Mastana, K. Kaldma, J. Parik, E. Metspalu, M. Adojaan, H.-V. Tolk, V. Stepanov, M. Gölge, E. Usanga, S. S. Papiha, C. Cinnioglu, R. King, L. Cavalli-Sforza, P. A. Underhill, and R. Villems | date=February 2003 | title = The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations | journal = ] | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 313–332 | pmid = 12536373 | doi = 10.1086/346068 | pmc = 379225 | postscript = . |ref=harv}}. | |||
*{{Citation | last=Kochhar |first=Rajesh | title=The Vedic People: Their History and Geography | publisher=Sangam Books | year=2000 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Kuz'mina | first =E. E. | year =1994 | title =Откуда пришли индоарии? (Whence came the Indo-Aryans) | place =Moscow | publisher =Российская академия наук (]) |ref=harv}}. | |||
====Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana==== | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lal |first=B. B. |authorlink=B. B. Lal |year=1984 |title=Frontiers of the Indus Civilization |ref=harv}} | |||
According to ], the '']'' "refers to the Parasus and the arattas who stayed behind and others who moved eastwards to the middle Ganges valley and the places equivalent such as the Kasi, the Videhas and the Kuru Pancalas, and so on. In fact, when one looks for them, there are evidence for migration."<ref group=web name="Agarwal"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004212935/http://www.eshiusa.org/Articles/VedicEvidenceforAMT-Puratattva.pdf |date=4 October 2013 }}</ref> | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lal |first=B. B. |authorlink=B. B. Lal |year=1998 |title=New Light on the Indus Civilization |publisher=Aryan Books International |location=Delhi |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lal |first=B. B. |authorlink=B. B. Lal |year=2002 |title=The Saraswati Flows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture |location=New Delhi |publisher=Aryan Books International |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Lal |first=B. B. |authorlink=B. B. Lal |year=2005 |title=The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology |location=New Delhi |publisher=Aryan Books International |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Larson | first =Gerald James | year =2009 | title = Hinduism. In: "World Religions in America: An Introduction" | publisher =Westminster John Knox Press | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&printsec=frontcover&hl=nl#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
*{{cite book |last1=Loewe |first1=Michael |last2=Shaughnessy |first2=Edward L. |authorlink1=Michael Loewe |authorlink2=Edward L. Shaughnessy |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC |url=http://books.google.no/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC |year=1999 |publisher=] |location= |isbn=0-5214-7030-7 |pages=87–88 |accessdate=November 1, 2013 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Lockard | first =Craig A. | year =2007 | title =Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500 | publisher =Cengage Learning | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC&pg=PA50&dq=aryan+roots+of+hinduism&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=G65WUueKHKez4AT_k4GABg&ved=0CHIQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=aryan%20roots%20of%20hinduism&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
====Later Vedic and Hindu texts==== | |||
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=R. C. |editorlink1=R. C. Majumdar |editor2-last=Pusalker |editor2-first=A. D. |title=The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age |publisher=] |location=Bombay |year=1951 |ref=harv}} | |||
Later Vedic texts show a shift{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} of location from the Punjab to the East. According to the ], ] (a Vedic ritualist and philosopher) lived in the eastern region of ].{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=64}} ] 33.6.1. records that ]'s sons migrated to the north, and in ] 1:2:4:10 the ]s were driven to the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Elst|1999}} with reference to L.N. Renou</ref> In much later texts, ] was said to be a king from ].<ref>e.g. Bhagavata Purana (VIII.24.13)</ref> In the legend of the flood he stranded with his ship in Northwestern India or the Himalayas.<ref>e.g. Satapatha Brahmana, Atharva Veda</ref> | |||
* {{Citation | last =Mallory | first =J.P. | author-link =J.P. Mallory | year =1989 | title =In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth | place =London | publisher =Thames & Hudson | isbn =0-500-27616-1 |ref=harv}}. | |||
The Vedic lands (e.g. ], Brahmavarta) are located in Northern India or at the Sarasvati and ].<ref>e.g. RV 3.23.4., Manu 2.22, etc. Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962–1975</ref> However, in a post-Vedic text the ] Udyoga Parva (108), the East is described as the homeland of the Vedic culture, where "the divine Creator of the universe first sang the Vedas".<ref>Talageri 1993, The Aryan Invasion Theory, A Reappraisal</ref> The legends of ], Sumati and other Hindu legends may have their origin in ].<ref>Elst 1999, chapter 5, with reference to Bernard Sergent</ref> | |||
* {{Citation | last =Mallory | first =J. P. | author-link =J. P. Mallory | last2 =Mair | first2 =Victor H. | author2-link =Victor H. Mair | year =2000 | title =The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West | place =London | publisher =Thames & Hudson | isbn =0-500-05101-1 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Melton | first1 =Gordon J. | last2 =Baumann | first2 =Martin | year =2010 | title =Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (6 volumes) | publisher =ABC-CLIO}} | |||
The Puranas record that ] left ] (confluence of the Ganges & Yamuna) and conquered the region of Sapta Sindhu.<ref>Talageri, ''The Aryan invasion theory: a reappraisal'', 1993</ref><ref>''Update on the Aryan invasion debate'', Elst 1999</ref> His five sons ], ], ], ] and Turvashu correspond to the main tribes of the Rigveda. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Narayanan | first =Vasudha | year =2009 | title =Hinduism | publisher =The Rosen Publishing Group | url =http://books.google.nl/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=roots+of+hinduism&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=FKU4UuiEHoSp4gTi3ICoAg&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=roots%20of%20hinduism&f=false |ref=harv}} | |||
The Puranas also record that the ] were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by Mandhatr and that their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as ]. The sons of the later Druhyu king ] are supposed by some to have 'migrated' to the region north of Afghanistan though the Puranic texts only speak of an "adjacent" settlement.<ref>] 9.23.15–16; ] 4.17.5; ] 99.11–12; ] 3.74.11–12 and ] 48.9.</ref>{{refn|see e.g. {{harvnb|Pargiter|1979}}, {{harvnb|Talageri|1993}}, {{harvnb|Talageri|2000}}, {{harvnb|Bryant|2001}}, {{harvnb|Elst|1999}}}} | |||
* {{cite book |authorlink=F. E. Pargiter |last=Pargiter |first=F.E. |origyear=first published 1922 |year=1979 |title=Ancient Indian Historical Tradition |location=New Delhi |publisher=Cosmo |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | surname=Parpola | given=Asko | authorlink=Asko Parpola | year=1998 | chapter=Aryan Languages, Archaeological Cultures, and Sinkiang: Where Did Proto-Iranian Come into Being and How Did It Spread? | editor=Mair | title=The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern and Central Asia | publisher=Institute for the Study of Man | place=Washington, D.C. | isbn=0-941694-63-1 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | author-link=Asko Parpola | year=1999 | contribution=The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European | editor-last=Blench | editor-first=Roger | editor2-last=Spriggs | editor2-first=Matthew | title=Archaeology and Language | publication-place=London and New York | publisher=Routledge | volume=III: ''Artefacts, languages and texts'' | isbn= |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | author-link=Asko Parpola | year=2005 | contribution=Study of the Indus script | title=Transactions of the 50th International Conference of Eastern Studies | place=Tokyo | publisher=The Tôhô Gakkai | pages=28–66 |ref=harv}}. | |||
==Ecology== | |||
*{{cite book |authorlink=S. R. Rao |first=S. R. |last=Rao |title=The Aryans in Indus Civilization |year=1993 |ref=harv}} | |||
{{See also|Bond event|5.9 kiloyear event|4.2-kiloyear event}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Reich |first=David |authorlink=Reich |coauthors= Kumarasamy Thangaraj, Nick Patterson, Alkes L. Price, and Lalji Singh |title=Reconstructing Indian population history |journal =] |volume=461 |issue =7263 |pages=489–494 |date=24 September 2009 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v461/n7263/abs/nature08365.html |doi =10.1038/nature08365 |accessdate=2009-10-02 | pmid =19779445 |pmc=2842210 |bibcode = 2009Natur.461..489R |ref=harv}} | |||
Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south-central Asia and India. | |||
* {{Citation | last = Sahoo | first = Sanghamitra | coauthors = et al. | date=January 2006 | title = A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios | journal = PNAS | volume = 103 | issue = 4 | pages = 843–848 | url =http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/4/843 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0507714103 | pmid = 16415161 | pmc = 1347984 | postscript = . | bibcode=2006PNAS..103..843S |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Samuel | first =Geoffrey | year =2010 | title =The Origins of Yoga and Tantra | publisher =Cambridge University Press |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Sapir | first=Edward | author-link= | year=1949 | publication-date=1985 | editor-last=Mandelbaum | editor-first=David G. | editor-link= | title=Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality | publisher=University of California Press | isbn=0-520-01115-5 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last = Sengupta | first = S. | authorlink = | coauthors = et al. | title =Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists | journal =American Journal of Human Genetics | volume =78 | issue =2 | pages =201–221 | publisher =The American Society of Human Genetics | location = | date =2006-02-01 | url =http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16400607 | doi =10.1086/499411 | id = | accessdate =2007-12-03 | postscript = .| pmid=16400607 | pmc=1380230 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Shaffer | first =Jim | year =1984 | title =The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality. In: "In The Peoples of South Asia", edited by J. R. Lukacs, pp. 74—90 | place =New York | publisher =Plenum Press | url = |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Sharma | first = S. | authorlink = | coauthors =Saha A, Rai E, Bhat A, Bamezai R. | title =Human mtDNA hypervariable regions, HVR I and II, hint at deep common maternal founder and subsequent maternal gene flow in Indian population groups | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume =50 | issue =10 | pages =497–506 | publisher = | location = | year =2005 | doi =10.1007/s10038-005-0284-2 | id = | pmid =16205836 | postscript =. |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Springer | year =2012 | title =International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3, December 2012 | url =http://link.springer.com/journal/11407/16/3/page/1 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Talageri | first =Shrikant G. | author-link =Shrikant G. Talageri | year =2000 | title =The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis | place =New Delhi | publisher =] | isbn =81-7742-010-0 | url =http://www.voiceofdharma.com/books/rig/ | accessdate =May 2007 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Talageri | first =Shrikant G. | author-link =Shrikant G. Talageri | year =1993 | title =Aryan Invasion Theory and Indian Nationalism | isbn =81-85990-02-6 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{cite book |authorlink=Romila Thapar |last=Thapar |first=Romila |year=1966 |title=A History of India: Volume 1 (Paperback) |ISBN=0-14-013835-8 |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Trautmann | first =Thomas | author-link =Thomas Trautmann | year =2005 | title =The Aryan Debate | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =0-19-566908-8 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Thomason | first =Sarah Grey | author-link = | last2 =Kaufman | first2 =Terrence | author2-link = | publication-date =1991 | year =1988 | title =Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics | publisher =University of California Press | isbn =0-520-07893-4 |ref=harv}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last=Tikkanen | first=Bertil | year=1999 | contribution=Archaeological-linguistic correlations in the formation of retroflex typologies and correlating areal features in South Asia | editor-last=Blench | editor-first=Roger | editor2-last=Spriggs | editor2-first=Matthew | title=Archaeology and Language | publication-place=London | publisher=Routledge |volume=IV: ''Language Change and Cultural Transformation'' | pages=138–148 |ref=harv}}. | |||
Around 4200–4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=227}} Between 4200 and 3900 BCE many tell settlements in the lower Danube Valley were burned and abandoned,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=227}} while the Cucuteni-Tripolye culture showed an increase in fortifications,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=230}} meanwhile moving eastwards towards the Dniepr.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=232}} Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=133}} | |||
* {{cite book | last1 =Wells | first1 =Spencer | authorlink1 =Spencer Wells | last2 =Read | first2 =Mark | year =2002 | title =The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey |publisher=Princeton University Press | edition=illustrated | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC&pg=PA167&output=text&redir_esc=y#c_top |ISBN=069111532X |ref=harv}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =1999 | author-link =Michael E. J. Witzel | title =Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic) | periodical =Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies | volume =5 |issue =1 | url =http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdf|format=PDF}} | |||
The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300, 336}} It was accompanied by new social rules and institutions, to regulate the local migrations in the steppes, creating a new social awareness of a distinct culture, and of "cultural Others" who did not participate in these new institutions.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=300}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =2001 | title =Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts | journal =Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7-3 (EJVS) 2001(1-115) | url =http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =2005 | chapter =Indocentrism | editor-last1 =Bryant | editor-first1 =Edwin | editor-last2 =Patton | editor-first2 =Laurie L. | title =TheE Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher =Routledge | url =https://ia601602.us.archive.org/17/items/EdwinBryantLauriePattonIndoAryanControversyEvidenceAndInferenceInIndianHistoryRoutledge2005/Edwin%20Bryant%2C%20Laurie%20Patton-Indo-Aryan%20Controversy_%20Evidence%20and%20Inference%20in%20Indian%20History-Routledge%20%282005%29.pdf}} | |||
In the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and south Asia.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/>{{sfn|Demkina|2017}} At the steppes, humidization led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding".{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}{{refn|group=note|Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidization of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."{{sfn|Demkina|2017}}}}{{refn|group=note|See also Eurogenes Blogspot, .}} Water shortage also had a strong impact in south Asia: | |||
* {{Citation | last=Witzel | first=Michael | author-link=Michael E. J. Witzel | year=2006 | contribution=Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian archaeology and history | contribution-url= | editor-last=Fagan | editor-first=Garrett G. | editor-link= | title=Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public | publication-place=London/New York | publisher=Routledge | pages=203–232 | isbn=0-415-30592-6 |ref=harv}}. | |||
{{blockquote|This time was one of great upheaval for ecological reasons. Prolonged failure of rains caused acute water shortage in a large area, causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south-central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations. Inevitably, the new arrivals came to merge with and dominate the post-urban cultures.<ref group=web name="Kochhar2017"/>}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Zimmer | first =Heinrich | year =1951 | title =Philosophies of India | publisher =Princeton University Press |ref=harv}} | |||
The ] was localised, that is, urban centers disappeared and were replaced by local cultures, due to a ] that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phys.org/news/2014-02-decline-bronze-age-megacities-linked.html|title=Decline of Bronze Age 'megacities' linked to climate change}}</ref> {{As of| 2016}} many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation.<ref name="Science">{{cite journal|date=6 June 2008|title=Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture?|journal=Science Magazine|volume=320|pages=1282–3}}</ref> The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed,<ref name="Giosan">{{cite journal|last=Giosan|first=L.|title=Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan Civilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA|year=2012|volume=109|issue=26|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1073/pnas.1112743109|pmid=22645375|pages=E1688–E1694|pmc=3387054|bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Clift>{{cite journal |last=Clift |first=P. D. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River |journal=Geology |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=211–214 |doi=10.1130/G32840.1|bibcode=2012Geo....40..211C }}</ref><ref name="Tripathi_2004">{{cite journal|first= Jayant K.|last= Tripathi|author2= Tripathi, K.|author3=Bock, Barbara|author4=Rajamani, V.|author5=Eisenhauer, A.|title= Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints|journal= Current Science|volume= 87|issue= 8|date= 25 October 2004|url= http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct252004/1141.pdf}}</ref> and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the ] at that time.<ref name="Giosan"/> The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the ] retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya,<ref name="Giosan"/><ref>{{cite web | url = http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/an-ancient-civilization-upended-by-climate-change/?_r=0 | title = An Ancient Civilization, Upended by Climate Change | first = Rachel | last = Nuwer | author-link = Rachel Nuwer | date = 28 May 2012 | access-date = 29 May 2012 | publisher = LiveScience }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.livescience.com/20614-collapse-mythical-river-civilization.html | title = Huge Ancient Civilization's Collapse Explained | first = Charles | last = Choi | date = 29 May 2012 | access-date = 18 May 2016 | work = ] }}</ref> leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.<ref name="madella-fuller">{{cite journal|last2=Fuller|first2=Dorian|date=2006|title=Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=25|issue=11–12|pages=1283–1301|last1=Madella|first1=Marco|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012|bibcode=2006QSRv...25.1283M}}</ref><ref name="macdonald">{{cite journal|last=MacDonald|first=Glen|year=2011|title=Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline|journal=Quaternary International|volume=229|issue=1–2|pages=140–148|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012|bibcode=2011QuInt.229..140M}}</ref><ref name=brooke-2015>{{citation|last=Brooke|first=John L.|title=Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9TSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296|date= 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87164-8|page=296|bibcode=2014cccg.book.....B }}</ref> | |||
==Indigenous Aryanism== | |||
{{Main|Indigenous Aryanism}} | |||
]'' during the late ] (ca. 1100–500 BCE). ''Aryavarta'' was limited to northwest India and the western Ganges plain, while ] in the east was habitated by non-Vedic Indo-Aryans, who gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007}}{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}]] | |||
Indian ] of the Indo-Aryan migration question it, and instead promote ], claiming that speakers of ] (sometimes called ''Aryan languages'') are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Fosse|2005}}{{sfn|Bryant|2001}}<ref>Witzel, Michael (2006), "Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian History", in Fagan, Garrett, Archaeological Fantasies: How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-30592-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Gupta|2007|pp=108–109}} Indigenous Aryanism has no support in contemporary mainstream scholarship, as it is contradicted by a broad range of research on ].{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{refn|group=note|name="no support"|No support in mainstream scholarship: | |||
* Romila Thapar (2006): "there is no scholar at this time seriously arguing for the indigenous origin of Aryans".{{sfn|Thapar|2006}} | |||
* Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. It is now championed primarily by Hindu nationalists, whose religious sentiments have led them to regard the theory of Aryan migration with some asperity."<ref group=web name="Doniger_2017">Wendy Doniger (2017), ", review of Asko Parpola's ''The Roots of Hinduism''; in: ''Inference, International Review of Science'', Volume 3, Issue 2</ref> | |||
* Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, 'an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent's real argument' ... The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse time's arrow ... The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history."<ref group=web name="Shahane_2019">Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), , Scroll.in</ref> | |||
* Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016): "Of course it is a fringe theory, at least internationally, where the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) is still the official paradigm. In India, though, it has the support of most archaeologists, who fail to find a trace of this Aryan influx and instead find cultural continuity."<ref name="Elst_2016">Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: "I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history", ''Swarajya Magazine''</ref> | |||
* {{harvnb|Witzel|2001|p=95}}: "The "revisionist project" certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise ... The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the "truth" of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at "rewriting" history out of national pride or for the purpose of "nation building"."}} | |||
==See also== | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
{{Clear}} | |||
==Notes== | |||
{{reflist|group=note|35em}} | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist|30em}} | |||
==Sources== | |||
<!-- attributed, sort by author --> | |||
===Printed sources=== | |||
{{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
<!-- A --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Allchin | first=F. Raymond | author-link=F. Raymond Allchin | year=1995 | title=The Archaeology of Early History South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States | publisher=Cambridge University Press }} | |||
* {{citation | last1=Allentoft|first1=Morten E.|last2=Sikora|first2=Martin|last3=Sjögren|first3=Karl-Göran|last4=Rasmussen|first4=Simon| year = 2015 | title = Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia | journal = ] | doi = 10.1038/nature14507 | pmid =26062507 |display-authors=etal | volume=522 | issue =7555 | pages=167–172| bibcode=2015Natur.522..167A |s2cid=4399103| url =https://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/13155 }} | |||
* {{citation |first=Mikhail Sergeevich |last=Andronov |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhB60gYvnLgC&pg=PA299 |year=2003 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-04455-4}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Anthony | first1=David | last2=Vinogradov | first2=Nikolai | year=1995 | title=Birth of the Chariot | periodical=Archaeology |volume=48 |issue=2 | pages=36–41}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Anthony | first=David W. | year=2007 |title=The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World | publisher=Princeton University Press}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Anthony | first1 =David | last2 =Ringe | first2 =Don | year =2015 | title =The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives | journal =Annual Review of Linguistics |volume=1 |pages=199–219 | doi =10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812| doi-access =free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=ArunKumar | first=GaneshPrasad | title=Genome-wide signatures of male-mediated migration shaping the Indian gene pool | journal=Journal of Human Genetics |year=2015 |volume=60 | issue=9 | pages=493–9 |display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|ArunKumar et al.|2015}} | doi=10.1038/jhg.2015.51 | pmid=25994871| s2cid=8926804 | doi-access=free }} | |||
<!-- B --> | |||
* {{Citation | last= Bamshad | first= Michael | year= 2001 | title= Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations | journal= Genome Research | volume= 11 | pages= 994–1004 | doi= 10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR | pmid= 11381027 | issue= 6 | pmc= 311057 | postscript= . |display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|Bamshad et al.|2001}}}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Basu | year=2003 | title=Ethnic India: A Genomic View, With Special Reference to Peopling and Structure | journal=Genome Research |volume=13 | issue=10 |pages=2277–2290 | doi=10.1101/gr.1413403 | pmid=14525929 | pmc=403703 |ref={{sfnref|Basu et al.|2003}}}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Basu | first1=Analabha | last2=Sarkar-Roya | first2=Neeta | last3=Majumder | first3=Partha P. | title=Genomic reconstruction of the history of extant populations of India reveals five distinct ancestral components and a complex structure | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=9 February 2016 |volume=113 |issue=6 |ref={{sfnref|Basu et al.|2016}} | doi=10.1073/pnas.1513197113 | pages=1594–1599 | pmid=26811443 | pmc=4760789| bibcode=2016PNAS..113.1594B | doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{citation |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C |date=16 March 2009 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1400829941 |access-date=30 December 2014}} | |||
* {{Citation | year=1997 | editor-last=Blench | editor-first=Roger | editor2-last=Spriggs | editor2-first=Matthew | title=Archaeology and Language | location=London | publisher=Routledge |volume=I: ''Theoretical and Methodological Orientations''}}. | |||
* {{Citation | editor-last=Bronkhorst | editor-first=J. | editor2-last=Deshpande | editor2-first=M.M. | title=Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia: Evidence, Interpretation, and Ideology | publisher=Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University | publication-date=1999 | isbn=978-1-888789-04-1 | year=1999}} | |||
* {{Cite book| last =Bronkhorst | first =Johannes | date =2007 | title =Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India | publisher =BRILL | isbn =9789004157194}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Bryant | first=Edwin | author-link=Edwin Bryant (author) | year=2001 | title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-513777-4}}. | |||
* {{Citation | year=2005 | editor-last=Bryant | editor-first=Edwin F. | editor-link=Edwin Bryant (author) | editor2-last=Patton | editor2-first=Laurie L. | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history | location=London | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-7007-1463-6}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Burrow | first=T. | year=1973 | title=The Proto-Indoaryans | journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=123–140 |jstor=25203451 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00130837| doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 | s2cid=162454265 }} | |||
<!-- C --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Cardona | first=George | year=2002 | title=The Indo-Aryan languages | publisher=RoutledgeCurzon | isbn=978-0-7007-1130-7}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Cavalli-Sforza | first1 =Luigi Luca | last2 =Menozzi | first2 =Paolo | last3 =Piazza | first3 =Alberto | year =1994 | title =The History and Geography of Human Genes | publisher =Princeton University Press}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Cavalli-Sforza | first=Luigi Luca | year=2000 | title=Genes, Peoples, and Languages | place=New York | publisher=North Point Press }} | |||
* {{citation | last1 = Campbell | first1 = Lyle | author1-link = Lyle Campbell | last2 = Poser | first2 = William J. | title = Language Classification: History and Method | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-521-88005-3 | postscript = . }} | |||
*{{citation |last=Chakrabarti |first=D.K. | author-link=D. K. Chakrabarti |title=The Early use of Iron in India |year=1992 |location=New Delhi |publisher=The Oxford University Press}} | |||
