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{{Short description|American WWII-era heavy bomber}} | |||
{{Redirect |B-17||B17 (disambiguation)}} | |||
{{Redirect|B-17|other uses|B17 (disambiguation)}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}} | |||
{{Redirect2|B-17 Bomber|B-17 Flying Fortress|the video games|B-17 Bomber (video game)|and|B-17 Flying Fortress (video game)}} | |||
{{Redirect|Flying Fortress|the film|Flying Fortress (film)}} | |||
{{Use American English|date=June 2018}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} | |||
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{{Infobox aircraft | |||
| |
|name = B-17 Flying Fortress | ||
| |
|image = File:B17 - Chino Airshow 2014 (framed).jpg | ||
|image_border = | |||
| caption = Boeing B-17E | |||
|image_caption = A B-17G, '']'', performing at the 2014 Chino Airshow in ] | |||
}}{{Infobox Aircraft Type | |||
| |
|aircraft_type = ] | ||
| |
|national_origin = United States | ||
| |
|manufacturer = ] | ||
|designer = | |||
| first flight = 28 July 1935<ref name="first flight"/> | |||
|first_flight = 28 July 1935<ref name= "first flight" /> | |||
| introduction = April 1938 | |||
|introduction = April 1938 | |||
| retired = 1968 (]) | |||
|status = Retired; small number in service as ]s | |||
| status = | |||
| |
|primary_user = ] | ||
| |
|more_users = ] | ||
| |
|produced = 1936–1945 | ||
| |
|number_built = 12,731<ref name= "Yenne.p8" /><ref>Angelucci and Matricardi 1988, p. 46.</ref> | ||
|developed_from = | |||
| unit cost = US$238,329(1945)<ref name="Bowers1976"/> | |||
|variants = {{plainlist| | |||
| variants with their own articles = ]<br />] <br />] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
}} | |||
|developed_into = ] | |||
}} | }} | ||
|} | |||
], 1943. Photo by ].]] | |||
The '''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''' is |
The '''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''' is an American four-engined ] aircraft developed in the 1930s for the ] (USAAC). A fast and high-flying bomber, the B-17 was used primarily in the ] and dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during ]. It is the ] of all time, behind the American four-engined ] and the German multirole, twin-engined ]. The B-17 was also employed in transport, anti-submarine warfare, and search and rescue roles. | ||
In a USAAC competition, ] prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the ]. Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938. The B-17 evolved through numerous ]<ref>Parker 2013, pp. 35, 40–48.</ref><ref>Herman 2012, pp. 292–299, 305, 333.</ref> but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the ], USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon. It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bomb load. It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base. | |||
The B-17 was primarily employed by the ] (USAAF) in the daylight precision ] against German industrial and military targets. The United States ], based at many airfields in southern England, and the ], based in Italy, complemented the ]'s nighttime area bombing in the ] to secure air superiority over forces defending the cities, factories and battlefields of Western Europe in preparation for ] in 1944.<ref name= "Carey Pointblank" /> The B-17 also participated to a lesser extent in the ], early in World War II, where it conducted raids against Japanese shipping and airfields.<ref>Parker 2013, p. 41.</ref> | |||
The B-17 saw early action in the ], where it conducted air raids against Japanese shipping and airfields.<ref>Parker 2013, p. 41.</ref> But it was primarily employed by the USAAF in the ] component of the Allied ] over Europe, complementing ]'s ]s in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets.<ref name="Carey Pointblank" /> Of the roughly {{Nowrap|1.5 million tons}} of bombs dropped on ] and its occupied territories by Allied aircraft, over {{Nowrap|640,000 tons}} (42.6%) were dropped from B-17s.<ref name= "Yenne.p46" /> | |||
At the start of 2024, ] remain in flying condition.{{Citation needed|reason=Do not add sources from SimpleFlying per WP:SIMPLEFLYING|date=June 2024}} About 50 survive in storage or are on static display, the oldest of which is '']'', a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II. There are also several reasonably complete wrecks, such as underwater, that have been found. B-17 survivors gained national attention in 2022 in the United States, when one was destroyed in a fatal mid-air collision with another ] at an airshow. | |||
As of May 2015, ] remain airworthy. None are combat veterans. Additionally a few dozen more are on static display, in storage, undergoing restoration, or held for parts. The oldest is a D Series combat veteran with service in the Pacific and the Caribbean. | |||
==Development== | == Development == | ||
===Origins=== | === Origins === | ||
{{multiple image | {{multiple image | ||
| direction = vertical | |||
| width = 220 | |||
| image1 =Boeing XB-17 (Model 299).jpg | |||
| image_caption1 = Model 299 ''NX13372'' | |||
| image3 =Boeing Model 299 crash.jpg | |||
| image_caption3 = Crashed Model 299 | |||
| caption2 = Nose turret with gun fitted atop the Model 299's nose glazing | |||
| image4 =Boeing Y1B-17 in flight.jpg | |||
| image_caption4 = Boeing Y1B-17 in flight | |||
| caption3 = Crashed Model 299 | |||
| image4 =Boeing Y1B-17 in flight.jpg | |||
| caption4 = Boeing Y1B-17 in flight | |||
<!-- Please do not add more images here as it disrupts the spacing --> | <!-- Please do not add more images here as it disrupts the spacing --> | ||
}} | }} | ||
On 8 August 1934, the |
On 8 August 1934, the USAAC tendered a proposal for a multiengine bomber to replace the ]. The Air Corps was looking for a bomber capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama, and Alaska.<ref name="Tate.p164" /> Requirements were for it to carry a "useful bombload" at an altitude of {{convert|10000|ft|m|abbr=on}} for 10 hours with a top speed of at least {{convert|200|mph|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Swan Mil p74" /> | ||
They also desired, but did not require, a bomber with a range of {{convert|2000|mi|km|-2|abbr=on}} and a speed of {{cvt|250|mph|kn km/h}}. The competition for the air corps contract was to be decided by a "fly-off" between Boeing's design, the ], and the ] at ] in ]. | |||
The prototype B-17, with the Boeing factory designation of Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and ], and was built at Boeing's own expense.<ref name="WoF p41" /> It combined features of the company's experimental ] bomber and ] transport.<ref name="Swan Mil p74" /> The B-17's armament consisted of five .30 caliber (7.62 mm) ]s, with a payload up to {{convert|4800|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of bombs on two racks in the bomb bay behind the cockpit. The aircraft was powered by four ] Hornet ]s, each producing {{convert|750|hp|kW|-2|abbr=on}} at {{convert|7000|ft|m|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p291-2" /> | |||
They also desired, but did not require, a range of {{convert|2000|mi|km|-2}} and a speed of {{convert |250|mph|km/h}}. The competition for the Air Corps contract would be decided by a "fly-off" between Boeing's design, the ], and the ] at ] in ], ]. | |||
The first flight of the Model 299 was on {{Nowrap|28 July}} 1935 with Boeing chief test pilot Leslie Tower at the controls.<ref name="first flight" /><ref name="Sal.p46" /> The day before, Richard Williams, a reporter for '']'', coined the name "Flying Fortress" when – observing the large number of machine guns sticking out from the new aircraft – he described it as a "15-ton flying fortress" in a picture caption.<ref>Freeman 1993, p. 8.</ref> The most distinctive mount was in the nose, which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward nearly all frontal angles.<ref>. ''Popular Science Monthly'', August 1937.</