*{{citation |last=Chakrabarti |first=D.K|author-link=D. K. Chakrabarti |year=1977 |title=India and West Asia: An Alternative Approach |journal=Man and Environment |volume=1 |pages=25–38}} | |||
*{{Citation | last1=Chaubey |first1=Gyaneshwar | year=2007 | title=Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste-tribe continuum in India | periodical=BioEssays |volume=29 |issue=1 | pages=91–100 | url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/114030416/ABSTRACT | archive-url=https://archive.today/20121210073505/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/114030416/ABSTRACT | url-status=dead | archive-date=2012-12-10 | doi=10.1002/bies.20525 | pmid=17187379 | last2=Metspalu | first2=M | last3=Kivisild | first3=T | last4=Villems | first4=R | display-authors=1 |ref={{sfnref|Chaubey et al.|2007}}|citeseerx=10.1.1.551.2654 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Cordeaux | first1=Richard | last2=Deepa | first2=Edwin | last3=Vishwanathan | first3=H. | last4=Stoneking | first4=Mark | year=2004 | title=Genetic Evidence for the Demic Diffusion of Agriculture to India | journal=Science |volume=304 | issue=5674 | page=1125 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/40851944 | doi=10.1126/science.1095819 | pmid=15155941 |ref={{sfnref|Cordeaux et al.|2004}}| citeseerx=10.1.1.486.6510 | s2cid=32528388 }} | |||
<!-- D --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Danino | first=Michel | year=2010 | title=The Lost River – On the trail of the Sarasvati | publisher=Penguin Books India}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Demkina | first =T.S. | year =2017 | title =Paleoecological crisis in the steppes of the Lower Volga region in the Middle of the Bronze Age (III–II centuries BC) | journal =Eurasian Soil Science | volume = 50| issue =7 | doi=10.1134/S1064229317070018 | pages=791–804| bibcode =2017EurSS..50..791D | s2cid =133638705 }} | |||
* {{citation |last=Dhavalikar |first=M. K. |year=1995 |chapter=Fire Altars or Fire Pits? |title=Sri Nagabhinandanam |editor1=V. Shivananda |editor2=M. K. Visweswara |location=Bangalore}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Diakonoff | first1=Igor M. | author-link=Igor Diakonov | year=1995 | title=Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins | periodical=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=115 |issue=3 | pages=473–477 | doi=10.2307/606224 | last2=Kuz'mina | first2=E. E. | last3=Ivantchik | first3=Askold I. | jstor=606224}}. | |||
<!-- E --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Elst | first=Koenraad | author-link=Koenraad Elst | year=1999 | title=Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate | place=New Delhi | publisher=] | isbn=978-81-86471-77-7 | url=http://voi.org/books/ait/ | access-date=19 July 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917181115/http://voi.org/books/ait/ | archive-date=17 September 2018 | url-status=dead }}. | |||
* {{Citation | last =Elst | first=Koenraad | chapter=Linguistic Aspects of the Aryan Non-Invasion Theory | editor-last1=Bryant | editor-first1=Edwin | editor-last2=Patton | editor-first2=Laurie L. | year=2005 | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher=Rouetledge}} | |||
* {{Citation | editor-last=Erdosy | editor-first=George | year=1995 | title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity | place=Berlin/New York | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | isbn=978-3-11-014447-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Esleben | first1 =Jorg | year =2008 | last2 =Kraenzle | first2 =Christina | last3 =Kulkarni | first3 =Sukanya | title = Mapping channels between Ganges and Rhein: German-Indian cross-cultural relations | publisher =Cambridge Scholars publication | isbn =9781847185877}} | |||
<!-- F --> | |||
* {{Citation |last=Flood | first=Gavin D. | year=1996 | title=An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&q=introduction+to+hinduism| isbn=9780521438780 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Flood | first=Gavin | year=2008 | title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism | publisher=John Wiley & Sons}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Fortson | first=Benjamin W. IV | year=2004 | title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction |place=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell | isbn=978-1-4051-0316-9}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Fosse | first=Lars Martin | year=2005 | chapter=Aryan past and post-colonial present. The polemics and politics of indigenous Aryanism | editor-last1=Bryant | editor-first1=Edwin | editor-last2=Patton | editor-first2=Laurie L. | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher=Routledge}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Fosse | first=L.M. | year=2013 | chapter=Aryan past and post-colonial present: the polemics and politics of indigenous Aryanism. | editor-last1=Bryant | editor-first1=Edwin | editor-last2=Patton | editor-first2=Laurie L. | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher=Routledge | pages=434–467 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDRRNGj17EMC&q=aryan-dravidian+divide&pg=PA454| isbn=9781135791025 }} | |||
* {{cite journal |last1=Fu |first1=Q. |last2=Posth |first2=C. |last3=Hajdinjak |first3=M. |last4=Petr |first4=Martin |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |title=The genetic history of Ice Age Europe |journal=Nature |volume=534 |issue=7606 |pages=200–205 |doi=10.1038/nature17993 |pmid=27135931 |pmc=4943878 |bibcode=2016Natur.534..200F |hdl=10211.3/198594 |hdl-access=free }} | |||
<!-- G --> | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Gallego Romero | first1 =Irene | year =2011 | title =Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence | journal =Molecular Biology and Evolution | doi =10.1093/molbev/msr190 | display-authors =etal |pmid=21836184 | volume=29 | issue =1 | pages=249–60| doi-access =free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Gomez | first=Luis O. | year=2013 | title=Buddhism in India. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture" | publisher=Routledge | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42| isbn=9781136875908 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Gupta | first=Tania Das | year=2007 | title=Race and Racialization: Essential Readings | publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yitBhzsd9OIC&q=hindutva+aryan+migration| isbn=9781551303352 }} | |||
<!-- H --> | |||
* {{Cite journal | last1 =Haak | first1 =W. | last2 =Lazaridis|first2=I. |last3=Patterson |first3=N. |last4=Rohland |first4=N. |last5=Mallick|first5=S. |last6=Llamas|first6=B. |last7=Brandt|first7=G. |last8=Nordenfelt |first8=S. |last9=Harney |first9=E. |year=2015 | title =Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. Supplementary Information | journal =Nature |doi=10.1038/nature14317 | last10=Stewardson|first10=K.|last11=Fu|first11=Q.|last12=Mittnik|first12=A.|last13=Bánffy|first13=E.|last14=Economou|first14=C.|last15=Francken|first15=M.|last16=Friederich|first16=S.|last17=Pena|first17=R. G.|last18=Hallgren|first18=F.|last19=Khartanovich|first19=V.|last20=Khokhlov|first20=A.|last21=Kunst|first21=M.|last22=Kuznetsov|first22=P.|last23=Meller|first23=H.|last24=Mochalov|first24=O.|last25=Moiseyev|first25=V.|last26=Nicklisch|first26=N.|last27=Pichler|first27=S. L.|last28=Risch|first28=R.|last29=Rojo Guerra|first29=M. A.|last30=Roth|first30=C.|display-authors=29 | volume=522 | issue =7555 | pages =207–211 | pmid =25731166 | pmc =5048219 | arxiv =1502.02783 | bibcode =2015Natur.522..207H }} | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Hanks | first1=B. |last2=Linduff |first2=K. |editor-first=B. |editor-last=Hanks |editor2-first=K. |editor2-last=Linduff |title=Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |pages=146–167 |chapter=Late Prehistoric Mining, Metallurgy, and Social Organization in North Central Eurasia |isbn=978-0-511-60537-6 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511605376.005}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Hiltebeitel | first=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel | year=2013 | title=Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture" | publisher=Routledge | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ| isbn=9781136875977 }} | |||
* {{Citation| surname=Hock | given=Hans | title=Principles of Historical Linguistics | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | year=1991}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Holloway| first=Ralph L.| title=Head to head with Boas: Did he err on the plasticity of head form?| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99|issue=23 |pages=14622–14623| doi=10.1073/pnas.242622399| date=November 2002 | pmid=12419854 |pmc=137467 | postscript=.|bibcode= 2002PNAS...9914622H| doi-access=free}} | |||
<!-- J --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Jamison | first=Stephanie W. | title=Review of Bryant & Patton 2005 | journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=34 | year=2006 | url=http://www.safarmer.com/Indo-Eurasian/Bryant_Patton.review.pdf |pages=255–261}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Jones | first1=Constance | last2=Ryan | first2=James D. | year=2006 | title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Infobase Publishing | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&q=hinduism+neolithic&pg=PR17| isbn=9780816075645 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Jones | first1=Eppie R. | year=2016 | title=Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians |journal=Nature Communications |volume=6 |pages=8912 | doi=10.1038/ncomms9912 | pmid=26567969 | pmc=4660371|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.8912J }} | |||
<!-- K --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Kennedy | first=Kenneth A. R. | year=2000 | title=God-apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia |publisher=University of Michigan Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6zQHNavWlsC&q=jim+shaffer+aryan| isbn=9780472110131 }} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Kenoyer |first=Jonathan Mark |author-link=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer |year=1991b |chapter=Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary model from Harappa |editor=Meadow, R. H. |title=Harappa Excavations 1986-1990: A multidiscipinary approach to Third Millennium urbanism |location=Madison, WI |publisher=Prehistory Press |pages=29–60}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Kivisild | year=1999 | title=Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages | journal=Current Biology | volume=9 | issue=22 | pages=1331–1334 | display-authors=etal | ref={{sfnref|Kivisild et al.|1999}} | doi=10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3 | pmid=10574762 | s2cid=2821966 | df=dmy-all | doi-access=free | bibcode=1999CBio....9.1331K }} | |||
*{{Citation | last= Kivisild | first= T. | date=February 2003 | title=The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations | journal= ] | volume= 72 | issue= 2 | pages= 313–332 | pmid= 12536373 | doi= 10.1086/346068 | pmc= 379225 |display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|Kivisild et al.|2003}}}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Kochhar | first=Rajesh | title=The Vedic People: Their History and Geography | publisher=Sangam Books |year=2000 }} | |||
* {{cite web |url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html |title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture |first=L. |last=Koryakova |year=1998a |publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN) |access-date=16 September 2010}} | |||
* {{cite web |url=http://www.csen.org/Koryakova/korya.andronovo.html |title=An Overview of the Andronovo Culture: Late Bronze Age Indo-Iranians in Central Asia |first=L. |last=Koryakova |year=1998b |publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN) |access-date=16 September 2010}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Kuz'mina | first=E. E. | year=1994 | title=Откуда пришли индоарии? (Whence came the Indo-Aryans) |place=Moscow |publisher=Российская академия наук (])}}. | |||
* {{citation |last=Kuz'mina |first=Elena Efimovna |author-link=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina |editor=J. P. Mallory |editor-link=J. P. Mallory |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-9004160545}} | |||
* {{cite journal|last=Kuznetsov|first=P. F.|title=The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe|journal=Antiquity|year=2006|volume=80|issue=309|pages=638–645|url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/080/ant0800638.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707005717/http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/080/ant0800638.htm|archive-date=2012-07-07|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00094096|s2cid=162580424}} | |||
<!-- L --> | |||
* {{citation |last=Lal |first=B. B. |author-link=B. B. Lal (archaeologist) |year=1984 |title=Frontiers of the Indus Civilization}} | |||
* {{citation |last=Lal |first=B. B. |author-link=B. B. Lal (archaeologist) |year=1998 |title=New Light on the Indus Civilization |publisher=Aryan Books International |location=Delhi}} | |||
* {{citation |last=Lal |first=B. B. |author-link=B. B. Lal (archaeologist) |year=2002 |title=The Saraswati Flows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture |location=New Delhi |publisher=Aryan Books International}} | |||
* {{citation |last=Lal |first=B. B. |author-link=B. B. Lal (archaeologist) |year=2005 |title=The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology |location=New Delhi |publisher=Aryan Books International}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Larson | first=Gerald James | year=2009 | chapter= Hinduism |title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C| isbn=9781611640472 }} | |||
* {{cite bioRxiv | last =Lazaridis | first =Iosif | year =2016 | title =The genetic structure of the world's first farmers | biorxiv=10.1101/059311 |mode=cs2 | ref={{sfnref|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Lehmann | first =Winfred P. | author-link =Winfred P. Lehmann | year =1993 | title =Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics | location =London | publisher =Routledge}} | |||
*{{citation |last1=Loewe |first1=Michael |last2=Shaughnessy |first2=Edward L. |author-link1=Michael Loewe |author-link2=Edward L. Shaughnessy |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC |year=1999 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-5214-7030-8 |pages=87–88 |access-date=1 November 2013}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Lockard | first=Craig A. | year=2007 | title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500 | publisher=Cengage Learning | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC&q=aryan+roots+of+hinduism&pg=PA50| isbn=978-0618386123 }} | |||
<!-- M --> | |||
* {{citation |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=R. C. |editor-link1=R. C. Majumdar |editor2-last=Pusalker |editor2-first=A. D. |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People. Volume I, The Vedic age |publisher=] |location=Bombay |year=1951|title-link=The History and Culture of the Indian People }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Mallory | first=J.P. | author-link=J.P. Mallory | year=1989 | title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth | place=London | publisher=Thames & Hudson | isbn=978-0-500-27616-7 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma }}. | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Mallory | first1=J. P. | author-link=J. P. Mallory | last2=Mair | first2=Victor H. | author2-link=Victor H. Mair | year=2000 | title=The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West | place=London | publisher=Thames & Hudson | isbn=978-0-500-05101-6 | url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Mallory | first=J.P. | year=2002 | chapter=Archaeological models and Asian Indo-Europeans | editor-last=Sims-Williams | editor-first=Nicholas | title=Indi-Iranian Languages and Peoples | publisher=Oxford University Press}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Mallory | first=J.P. | title=Twenty-first century clouds over Indo-European homelands | journal=Journal of Language Relationship |volume=9 |year=2012 |pages=145–154 | doi=10.31826/jlr-2013-090113 | s2cid=212689004 |url=http://jolr.ru/files/(112)jlr2013-9(145-154).pdf| doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{citation |last1=Mallory |first1=J.P. |last2=Adams |first2=D.Q. |year=1997 |title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |publisher=Taylor & Francis }} | |||
* {{Citation |last1=Mascarenhas |first1=Desmond D. |last2=Raina |first2=Anupuma |last3=Aston |first3=Christopher E. |last4=Sanghera |first4=Dharambir K. |year=2015 |title=Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage |journal =BioMed Research International |volume=2015 |doi=10.1155/2015/651415 |pmid=26491681 |pmc=4605215 |pages=1–16|doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=McGetchin | first=Douglas T. | year=2015 | chapter='Orient' and 'Occident', 'East' and 'West' in the Doscourse of German Orientalists, 1790–1930 | editor-last1=Bavaj | editor-first1=Riccardo | editor-last2=Steber | editor-first2=Martina | title=Germany and 'The West': The History of a Modern Concept | publisher=Berghahn Books}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Melton | first1=Gordon J. | last2=Baumann | first2=Martin | year=2010 | title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (6 volumes) | publisher=ABC-CLIO}} | |||
* {{citation | last1=Metspalu | first1=Mait | year=2011 | title=Shared and Unique Components of Human Population Structure and Genome-Wide Signals of Positive Selection in South Asia| last2=Gallego Romero | first2=Irene |last3=Yunusbayev |first3=Bayazit |last4=Chaubey |first4=Gyaneshwer |last5=Mallick |first5=Chandana Basu |last6=Hudjashov |first6=Georgi |last7=Nelis |first7=Mari |last8=Mägi |first8=Reedik |last9=Metspalu |first9=Ene |last10=Remm |first10=Maido |last11=Pitchappan |first11=Ramasamy |last12=Singh |first12=Lalji |last13=Thangaraj |first13=Kumarasamy |last14=Villems |first14=Richard |last15=Kivisild |first15=Toomas | journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics | volume=89 | issue=6 | pages=731–744 | issn=0002-9297 | doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.11.010 |ref={{sfnref|Metspalu et al.|2011}} | pmid=22152676 | pmc=3234374}} | |||
* {{citation | last1= Moorjani | first1= P. | year= 2013 | title= Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India | last2= Thangaraj | first2= K. | last3= Patterson | first3= N. | last4= Lipson | first4= M. | last5= Loh | first5= P. R. | last6= Govindaraj | first6= P. | last7= Singh | first7= L. | journal= The American Journal of Human Genetics | volume= 93 | issue= 3| pages= 422–438 | doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006 | pmid=23932107 | pmc=3769933 | ref={{sfnref|Moorjani et al.|2013}}}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Muller | first=Max | year=1988 | title=Biographies of words and the home of the Aryas | publisher=Longmans}} | |||
<!-- N --> | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Narasimhan | first1 =Vagheesh M. | last2 =Anthony | first2 =David | last3 =Mallory | first3 =James | last4 =Reich | first4 =David | year =2018 | title =The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia | biorxiv =10.1101/292581 |ref={{sfnref|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}| doi =10.1101/292581 | doi-access =free | hdl =21.11116/0000-0001-E7B3-0 | hdl-access =free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Narasimhan | first1 =Vagheesh M. | year =2019 | last2 =Patterson | first2 = N.J. |last3=Moorjani|first3=Priya|last4=Rohland|first4=Nadin| display-authors =etal | title =The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia | journal =Science | volume =365 | issue =6457 | pages =eaat7487 | url =https://scholar.harvard.edu/vagheesh/centralsouthasia| doi =10.1126/science.aat7487 | pmid =31488661 | pmc =6822619 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Narayanan | first=Vasudha | year=2009 | title=Hinduism | publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC&q=roots+of+hinduism| isbn=9781435856202 }} | |||
<!-- P --> | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Palanichamy | first1 =Malliya Gounder | year =2015 | title =West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system | journal =Human Genetics |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=637–647|doi=10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4 | pmid=25832481| s2cid =14202246 | url =https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/94856c1bdefa23cd101ec1194712b92b1a44d412 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Pamjav | title =Brief communication: New Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1 | journal =American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 149 | issue =4 |pages =611–615|date= December 2012 | doi=10.1002/ajpa.22167 | pmid=23115110}} | |||
* {{citation |author-link=F. E. Pargiter |last=Pargiter |first=F.E. |orig-year=first published 1922 |year=1979 |title=Ancient Indian Historical Tradition |location=New Delhi |publisher=Cosmo}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | author-link=Asko Parpola | year=1998 | chapter=Aryan Languages, Archaeological Cultures, and Sinkiang: Where Did Proto-Iranian Come into Being and How Did It Spread? | editor=Mair | title=The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern and Central Asia | publisher=Institute for the Study of Man | place=Washington, D.C. | isbn=978-0-941694-63-6}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | author-link=Asko Parpola | year=1999 | contribution=The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European | editor-last=Blench | editor-first=Roger | editor2-last=Spriggs | editor2-first=Matthew | title=Archaeology and Language | location=London and New York | publisher=Routledge | volume=III: ''Artefacts, languages and texts'' }}. | |||
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | author-link=Asko Parpola | year=2005 | contribution=Study of the Indus script |title=Transactions of the 50th International Conference of Eastern Studies | place=Tokyo | publisher=The Tôhô Gakkai | pages=28–66}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | year=2015 | title=The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press}} | |||
* {{Cite journal|last=Parpola|first=Asko|title=Royal "Chariot" Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages|date=2020|url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/98032/56890|journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica|volume=8|pages=176|doi=10.23993/store.98032|via=|doi-access=free}} | |||
* {{citation | last1=Pereltsvaig | first1=Asya | last2=Lewis | first2=Martin W. | year=2015 | title=The Indo-European Controversy |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Poznik | year =2016 | title =Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences | journal =Nature Genetics |doi =10.1038/ng.3559 | volume=48 | issue =6 | pages=593–599 | pmid=27111036 | pmc=4884158}} | |||
<!-- R --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Rao | first=S.R. | author-link=S. R. Rao | year=1993| title=The Aryans in Indus Civilization }} | |||
* {{citation | last1=Reich | first1=David | year=2009 | last2=Thangaraj| first2=Kumarasamy| last3=Patterson| first3=Nick | last4=Price| first4=Alkes L.| last5=Singh| first5=Lalji| title=Reconstructing Indian population history| journal=Nature| volume=461| issue=7263| pages=489–494| issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/nature08365 | pmid=19779445 | pmc=2842210 | bibcode= 2009Natur.461..489R | ref={{sfnref|Reich et al.|2009}}}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Renfrew | first=Colin | year=1992 | title=Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity | journal=Man |volume=27 | issue=3 |pages=445–478 | doi=10.2307/2803924| jstor=2803924 }} | |||
<!-- S --> | |||
* {{Citation | last= Sahoo | first= Sanghamitra | date=January 2006 | title= A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume= 103 | issue= 4 | pages= 843–848 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.0507714103 | pmid= 16415161 | pmc= 1347984 | postscript= . | bibcode=2006PNAS..103..843S |display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|Sahoo et al.|2006}}| doi-access= free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Salmons | first=Joseph | year=2015 | chapter=Language shift and the Indo-Europanization of Europe | editor-last1=Mailhammer |editor-first1=Robert | editor-last2=Vennemann | editor-first2=Theo | editor-last3=Olsen | editor-first3=Birgit Anette |title=Origin and Development of European Languages | publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Samuel | first=Geoffrey | year=2010 | title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra | publisher=Cambridge University Press}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Sapir | first=Edward | year=1949 | publication-date=1985 | editor-last=Mandelbaum | editor-first=David G. | title=Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality | publisher=University of California Press | isbn=978-0-520-01115-1}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last= Sengupta | first= S. |year=2006 |title=Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=201–221 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16400607 |doi=10.1086/499411 |access-date=3 December 2007 | postscript= .| pmid=16400607 | pmc=1380230 |display-authors=etal}} | |||
* {{Citation |last =Senthil Kumar | first =A.S. | year =2012 | title =Read Indussian |publisher=Amarabharathi Publications & Booksellers}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Shaffer | first=Jim | year=1984 | chapter=The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality | title=In The Peoples of South Asia |editor=J. R. Lukacs |pages=74–90 | place=New York | publisher=Plenum Press }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Sharma | first1= S. |last2= Saha|first2=A. |last3=Rai|first3= E. |last4=Bhat|first4= A. |last5=Bamezai|first5= R. | title=Human mtDNA hypervariable regions, HVR I and II, hint at deep common maternal founder and subsequent maternal gene flow in Indian population groups | journal= Journal of Human Genetics | volume=50 | issue=10 | pages=497–506 | year=2005 | doi=10.1007/s10038-005-0284-2 | pmid=16205836 | postscript=.| doi-access=free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last= Sharma | first= Swarkar | date=2009 | title=The Indian origin of paternal haplogroup R1a1 substantiates the autochthonous origin of Brahmins and the caste system | journal= Journal of Human Genetics | volume= 54 | issue= 1 | pages= 47–55 |url=http://www.nature.com/jhg/journal/v54/n1/pdf/jhg20082a.pdf | doi= 10.1038/jhg.2008.2 | pmid= 19158816 | s2cid= 22162114 |display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|Sharma et al.|2009}}| doi-access= free }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Shinde|first1=Vasant|last2=Narasimhan|first2=Vagheesh M.|last3=Rohland|first3=Nadin|last4=Mallick|first4=Swapan |display-authors=etal | year =2019 | title =An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers | journal =Cell |volume= 179|issue= 3|pages= 729–735.e10| url= |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048 | pmid =31495572 | pmc =6800651 }} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Silva | first1 =Marina | year =2017 | title =A genetic chronology for the Indian Subcontinent points to heavily sex-biased dispersals | journal =BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=17 | issue =1 |page=88 | doi =10.1186/s12862-017-0936-9 | pmid =28335724 | pmc =5364613 | display-authors=etal |ref={{sfnref|Silva et al.|2017}} | doi-access =free | bibcode =2017BMCEE..17...88S }} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Singh | first =Upinder | year =2009 | title =History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century | publisher =Longman | isbn =978-8131716779}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Springer | year=2012 | title=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=16|number=3 |url=https://link.springer.com/journal/11407/16/3/page/1}} | |||
<!-- T --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Talageri | first=Shrikant G. | author-link=Shrikant G. Talageri | year=2000 | title=The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis | place=New Delhi | publisher=] | isbn=978-81-7742-010-4 | url=http://www.voiceofdharma.com/books/rig/ | access-date=15 May 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184507/http://www.voiceofdharma.com/books/rig/ | archive-date=30 September 2007 | df=dmy-all }}. | |||
* {{Citation | last=Talageri | first=Shrikant G. | author-link=Shrikant G. Talageri | year=1993 | title=Aryan Invasion Theory and Indian Nationalism | isbn=978-81-85990-02-6}}. | |||
* {{citation |author-link=Romila Thapar |last=Thapar |first=Romila |year=1966 |title=A History of India: Volume 1 (Paperback) |publisher=Penguin Publishing |isbn=978-0-14-013835-1}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romila | title =The Theory of Aryan Race and India: History and Politics | journal =Social Scientist |volume=24 |issue=1–3 |pages=3–29|date=January–March 1996 | doi =10.2307/3520116 | jstor =3520116 | url =https://archive.org/download/TheTheoryOfAryanRaceAndIndiaHistoryAndPolitics/TheTheoryOfAryanRaceAndIndiaHistoryAndPolitics.pdf}} | |||
* {{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |date=2006 |title=India: Historical Beginnings and the Concept of the Aryan |publisher=National Book Trust |isbn=9788123747798 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sDBuAAAAMAAJ&q=indigenous+aryans}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romila | year =2019 | title =They Peddle Myths and Call It History | journal =New York Times | url =https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/opinion/india-elections-modi-history.html}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1=Thomason | first1=Sarah Grey | last2=Kaufman | first2=Terrence | publication-date=1991 | year=1988 | title=Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics | publisher=University of California Press | isbn=978-0-520-07893-2}}. | |||
* {{Citation | last=Tikkanen | first=Bertil | year=1999 | contribution=Archaeological-linguistic correlations in the formation of retroflex typologies and correlating areal features in South Asia | editor-last=Blench | editor-first=Roger | editor2-last=Spriggs | editor2-first=Matthew | title=Archaeology and Language | location=London | publisher=Routledge |volume=IV: ''Language Change and Cultural Transformation'' | pages=138–148}}. | |||
* {{cite book |title=Aryans and British India |first=Thomas R. |last=Trautmann |author-link=Thomas Trautmann |location=New Delhi |publisher=YODA Press |edition=2nd Indian |year=2006 |orig-year=1997 |isbn=81-902272-1-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhbwDFfE9J8C}}, originally published as {{citation |last=Trautmann |first=Thomas R. |title=Aryans and British India |year=1997 |publisher=Vistaar |ref=none}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Trautmann | first=Thomas | author-link=Thomas Trautmann | year=2005 | title=The Aryan Debate | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-566908-4}} | |||
<!-- U --> | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Underhill | first1 =Peter A. | year =2010 | title =Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a | journal =European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=479–84 | doi=10.1038/ejhg.2009.194 | pmid=19888303 | pmc=2987245}} | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Underhill | first1 =Peter A. | year =2015 | title =The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal =European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=23 | issue =1 |pages=124–131 | doi =10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid=24667786 | pmc=4266736}} | |||
<!-- W --> | |||
*{{citation |last=Walsh |first=Judith E. |title=A Brief History of India |year=2011 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-8143-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofin0000wals_y0v7 }} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Wells | first =R.S. | year =2001 | title =The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity | journal =Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=18 |pages=10244–10249 | doi=10.1073/pnas.171305098 | pmid=11526236 | pmc=56946|bibcode=2001PNAS...9810244W | doi-access =free }} | |||
* {{citation | last1=Wells | first1=Spencer | author-link1=Spencer Wells | last2=Read | first2=Mark | year=2002 | title=The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey |publisher=Princeton University Press | edition=illustrated | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC&pg=PA167 |isbn=978-0691115320}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Wheeler | first=Mortimer | year=1967 | title=De Indus-beschaving | publisher=Elsevier}} | |||
* {{Citation |last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–26 |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611142934/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2007}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =1998 | title =The Home of the Aryans. In: "Anusantatyi: Festschrift fuer Johanna Narten zum 70. Geburtstag", ed. A. Hinze and E. Tichy (Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft, Beihefte NF 19) Dettelbach: J. H. Roell 2000 | url =http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/AryanHome.pdf}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Witzel | first=Michael | year=1999 | author-link=Michael E. J. Witzel | title=Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic) | periodical=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies | volume=5 | issue=1 | url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206073939/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdf | archive-date=6 February 2012 | df=dmy-all }} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Witzel | first=Michael |year=2001 | title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts | journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=1–115 | url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | title =Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Exchange in Prehistoric Western Central Asia | journal =Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=129 |date=December 2003 |pages=1–70 | url =http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/SPP129-IndoIranArch.pdf}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Witzel | first=Michael | year=2005 | chapter=Indocentrism | editor-last1=Bryant | editor-first1=Edwin | editor-last2=Patton | editor-first2=Laurie L. | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history | publisher=Routledge | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/EdwinBryantLauriePattonIndoAryanControversyEvidenceAndInferenceInIndianHistoryRoutledge2005}} | |||
* {{Citation | last=Witzel | first=Michael | author-link=Michael E. J. Witzel | year=2006 | contribution=Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian archaeology and history | editor-last=Fagan | editor-first=Garrett G. | title=Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public | location=London/New York | publisher=Routledge | pages=203–232 | isbn=978-0-415-30592-1}} | |||
<!-- Z --> | |||
* {{Citation | last=Zimmer | first=Heinrich | year=1951 | title=Philosophies of India | publisher=Princeton University Press}} | |||
{{Refend}} | {{Refend}} | ||
Line 523: | Line 811: | ||
==Further reading== | ==Further reading== | ||
;Overview | |||
* {{Citation | last =Anthony | first =David W. | year =2007 | title =The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World | publisher =Princeton University Press}} | |||
* {{Citation | last |
* {{Citation | last=Anthony | first=David W. | year=2007 | title=The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World | publisher=Princeton University Press |ref=none}} | ||
* {{Citation | |
* {{Citation | last=Parpola | first=Asko | year=2015 | title=The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=none}} | ||
* {{cite book |last1=Joseph |first1=Tony |title=Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and where We Came from |date=2018 |publisher=Juggernaut |isbn=978-93-86228-98-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYQCwgEACAAJ |access-date=7 March 2021 |language=en |ref=none}} | |||
* {{Citation | last =Bryant | first =Edwin | author-link =Edwin Bryant (author) | year =2001 | title =]: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =0-19-513777-9}} | |||
;Linguistics | |||
* {{Citation | year=2005 | editor-last =Bryant | editor-first =Edwin F. | editor-link=Edwin Bryant (author) | editor2-last=Patton | editor2-first =Laurie L. | editor2-link= | title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history | publication-place =London | publisher =Routledge | isbn=0-7007-1463-4 | url =https://ia601602.us.archive.org/17/items/EdwinBryantLauriePattonIndoAryanControversyEvidenceAndInferenceInIndianHistoryRoutledge2005/Edwin%20Bryant%2C%20Laurie%20Patton-Indo-Aryan%20Controversy_%20Evidence%20and%20Inference%20in%20Indian%20History-Routledge%20%282005%29.pdf}} | |||
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Heggarty |first=Paul |year=2013 |chapter=Europe and western Asia: Indo-European linguistic history | editor-first1=Immanuel |editor-last1=Ness | editor-first2=Peter |editor-last2=Bellwood |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDm_vgEACAAJ |isbn=9781444334890 |ref=none}} | |||
;Genetics | |||
* {{Citation | last1 =Narasimhan | first1 =Vagheesh M. | last2 =Patterson | first2 = N.J. | display-authors =etal | year =2019 | title =The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia | journal =Science | volume =365 | issue =6457 | pages =eaat7487 | url =https://scholar.harvard.edu/vagheesh/centralsouthasia| doi =10.1126/science.aat7487 | pmid =31488661 | pmc =6822619 |ref=none}} | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
'''Overview''' | '''Overview''' | ||
* Rajesh Kochhar (2017), , The Indian Express | |||
* | |||
* The History Files, | |||
* | |||
* | * by Romila Thapar | ||
* Akhilesh Pillalamarri, ''Where Did Indians Come from'', , , | |||
* | |||
'''Linguistics''' | '''Linguistics''' | ||
* by ] (pdf) | * by ] (pdf) | ||
* (pdf) | * (pdf) | ||
* | |||
;Archaeology | ;Archaeology | ||
* | * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512010632/http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/possehl/ahar-banas.shtml |date=12 May 2008 }} | ||
* by D.P. Agrawal (pdf) | |||
* By Archaeologist B.B. Lal | |||
* Article by ] | |||
* By D.P. Agrawal (pdf) | |||
;Genetics | |||
* Tony Joseph (16 June 2017), , The Hindu | |||
* | |||
* Tony Joseph (2018), summary of Narasimhan (2018) | |||
* | |||
* Scroll.in, {{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/874102/aryan-migration-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-new-study-on-indian-genetics|title=Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian genetics|date=2 April 2018 }}, on Narasimhan (2018) | |||
* | |||
* The Economic Times (Oct 12, 2019), | |||
;Dravidianization and Sanskritization | |||
'''Critics''' | |||
* Razib Khan, and | |||
* , , | |||
* Articles by Nicholas Kazanas | |||
* by ] | |||
;Animated map | |||
* , University of Copenhagen | |||
{{Navboxes|list= | |||
{{Ancient India and Central Asia}} | {{Ancient India and Central Asia}} | ||
{{India topics}} | {{India topics}} | ||
{{Proto-Indo-European language}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}} | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Aryan Migration}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Aryan Migration}} | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 05:30, 21 December 2024
Migrations of Indo-Aryans into the Indian subcontinent
Part of a series on |
Indo-European topics |
---|
Languages
|
Philology |
Origins
|
Archaeology
Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe
South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India |
Peoples and societies
Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian |
Religion and mythology
Others
|
Indo-European studies
|
The Indo-Aryan migrations were the migrations into the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples, an ethnolinguistic group that spoke Indo-Aryan languages. These are the predominant languages of today's Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal, North India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Indo-Aryan migration into the region, from Central Asia, is considered to have started after 2000 BCE as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period and led to a language shift in the northern Indian subcontinent. Several hundred years later, the Iranian languages were brought into the Iranian plateau by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans.
The Proto-Indo-Iranian culture, which gave rise to the Indo-Aryans and Iranians, developed on the Central Asian steppes north of the Caspian Sea as the Sintashta culture (c. 2200-1900 BCE), in present-day Russia and Kazakhstan, and developed further as the Andronovo culture (2000–1450 BCE).
The Indo-Aryans split off sometime between 2000 BCE and 1600 BCE from the Indo-Iranians, and migrated southwards to the Bactria–Margiana culture (BMAC), from which they borrowed some of their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. From the BMAC, the Indo-Aryans migrated into northern Syria and, possibly in multiple waves, into the Punjab (northern Pakistan and India), while the Iranians could have reached western Iran before 1300 BCE, both bringing with them the Indo-Iranian languages.
Migration by an Indo-European-speaking people was first hypothesized in the mid 17th century, by Dutch scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, in his Scythian language and people hypothesis, to explain the linguistic similarities of the Indo-European language family, that had been identified a century earlier; he proposed a single source or origin, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland. The language-family and migration theory were further developed, in the 18th century, by Jesuit missionary Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux, and later East India Company employee William Jones, in 1786, through analysing similarities between European, West and South Asian languages.
This linguistic argument of this theory is supported by archaeological, anthropological, genetic, literary and ecological research. Genetic research reveals that those migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population. Literary research reveals similarities between various, geographically distinct, Indo-Aryan historical cultures. Ecological studies reveal that in the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the Indian subcontinent, causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations, resulting in the merger of migrating peoples with the post-urban cultures.
The Indo-Aryan migrations started sometime in the period from approximately 2000 to 1600 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. It was part of the diffusion of Indo-European languages from the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic–Caspian steppe, a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, which started in the 5th to 4th millennia BCE, and the Indo-European migrations out of the Eurasian Steppes, which started approximately in 2000 BCE.
These Indo-Aryan speaking people were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as ārya, "noble". Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted.
Fundamentals
The Indo-Aryan migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research. This provides an overview of the development of Indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation.
Linguistics: relationships between languages
The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs the proto-Indo-European language. This is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are especially important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between related languages which at first sight might seem very different. Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, and point to a steppe origin.
Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat
The archaeological part posits an "Urheimat" on the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle on the steppes around 5,200 BCE. This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts. The oldest nucleus may have been the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), at a bend in the Volga.
A wider "horizon" developed, called the Kurgan culture by Marija Gimbutas in the 1950s. She included several cultures in this "Kurgan Culture", including the Samara culture and the Yamna culture, although the Yamna culture (36th–23rd centuries BCE), also called "Pit Grave Culture", may more aptly be called the "nucleus" of the proto-Indo-European language. From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4,000 BCE. These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.
Eastward emerged the Sintashta culture (2200–1900 BCE), where common Indo-Iranian was spoken. Out of the Sintashta culture developed the Andronovo culture (2000–1450 BCE), which interacted with the Bactria-Margiana culture (2250–1700 BCE). This interaction further shaped the Indo-Iranians, which split at sometime between 2000 and 1600 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians. The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant and South Asia. The migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups which were genetically diverse. Their culture and language spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system.
Anthropology: elite recruitment and language shift
See also: Language shiftIndo-European languages probably spread through language shifts. Small groups can change a larger cultural area, and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.
David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis" notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people, a process which he calls "elite recruitment".
According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European speaking migrants. These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages. These new members were further incorporated by matrimonial alliances.
According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by "dislocation" of language communities, in which the elite is taken over. According to Salmons, this change is facilitated by "systematic changes in community structure", in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure.
Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows
See also: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia and Peopling of IndiaThe Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population, including various waves of admixture and language shift. Studies indicate north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry. A series of studies show that the Indian subcontinent harbours two major ancestral components, namely the Ancestral North Indians (ANI) which is "genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans", and the Ancestral South Indians (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI. These two groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), after which a shift to endogamy took place, possibly by the enforcement of "social values and norms" during the Gupta Empire (240-550 CE).
Moorjani et al. (2013) describe three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups: migrations before the development of agriculture before 8,000–9,000 years before present (BP); migration of western Asian people together with the spread of agriculture, maybe up to 4,600 years BP; migrations of western Eurasians from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP.
While Reich notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language, according to Moorjani et al. (2013) these groups were present "unmixed" in India before the Indo-Aryan migrations. Gallego Romero et al. (2011) propose that the ANI component came from Iran and the Middle East, less than 10,000 years ago, while according to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI is a mix of "early farmers of western Iran" and "people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe". Several studies also show traces of later influxes of maternal genetic material and of paternal genetic material related to ANI and possibly the Indo-Europeans. While others have analysed the hereditary distribution of lactose intolerance, and specifically the presence of the -13910T lactase persistence mutation, found in Europe and Central Asia, across South Asia.
Literary research: similarities, geography, and references to migration
The oldest known inscribed Indo-Iranian words, and particularly invocations of the Indo-Aryan deities, date to mid second millennia BCE, as loan words in Hurrian treaties of the Mitanni kingdom, of present-day northern Syria.
The religious practices depicted in the Rigveda and those depicted in the Avesta, the central religious text of Zoroastrianism, show similarities. Some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati Helmand is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. The Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland or to a migration, but later Vedic and Puranic texts do show the movement into the Gangetic plains. A number of Indologists and historians offering the Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra, verse 18.44:397.9, as explicit recorded evidence of a migration:
Then, there is the following direct statement contained in (the admittedly much later) BSS 18.44:397.9 sqq which has once again been overlooked, not having been translated yet: "Ayu went eastwards. His (people) are the Kuru Panchala and the Kasi-Videha. This is the Ayava (migration). (His other people) stayed at home. His people are the Gandhari, Parsu and Aratta. This is the Amavasava (group)" (Witzel 1989: 235).
Ecological studies: widespread drought, urban collapse, and pastoral migrations
Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India.
Around 4200–4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe. Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe.
The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism".
In the third millennium BCE widespread aridification led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the Indian subcontinent. On the steppes, humidification led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding". Water shortage also had a strong impact in the Indian subcontinent, "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations".
Development of the theory
Similarities between Sanskrit, Persian, Greek
In the 16th century, European visitors to India became aware of similarities between Indian and European languages and as early as 1653 Van Boxhorn had published a proposal for a proto-language ("Scythian") for Germanic, Romance, Greek, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, Iranian, and (incorrectly) Turkish.
In a memoir sent to the French Academy of Sciences in 1767 Gaston-Laurent Coeurdoux, a French Jesuit who spent all his life in India, had specifically demonstrated the existing analogy between Sanskrit and European languages.
In 1786 William Jones, a judge in the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William, Calcutta, linguist, and classics scholar, on studying Sanskrit, postulated, in his Third Anniversary Discourse to the Asiatic Society, a proto-language uniting Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic and Celtic languages, but in many ways his work was less accurate than his predecessors', as he erroneously included Egyptian, Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindustani and Slavic:
The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquities of Persia.
Jones concluded that all these languages originated from the same source.
Homeland
Main article: Proto-Indo-European homelandScholars assume a homeland either in central Asia or in Western Asia, and Sanskrit must in this case have reached India by a language transfer from west to east. In 19th century Indo-European studies, the language of the Rigveda was the most archaic Indo-European language known to scholars, indeed the only records of Indo-European that could reasonably claim to date to the Bronze Age. This primacy of Sanskrit inspired scholars such as Friedrich Schlegel, to assume that the locus of the proto-Indo-European homeland had been in India, with the other dialects spread to the west by historical migration.
With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze-Age attestations of Indo-European (Anatolian, Mycenaean Greek), Vedic Sanskrit lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known.
Aryan "race"
Main articles: Aryan race and Scientific racismIn the 1850s Max Müller introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, who migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomized the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this "eastern branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer".
Herbert Hope Risley expanded on Müller's two-race Indo-European speaking Aryan invasion theory, concluding that the caste system was a remnant of the Indo-Aryans domination of the native Dravidians, with observable variations in phenotypes between hereditary race-based castes. Thomas Trautmann explains that Risley "found a direct relation between the proportion of Aryan blood and the nasal index, along a gradient from the highest castes to the lowest. This assimilation of caste to race proved very influential."
Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture, which often set Indo-European ('Aryan') traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms", as this was far from his intention. For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians". In his later work, Max Müller took great care to limit the use of the term "Aryan" to a strictly linguistic one.
"Aryan invasion"
The excavation of the Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) in the 1920, showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Indo-Aryans migrated into the area. The theory changed from a migration of advanced Aryans towards a primitive aboriginal population, to a migration of nomadic people into an advanced urban civilization, comparable to the Germanic migrations during the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia.
This possibility was for a short time seen as a hostile invasion into northern India. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation at precisely the period in history in which the Indo-Aryan migrations probably took place, seemed to provide independent support of such an invasion. This argument was proposed by the mid-20th century archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated that the god "Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the Civilisation.
This position was discarded after finding no evidence of wars. The skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims. Wheeler himself also nuanced this interpretation in later publications, stating "This is a possibility, but it can't be proven, and it may not be correct." Wheeler further notes that the unburied corpses may indicate an event in the final phase of human occupation of Mohenjo-Daro, and that thereafter the place was uninhabited, but that the decay of Mohenjo-Daro has to be ascribed to structural causes such as salinisation.
Nevertheless, although 'invasion' was discredited, critics of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory continue to present the theory as an "Aryan Invasion Theory", presenting it as a racist and colonialist discourse:
The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.
Aryan migration
In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and acculturation were seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans and their language and culture spread into northwest India around 1500 BCE. The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory. Michael Witzel:
...it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories.
The changed approach was in line with newly developed thinking about language transfer in general, such as the migration of the Greeks into Greece (between 2100 and 1600 BCE) and their adoption of a syllabic script, Linear B, from the pre-existing Linear A, with the purpose of writing Mycenaean Greek, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western Europe (in stages between 2200 and 1300 BCE).
Future directions
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2017) |
Mallory notes that with the development and the growing sophistication of the knowledge on the Indo-European migrations and their purported homeland, new questions arise, and that "it is evident that we still have a very long way to go." One of those questions is the origin of the shared agricultural vocabulary, and the earliest dates for agriculturalism in areas settled by the Indo-Europeans. Those dates seem to be too late to account for the shared vocabulary, and raise the question what their origin is.
Linguistics: relationships between languages
Linguistic research traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs proto-Indo-European. Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into the Indian subcontinent, some time in the 2nd millennium BCE. The language of the Rigveda, the earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, is assigned to about 1500–1200 BCE.
Comparative method
Main article: Comparative methodConnections between languages can be traced because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different.
Linguistics use the comparative method to study the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor, as opposed to the method of internal reconstruction, which analyses the internal development of a single language over time. Ordinarily both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesized relationships between languages.
The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically attested languages are descended from a single proto-language by comparing lists of cognate terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular sound changes can then be postulated, which allows the proto-language to be reconstructed. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established with chance similarities ruled out.
The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask and Karl Verner and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in his Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, originally published in 1861.
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages. August Schleicher's 1861 reconstruction of PIE was the first proposed proto-language to be accepted by modern linguists. More work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto-language, and it is by far the best understood among all proto-languages of its age. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European or its daughter proto-languages such as Proto-Germanic, and most of the current techniques of linguistic reconstruction in historical linguistics (e.g., the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction) were developed as a result.
PIE must have been spoken as a single language or a group of related dialects (before divergence began), though estimates of when this was by different authorities can vary massively, from the 7th millennium BCE to the second. A number of hypotheses have been proposed for the origin and spread of the language, the most popular among linguists being the Kurgan hypothesis, which postulates an origin in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe in the 5th or 4th millennia BCE. Features of the culture of the speakers of PIE, known as Proto-Indo-Europeans, have also been reconstructed based on the shared vocabulary of the early attested Indo-European languages.
As mentioned above, the existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. By the early 20th century, well-defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements). The largest developments of the 20th century were the discovery of the Anatolian and Tocharian languages and the acceptance of the laryngeal theory. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo-European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself. Relationships to other language families, including the Uralic languages, have been proposed but remain controversial.
PIE is thought to have had a complex system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes as well as ablaut (vowel alterations, as preserved in English sing, sang, sung). Nouns and verbs had complex systems of declension and conjugation respectively.
Arguments against an Indian origin of proto-Indo-European
Diversity
According to the linguistic center of gravity principle, the most likely point of origin of a language family is in the area of its greatest diversity. By this criterion, Northern India, home to only a single branch of the Indo-European language family (i.e., Indo-Aryan), is an exceedingly unlikely candidate for the Indo-European homeland, compared to Central-Eastern Europe, for example, which is home to the Italic, Venetic, Illyrian, Albanian, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Thracian and Greek branches of Indo-European.
Both mainstream Urheimat solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the Black Sea.
Dialectal variation
This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
It has been recognized since the mid-19th century, beginning with Schmidt and Schuchardt, that a binary tree model cannot capture all linguistic alignments; certain areal features cut across language groups and are better explained through a model treating linguistic change like waves rippling out through a pond. This is true of the Indo-European languages as well. Various features originated and spread while Proto-Indo-European was still a dialect continuum. These features sometimes cut across sub-families: for instance, the instrumental, dative and ablative plurals in Germanic and Balto-Slavic feature endings beginning with -m-, rather than the usual -*bh-, e.g. Gothic dative plural sunum 'to the sons' and Old Church Slavonic instrumental plural synъ-mi 'with sons', despite the fact that the Germanic languages are centum, while Balto-Slavic languages are satem.
The strong correspondence between the dialectal relationships of the Indo-European languages and their actual geographical arrangement in their earliest attested forms makes an Indian origin, as suggested by the Out of India Theory, unlikely.
Substrate influence
Main article: Substratum in Vedic SanskritAlready in the 1870s the Neogrammarians realised that the Greek/Latin vocalism couldn't be explained on the basis of the Sanskrit one, and therefore must be more original. The Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages influenced each other, with the Finno-Ugric languages containing Indo-European loan words. A telling example is the Finnish word vasara, "hammer", which is related to vajra, the weapon of Indra. Since the Finno-Ugric homeland was located in the northern forest zone in northern Europe, the contacts must have taken place – in line with the placement of the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic-Caspian steppes – between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
Dravidian and other South Asian languages share with Indo-Aryan a number of syntactical and morphological features that are alien to other Indo-European languages, including even its closest relative, Old Iranian. Phonologically, there is the introduction of retroflexes, which alternate with dentals in Indo-Aryan; morphologically there are the gerunds; and syntactically there is the use of a quotative marker (iti). These are taken as evidence of substratum influence.
It has been argued that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", whereby native Dravidian speakers learned and adopted Indic languages. The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned. Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once – it becomes a question of explanatory parsimony; moreover, early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed.
A pre-Indo-European linguistic substratum in the Indian subcontinent would be a good reason to exclude India as a potential Indo-European homeland. However, several linguists, all of whom accept the external origin of the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments rather than the result of substrate influences, or as adstratum effects.
Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat
See also: Indo-European migrations
| ||
|
The Sintashta, Andronovo, Bactria-Margiana and Yaz cultures have been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations in Central Asia. The Gandhara Grave, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey Ware cultures are candidates for subsequent cultures within South Asia associated with Indo-Aryan movements. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation predates the Indo-Aryan migrations, but archeological data show a cultural continuity in the archeological record. Together with the presence of Dravidian loanwords in the Rigveda, this argues in favor of an interaction between post-Harappan and Indo-Aryan cultures.
Stages of migrations
About 6,000 years ago the Indo-Europeans started to spread out from their proto-Indo-European homeland in Central Eurasia, between the southern Ural Mountains, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea. About 4,000 years ago Indo-European speaking peoples started to migrate out of the Eurasian steppes.
Diffusion from the "Urheimat"
Main articles: Proto-Indo-European homeland, Kurgan hypothesis, and Yamnaya cultureScholars regard the middle Volga, which was the location of the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), and the Yamna culture, to be the "Urheimat" of the Indo-Europeans, as described by the Kurgan hypothesis. From this "Urheimat", Indo-European languages spread throughout the Eurasian steppes between c. 4,500 and 2,500 BCE, forming the Yamna culture.
Sequence of migrations
David Anthony gives an elaborate overview of the sequence of migrations.
The oldest attested Indo-European language is Hittite, which belongs to the oldest written Indo-European languages, the Anatolian branch. Although the Hittites are placed in the 2nd millennium BCE, the Anatolian branch seems to predate Proto-Indo-European, and may have developed from an older Pre-Proto-Indo-European ancestor. If it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it is likely to have done so between 4500 and 3500 BCE.
A migration of archaic Proto-Indo-European speaking steppe herders into the lower Danube valley took place about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe.
According to Mallory and Adams, migrations southward founded the Maykop culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE), and eastward the Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE), which developed into the Tocharians (c. 3700–3300 BCE).
According to Anthony, between 3100 and 2800/2600 BCE, a real folk migration of Proto-Indo-European speakers from the Yamna-culture took place toward the west, into the Danube Valley. These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European. According to Anthony, this was followed by a movement north, which split away Baltic-Slavic c. 2800 BCE. Pre-Armenian split off at the same time. According to Parpola, this migration is related to the appearance of Indo-European speakers from Europe in Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite.
The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe ( 2900–2450/2350 cal. BCE), has been associated with some of the languages in the Indo-European family. According to Haak et al. (2015) a massive migration took place from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe.
This migration is closely associated with the Corded Ware culture.
The Indo-Iranian language and culture emerged in the Sintashta culture (c. 2050–1900 BCE), where the chariot was invented. Allentoft et al. (2015) found close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of Corded Ware culture and Sintashta culture, which "suggests similar genetic sources of the two", and may imply that "the Sintashta derives directly from an eastward migration of Corded Ware peoples".
The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c. 2000–1450 BCE), and influenced by the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (c. 2250–1700 BCE). The Indo-Aryans split off sometime around 2000–1600 BCE from the Iranians, after which Indo-Aryan groups are thought to have moved to the Levant (Mitanni), the northern Indian subcontinent (Vedic people, c. 1500 BCE), and China (Wusun). Thereafter the Iranians migrated into Iran.
Central Asia: formation of Indo-Iranians
Indo-Iranian peoples are a grouping of ethnic groups consisting of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian and Nuristani peoples; that is, speakers of Indo-Iranian languages.
The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the Andronovo culture, that flourished c. 2000–1450 BCE in an area of the Eurasian Steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east. The older Sintashta culture (2200–1900), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon.
The Indo-Aryan migration was part of the Indo-Iranian migrations from the Andronovo culture into Anatolia, Iran and South Asia.
Sintashta-Petrovka culture
Main article: Sintashta cultureThe Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture or Sintashta-Arkaim culture, is a Bronze Age archaeological culture of the northern Eurasian Steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, dated to the period 2200–1900 BCE. The Sintashta culture is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo-Iranian language group.
The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural-Tobol steppe was the Poltavka culture, an offshoot of the cattle-herding Yamnaya horizon that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE. Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltovka settlements or close to Poltovka cemeteries, and Poltovka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery. Sintashta material culture also shows the influence of the late Abashevo culture, a collection of Corded Ware settlements in the forest steppe zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly pastoralist. Allentoft et al. (2015) also found close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of Corded Ware culture and Sintashta culture.
The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of copper mining and bronze metallurgy carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.
Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the Andronovo culture. It is now recognised as a separate entity forming part of the 'Andronovo horizon'.
Andronovo culture
Main article: Andronovo cultureThe Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local Bronze Age Indo-Iranian cultures that flourished c. 2000–1450 BC in western Siberia and the central Eurasian Steppe. It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. The name derives from the village of Andronovo (55°53′N 55°42′E / 55.883°N 55.700°E / 55.883; 55.700), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. The older Sintashta culture (2050–1900 BCE), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon.
Currently only two sub-cultures are considered as part of Andronovo culture:
- Alakul (2000–1700 BC) between Oxus (today Amu Darya), and Jaxartes, Kyzylkum desert
- Fëdorovo (2000–1450 BC) in southern Siberia (earliest evidence of cremation and fire cult)
Other authors identified previously the following sub-cultures also as part of Andronovo:
- Eastern Fedorovo (1750–1500 BC) in Tian Shan mountains (Northwestern Xinjiang, China), southeastern Kazakhstan, eastern Kyrgyzstan
- Alekseyevka (1200–1000 BC) "final Bronze Age phase" in eastern Kazakhstan, contacts with Namazga VI in Turkmenia
The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, Srubna culture in the Volga–Ural interfluvial. To the east, it reaches into the Minusinsk depression, with some sites as far west as the southern Ural Mountains, overlapping with the area of the earlier Afanasevo culture. Additional sites are scattered as far south as the Kopet Dag (Turkmenistan), the Pamir (Tajikistan) and the Tian Shan (Kyrgyzstan). The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the Taiga. In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as Volgograd.
Towards the middle of the 2nd millennium, the Andronovo cultures begin to move intensively eastwards. They mined deposits of copper ore in the Altai Mountains and lived in villages of as many as ten sunken log cabin houses measuring up to 30m by 60m in size. Burials were made in stone cists or stone enclosures with buried timber chambers.
In other respects, the economy was pastoral, based on cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. While agricultural use has been posited, no clear evidence has been presented.
Studies associate the Andronovo horizon with early Indo-Iranian languages, though it may have overlapped the early Uralic-speaking area at its northern fringe, including the Turkic-speaking area at its northeastern fringe.
Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19–20th century BCE attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta, Kuz'mina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian. Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to about 2000 BCE and a Bactria-Margiana burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.
Mallory acknowledges the difficulties of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures "only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans". He has developed the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over Bactria-Margiana cultural traits but preserving their language and religion while moving into Iran and India. Fred Hiebert also agrees that an expansion of the BMAC into Iran and the margin of the Indus Valley is "the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia." According to Narasimhan et al. (2018), the expansion of the Andronovo culture towards the BMAC took place via the Inner Asia Mountain Corridor.
Bactria-Margiana culture
Main article: Bactria–Margiana Archaeological ComplexThe Bactria-Margiana Culture, also called "Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex", was a non-Indo-European culture which influenced the Indo-Iranians. It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. Proto-Indo-Iranian arose due to this influence.
The Indo-Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.
The characteristically Bactria-Margiana (southern Turkmenistan/northern Afghanistan) artifacts found at burials in Mehrgarh and Balochistan are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south. The Indo-Aryan tribes may have been present in the area of the BMAC from 1700 BCE at the latest (incidentally corresponding with the decline of that culture).
From the BMAC, the Indo-Aryans moved into the Indian subcontinent. According to Bryant, the Bactria-Margiana material inventory of the Mehrgarh and Baluchistan burials is "evidence of an archaeological intrusion into the subcontinent from Central Asia during the commonly accepted time frame for the arrival of the Indo-Aryans".
Multiple waves of migration into northern India
See also: Inner–Outer hypothesisAccording to Parpola, Indo-Aryan clans migrated into South Asia in subsequent waves. This explains the diversity of views found in the Rig Veda, and may also explain the existence of various Indo-Aryan cultural complexes in the later Vedic period, namely the Vedic culture centered on the Kuru Kingdom in the heartland of Aryavarta in the western Ganges plain, and the cultural complex of Greater Magadha at the eastern Ganges plain, which gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism.
Writing in 1998, Parpola postulated a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the Cemetery H culture and the Copper Hoard culture, c.q. Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, and an immigration to the Punjab . 1700–1400 BCE. In 2020, Parpola proposed an even earlier wave of proto-Indo-Iranian speaking people from the Sintashta culture into India at c. 1900 BCE, related to the Copper Hoard Culture, followed by a pre-Rig Vedic Indo-Aryan wave of migration:
It seems, then, that the earliest Aryan-speaking immigrants to South Asia, the Copper Hoard people, came with bull-drawn carts (Sanauli and Daimabad) via the BMAC and had Proto-Indo-Iranian as their language. They were, however, soon followed (and probably at least partially absorbed) by early Indo-Aryans.
This pre-Rig-Vedic wave of migration by early Indo-Aryans is associated by Parpola with "the early (Ghalegay IV–V) phase of the Gandhara Grave culture" and the Atharva Veda tradition, and related to the Petrovka culture. The Rig-Vedic wave followed several centuries later, "perhaps in the fourteenth century BCE", and is associated by Parpola with the Fedorovo culture.
According to Kochhar there were three waves of Indo-Aryan immigration that occurred after the mature Harappan phase:
- the "Murghamu" (Bactria-Margiana culture) related people who entered Balochistan at Pirak, Mehrgarh south cemetery, and other places, and later merged with the post-urban Harappans during the late Harappans Jhukar phase (2000–1800 BCE);
- the Swat IV that co-founded the Harappan Cemetery H phase in Punjab (2000–1800 BCE);
- and the Rigvedic Indo-Aryans of Swat V that later absorbed the Cemetery H people and gave rise to the Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) (to 1400 BCE).
Gandhara grave culture and Ochre Coloured Pottery culture
Main articles: Gandhara grave culture and Ochre Coloured Pottery cultureThe standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into India is that Indo-Aryan migrants went over the Hindu Kush, forming the Gandhara grave culture or Swat culture, in present-day Swat valley, into the headwaters of either the Indus or the Ganges (probably both). The Gandhara grave culture, which emerged c. 1600 BCE and flourished from c. 1500 BCE to 500 BCE in Gandhara, modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, is thus the most likely locus of the earliest bearers of Rigvedic culture. About 1800 BCE, there is a major cultural change in the Swat Valley with the emergence of the Gandhara grave culture. With its introduction of new ceramics, new burial rites, and the horse, the Gandhara grave culture is a major candidate for early Indo-Aryan presence. The two new burial rites—flexed inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an urn—were, according to early Vedic literature, both practiced in early Indo-Aryan society. Horse-trappings indicate the importance of the horse to the economy of the Gandharan grave culture. Two horse burials indicate the importance of the horse in other respects. Horse burial is a custom that Gandharan grave culture has in common with Andronovo, though not within the distinctive timber-frame graves of the steppe.
Parpola (2020) states:
The dramatic new discovery of cart burials dated to c. 1900 at Sinauli have been reviewed in this paper, and they support my proposal of a pre-Ṛvedic wave (now set of waves) of Aryan speakers arriving in South Asia and their making contact with the Late Harappans.
Two waves of Indo-Iranian migration
See also: Indo-IraniansThe Indo-Iranian migrations took place in two waves, belonging to the second and the third stage of Beckwith's description of the Indo-European migrations. The first wave consisted of the Indo-Aryan migration into the Levant, seemingly founding the Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria (c. 1600–1350 BCE), and the migration south-eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India. Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun, an Indo-European Europoid people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo-Aryan origin. The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.
First wave – Indo-Aryan migrations
Mittani
Main article: MitanniMitanni (Hittite cuneiform KURMi-ta-an-ni), also Mittani (Mi-it-ta-ni) or Hanigalbat (Assyrian Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform Ḫa-ni-gal-bat) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and south-east Anatolia from c. 1600 BCE – 1350 BCE.
According to one hypothesis, founded by an Indo-Aryan ruling class governing a predominately Hurrian population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia. At the beginning of its history, Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite empire, Mitanni and Egypt made an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination.
At the height of its power, during the 14th century BCE, Mitanni had outposts centered on its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River. Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and was reduced to the status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire.
The earliest written evidence for an Indo-Aryan language is found not in Northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rigveda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.
North-India – Vedic culture
Spread of Vedic culture |
---|
Spread of Vedic-Brahmanic culture
Main article: Vedic periodDuring the Early Vedic Period (c. 1500–800 BCE) the Indo-Aryan culture was centered in the northern Punjab, or Sapta Sindhu. During the Later Vedic Period (c. 800–500 BCE) the Indo-Aryan culture started to extend into the western Ganges Plain, centering on the Vedic Kuru and Panchala area, and had some influence at the central Ganges Plain after 500 BCE. Sixteen Mahajanapada developed at the Ganges Plain, of which the Kuru and Panchala became the most notable developed centers of Vedic culture, at the western Ganges Plain.
The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE during the so-called "Second urbanisation". It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in the Indian subcontinent and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar". In this region the Shramanic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.
Indus Valley Civilization
The Indo-Aryan migration into the northern Punjab started shortly after the decline of the Indus Valley civilisation (IVC). According to the "Aryan Invasion Theory" this decline was caused by "invasions" of barbaric and violent Aryans who conquered the IVC. This "Aryan Invasion Theory" is not supported by the archeological and genetic data, and is not representative of the "Indo-Aryan migration theory".
Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation
The decline of the IVC from about 1900 BCE started before the onset of the Indo-Aryan migrations, caused by aridisation due to shifting mossoons. A regional cultural discontinuity occurred during the second millennium BCE and many Indus Valley cities were abandoned during this period, while many new settlements began to appear in Gujarat and East Punjab and other settlements such as in the western Bahawalpur region increased in size.
Jim G. Shaffer and Lichtenstein contend that in the second millennium BCE considerable "location processes" took place. In the eastern Punjab 79.9% and in Gujarat 96% of sites changed settlement status. According to Shaffer & Lichtenstein,
It is evident that a major geographic population shift accompanied this 2nd millennium BCE localisation process. This shift by Harappan and, perhaps, other Indus Valley cultural mosaic groups, is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in the Indian subcontinent before the first half of the first millennium B.C.
Continuity of Indus Valley civilization
According to Erdosy, the ancient Harappans were not markedly different from modern populations in Northwestern India and present-day Pakistan. Craniometric data showed similarity with prehistoric peoples of the Iranian plateau and Western Asia, although Mohenjo-daro was distinct from the other areas of the Indus Valley.
According to Kennedy, there is no evidence of "demographic disruptions" after the decline of the Harappa culture. Kenoyer notes that no biological evidence can be found for major new populations in post-Harappan communities. Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between Bactria and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange".
According to Kennedy, the Cemetery H culture "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa. The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past." Recent excavations in 2008 at Alamgirpur, Meerut District, appeared to show an overlap between the Harappan and Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) pottery indicating cultural continuity.
Relation with Indo-Aryan migrations
According to Kenoyer, the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation is not explained by Aryan migrations, which took place after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Yet, according to Erdosy,
Evidence in material culture for systems collapse, abandonment of old beliefs and large-scale, if localised, population shifts in response to ecological catastrophe in the 2nd millennium B.C. must all now be related to the spread of Indo-Aryan languages.
Erdosy, testing hypotheses derived from linguistic evidence against hypotheses derived from archaeological data, states that there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military superiority", but "some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BCE". According to Erdosy, the postulated movements within Central Asia can be placed within a processional framework, replacing simplistic concepts of "diffusion", "migrations" and "invasions".
Scholars have argued that the historical Vedic culture is the result of an amalgamation of the immigrating Indo-Aryans with the remnants of the indigenous civilization, such as the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture.
Inner Asia – Wusun and Yuezhi
Main articles: Wusun and YuezhiAccording to Christopher I. Beckwith the Wusun, an Indo-European Caucasian people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo-Aryan origin. From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese *âswin, which he compares to the Old Indic aśvin "the horsemen", the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo-Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremeties of the Eurasian Steppe by the Iranian peoples in the 2nd millennium BCE.
The Wusun are first mentioned by Chinese sources as vassals in the Tarim Basin of the Yuezhi, another Indo-European Caucasian people of possible Tocharian stock. Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the Xiongnu, also former vassals of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo Chinese: 昆莫 or Kunmi Chinese: 昆彌) Nandoumi (Chinese: 難兜靡), capturing the Ili Valley from the Saka (Scythians) shortly afterwards. In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.
The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun. Around 130 BCE he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria, where they are often identified with the Tókharoi (Τοχάριοι) and Asii of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern Indian subcontinent, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the Kushan Empire. The Kushan empire stretched from Turpan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Indo-Gangetic Plain at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China.
Soon after 130 BCE the Wusun became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the Han dynasty and powerful force in the region for centuries. With the emerging steppe federations of the Rouran, the Wusun migrated into the Pamir Mountains in the 5th century CE. They are last mentioned in 938 when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the Liao dynasty.
Second wave – Iranians
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BCE, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who would dominate the area, at their height, from the Carpathian Mountains in the west, to the easternmost fringes of Central Asia in the east. For most of their existence, the Scythians were based in what is modern-day Ukraine and southern European Russia. Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the Roxolani (Rhoxolani), Iazyges (Jazyges) and the Alans, followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The Migration Period). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Scythians occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq.
The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the western Iranian Plateau from c. 800 BCE, after which they remained under Assyrian rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the Near East. The Achaemenids replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Around the first millennium of the Common Era (AD), the Kambojas, the Pashtuns and the Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian Plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western Pakistan, displacing the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area.
In Central Asia, the Turkic languages have marginalized Iranian languages as a result of the Turkic migration of the early centuries CE. In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones.
Anthropology: elite recruitment and language shift
See also: Language shiftElite dominance
Small groups can change a larger cultural area, and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India. Thapar notes that Indo-Aryan chiefs may have provided protection to non-Aryan agriculturalists, offering a system of patronage placing the chiefs in a superior position. This would have involved bilingualism, resulting in the adoption of Indo-Aryan languages by local populations. According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups" of Indo-European speaking migrants. These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages. These new members were further incorporated by matrimonial alliances.
Renfrew: models of "linguistic replacement"
Basu et al. refer to Renfrew, who described four models for "linguistic replacement":
- The demographic-subsistence model, exemplified by the process of agricultural dispersal, in which the incoming group has exploitive technologies which makes them dominant. It may lead to significant gene flow, and significant genetic changes in the population. But it may also lead to acculturalisation, in which case the technologies are taken over, but there is less change in the genetic composition of the population;
- The existence of extended trading systems which led to the development of a lingua franca, in which case some gene flow is to be expected;
- The elite dominance model, in which "a relatively small but well-organized group take over the system". Given the small size of the elite, its genetic influence may also be small, though "preferential access to marriage partners" may result in a relatively strong influence on the gene pool. Sexual asymmetry may also be of influence: incoming elites often consist mostly of males, who have no influence on the mitochondrial DNA of the gene pool, but may influence the Y chromosomes of the gene pool;
- System collapse, in which territorial boundaries are changed, and elite dominance may appear for a while.
David Anthony: elite recruitment
David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis" notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people. Anthony gives the example of the Southern Luo-speaking Acholi in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century. Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in a similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe", carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage". Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system.
Michael Witzel: small groups and acculturation
Michael Witzel refers to Ehret's model "which stresses the osmosis, or a 'billiard ball', or Mallory's Kulturkugel, effect of cultural transmission". According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relative ease in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.
Witzel notes that "arya/ārya does not mean a particular 'people' or even a particular 'racial' group but all those who had joined the tribes speaking Vedic Sanskrit and adhering to their cultural norms (such as ritual, poetry, etc.)." According to Witzel, "there must have been a long period of acculturation between the local population and the 'original' immigrants speaking Indo-Aryan." Witzel also notes that the speakers of Indo-Aryan and the local population must have been bilingual, speaking each other's languages and interacting with each other, before the Rg Veda was composed in the Punjab.
Salmons: systematic changes in community structure
Joseph Salmons notes that Anthony presents scarce concrete evidence or arguments. Salmons is critical about the notion of "prestige" as a central factor in the shift to Indo-European languages, referring to Milroy who notes that "prestige" is "a cover term for a variety of very distinct notions". Instead, Milroy offers "arguments built around network structure", though Salmons also notes that Anthony includes several of those arguments, "including political and technological advantages". According to Salmons, the best model is offered by Fishman, who
... understands shift in terms of geographical, social, and cultural "dislocation" of language communities. Social dislocation, to give the most relevant example, involves "siphoning off the talented, the enterprising, the imaginative and the creative" ( 1991: 61), and sounds strikingly like Anthony's 'recruitment' scenario.
Salmons himself argues that
... systematic changes in community structure are what drive language shift, incorporating Milroy's network structures as well. The heart of the view is the quintessential element of modernization, namely a shift from local community-internal organization to regional (state or national or international, in modern settings), extra-community organizations. Shift correlates with this move from pre-dominantly "horizontal" community structures to more "vertical" ones.
Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows
See also: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia and Peopling of IndiaIndia has one of the most genetically diverse populations in the world, and the history of this genetic diversity is the topic of continued research and debate. The Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetical puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population, including various waves of admixture and language shift. The genetic impact of the Indo-Aryans may have been marginal, but this is not at odds with the cultural and linguistic influence, since language shift is possible without a change in genetics.
Ancestral groups
Common maternal ancestry
Sahoo et al. (2006) states that "there is general agreement that Indian caste and tribal populations share a common late Pleistocene maternal ancestry in India."
Kivisild et al. (1999) concluded that there is "an extensive deep late Pleistocene genetic link between contemporary Europeans and Indians" via the mitochondrial DNA, that is, DNA which is inherited from the mother. According to them, the two groups split at the time of the peopling of Asia and Eurasia and before modern humans entered Europe. Kivisild et al. (2000) note that "the sum of any recent (the last 15,000 years) western mtDNA gene flow to India comprises, in average, less than 10 percent of the contemporary Indian mtDNA lineages."
Kivisild et al. (2003) and Sharma et al. (2005) note that north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry: Kivisild et al. (2003) further note that "these results show that Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the Holocene.
"Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians"
Reich et al. (2009), in a collaborative effort between the Harvard Medical School and the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), examined the entire genomes worth 560,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as compared to 420 SNPs in prior work. They also cross-compared them with the genomes of other regions available in the global genome database. Through this study, they were able to discern two genetic groups in the majority of populations in India, which they called "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI) and "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI). They found that the ANI genes are close to those of Middle Easterners, Central Asians and Europeans whereas the ASI genes are dissimilar to all other known populations outside India, though the indigenous Andamanese were determined to be the most closely related to the ASI population of any living group (albeit distinct from the ASI). These two distinct groups, which had split ca. 50,000 years ago, formed the basis for the present population of India.
The two groups mixed between 1,900 and 4,200 years ago (2200 BCE – 100 CE), where-after a shift to endogamy took place and admixture became rare. Speaking to Fountain Ink, David Reich stated, "Prior to 4,200 years ago, there were unmixed groups in India. Sometime between 1,900 to 4,200 years ago, profound, pervasive convulsive mixture occurred, affecting every Indo-European and Dravidian group in India without exception." Reich pointed out that their work does not show that a substantial migration occurred during this time.
Metspalu et al. (2011), representing a collaboration between the Estonian Biocenter and CCMB, confirmed that the Indian populations are characterized by two major ancestry components. One of them is spread at comparable frequency and haplotype diversity in populations of South and West Asia and the Caucasus. The second component is more restricted to South Asia and accounts for more than 50% of the ancestry in Indian populations. Haplotype diversity associated with these South Asian ancestry components is significantly higher than that of the components dominating the West Eurasian ancestry palette.
Segurel et al. (2020) notes the -13910*T Lactase persistence mutation, found in present-day South Asia, first appeared approximately 3,960 BCE, in Ukraine, and spread between 2,000 and 1,500 BCE throughout Eurasia. Earlier Tandon et al. (1981) had studied the distribution of lactase toleration in North and South Indians. Romero et al.(2011) later plotting a decreasing North West to South East Indian cline for the mutations frequency .
Additional components
ArunKumar et al. (2015) discern three major ancestry components, which they call "Southwest Asian", "Southeast Asian" and "Northeast Asian". The Southwest Asian component seems to be a native Indian component, while the Southeast Asian component is related to East Asian populations. Brahmin populations "contained 11.4 and 10.6% of Northern Eurasian and Mediterranean components, thereby suggesting a shared ancestry with the Europeans". They note that this fits with earlier studies which "suggested similar shared ancestries with Europeans and Mediterraneans". They further note that
Studies based on uni-parental marker have shown diverse Y-chromosomal haplogroups making up the Indian gene pool. Many of these Y-chromosomal markers show a strong correlation to the linguistic affiliation of the population. The genome-wide variation of the Indian samples in the present study correlated with the linguistic affiliation of the sample.
They conclude that, while there may have been an ancient settlement in the subcontinent, "male-dominated genetic elements shap the Indian gene pool", and that these elements "have earlier been correlated to various languages", and further note "the fluidity of female gene pools when in a patriarchal and patrilocal society, such as that of India".
Basu et al. (2016) extend the study of Reich et al. (2009) by postulating two other populations in addition to the ANI and ASI: "Ancestral Austro-Asiatic" (AAA) and "Ancestral Tibeto-Burman" (ATB), corresponding to the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language speakers. According to them, ancestral populations seem to have occupied geographically separated habitats. The ASI and the AAA were early settlers, who possibly arrived via the southern wave out of Africa. The ANI are related to Central South Asians and entered India through the northwest, while the ATB are related to East Asians and entered India through northeast corridors. They further note that
The asymmetry of admixture, with ANI populations providing genomic inputs to tribal populations (AA, Dravidian tribe, and TB) but not vice versa, is consistent with elite dominance and patriarchy. Males from dominant populations, possibly upper castes, with high ANI component, mated outside of their caste, but their offspring were not allowed to be inducted into the caste. This phenomenon has been previously observed as asymmetry in homogeneity of mtDNA and heterogeneity of Y-chromosomal haplotypes in tribal populations of India as well as the African Americans in United States.
Male-mediated migration
Reich et al. (2009), citing Kivisild et al. (1999), indicate that there has been a low influx of female genetic material since 50,000 years ago, but a "male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less".
ArunKumar et al. (2015) "suggest that ancient male-mediated migratory events and settlement in various regional niches led to the present day scenario and peopling of India."
Mahl (2021), in a study of the Brahmin ethnic group, identified the ancient male protagonists of the sampled population could be traced to twelve geographic locations, eleven of which were outside South Asia. Of the Y-DNA haplogroups identified, four were carried by ~83% of those sampled, and of these four, two were of Central Asian origin and one of the Fertile Crescent. All sampled groups were admixed with populations of South Asian origin.
North-south cline
According to Metspalu et al. (2011) there is "a general principal component cline stretching from Europe to south India". This northwest component is shared with populations from the Middle East, Europe and Central Asia, and is thought to represent at least one ancient influx of people from the northwest. According to Saraswathy et al. (2010), there is "a major genetic contribution from Eurasia to North Indian upper castes" and a "greater genetic inflow among North Indian caste populations than is observed among South Indian caste and tribal populations". According to Basu et al. (2003) and Saraswathy et al. (2010) certain sample populations of upper caste North Indians show a stronger affinity to Central Asian caucasians, whereas southern Indian Brahmins show a less stronger affinity.
Scenarios
While Reich notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language, according to Metspalu (2011), the commonalities of the ANI with European genes cannot be explained by the influx of Indo-Aryans at ca. 3,500 BP alone. They state that the split of ASI and ANI predates the Indo-Aryan migration, both of these ancestry components being older than 3,500 BP." Moorjani (2013) states that "We have further shown that groups with unmixed ANI and ASI ancestry were plausibly living in India until this time." Moorjani (2013) describes three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups:
- "migrations that occurred prior to the development of agriculture . Evidence for this comes from mitochondrial DNA studies, which have shown that the mitochondrial haplogroups (hg U2, U7, and W) that are most closely shared between Indians and West Eurasians diverged about 30,000–40,000 years BP."
- "Western Asian peoples migrated to India along with the spread of agriculture Any such agriculture related migrations would probably have begun at least 8,000–9,000 years BP (based on the dates for Mehrgarh) and may have continued into the period of the Indus civilization that began around 4,600 years BP and depended upon West Asian crops."
- "migrations from Western or Central Asia from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP, a time during which it is likely that Indo-European languages began to be spoken in the subcontinent. A difficulty with this theory, however, is that by this time India was a densely populated region with widespread agriculture, so the number of migrants of West Eurasian ancestry must have been extraordinarily large to explain the fact that today about half the ancestry in India derives from the ANI."
Pre-agricultural migrations
See also: Peopling of IndiaMetspalu et al. (2011) detected a genetic component in India, k5, which "distributed across the Indus Valley, Central Asia, and the Caucasus". According to Metspalu et al. (2011), k5 "might represent the genetic vestige of the ANI", though they also note that the geographic cline of this component within India "is very weak, which is unexpected under the ASI-ANI model", explaining that the ASI-ANI model implies an ANI contribution which decreases toward southern India. According to Metspalu et al. (2011), "regardless of where this component was from (the Caucasus, Near East, Indus Valley, or Central Asia), its spread to other regions must have occurred well before our detection limits at 12,500 years." Speaking to Fountain Ink, Metspalu said, "the West Eurasian component in Indians appears to come from a population that diverged genetically from people actually living in Eurasia, and this separation happened at least 12,500 years ago." Moorjani et al. (2013) refer to Metspalu (2011) as "fail to find any evidence for shared ancestry between the ANI and groups in West Eurasia within the past 12,500 years". CCMB researcher Thangaraj believes that "it was much longer ago", and that "the ANI came to India in a second wave of migration that happened perhaps 40,000 years ago."
Narasimhan et al. (2019) conclude that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE. They were preceded by IVC-people, a mixture of AASI (ancient ancestral south Indians, that is, hunter-gatherers related), and people related to but distinct from Iranian agri-culturalists, lacking the Anatolian farmer-related ancestry which was common in Iranian farmers after 6000 BCE. Those Iranian farmers-related people may have arrived in India before the advent of farming in northern India, and mixed with people related to Indian hunter-gatherers ca. 5400 to 3700 BCE, before the advent of the mature IVC. This mixed IVC-population, which probably was native to the Indus Valley Civilisation, "contributed in large proportions to both the ANI and ASI", which took shape during the 2nd millennium BCE. ANI formed out of a mixture of "Indus_Periphery-related groups" and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of "Indus_Periphery-related groups" who moved south and mixed with hunter-gatherers.
Agricultural migrations
Near-Eastern migrations
See also: Neolithic Revolution, Fertile Crescent, and Dravidian languages § PrehistoryKivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the 'Caucasoid-specific' mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture." at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present, which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the fertile Crescent" and "lends credence to the suggested linguistic connection between Elamite and Dravidic populations".
According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East." Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation". According to Gallego Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found." In contrast, Allentoft et al. (2015) found that lactose-tolerance was absent in the Yamnaya culture, noting that while "the Yamnaya and these other Bronze Age cultures herded cattle, goats, and sheep, they couldn't digest raw milk as adults. Lactose tolerance was still rare among Europeans and Asians at the end of the Bronze Age, just 2000 years ago."
According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), "farmers related to those from Iran spread northward into the Eurasian steppe; and people related to both the early farmers of Iran and to the pastoralists of the Eurasian steppe spread eastward into South Asia." They further note that ANI "can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of western Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".
Haplogroup R1a and related haplogroups
Main article: Haplogroup R1aThe distribution and proposed origin of haplogroup R1a, more specifically R1a1a1b, is often being used as an argument pro or contra the Indo-Aryan migrations. It is found in high frequencies in Eastern Europe (Z282) and south Asia (Z93), the areas of the Indo-European migrations. The place of origin of this haplogroup may give an indication of the "homeland" of the Indo-Europeans, and the direction of the first migrations.
Cordeaux et al. (2004), based on the spread of a cluster of haplogroups (J2, R1a, R2, and L) in India, with higher rates in northern India, argue that agriculture in south India spread with migrating agriculturalists, which also influenced the genepool in south India.
Sahoo et al. (2006), in response to Cordeaux et al. (2004), suggest that those haplogroups originated in India, based on the spread of these various haplogroups in India. According to Sahoo et al. (2006), this spread "argue against any major influx, from regions north and west of India, of people associated either with the development of agriculture or the spread of the Indo-Aryan language family". They further propose that "the high incidence of R1* and R1a throughout Central Asian and East European populations (without R2 and R* in most cases) is more parsimoniously explained by gene flow in the opposite direction", which according to Sahoo et al. (2006) explains the "sharing of some Y-chromosomal haplogroups between Indian and Central Asian populations".
Sengupta et al. (2006) also comment on Cordeaux et al. (2004), stating that "the influence of Central Asia on the pre-existing gene pool was minor", and arguing for "a peninsular origin of Dravidian speakers than a source with proximity to the Indus and with significant genetic input resulting from demic diffusion associated with agriculture".
Sharma et al. (2009) found a high frequency of R1a1 in India. They therefore argue for an Indian origin of R1a1, and dispute "the origin of Indian higher most castes from Central Asian and Eurasian regions, supporting their origin within the Indian subcontinent".
Underhill et al. (2014/2015) conclude that R1a1a1, the most frequent subclade of R1a, split into Z282 (Europe) and Z93 (Asia) at circe 5,800 before present. According to Underhill et al. (2014/2015), "his suggests the possibility that R1a lineages accompanied demic expansions initiated during the Copper, Bronze, and Iron ages." They further note that the diversification of Z93 and the "early urbanization within the Indus Valley also occurred at this time and the geographic distribution of R1a-M780 (Figure 3d) may reflect this".
Palanichamy et al. (2015), while responding to Cordeaux et al. (2004), Sahoo et al. (2006) and Sengupta et al. (2006), elaborated on Kivisild et al.'s (1999) suggestion that West Eurasian haplogroups "may have been spread by the early Neolithic migrations of proto-Dravidian farmers spreading from the eastern horn of the Fertile Crescent into India". They conclude that "the L1a lineage arrived from western Asia during the Neolithic period and perhaps was associated with the spread of the Dravidian language to India", indicating that "the Dravidian language originated outside India and may have been introduced by pastoralists coming from western Asia (Iran)." They further conclude that two subhalogroups originated with the Dravidian speaking peoples, and may have come to South India when the Dravidian language spread.
Poznik et al. (2016) note that "striking expansions" occurred within R1a-Z93 at ~4,500–4,000 years ago, which "predates by a few centuries the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation". Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that the expansion of Z93 from Transcaucasia into South Asia is compatible with "the archeological records of eastward expansion of West Asian populations in the 4th millennium BCE culminating in the so-called Kura-Araxes migrations in the post-Uruk IV period".
Indo-European migrations
Genetic impact of Indo-Aryan migrations
Bamshad et al. (2001), Wells et al. (2002) and Basu et al. (2003) argue for an influx of Indo-European migrants into the Indian subcontinent, but not necessarily an "invasion of any kind". Bamshad et al. (2001) notice that the correlation between caste-status and West Eurasian DNA may be explained by subsequent male immigration into the Indian subcontinent. Basu et al. (2003) argue that the Indian subcontinent was subjected to a series of Indo-European migrations about 1500 BCE.
Zerjal et al. (2002) argue that "multiple recent events" may have reshaped India's genetic landscape.
Metspalu et al. (2011) note that "any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to South Asia should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India" (although this presupposes the unproven assumption that East Asian ancestry was present – to a significant extent – in prehistorical Central Asia), which is not the case, and conclude that if there was a major migration of Eurasians into India, this happened before the rise of the Yamna culture. Based on Metspalu (2011), Lalji Singh, a co-author of Metspalu, concludes that "here is no genetic evidence that Indo-Aryans invaded or migrated to India".
Moorjani et al. (2013) notes that the period of 4,200–1,900 years BP was a time of dramatic changes in northern India, and coincides with the "likely first appearance of Indo-European languages and Vedic religion in the subcontinent". Moorjani further notes that there must have been multiple waves of admixture, which had more impact on higher-caste and northern Indians and took place more recently. This may be explained by "additional gene flow", related to the spread of languages:
...at least some of the history of population mixture in India is related to the spread of languages in the subcontinent. One possible explanation for the generally younger dates in northern Indians is that after an original mixture event of ANI and ASI that contributed to all present-day Indians, some northern groups received additional gene flow from groups with high proportions of West Eurasian ancestry, bringing down their average mixture date.
Palanichamy et al. (2015), elaborating on Kivisild et al. (1999) conclude that "A large proportion of the west Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups observed among the higher-ranked caste groups, their phylogenetic affinity and age estimate indicate recent Indo-Aryan migration to India from west Asia. According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "the west Eurasian admixture was restricted to caste rank. It is likely that Indo-Aryan migration has influenced the social stratification in the pre-existing populations and helped in building the Hindu caste system, but it should not be inferred that the contemporary Indian caste groups have directly descended from Indo-Aryan immigrants.
Jones et al. (2015) state that Caucasus hunter gatherer(CHG) was "a major contributor to the Ancestral North Indian component". According to Jones et al. (2015), it "may be linked with the spread of Indo-European languages", but they also note that "earlier movements associated with other developments such as that of cereal farming and herding are also plausible".
Basu et al. (2016) note that the ANI are inseparable from Central-South Asian populations in present-day Pakistan. They hypothesise that "the root of ANI is in Central Asia".
According to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI "can be modelled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of western Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe".
Silva et al. (2017) state that "the recently refined Y-chromosome tree strongly suggests that R1a is indeed a highly plausible marker for the long-contested Bronze Age spread of Indo-Aryan speakers into South Asia." Silva et al. (2017) further notes "they likely spread from a single Central Asian source pool, there do seem to be at least three and probably more R1a founder clades within the Subcontinent, consistent with multiple waves of arrival."
Narasimhan et al. (2018) conclude that pastoralists spread southwards from the Eurasian steppe during the period 2300–1500 BCE. These pastoralists during the 2nd millennium BCE, who were likely associated with Indo-European languages, presumably mixed with the descendants of the Indus Valley Civilisation, who in turn were a mix of Iranian agriculturalists and South Asian hunter-gatherers forming "the single most important source of ancestry in South Asia."
Origins of R1a-Z93
Ornella Semino et al. (2000) proposed Ukrainian origins of R1a1, and a postglacial spread of the R1a1 gene during the Late Glacial, subsequently magnified by the expansion of the Kurgan culture into Europe and eastward. Spencer Wells proposes central Asian origins, suggesting that the distribution and age of R1a1 points to an ancient migration corresponding to the spread by the Kurgan people in their expansion from the Eurasian Steppe. According to Pamjav et al. (2012), "Inner and Central Asia is an overlap zone for the R1a1-Z280 and R1a1-Z93 lineages implies that an early differentiation zone of R1a1-M198 conceivably occurred somewhere within the Eurasian Steppes or the Middle East and Caucasus region as they lie between South Asia and Eastern Europe."
A 2014 study by Peter A. Underhill et al., using 16,244 individuals from over 126 populations from across Eurasia, concluded that there was compelling evidence that "the initial episodes of haplogroup R1a diversification likely occurred in the vicinity of present-day Iran."
According to Martin P. Richards, co-author of Silva et al. (2017), " very powerful evidence for a substantial Bronze Age migration from central Asia that most likely brought Indo-European speakers to India."
Literary research: similarities, geography, and references to migration
Similarities
Mitanni
See also: Indo-Aryan superstrate in MitanniThe oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, is found not in India, but in northern Syria in Hittite records regarding one of their neighbors, the Hurrian-speaking Mitanni. In a treaty with the Hittites, the king of Mitanni, after swearing by a series of Hurrian gods, swears by the gods Mitrašil, Uruvanaššil, Indara, and Našatianna, who correspond to the Vedic gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nāsatya (Aśvin). Contemporary equestrian terminology, as recorded in a horse-training manual whose author is identified as "Kikkuli", contains Indo-Aryan loanwords. The personal names and gods of the Mitanni aristocracy also bear significant traces of Indo-Aryan. Because of the association of Indo-Aryan with horsemanship and the Mitanni aristocracy, it is presumed that, after superimposing themselves as rulers on a native Hurrian-speaking population about the 15th–16th centuries BCE, Indo-Aryan charioteers were absorbed into the local population and adopted the Hurrian language.
Brentjes argues that there is not a single cultural element of central Asian, Eastern European, or Caucasian origin in the Mitannian area; he also associates with an Indo-Aryan presence the peacock motif found in the Middle East from before 1600 BCE and quite likely from before 2100 BCE.
Scholars reject the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of Mitanni came from the Indian subcontinent as well as the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of the Indian subcontinent came from the territory of Mitanni, leaving migration from the north the only likely scenario. The presence of some Bactria-Margiana loan words in Mitanni, Old Iranian and Vedic further strengthens this scenario.
Iranian Avesta
The religious practices depicted in the Rigveda and those depicted in the Avesta, the central religious text of Zoroastrianism—the ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet Zoroaster—have in common the deity Mitra, priests called hotṛ in the Rigveda and zaotar in the Avesta, and the use of a ritual substance that the Rigveda calls soma and the Avesta haoma. However, the Indo-Aryan deva 'god' is cognate with the Iranian daēva 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan asura 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon') is cognate with the Iranian ahura 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.
Linguists such as Burrow argue that the strong similarity between the Avestan of the Gāthās—the oldest part of the Avesta—and the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda pushes the dating of Zarathustra or at least the Gathas closer to the conventional Rigveda dating of 1500–1200 BCE, i.e. 1100 BCE, possibly earlier. Boyce concurs with a lower date of 1100 BCE and tentatively proposes an upper date of 1500 BCE. Gnoli dates the Gathas to around 1000 BCE, as does Mallory (1989), with the caveat of a 400-year leeway on either side, i.e. between 1400 and 600 BCE. Therefore, the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of the Rigveda.
There is mention in the Avesta of Airyan Vaejah, one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans'. Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the Avesta situates the Airyanem Vaejah in the Hindu Kush. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the Syr Darya and western Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vaējah from cognates of the Vedic root "vij", suggesting the region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the Aral Sea to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to Mallory & Mair (2000), the probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea.
Geographical location of Rigvedic rivers
Main articles: Sarasvati River and SamudraThe geography of the Rigveda seems to be centered on the land of the seven rivers. While the geography of the Rigvedic rivers is unclear in some of the early books of the Rigveda, the Nadistuti sukta is an important source for the geography of late Rigvedic society.
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers. The Nadistuti sukta in the Rigveda mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later texts like the Brahmanas and Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
Scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/Harauvati Helmand is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra is a matter of dispute. Identification of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra before its assumed drying up early in the second millennium would place the Rigveda BCE, well outside the range commonly assumed by Indo-Aryan migration theory.
A non-Indo-Aryan substratum in the river-names and place-names of the Rigvedic homeland would support an external origin of the Indo-Aryans. However, most place-names in the Rigveda and the vast majority of the river-names in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent are Indo-Aryan. Non-Indo-Aryan names are, however, frequent in the Ghaggar and Kabul River areas, the first being a post-Harappan stronghold of Indus populations.
Textual references to migrations
Rigveda
Just as the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland or to a migration. Later Hindu texts, such as the Brahmanas, Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Puranas, are centered in the Ganges region (rather than Haryana and Punjab) and mention regions still further to the south and east, suggesting a later movement or expansion of the Vedic religion and culture to the east. There is no clear indication of general movement in either direction in the Rigveda itself; searching for indirect references in the text, or by correlating geographic references with the proposed order of composition of its hymns, has not led to any consensus on the issue.
Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana
According to Romila Thapar, the Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana "refers to the Parasus and the arattas who stayed behind and others who moved eastwards to the middle Ganges valley and the places equivalent such as the Kasi, the Videhas and the Kuru Pancalas, and so on. In fact, when one looks for them, there are evidence for migration."
Later Vedic and Hindu texts
Later Vedic texts show a shift of location from the Punjab to the East. According to the Yajurveda, Yajnavalkya (a Vedic ritualist and philosopher) lived in the eastern region of Mithila. Aitareya Brahmana 33.6.1. records that Vishvamitra's sons migrated to the north, and in Shatapatha Brahmana 1:2:4:10 the Asuras were driven to the north. In much later texts, Manu was said to be a king from Dravida. In the legend of the flood he stranded with his ship in Northwestern India or the Himalayas. The Vedic lands (e.g. Aryavarta, Brahmavarta) are located in Northern India or at the Sarasvati and Drishadvati river. However, in a post-Vedic text the Mahabharata Udyoga Parva (108), the East is described as the homeland of the Vedic culture, where "the divine Creator of the universe first sang the Vedas". The legends of Ikshvaku, Sumati and other Hindu legends may have their origin in Southeast Asia.
The Puranas record that Yayati left Prayag (confluence of the Ganges & Yamuna) and conquered the region of Sapta Sindhu. His five sons Yadu, Druhyus, Puru, Anu and Turvashu correspond to the main tribes of the Rigveda.
The Puranas also record that the Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by Mandhatr and that their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as Gandhara. The sons of the later Druhyu king Prachetas are supposed by some to have 'migrated' to the region north of Afghanistan though the Puranic texts only speak of an "adjacent" settlement.
Ecology
See also: Bond event, 5.9 kiloyear event, and 4.2-kiloyear eventClimate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south-central Asia and India.
Around 4200–4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe. Between 4200 and 3900 BCE many tell settlements in the lower Danube Valley were burned and abandoned, while the Cucuteni-Tripolye culture showed an increase in fortifications, meanwhile moving eastwards towards the Dniepr. Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe.
The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism". It was accompanied by new social rules and institutions, to regulate the local migrations in the steppes, creating a new social awareness of a distinct culture, and of "cultural Others" who did not participate in these new institutions.
In the second millennium BCE widespread aridization led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and south Asia. At the steppes, humidization led to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding". Water shortage also had a strong impact in south Asia:
This time was one of great upheaval for ecological reasons. Prolonged failure of rains caused acute water shortage in a large area, causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south-central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations. Inevitably, the new arrivals came to merge with and dominate the post-urban cultures.
The Indus Valley civilisation was localised, that is, urban centers disappeared and were replaced by local cultures, due to a climatic change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. As of 2016 many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation. The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.
Indigenous Aryanism
Main article: Indigenous AryanismIndian nationalistic opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration question it, and instead promote Indigenous Aryanism, claiming that speakers of Indo-Iranian languages (sometimes called Aryan languages) are "indigenous" to the Indian subcontinent. Indigenous Aryanism has no support in contemporary mainstream scholarship, as it is contradicted by a broad range of research on Indo-European migrations.
See also
- Early Indians
- List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes
- Indo-Aryan peoples
- Indo-Aryan languages
- Indo-European migrations
- Ariana
- Tamil nationalism
Notes
- The term "invasion", while it was once commonly used in regard to Indo-Aryan migration, is now usually used only by opponents of the Indo-Aryan migration theory. The term "invasion" does not any longer reflect the scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations, and is now generally regarded as polemical, distracting and unscholarly.
- Michael Witzel: "Just one 'Afghan' IA tribe that did not return to the highlands but stayed in their Panjab winter quarters in spring was needed to set off a wave of acculturation in the plains, by transmitting its 'status kit' (Ehret) to its neighbors."
Compare Max Muller: "why should not one shepherd, with his servants and flocks, have transferred his peculiar dialect from one part of Asia or Europe to another? This may seem a very humble and modest view of what was formerly represented as the irresistible stream of mighty waves rolling forth from the Aryan centre and gradually overflowing the mountains and valleys of Asia and Europe, but it is, at all events, a possible view; nay, I should say a view far more in keeping with what we know of recent colonisation."
- ^ David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations."
- ^ Note the dislocation of the Indus Valley civilisation prior to the start of the Indo-Aryan migrations into northern India, and the onset of Sanskritisation with the rise of the Kuru Kingdom, as described by Michael Witzel. The "Ancestral North Indians" and "Ancestral South Indians" mixed between 4,200 to 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE–100 CE), whereafter a shift to endogamy took place.
- Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).
- See also Fertile Crescent, Western Asia and Near East.
- ^ Both Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza propose that proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent. The Dravidian language was present in northern India at the time of the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, who borrowed a substantial number of words from the Dravidian language.
- Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidification of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."
- See also Eurogenes Blogspot, The crisis.
- See:
- Duperron, Anquetil (1808), Histoire et mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, de 1701 à 1793, imprimerie royale
- Godfrey, John J. (1967). "Sir William Jones and Père Coeurdoux: A philological footnote". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 87 (1): 57–59. doi:10.2307/596596. JSTOR 596596.
- Esleben: "In later years, especially before his death, he was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms."
- According to Bryant, keeping up-to-date is problematic for many Indian scholars, since most Indian universities don't have enough funds to keep up with current scholarship, and most Indian scholars are not able to gain access to recent western publications. Bryant further notes that "while one would be lucky to find a book by Max Muller even in the antique book markets of London, one can find a plethora of recent-edition publications of his and other nineteenth-century scholars' works in just about any bookstore in India (some of these on their tenth or twelfth edition). Practically speaking, it is small Delhi publishers that are keeping the most crude versions of the Aryan invasion theory alive by their nineteenth-century reprints! These are some of the main sources available to most Indian readers."
- Michael Witzel: "In these views, though often for quite different reasons, any immigration or trickling in – nearly always called "invasion" – of the (Indo-)Aryans into the subcontinent is suspect or simply denied. The Arya of the Rigveda are supposed to be just another tribe or group of tribes that have always been resident in India, next to Dravidians, Mundas, etc. The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.
However, present (European, American, Japanese, etc.) Indologists do not maintain anything like this now While the "invasion model" was still prominent in the work of archaeologists such as Wheeler (1966: "Indra stands accused"), it has been supplanted by much more sophisticated models over the past few decades (see Kuiper 1955 sqq.; Thapar 1968; Witzel 1995). This development has not occurred because Indologists were reacting, as is now frequently alleged, to current Indian criticism of the older theory. Rather, philologists first, and archaeologists somewhat later, noticed certain inconsistencies in the older theory and tried to find new explanations, a new version of the immigration theories. - Latham, as cited in Mallory 1989, p. 152
- Krishnamurti states: "Besides, the Ṛg Vedas has used the gerund, not found in Avestan, with the same grammatical function as in Dravidian, as a non-finite verb for 'incomplete' action. Ṛg Vedic language also attests the use of it as a quotation clause complementary. All these features are not a consequence of simple borrowing but they indicate substratum influence (Kuiper 1991: ch 2)".
- Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley as early as 4200–4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe.
- Klejn (1974), as cited in Bryant 2001:206, acknowledges the Iranian identification of the Andronovo-culture, but finds the Andronovo culture too late for an Indo-Iranian identification, giving a later date for the start of the Andronovo-culture "in the 16th or 17th century BC, whereas the Aryans appeared in the Near East not later than the 15th to 16th century BCE. Klejn (1974, p.58) further argues that "these regions contain nothing reminiscent of Timber-Frame Andronovo materials." Brentjes (1981) also gives a later dating for the Andronovo-culture. Bryant further refers to Lyonnet (1993) and Francfort (1989), who point to the absence of archaeological remains of the Andronovians south of the Hindu Kush. Bosch-Gimpera (1973) and Hiebert (1998) argue that there also no Andronovo-remains in Iran, but Hiebert "agrees that the expansion of the BMAC people to the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley borderlands at the beginning of the second millennium BCE is 'the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia' (Hiebert 1995:192)". Sarianidi states that the Andronovo-tribes "penetrated to a minimum extent".
- Nevertheless, archaeologists like B.B. Lal have seriously questioned the Bactria-Margiana and Indo-Iranian "connections", and thoroughly disputed all the proclaimed relations.
- However, this culture may also represent forerunners of the Indo-Iranians, similar to the Lullubi and Kassite invasion of Mesopotamia early in the second millennium BCE.
- The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.
- Comparing the Harappan and Gandhara cultures, Kennedy states: "Our multivariate approach does not define the biological identity of an ancient Aryan population, but it does indicate that the Indus Valley and Gandhara peoples shared a number of craniometric, odontometric and discrete traits that point to a high degree of biological affinity." Kennedy in Erdosy 1995, p. 49
- Kennedy: "Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia? Biological anthropology and concepts of ancient races", in Erdosy 1995 at p. 49.
- Cephalic measures, however, may not be a good indicator as they do not necessarily indicate ethnicity and they might vary in different environments. On the use of which, however, see
- Kennedy: "there is no evidence of demographic disruptions in the north-western sector of the Subcontinent during and immediately after the decline of the Harappan culture. If Vedic Aryans were a biological entity represented by the skeletons from Timargarha, then their biological features of cranial and dental anatomy were not distinct to a marked degree from what we encountered in the ancient Harappans." Kennedy in Erdosy 1995, p. 54
- Kenoyer: "there was an overlap between Late Harappan and post-Harappan communities ... with no biological evidence for major new populations." Kenoyer as quoted in Bryant 2001, p. 231
- Hemphill: "the data provide no support for any model of massive migration and gene flow between the oases of Bactria and the Indus Valley. Rather, patterns of phonetic affinity best conform to a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional mutual exchange. Hemphill (1998). "Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. An initial craniometric assessment". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 106 (3): 329–348. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199807)106:3<329::aid-ajpa6>3.0.co;2-h. PMID 9696149.; Hemphill (1999). "Biological Affinities and Adaptations of Bronze Age Bactrians: III. A Craniometric Investigation of Bactrian Origins". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 108 (2): 173–192. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199902)108:2<173::aid-ajpa4>3.0.co;2-3. PMID 9988380.
- Kenoyer: "Although the overall socioeconomic organization changed, continuities in technology, subsistence practices, settlement organization, and some regional symbols show that the indigenous population was not displaced by invading hordes of Indo-Aryan speaking people. For many years, the 'invasions' or 'migrations' of these Indo-Aryan-speaking Vedic/Aryan tribes explained the decline of the Indus civilization and the sudden rise of urbanization in the Ganges-Yamuna valley. This was based on simplistic models of culture change and an uncritical reading of Vedic texts...",
- Basu et al. (2003) refer to Renfrew (1992), Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity, stating: "Renfrew (1992) has suggested that the elite dominance model, which envisages the intrusion of a relatively small but well-organized group that takes over an existing system by the use of force, may be appropriate to explain the distribution of the IE languages in north India and Pakistan." Anthony explains that small elite groups may effect significant social changes because their social organisation allows for the recruitment of new members via patronage-systems, which may be attractive for outsiders.
- Compare the process of Sanskritization in India.
- Another example Anthony gives of how an open social system can encourage recruitment and language shift, are the Pathans in western Afghanistan. Traditionally status depended on agricultural surpluses and landownership. The neighbouring Baluch, outnumbered by the Pathans, were pastoral herders, and has hierarchical political system. Pathans who lost their land, could take refuge among the Baluch. As Anthony notes, "chronic tribal warfare might generally favor pastoralism over sedentary economics as herds can be defended by moving them, whereas agricultural fields are an immobile target."
- Michael Witzel: Ehret, Ch., 1988. "Language Change and the Material Correlates of Language and Ethnic Shift," Antiquity, 62: 564–74; derived from Africa, cf. Diakonoff 1985.
- Joshua Fisfman (1991), Reversing language shift
- Reich et al. (2009) excluded the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman speakers from their analysis in order to avoid interference.
- Reich et al. (2009): "We analyze 25 diverse groups to provide strong evidence for two ancient populations, genetically divergent, that are ancestral to most Indians today. One, the "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI), is genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans, while the other, the "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI), is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other."
- Moorjani et al. (2013): "Most Indian groups descend from a mixture of two genetically divergent populations: Ancestral North Indians (ANI) related to Central Asians, Middle Easterners, Caucasians, and Europeans; and Ancestral South Indians (ASI) not closely related to groups outside the subcontinent."
- Moorjani et al. (2013): "We report genome-wide data from 73 groups from the Indian subcontinent and analyze linkage disequilibrium to estimate ANI-ASI mixture dates ranging from about 1,900 to 4,200 years ago. In a subset of groups, 100% of the mixture is consistent with having occurred during this period. These results show that India experienced a demographic transformation several thousand years ago, from a region in which major population mixture was common to one in which mixture even between closely related groups became rare because of a shift to endogamy."
- Reich et al.: "The stronger gradient in males, replicating previous reports, could reflect either male gene flow from groups with more ANI relatedness into ones with less, or female gene flow in the reverse direction. However, extensive female gene flow in India would be expected to homogenize ANI ancestry on the autosomes just as in mtDNA, which we do not observe. Supporting the view of little female ANI ancestry in India, Kivisild et al. reported that mtDNA 'haplogroup U' splits into two deep clades. 'U2i' accounts for 77% of copies in India but ~0% in Europe, and 'U2e' accounts for 0% of all copies in India but ~10% in Europe. The split is ~50,000 years old, indicating low female gene flow between Europe and India since that time."
- David reich: "This mystery of how Indo-Europeans spread over such a vast region and what the historical underpinnings of it would have been is ongoing and remains a mystery. The fact that these languages are in India has led to the hypothesis that they came in from somewhere else, from the north, from the west, and that perhaps maybe this would be a vector for the movement of these people.
Another reason that people think that is that when you have languages coming in, not always but usually, they're brought by large movements of people. Hungarian is an exception. The Hungarians are mostly not descended from the people who brought Hungarian to Hungary. In general, languages typically tend to follow large movements of people.
On the other hand, once agriculture is established, as it has been for 5000 to 8000 years in India, it's very hard for a group to make a dent on it. The British didn't make any demographic dent on India even though they politically ruled it for a couple of hundred years.
It's a mystery how this occurred, and it remains a mystery. What we know is that the likely timing of this event is probably around 3000 to 4000 years ago. The timing of the arrival of Indo-European language corresponds to the timing of the mixture event. - Note that according to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasian Hunter Gatherers and "the ancestors of Neolithic farmers" split circa 25,000 years ago: "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. CHG genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe B3,000 BC, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture."
- The reference is to a "recent study", and gives Kivisild et al. (1999). Kivisild (1999) does not mention the number 12,500, nor does it explicitly make such a statement. What it does state is that western-Eurasian and Indian mtDNA lineages overlap in haplogroup U; that the split between the western-Eurasian and Indian U2 lineages appeared circa 53,000 ± 4,000 years before present; and that "despite their equally deep time depth, the Indian U2 has not penetrated western Eurasia, and the European U5 has almost not reached India." They further note that wester-Eurasian mtDNA lineages did spread in India at the time of the spread of agricultural crops from the fertile Crescent. Metspalu et al. (2011) do refer to 12,500 years ago. Apparently, the reference to Kivisld (1999) is incorrect, and was not noticed by the authors.
- After the initial settlement of India by the ASI.
- Narasimhan et al.: " Iranian farmer–related ancestry in this group was characteristic of the Indus Valley hunter-gatherers in the same way as it was characteristic of northern Caucasus and Iranian plateau hunter-gatherers. The presence of such ancestry in hunter-gatherers from Belt and Hotu Caves in northeastern Iran increases the plausibility that this ancestry could have existed in hunter-gatherers farther east."
Shinde et al. (2019) note that these Iranian people "had little if any genetic contribution from western Iranian farmers or herders"; they split from each other more than 12,000 years ago.
See also Razib Kkan, The Day of the Dasa: "...it may, in fact, be the case that ANI-like quasi-Iranians occupied northwest South Asia for a long time, and AHG populations hugged the southern and eastern fringes, during the height of the Pleistocene." - There was a rapid increase of the Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer-related south Caucasian population at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, about 18,000 years ago, and Near East and Caucasus people probably also migrated to Europe during the Mesolithic, around 14,000 years ago.
- Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE)."
- See also eurogenes.blogspot, The genetic structure of the world's first farmers (Lazaridis et al. preprint) .
- Metspalu et al (2011): "However, any nonmarginal migration from Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent should have also introduced readily apparent signals of East Asian ancestry into India (see Figure 2B). Because this ancestry component is absent from the region, we have to conclude that if such a dispersal event nevertheless took place, it occurred before the East Asian ancestry component reached Central Asia. The demographic history of Central Asia is, however, complex, and although it has been shown that demic diffusion coupled with influx of Turkic speakers during historical times has shaped the genetic makeup of Uzbeks75 it is not clear what was the extent of East Asian ancestry in Central Asian populations prior to these events. See also Dinesh C. Sharma (2011), "Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study", India Today
- Moorjani: "The period of around 1,900–4,200 years BP was a time of profound change in India, characterized by the deurbanization of the Indus civilization, increasing population density in the central and downstream portions of the Gangetic system,40 shifts in burial practices, and the likely first appearance of Indo-European languages and Vedic religion in the subcontinent." Note that according to Salmons, language shift is driven by "systematic changes in community structure namely a shift from local community-internal organization to regional (state or national or international, in modern settings), extra-community organizations. Shift correlates with this move from pre-dominantly 'horizontal' community structures to more 'vertical' ones."
- Moorjani: "Further evidence for multiple waves of admixture in the history of many traditionally middle- and upper-caste groups (as well as Indo-European and northern groups) comes from the more recent admixture dates we observe in these groups (Table 1) and the fact that a sum of two exponential functions often produces a better fit to the decay of admixture LD than does a single exponential (as noted above for some northern groups; Appendix B). Evidence for multiple components of West Eurasian-related ancestry in northern Indian populations has also been reported by Metspalu et al. based on clustering analysis."
- The "original mixture event of ANI and ASI" may have been the spread of Dravidian languages to the south, followed by the (still ongoing) Sanskritization of India. Note that Asko Parpola proposes that the Harappans spoke Proto-Dravidian language, and Mikhail Andronov proposes that the Proto-Dravidian language was introduced by migrations at the beginning of the third millennium BCE. See Dieneke's blogspot, "560K SNP study reveals dual rigin of Indian populations (Reich et al. 2009)" and Razib Khan (8 August 2013), "Indo-Aryans, Dravidians, and waves of admixture (migration?)" for various proposals and discussions, and this chart for the complexities of the Indian (and European) genepool.
- According to George Hart, there existed an "Early South Indian Caste System", which differed from the well-known classic north Indian vanas.
- Caucasus Hunter Gatherers, one of the contributors to the Indo-Aryan gene-pool. According to Jones et al. (2015), "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum."
- See also Eurogenes Blog, "Heavily sex-biased" population dispersals into the Indian Subcontinent.
- See also: ""Heavily sex-biased" population dispersals into the Indian Subcontinent (Silva et al. 2017)". Eurogenes Blog. 28 March 2017.
- Mallory: "It is highly improbable that the Indo-Aryans of Western Asia migrated eastwards, for example with the collapse of the Mitanni, and wandered into India, since there is not a shred of evidence — for example, names of non-Indic deities, personal names, loan words — that the Indo-Aryans of India ever had any contacts with their west Asian neighbours. The reverse possibility, that a small group broke off and wandered from India into Western Asia is readily dismissed as an improbably long migration, again without the least bit of evidence."
- According to Cardona, "there is no textual evidence in the early literary traditions unambiguously showing a trace" of an Indo-Aryan migration.
- Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidization of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."
- See also Eurogenes Blogspot, The crisis.
- No support in mainstream scholarship:
- Romila Thapar (2006): "there is no scholar at this time seriously arguing for the indigenous origin of Aryans".
- Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. It is now championed primarily by Hindu nationalists, whose religious sentiments have led them to regard the theory of Aryan migration with some asperity."
- Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, 'an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent's real argument' ... The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse time's arrow ... The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history."
- Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016): "Of course it is a fringe theory, at least internationally, where the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) is still the official paradigm. In India, though, it has the support of most archaeologists, who fail to find a trace of this Aryan influx and instead find cultural continuity."
- Witzel 2001, p. 95: "The "revisionist project" certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purånas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise ... The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the "truth" of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at "rewriting" history out of national pride or for the purpose of "nation building"."
References
- ^ Witzel 2005, p. 348.
- ^ "South Asia, 2000–1000 B.C. | Chronology | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
- Sahim, Sarmad (31 May 2022). "Evolution of Languages in South Asia - Scientia Magazine". Retrieved 20 December 2024.
- Sridhar, S. N. (2008), Kachru, Braj B.; Sridhar, S. N.; Kachru, Yamuna (eds.), "Language contact and convergence in South Asia", Language in South Asia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 235–252, ISBN 978-0-521-78141-1, retrieved 20 December 2024
- Tkachev, Vitaly V. (2020). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Sintashta Culture Sites in the Steppe Cis-Urals". Russian Archaeology. 2: 31–44.
The author presents the results of radiocarbon dating of burials from the Sintashta cemetery near Mount Berezovaya (Bulanovo) and Tanabergen II in the steppe Cis-Urals. The series consists of 10 calibrated radiocarbon dates, three of which were obtained using AMS accelerated technology. As a result of the implementation of statistical procedures, a chronological interval for the functioning of necropolises was established within the c. 2200–1770 BCE
- ^ Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age" Archived 9 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), p.3: "...By Andronovo cultures we may understand only Fyodorovka and Alakul cultures..."
- ^ Parpola, Asko, (2020). "Royal 'Chariot' Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages", in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, Oct 23, 2020, p.188: "...the Alakul’ culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture(c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."
- ^ Lubotsky, Alexander (2020). "What language was spoken by the people of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex?", in Paul W. Kroll and Jonathan A. Silk (eds.), 'At the Shores of the Sky': Asian Studies for Albert Hoffstädt, Brill, Leiden/Boston, p. 6: "The breakdown of the Indo-Iranian branch into Indian and Iranian occurred somewhere between 2000 and 1600 bce, when future Indians left their tribesmen and crossed the Hindu Kush on their way to India..."
- ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 32.
- Gopnik, Hilary, (2017). "The Median Confederacy", in Touraj Daryaee (ed.), King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE), Ancient Iran Series, Vol. IV, UCI-Jordan Center for Persian Studies, p. 40: "...We can say for certain that the neighboring Assyrians recognized a group of people that they identified as coming from the 'land of the Medes' (māt madayya) as early as the reign of Shalmaneser III (858–824 BCE), and it is almost certain that Indo-Iranian-speaking peoples had settled in Western Iran at least some 500 years —if not 1,000 years—earlier than this..."
- Beekes 2011, p. 12. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBeekes2011 (help)
- Poser, William J.; Campbell, Lyle (1992). "Indo-European Practice and Historical Methodology". Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar. Vol. 18. Berkeley Linguistics Society. pp. 227–8. doi:10.3765/bls.v18i1.1574. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
- Beckwith 2009, p. 33.
- Witzel 2005.
- ^ Anthony 2007.
- ^ Anthony & Ringe 2015.
- ^ Beckwith 2009, p. 29.
- Anthony 2007, p. 408.
- ^ Beckwith 2009.
- ^ Witzel 2005, pp. 342–343.
- Muller 1988, p. 91.
- ^ Parpola 2015, p. 67.
- ^ Mallory 2002.
- Salmons 2015, pp. 114–119.
- ^ Witzel 2005, p. 347.
- ^ Basu et al. 2003, p. 2287.
- ^ Anthony 2007, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Pereltsvaig & Lewis 2015, pp. 208–215.
- ^ Pereltsvaig & Lewis 2015, p. 205.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 117.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 118.
- ^ Parpola 2015, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Parpola 2015, p. 68.
- ^ Salmons 2015, p. 118.
- Witzel 1995.
- ^ Metspalu et al. 2011.
- ^ Reich et al. 2009.
- ^ Moorjani et al. 2013.
- ^ Kivisild et al. 1999.
- ^ Kivisild et al. 2003.
- Sharma et al. 2005.
- Sahoo et al. 2006.
- ^ Basu et al. 2016, p. 1594.
- ^ Basu et al. 2016, p. 1598.
- ^ Moorjani et al. 2013, pp. 422–423.
- ^ Itan, Yuval; Jones, Bryony L.; Ingram, Catherine JE; Swallow, Dallas M.; Thomas, Mark G. (9 February 2010). "A worldwide correlation of lactase persistence phenotype and genotypes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 10 (1): 36. Bibcode:2010BMCEE..10...36I. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-36. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 2834688. PMID 20144208.
- ^ Gallego Romero 2011, p. 9.
- ^ Lazaridis et al. 2016.
- ^ Jones 2016.
- Basu et al. 2016.
- ^ Tandon, R. K.; Joshi, Y. K.; Singh, D. S.; Narendranathan, M.; Balakrishnan, V.; Lal, K. (1 May 1981). "Lactose intolerance in North and South Indians". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 34 (5): 943–946. doi:10.1093/ajcn/34.5.943. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 7234720.
- "Mapping the Consumption of Milk and Meat in India". The Wire. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ^ Mallory & Mair 2000.
- ^ Mallory 1989.
- ^ "Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Volume 2", by Subodh Kapoor, p.590
- ^ "Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights", p. 7, by Frits Staal
- ^ Majumdar & Pusalker 1951, p. 220.
- ^ Cardona 2002, pp. 33–35.
- Witzel, Michael (11 October 2016). "Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 1 (4): 1–26 Seiten. doi:10.11588/EJVS.1995.4.823.
- Agarwal, Vishal (July–September 2006). "Is there Vedic evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India" (PDF). Dialogue (Journal of Astha Bharati). 8 (1): 122–145. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
- H. Krick, Das Ritual der Feuergründung (Agnyādheya). Wien 1982
- Sharma, Ram Sharan (1999). Advent of the Aryans in India. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-263-8.
- Witzel, M. Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parameters In: The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. G. Erdosy (ed.), (Indian Philology and South Asian Studies, A. Wezler and M. Witzel, eds), vol. 1, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter 1995, 85-125
- Anthony 2007, p. 133, 300, 336.
- ^ Demkina 2017.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 227.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 133.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 300, 336.
- Auroux, Sylvain (2000). History of the Language Sciences. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 1156. ISBN 3-11-016735-2.
- ^ Roger Blench Archaeology and Language: methods and issues. In: A Companion To Archaeology. J. Bintliff ed. 52–74. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2004.
- Wheeler, Kip. "The Sanskrit Connection: Keeping Up With the Joneses". Dr.Wheeler's Website. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
- Campbell & Poser 2008, p. 37.
- Patil, Narendranath B. (2003). The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy : a Commemoration Volume in Honour of Pandit Jankinath Kaul "Kamal". Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 249. ISBN 9788120819535.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 7.
- ^ Senthil Kumar 2012, p. 123.
- ^ "Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages", by John Hewson, Page 229
- McGetchin 2015, p. 116.
- Trautmann 2006, p. 203
- Risley, Herbert Hope (1891). "The Study of Ethnology in India". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 20. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 253. doi:10.2307/2842267. JSTOR 2842267.
- Trautmann 2006, p. 183.
- ^ Esleben, Kraenzle & Kulkarni 2008.
- F. Max Müller, Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas (1888), Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2004, p.120; Dorothy Matilda Figueira, Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity, SUNY Press, 2002, p.45
- McGetchin 2015, p. 117.
- Bryant & Patton 2005.
- ^ Possehl, Gregory L. (2002), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Rowman Altamira, p. 238, ISBN 9780759101722
- Wheeler 1967, p. 76.
- Wheeler 1967, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Bryant 2001, p. 306.
- Mallory 2012, p. 152.
- Mallory 2012, pp. 149–152.
- Erdosy 1995, p. 16.
- Schmidt, Karl (2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 978-1317476818.
- Golden, Peter (2011). Central Asia in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0199722037.
coming through Afghanistan, entered South Asia around 1500 BCE
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2008). The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-1139470216.
entered South Asia in the course of the second millennium BCE
- Lehmann 1993, pp. 31 ff.
- Lehmann 1993, p. 26.
- ^ Lehmann 1993, p. 26.
- Fox, Anthony (1995). Linguistic Reconstruction: An introduction to theory and method. Oxford: OUP. pp. 17–19.
- Mallory, James (1997). "The Homelands of the Indo-Europeans". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.). Archaeology and Language I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations. London: Routledge. pp. 98–99. ISBN 9781134828777. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
- ^ Parpola. Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.). Archaeology and Language, Vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts. London: Routledge. p. 181.
- Sapir 1949, p. 455.
- Mallory 1989, pp. 152–153.
- Mallory 1989, pp. 177–185.
- Hock (1991, p. 454)
- Fortson (2004, p. 106)
- Hock (1996), "Out of India? The linguistic evidence", in Bronkhorst & Deshpande (1999).
- Erdosy (1995:18)
- Thomason & Kaufman (1988:141–144)
- Bryant (2001:76)
- Hamp 1996 and Jamison 1989, as cited in Bryant 2001:81–82
- Hock 1975/1984/1996 and Tikkanen 1987, as cited in Bryant (2001:78–82)
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 49.
- ^ Parpola 2015.
- Beckwith 2009, p. 30, 31.
- Anthony 2007, p. 43.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 43–46.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 47–48.
- Anthony 2007, p. 48.
- Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 372.
- Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 4.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 101, 264–265.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 345, 361–367.
- Anthony 2007, p. 344.
- Anthony 2007, p. 101.
- Anthony 2007, p. 100.
- Parpola 2015, pp. 37–38.
- Baldia, Maximilian O (2006). "The Corded Ware/Single Grave Culture". Archived from the original on 31 January 2002.
- Haak et al. 2015.
- ^ Lindner, Stephan, (2020). "Chariots in the Eurasian Steppe: a Bayesian approach to the emergence of horse-drawn transport in the early second millennium BC", in Antiquity, Vol 94, Issue 374, April 2020, p. 367: "...The 12 calibrated radiocarbon dates belonging to the Sintashta horizon range between 2050 and 1760 cal BC (at 95.4% confidence; Epimakhov & Krause 2013: 137). These dates correlate well with the seven AMS-sampled Sintashta graves in the associated KA-5cemetery, which date to 2040–1730 cal BC (95.4% confidence...)".
- ^ Allentoft et al. 2015.
- ^ Koryakova 1998b.
- ^ Koryakova 1998a.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 390 (fig. 15.9), 405–411.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 386–388
- Anthony 2007, pp. 385–388.
- Kuznetsov 2006.
- Hanks & Linduff 2009.
- Parpola, Asko, (2020). "Royal 'Chariot' Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages", in Studia Orientalia Electronica, Vol. 8, No. 1, Oct 23, 2020, p.188: "...the Alakul’ culture (c.2000–1700 BCE) in the west and the Fëdorovo culture (c.1850–1450 BCE) in the east..."
- Grigoriev, Stanislav, (2021). "Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age" Archived 9 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine, in Open Archaeology 2021 (7), p.28: ".... The Fyodorovka dates in the north of the forest- steppe Tobol region are close to the dates in the Southern Transurals and lie in the interval of the 20th–16th centuries BC...Fyodorovka culture, in general, is synchronous with Alakul..."
- Diakonoff, Kuz'mina & Ivantchik 1995:473
- Jia, Peter W., Alison Betts, Dexin Cong, Xiaobing Jia, & Paula Doumani Dupuy, (2017). "Adunqiaolu: new evidence for the Andronovo in Xinjiang, China", in _Antiquity 91 (357)_, pp. 632, 634, 637.
- Mallory, J.P., (1997). "Andronovo Culture", in J.P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams (eds.),_Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture_, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, London and Chicago, p. 20.
- ^ Okladnikov, A. P. (1994), "Inner Asia at the dawn of history", The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia, Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press, p. 83, ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9
- Mallory 1989:62
- The Proto-Turkic Urheimat & The Early Migrations of the Turkic Peoples Archived 24 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Proto-Bulgaro-Turkic from the archaeological perspective), 2009–2012.
- Róna-Tas, András. "The Reconstruction of Proto-Turkic and the Genetic Question." In: The Turkic Languages, pp. 67–80. 1998.
- Parpola 2015, p. 51-68.
- Kuz'mina 1994.
- ^ Bryant 2001, p. 206.
- ^ Bryant 2001, p. 207.
- ^ Parpola 2015, p. 76.
- Anthony & Vinogradov (1995); Kuzmina (1994), Klejn (1974), and Brentjes (1981), as cited in Bryant (2001:206)
- Bryant 2001, p. 216.
- Narasimhan et al. 2018.
- ^ Anthony 2007, p. 462.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 454–455.
- Allchin 1995:47–48
Hiebert & Lamberg-Karlovsky (1992), Kohl (1984), and Parpola (1994), as cited in Bryant (2001:215) - Bryant 2001, p. 215.
- ^ Bronkhorst 2007.
- ^ Samuel 2010.
- Parpola 1998.
- Parpola 2020, p. 186.
- Parpola 2020, p. 176, 191.
- Parpola 2020, p. 191.
- Parpola 2020, p. 191-192.
- Parpola 2020, p. 192.
- Kochhar 2000, pp. 185–186.
- Mallory (1989)
- Parpola 2020, p. 194.
- Burrow 1973.
- Parpola 1999.
- Beckwith 2009, pp. 32–34.
- Anthony 2007, p. 454.
- ^ Novák, Mirko, (2013). "Upper Mesopotamia in the Mittani Period", in Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie I, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, p. 349.
- Beckwith 2009, p. 33 note 20.
- ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 376–377.
- Mallory 1989, pp. 42–43.
- Bryce, Trevor (2005), The Kingdom of the Hittites, Oxford University Press, p. 98
- Anthony 2007, p. 50.
- Flood 2008, p. 68.
- Melton & Baumann 2010, p. 1412.
- ^ Samuel 2010, p. 61.
- ^ Samuel 2010, pp. 48–51.
- Samuel 2010, pp. 42–48.
- Samuel 2010, p. 49.
- Malik, Nishant (2020). "Uncovering transitions in paleoclimate time series and the climate driven demise of an ancient civilization". Chaos. 30 (8): 083108. Bibcode:2020Chaos..30h3108M. doi:10.1063/5.0012059. PMID 32872795. S2CID 221468124.
- "New mathematical method shows how climate change led to the fall of an ancient civilization".
- Erdosy 1995, p. 139.
- Holloway 2002.
- Erdosy 1995, p. 54.
- Bryant 2001, p. 231.
- Kennedy 2000, p. 312; Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 103, 310
- Kenoyer 1991b, p. 56
- Singh, R.N., Cameron Petrie et al., (2013). "Recent Excavations at Alamgirpur, Meerut District: A Preliminary Report", in Man and Environment 38(1), pp. 32-54.
- ^ Bryant 2001, p. 190.
- Erdosy 1995, p. 5.
- Erdosy 1995, p. 24.
- Erdosy 1995, p. 23.
- Erdosy 1995.
- Erdosy 1995, pp. 5–6.
- Beckwith 2009, pp. 29–38.
- Beckwith 2009, pp. 84–85.
- Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, p. 83–88.
- ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 380–383
- ^ "Chinese History – Wusun 烏孫". Chinaknowledge. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
- ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 6–7
- Thapar 1996, p. 23-24.
- Renfrew 1992, pp. 453–454.
- Renfrew 1992, p. 454.
- Witzel 2001, p. 27.
- Anthony 2007, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Witzel 2001, p. 21.
- Witzel 2001, p. 22.
- ^ Salmons 2015, p. 116.
- Gyaneshwer Chaubey et al. (2008), Language Shift by Indigenous Population: A Model Genetic Study in South Asia, Int J Hum Genet, 8(1–2): 41–50 (2008) pdf
- Chakravarti, Aravinda (24 September 2009). "Tracing India's invisible lthreads" (PDF). Nature (News & Views). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
- Segurel, Laure; Guarino-Vignon, Perle; Marchi, Nina; Lafosse, Sophie; Laurent, Romain; Bon, Céline; Fabre, Alexandre; Hegay, Tatyana; Heyer, Evelyne (8 June 2020). "Why and when was lactase persistence selected for? Insights from Central Asian herders and ancient DNA". PLOS Biology. 18 (6): e3000742. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000742. ISSN 1544-9173. PMC 7302802. PMID 32511234.
- Romero, Irene G (2012). "Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share Their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence". Molecular Biology and Evolution. pp. 249–260. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr190. PMID 21836184. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- ^ ArunKumar et al. 2015, p. 496.
- ArunKumar et al. 2015, p. 497.
- ArunKumar et al. 2015, pp. 497–498.
- ArunKumar et al. 2015, p. 493.
- Mahal, David G. (2021). "Y-DNA genetic evidence reveals several different ancient origins in the Brahmin population". Molecular Genetics and Genomics. 296 (1): 67–78. doi:10.1007/s00438-020-01725-2. ISSN 1617-4615. PMID 32978661. S2CID 253981863.
- Basu et al. 2003.
- Metspalu et al. 2011, p. 741.
- Metspalu et al. 2011, p. 731.
- ^ Moorjani et al. 2013, p. 429.
- Metspalu et al. 2011, pp. 734–735.
- ^ Metspalu et al. 2011, p. 739.
- ^ Metspalu et al. 2011, p. 740.
- ^ Kivisild et al. 1999, p. 1331.
- Kivisild et al. 1999, p. 1332.
- Kivisild et al. 1999, pp. 1332–1333.
- ^ Moorjani et al. 2013, p. 430.
- Narasimhan et al. 2019.
- ^ Narasimhan et al. 2019, p. 11.
- Shinde et al. 2019, p. 6.
- Shinde et al. 2019, p. 4.
- Margaryan, Ashot; Derenko, Miroslava; Hovhannisyan, Hrant; Malyarchuk, Boris; Heller, Rasmus; Khachatryan, Zaruhi; Avetisyan, Pavel; Badalyan, Ruben; Bobokhyan, Arsen; Melikyan, Varduhi; Sargsyan, Gagik; Piliposyan, Ashot; Simonyan, Hakob; Mkrtchyan, Ruzan; Denisova, Galina; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Willerslev, Eske; Allentoft, Morten E. (July 2017). "Eight Millennia of Matrilineal Genetic Continuity in the South Caucasus". Current Biology. 27 (13): 2023–2028.e7. Bibcode:2017CBio...27E2023M. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.087. PMID 28669760.
- Fu et al. 2016.
- Narasimhan et al. 2019, p. 5.
- ^ Mascarenhas et al. 2015, p. 9.
- ^ Narasimhan et al. 2018, p. 15.
- ^ Kivisild et al. 1999, p. 1333.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi & Piazza 1994, pp. 221–222.
- Underhill, PA; Myres, NM; Rootsi, S; Metspalu, M; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, RJ; Lin, AA; Chow, CE; Semino, O; Battaglia, V; Kutuev, I; Järve, M; Chaubey, G; Ayub, Q; Mohyuddin, A; Mehdi, SQ; Sengupta, S; Rogaev, EI; Khusnutdinova, EK; Pshenichnov, A; Balanovsky, O; Balanovska, E; Jeran, N; Augustin, DH; Baldovic, M; Herrera, RJ; Thangaraj, K; Singh, V; Singh, L; Majumder, P; Rudan, P; Primorac, D; Villems, R; Kivisild, T (2010). "Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a". European Journal of Human Genetics. 18 (4): 479–84. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.194. PMC 2987245. PMID 19888303.
- Underhill 2015.
- ^ Sahoo et al. 2006, p. 843.
- Cordeaux et al. 2004, p. 1125.
- Sahoo et al. 2006, pp. 845–846.
- Sengupta 2006.
- Sharma et al. 2009.
- Underhill 2015, p. 124.
- ^ Underhill 2014.
- Palanichamy 2015, p. 638.
- ^ Palanichamy 2015, p. 645.
- Palanichamy 2015.
- Poznik 2016, p. 7.
- ^ Moorjani et al. 2013, pp. 429–430.
- Razib Khan (2013), "Indo-Aryans, Dravidians, and waves of admixture (migration?)", Gene expression
- Andronov 2003, p. 299.
- Samuel 2008, p. 86.
- Jones 2016, p. 1.
- Jones 2016, p. 5.
- Basu et al. 2016, p. 1597.
- ^ Silva et al. 2017.
- Ornella Semino, Giuseppe Passarino, Peter J. Oefner, Alice A. Lin, Svetlana Arbuzova, Lars E. Beckman, Giovanna De Benedictis, Paolo Francalacci, Anastasia Kouvatsi, Svetlana Limborska, Mladen Marciki, Anna Mika, Barbara Mika, Dragan Primorac, A. Silvana Santachiara-Benerecetti, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Peter A. Underhill, The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective, Science, vol. 290 (10 November 2000), pp. 1155–1159.
- Wells 2001.
- Pamjav 2012.
- Underhill, Peter A (2014). "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a". European Journal of Human Genetics. 23 (1): 124–131. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50. PMC 4266736. PMID 24667786.
- Joseph, Tony (16 June 2017). "How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate". The Hindu.
- Mallory & Mair (2000)
Mallory (1989)
Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten 41 (1995)
Thieme, as cited in Bryant (2001:136) - Bryant 2001, p. 137.
- Witzel 2003
- Burrow as cited in Mallory (1989).
- Bryant (2001:131)
Mallory (1989)
Mallory & Mair (2000)
Burrow, as cited in Mallory (1989)
Boyce and Gnoli, as cited in Bryant (2001:132) - Amanat, Abbas; Vejdani, Farzin (13 February 2012), Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective, Springer, p. 189, ISBN 9781137013408
- Bryant (2001:133)
Gnoli, Boyce, Skjaervo, and Witzel, as cited in Bryant (2001:133)
Humbach and Gnoli, as cited in Bryant (2001:327)
Mallory & Mair (2000) - e.g. RV 2.12; RV 4.28; RV 8.24
- Bryant (2001)
- Witzel (1999)
- Bryant 2001, p. 64.
- Elst 1999 with reference to L.N. Renou
- e.g. Bhagavata Purana (VIII.24.13)
- e.g. Satapatha Brahmana, Atharva Veda
- e.g. RV 3.23.4., Manu 2.22, etc. Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962–1975
- Talageri 1993, The Aryan Invasion Theory, A Reappraisal
- Elst 1999, chapter 5, with reference to Bernard Sergent
- Talageri, The Aryan invasion theory: a reappraisal, 1993
- Update on the Aryan invasion debate, Elst 1999
- Bhagavata Purana 9.23.15–16; Visnu Purana 4.17.5; Vayu Purana 99.11–12; Brahmanda Purana 3.74.11–12 and Matsya Purana 48.9.
- see e.g. Pargiter 1979, Talageri 1993, Talageri 2000, Bryant 2001, Elst 1999
- Anthony 2007, p. 230.
- Anthony 2007, p. 232.
- Anthony 2007, p. 300.
- "Decline of Bronze Age 'megacities' linked to climate change".
- "Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an Asian Culture?". Science Magazine. 320: 1282–3. 6 June 2008.
- ^ Giosan, L.; et al. (2012). "Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan Civilization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 109 (26): E1688–E1694. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109E1688G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112743109. PMC 3387054. PMID 22645375.
- Clift, P. D.; et al. (2012). "U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River". Geology. 40 (3): 211–214. Bibcode:2012Geo....40..211C. doi:10.1130/G32840.1.
- Tripathi, Jayant K.; Tripathi, K.; Bock, Barbara; Rajamani, V.; Eisenhauer, A. (25 October 2004). "Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints" (PDF). Current Science. 87 (8).
- Nuwer, Rachel (28 May 2012). "An Ancient Civilization, Upended by Climate Change". LiveScience. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
- Choi, Charles (29 May 2012). "Huge Ancient Civilization's Collapse Explained". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 May 2016.
- Madella, Marco; Fuller, Dorian (2006). "Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia: a reconsideration". Quaternary Science Reviews. 25 (11–12): 1283–1301. Bibcode:2006QSRv...25.1283M. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.10.012.
- MacDonald, Glen (2011). "Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline". Quaternary International. 229 (1–2): 140–148. Bibcode:2011QuInt.229..140M. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.11.012.
- Brooke, John L. (2014), Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey, Cambridge University Press, p. 296, Bibcode:2014cccg.book.....B, ISBN 978-0-521-87164-8
- Fosse 2005.
- Bryant 2001.
- Witzel, Michael (2006), "Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian History", in Fagan, Garrett, Archaeological Fantasies: How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-30592-6
- Gupta 2007, pp. 108–109.
- Thapar 2006.
- Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: "I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history", Swarajya Magazine
Sources
Printed sources
- Allchin, F. Raymond (1995), The Archaeology of Early History South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, Cambridge University Press
- Allentoft, Morten E.; Sikora, Martin; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Rasmussen, Simon; et al. (2015), "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia", Nature, 522 (7555): 167–172, Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A, doi:10.1038/nature14507, PMID 26062507, S2CID 4399103
- Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich (2003), A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-04455-4
- Anthony, David; Vinogradov, Nikolai (1995), "Birth of the Chariot", Archaeology, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 36–41
- Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
- Anthony, David; Ringe, Don (2015), "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives", Annual Review of Linguistics, 1: 199–219, doi:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812
- ArunKumar, GaneshPrasad; et al. (2015), "Genome-wide signatures of male-mediated migration shaping the Indian gene pool", Journal of Human Genetics, 60 (9): 493–9, doi:10.1038/jhg.2015.51, PMID 25994871, S2CID 8926804
- Bamshad, Michael; et al. (2001), "Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations", Genome Research, 11 (6): 994–1004, doi:10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR, PMC 311057, PMID 11381027.
- Basu (2003), "Ethnic India: A Genomic View, With Special Reference to Peopling and Structure", Genome Research, 13 (10): 2277–2290, doi:10.1101/gr.1413403, PMC 403703, PMID 14525929
- Basu, Analabha; Sarkar-Roya, Neeta; Majumder, Partha P. (9 February 2016), "Genomic reconstruction of the history of extant populations of India reveals five distinct ancestral components and a complex structure", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113 (6): 1594–1599, Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.1594B, doi:10.1073/pnas.1513197113, PMC 4760789, PMID 26811443
- Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1400829941, retrieved 30 December 2014
- Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew, eds. (1997), Archaeology and Language, vol. I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations, London: Routledge.
- Bronkhorst, J.; Deshpande, M.M., eds. (1999), Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia: Evidence, Interpretation, and Ideology, Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University, ISBN 978-1-888789-04-1
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007). Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India. BRILL. ISBN 9789004157194.
- Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.
- Bryant, Edwin F.; Patton, Laurie L., eds. (2005), The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and inference in Indian history, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6
- Burrow, T. (1973), "The Proto-Indoaryans", The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 105 (2): 123–140, doi:10.1017/S0035869X00130837 (inactive 1 November 2024), JSTOR 25203451, S2CID 162454265
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) - Cardona, George (2002), The Indo-Aryan languages, RoutledgeCurzon, ISBN 978-0-7007-1130-7
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2000), Genes, Peoples, and Languages, New York: North Point Press
- Campbell, Lyle; Poser, William J. (2008), Language Classification: History and Method, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88005-3.
- Chakrabarti, D.K. (1992), The Early use of Iron in India, New Delhi: The Oxford University Press
- Chakrabarti, D.K (1977), "India and West Asia: An Alternative Approach", Man and Environment, 1: 25–38
- Chaubey, Gyaneshwar; et al. (2007), "Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste-tribe continuum in India", BioEssays, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 91–100, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.551.2654, doi:10.1002/bies.20525, PMID 17187379, archived from the original on 10 December 2012
- Cordeaux, Richard; Deepa, Edwin; Vishwanathan, H.; Stoneking, Mark (2004), "Genetic Evidence for the Demic Diffusion of Agriculture to India", Science, 304 (5674): 1125, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.486.6510, doi:10.1126/science.1095819, PMID 15155941, S2CID 32528388
- Danino, Michel (2010), The Lost River – On the trail of the Sarasvati, Penguin Books India
- Demkina, T.S. (2017), "Paleoecological crisis in the steppes of the Lower Volga region in the Middle of the Bronze Age (III–II centuries BC)", Eurasian Soil Science, 50 (7): 791–804, Bibcode:2017EurSS..50..791D, doi:10.1134/S1064229317070018, S2CID 133638705
- Dhavalikar, M. K. (1995), "Fire Altars or Fire Pits?", in V. Shivananda; M. K. Visweswara (eds.), Sri Nagabhinandanam, Bangalore
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Diakonoff, Igor M.; Kuz'mina, E. E.; Ivantchik, Askold I. (1995), "Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 115, no. 3, pp. 473–477, doi:10.2307/606224, JSTOR 606224.
- Elst, Koenraad (1999), Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate, New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-86471-77-7, archived from the original on 17 September 2018, retrieved 19 July 2007.
- Elst, Koenraad (2005), "Linguistic Aspects of the Aryan Non-Invasion Theory", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history, Rouetledge
- Erdosy, George, ed. (1995), The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-014447-5
- Esleben, Jorg; Kraenzle, Christina; Kulkarni, Sukanya (2008), Mapping channels between Ganges and Rhein: German-Indian cross-cultural relations, Cambridge Scholars publication, ISBN 9781847185877
- Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521438780
- Flood, Gavin (2008), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, John Wiley & Sons
- Fortson, Benjamin W. IV (2004), Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-0316-9
- Fosse, Lars Martin (2005), "Aryan past and post-colonial present. The polemics and politics of indigenous Aryanism", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history, Routledge
- Fosse, L.M. (2013), "Aryan past and post-colonial present: the polemics and politics of indigenous Aryanism.", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history, Routledge, pp. 434–467, ISBN 9781135791025
- Fu, Q.; Posth, C.; Hajdinjak, M.; Petr, Martin; et al. (2016). "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature. 534 (7606): 200–205. Bibcode:2016Natur.534..200F. doi:10.1038/nature17993. hdl:10211.3/198594. PMC 4943878. PMID 27135931.
- Gallego Romero, Irene; et al. (2011), "Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence", Molecular Biology and Evolution, 29 (1): 249–60, doi:10.1093/molbev/msr190, PMID 21836184
- Gomez, Luis O. (2013), Buddhism in India. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge, ISBN 9781136875908
- Gupta, Tania Das (2007), Race and Racialization: Essential Readings, Canadian Scholars' Press, ISBN 9781551303352
- Haak, W.; Lazaridis, I.; Patterson, N.; Rohland, N.; Mallick, S.; Llamas, B.; Brandt, G.; Nordenfelt, S.; Harney, E.; Stewardson, K.; Fu, Q.; Mittnik, A.; Bánffy, E.; Economou, C.; Francken, M.; Friederich, S.; Pena, R. G.; Hallgren, F.; Khartanovich, V.; Khokhlov, A.; Kunst, M.; Kuznetsov, P.; Meller, H.; Mochalov, O.; Moiseyev, V.; Nicklisch, N.; Pichler, S. L.; Risch, R.; Rojo Guerra, M. A.; et al. (2015). "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. Supplementary Information". Nature. 522 (7555): 207–211. arXiv:1502.02783. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. doi:10.1038/nature14317. PMC 5048219. PMID 25731166.
- Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. (2009). "Late Prehistoric Mining, Metallurgy, and Social Organization in North Central Eurasia". In Hanks, B.; Linduff, K. (eds.). Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals, and Mobility. Cambridge University Press. pp. 146–167. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511605376.005. ISBN 978-0-511-60537-6.
- Hiltebeitel, Alf (2013), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge, ISBN 9781136875977
- Hock, Hans (1991), Principles of Historical Linguistics, Walter de Gruyter
- Holloway, Ralph L. (November 2002), "Head to head with Boas: Did he err on the plasticity of head form?", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99 (23): 14622–14623, Bibcode:2002PNAS...9914622H, doi:10.1073/pnas.242622399, PMC 137467, PMID 12419854.
- Jamison, Stephanie W. (2006), "Review of Bryant & Patton 2005" (PDF), Journal of Indo-European Studies, 34: 255–261
- Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 9780816075645
- Jones, Eppie R. (2016), "Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians", Nature Communications, 6: 8912, Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.8912J, doi:10.1038/ncomms9912, PMC 4660371, PMID 26567969
- Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000), God-apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology of South Asia, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 9780472110131
- Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991b), "Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary model from Harappa", in Meadow, R. H. (ed.), Harappa Excavations 1986-1990: A multidiscipinary approach to Third Millennium urbanism, Madison, WI: Prehistory Press, pp. 29–60
- Kivisild; et al. (1999), "Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages", Current Biology, 9 (22): 1331–1334, Bibcode:1999CBio....9.1331K, doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3, PMID 10574762, S2CID 2821966
- Kivisild, T.; et al. (February 2003), "The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations", American Journal of Human Genetics, 72 (2): 313–332, doi:10.1086/346068, PMC 379225, PMID 12536373
- Kochhar, Rajesh (2000), The Vedic People: Their History and Geography, Sangam Books
- Koryakova, L. (1998a). "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 16 September 2010.
- Koryakova, L. (1998b). "An Overview of the Andronovo Culture: Late Bronze Age Indo-Iranians in Central Asia". The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Retrieved 16 September 2010.
- Kuz'mina, E. E. (1994), Откуда пришли индоарии? (Whence came the Indo-Aryans), Moscow: Российская академия наук (Russian Academy of Sciences).
- Kuz'mina, Elena Efimovna (2007), J. P. Mallory (ed.), The Origin of the Indo-Iranians, Brill, ISBN 978-9004160545
- Kuznetsov, P. F. (2006). "The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe". Antiquity. 80 (309): 638–645. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00094096. S2CID 162580424. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012.
- Lal, B. B. (1984), Frontiers of the Indus Civilization
- Lal, B. B. (1998), New Light on the Indus Civilization, Delhi: Aryan Books International
- Lal, B. B. (2002), The Saraswati Flows on: the Continuity of Indian Culture, New Delhi: Aryan Books International
- Lal, B. B. (2005), The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi: Aryan Books International
- Larson, Gerald James (2009), "Hinduism", World Religions in America: An Introduction, Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 9781611640472
- Lazaridis, Iosif (2016), "The genetic structure of the world's first farmers", bioRxiv 10.1101/059311
- Lehmann, Winfred P. (1993), Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics, London: Routledge
- Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999), The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC, Cambridge University Press, pp. 87–88, ISBN 978-0-5214-7030-8, retrieved 1 November 2013
- Lockard, Craig A. (2007), Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0618386123
- Majumdar, R. C.; Pusalker, A. D., eds. (1951), The History and Culture of the Indian People. Volume I, The Vedic age, Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
- Mallory, J.P. (1989), In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0-500-27616-7.
- Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000), The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, London: Thames & Hudson, ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6
- Mallory, J.P. (2002), "Archaeological models and Asian Indo-Europeans", in Sims-Williams, Nicholas (ed.), Indi-Iranian Languages and Peoples, Oxford University Press
- Mallory, J.P. (2012), "Twenty-first century clouds over Indo-European homelands" (PDF), Journal of Language Relationship, 9: 145–154, doi:10.31826/jlr-2013-090113, S2CID 212689004
- Mallory, J.P.; Adams, D.Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis
- Mascarenhas, Desmond D.; Raina, Anupuma; Aston, Christopher E.; Sanghera, Dharambir K. (2015), "Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage", BioMed Research International, 2015: 1–16, doi:10.1155/2015/651415, PMC 4605215, PMID 26491681
- McGetchin, Douglas T. (2015), "'Orient' and 'Occident', 'East' and 'West' in the Doscourse of German Orientalists, 1790–1930", in Bavaj, Riccardo; Steber, Martina (eds.), Germany and 'The West': The History of a Modern Concept, Berghahn Books
- Melton, Gordon J.; Baumann, Martin (2010), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (6 volumes), ABC-CLIO
- Metspalu, Mait; Gallego Romero, Irene; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Mallick, Chandana Basu; Hudjashov, Georgi; Nelis, Mari; Mägi, Reedik; Metspalu, Ene; Remm, Maido; Pitchappan, Ramasamy; Singh, Lalji; Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Villems, Richard; Kivisild, Toomas (2011), "Shared and Unique Components of Human Population Structure and Genome-Wide Signals of Positive Selection in South Asia", The American Journal of Human Genetics, 89 (6): 731–744, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.11.010, ISSN 0002-9297, PMC 3234374, PMID 22152676
- Moorjani, P.; Thangaraj, K.; Patterson, N.; Lipson, M.; Loh, P. R.; Govindaraj, P.; Singh, L. (2013), "Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India", The American Journal of Human Genetics, 93 (3): 422–438, doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006, PMC 3769933, PMID 23932107
- Muller, Max (1988), Biographies of words and the home of the Aryas, Longmans
- Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018), The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia, bioRxiv 10.1101/292581, doi:10.1101/292581, hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-E7B3-0
- Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, N.J.; Moorjani, Priya; Rohland, Nadin; et al. (2019), "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia", Science, 365 (6457): eaat7487, doi:10.1126/science.aat7487, PMC 6822619, PMID 31488661
- Narayanan, Vasudha (2009), Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group, ISBN 9781435856202
- Palanichamy, Malliya Gounder (2015), "West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system", Human Genetics, 134 (6): 637–647, doi:10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4, PMID 25832481, S2CID 14202246
- Pamjav (December 2012), "Brief communication: New Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149 (4): 611–615, doi:10.1002/ajpa.22167, PMID 23115110
- Pargiter, F.E. (1979) , Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, New Delhi: Cosmo
- Parpola, Asko (1998), "Aryan Languages, Archaeological Cultures, and Sinkiang: Where Did Proto-Iranian Come into Being and How Did It Spread?", in Mair (ed.), The Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern and Central Asia, Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man, ISBN 978-0-941694-63-6
- Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.), Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.
- Parpola, Asko (2005), "Study of the Indus script", Transactions of the 50th International Conference of Eastern Studies, Tokyo: The Tôhô Gakkai, pp. 28–66
- Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press
- Parpola, Asko (2020). "Royal "Chariot" Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages". Studia Orientalia Electronica. 8: 176. doi:10.23993/store.98032.
- Pereltsvaig, Asya; Lewis, Martin W. (2015), The Indo-European Controversy, Cambridge University Press
- Poznik (2016), "Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences", Nature Genetics, 48 (6): 593–599, doi:10.1038/ng.3559, PMC 4884158, PMID 27111036
- Rao, S.R. (1993), The Aryans in Indus Civilization
- Reich, David; Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Patterson, Nick; Price, Alkes L.; Singh, Lalji (2009), "Reconstructing Indian population history", Nature, 461 (7263): 489–494, Bibcode:2009Natur.461..489R, doi:10.1038/nature08365, ISSN 0028-0836, PMC 2842210, PMID 19779445
- Renfrew, Colin (1992), "Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity", Man, 27 (3): 445–478, doi:10.2307/2803924, JSTOR 2803924
- Sahoo, Sanghamitra; et al. (January 2006), "A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103 (4): 843–848, Bibcode:2006PNAS..103..843S, doi:10.1073/pnas.0507714103, PMC 1347984, PMID 16415161.
- Salmons, Joseph (2015), "Language shift and the Indo-Europanization of Europe", in Mailhammer, Robert; Vennemann, Theo; Olsen, Birgit Anette (eds.), Origin and Development of European Languages, Museum Tusculanum Press
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press
- Sapir, Edward (1949), Mandelbaum, David G. (ed.), Selected Writings in Language, Culture, and Personality, University of California Press (published 1985), ISBN 978-0-520-01115-1.
- Sengupta, S.; et al. (2006), "Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists", American Journal of Human Genetics, 78 (2): 201–221, doi:10.1086/499411, PMC 1380230, PMID 16400607, retrieved 3 December 2007.
- Senthil Kumar, A.S. (2012), Read Indussian, Amarabharathi Publications & Booksellers
- Shaffer, Jim (1984), "The Indo-Aryan Invasions: Cultural Myth and Archaeological Reality", in J. R. Lukacs (ed.), In The Peoples of South Asia, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 74–90
- Sharma, S.; Saha, A.; Rai, E.; Bhat, A.; Bamezai, R. (2005), "Human mtDNA hypervariable regions, HVR I and II, hint at deep common maternal founder and subsequent maternal gene flow in Indian population groups", Journal of Human Genetics, 50 (10): 497–506, doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0284-2, PMID 16205836.
- Sharma, Swarkar; et al. (2009), "The Indian origin of paternal haplogroup R1a1 substantiates the autochthonous origin of Brahmins and the caste system" (PDF), Journal of Human Genetics, 54 (1): 47–55, doi:10.1038/jhg.2008.2, PMID 19158816, S2CID 22162114
- Shinde, Vasant; Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; et al. (2019), "An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers", Cell, 179 (3): 729–735.e10, doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048, PMC 6800651, PMID 31495572
- Silva, Marina; et al. (2017), "A genetic chronology for the Indian Subcontinent points to heavily sex-biased dispersals", BMC Evolutionary Biology, 17 (1): 88, Bibcode:2017BMCEE..17...88S, doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0936-9, PMC 5364613, PMID 28335724
- Singh, Upinder (2009), History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Longman, ISBN 978-8131716779
- Springer (2012), International Journal of Hindu Studies, vol. 16
- Talageri, Shrikant G. (2000), The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7742-010-4, archived from the original on 30 September 2007, retrieved 15 May 2007.
- Talageri, Shrikant G. (1993), Aryan Invasion Theory and Indian Nationalism, ISBN 978-81-85990-02-6.
- Thapar, Romila (1966), A History of India: Volume 1 (Paperback), Penguin Publishing, ISBN 978-0-14-013835-1
- Thapar, Romila (January–March 1996), "The Theory of Aryan Race and India: History and Politics" (PDF), Social Scientist, 24 (1–3): 3–29, doi:10.2307/3520116, JSTOR 3520116
- Thapar, Romila (2006). India: Historical Beginnings and the Concept of the Aryan. National Book Trust. ISBN 9788123747798.
- Thapar, Romila (2019), "They Peddle Myths and Call It History", New York Times
- Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufman, Terrence (1988), Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics, University of California Press (published 1991), ISBN 978-0-520-07893-2.
- Tikkanen, Bertil (1999), "Archaeological-linguistic correlations in the formation of retroflex typologies and correlating areal features in South Asia", in Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.), Archaeology and Language, vol. IV: Language Change and Cultural Transformation, London: Routledge, pp. 138–148.
- Trautmann, Thomas R. (2006) . Aryans and British India (2nd Indian ed.). New Delhi: YODA Press. ISBN 81-902272-1-1., originally published as Trautmann, Thomas R. (1997), Aryans and British India, Vistaar
- Trautmann, Thomas (2005), The Aryan Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-566908-4
- Underhill, Peter A. (2010), "Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a", European Journal of Human Genetics, 18 (4): 479–84, doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.194, PMC 2987245, PMID 19888303
- Underhill, Peter A. (2015), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a", European Journal of Human Genetics, 23 (1): 124–131, doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50, PMC 4266736, PMID 24667786
- Walsh, Judith E. (2011), A Brief History of India, Facts on File, ISBN 978-0-8160-8143-1
- Wells, R.S. (2001), "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98 (18): 10244–10249, Bibcode:2001PNAS...9810244W, doi:10.1073/pnas.171305098, PMC 56946, PMID 11526236
- Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002), The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (illustrated ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691115320
- Wheeler, Mortimer (1967), De Indus-beschaving, Elsevier
- Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state" (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, 1 (4): 1–26, archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2007
- Witzel, Michael (1998), The Home of the Aryans. In: "Anusantatyi: Festschrift fuer Johanna Narten zum 70. Geburtstag", ed. A. Hinze and E. Tichy (Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft, Beihefte NF 19) Dettelbach: J. H. Roell 2000 (PDF)
- Witzel, Michael (1999), "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)" (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 5, no. 1, archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2012
- Witzel, Michael (2001), "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts" (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, 7 (3): 1–115
- Witzel, Michael (December 2003), "Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Exchange in Prehistoric Western Central Asia" (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, 129: 1–70
- Witzel, Michael (2005), "Indocentrism", in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history, Routledge
- Witzel, Michael (2006), "Rama's realm: Indocentric rewritings of early South Asian archaeology and history", in Fagan, Garrett G. (ed.), Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public, London/New York: Routledge, pp. 203–232, ISBN 978-0-415-30592-1
- Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India, Princeton University Press
Web-sources
- ^ Rajesh Kochhar (2017), "The Aryan chromosome", The Indian Express
- ^ Edge (2016), The Genomic Ancient DNA Revolution. A New Way to Investigate the Past. A Conversation With David Reich [2.1.16]
- ^ Rob Mitchum (2011), Lactose Tolerance in the Indian Dairyland, ScienceLife
- ^ Kivisild et al. (2000), An Indian Ancestry, p.271 Archived 4 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine (referring to Kivisild et al. (1999), "Deep common ancestry")
- Jonathan Slocum, What is Historical Linguistics? What are 'Indo-European' Languages?, The University of Texas at Austin Archived 30 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- Mac-Planck Gesellschaft, A massive migration from the steppe brought Indo-European languages to Europe
- Ewen Callaway (12 February 2015), European languages linked to migration from the east. Large ancient-DNA study uncovers population that moved westwards 4,500 years ago., Nature
- admin (29 April 2014). "To Revert to the Theory of 'Aryan Invasion' (Part 1)".
- ^ Frank Raymon Allchin, Early Vedic Period, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Joseph E. Scwartzberg, Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 bce), Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ R. Champakalakshmi, The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 bce, Encyclopædia Britannica
- Elie Dolgin (2009), Indian ancestry revealed. The mixing of two distinct lineages led to most modern-day Indians, Nature News
- ^ Srinath Perur (December 2013), The origins of Indians. What our genes are telling us., Fountain Ink Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Saraswathy, Kallur N. (2010). "Brief communication: Allelic and haplotypic structure at the DRD2 locus among five North Indian caste populations". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 141 (4): 651–657. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21246. PMID 20091846.
- "Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study". 10 December 2011.
- Ann Gibbons (2015), Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians, Science
- FOSA, Recent findings in Archeogenetics and the Aryan Migration Theory
- Zerjal; et al. (September 2002). "A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia". Am J Hum Genet. 71 (3): 466–482. doi:10.1086/342096. PMC 419996. PMID 12145751.
- India Today, Indians are not descendants of Aryans, says new study
- dnaindia.com, New research debunks Aryan invasion theory
- ITBL, Aryan Invasion Theory used for Divide and Convert: Exposed by fresh Genetic research
- The Hindu, Underlying language of Indus script, Proto-Dravidian: Asko Parpola
- The Saraswati:- Where lies the mystery
- Vishal Agarwal (2005), On Perceiving Aryan Migrations in Vedic Ritual Texts. Purātattva, issue 36, p.155-165 Archived 4 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- Wendy Doniger (2017), "Another Great Story"", review of Asko Parpola's The Roots of Hinduism; in: Inference, International Review of Science, Volume 3, Issue 2
- Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), Why Hindutva supporters love to hate the discredited Aryan Invasion Theory, Scroll.in
Further reading
- Overview
- Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
- Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press
- Joseph, Tony (2018). Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and where We Came from. Juggernaut. ISBN 978-93-86228-98-7. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
- Linguistics
- Heggarty, Paul (2013). "Europe and western Asia: Indo-European linguistic history". In Ness, Immanuel; Bellwood, Peter (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration. ISBN 9781444334890.
- Genetics
- Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Patterson, N.J.; et al. (2019), "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia", Science, 365 (6457): eaat7487, doi:10.1126/science.aat7487, PMC 6822619, PMID 31488661
External links
Overview
- Rajesh Kochhar (2017), The Aryan chromosome, The Indian Express
- The History Files, Indo-Iranians / Indo-Aryans
- The Aryan question revisited (1999) by Romila Thapar
- Akhilesh Pillalamarri, Where Did Indians Come from, part1, part 2, part 3
Linguistics
- The Home of the Aryans by Michael Witzel (pdf)
- Agarwal, Vishal: Is There Vedic Evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India? (pdf)
- ScienceDaily, New Insights into Origins of World's Languages
- Archaeology
- Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India Archived 12 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Agrawal, D.P.: The Indus Civilization = Aryans equation: Is it really a Problem? by D.P. Agrawal (pdf)
- Genetics
- Tony Joseph (16 June 2017), How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate, The Hindu
- Tony Joseph (2018), How We, The Indians, Came to Be summary of Narasimhan (2018)
- Scroll.in, "Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian genetics". 2 April 2018., on Narasimhan (2018)
- The Economic Times (Oct 12, 2019), Steppe migration to India was between 3500-4000 years ago: David Reich
- Dravidianization and Sanskritization
- Razib Khan, The Dravidianization of India and The Aryan Integration Theory (AIT)
- Animated map
- Homeland time map, University of Copenhagen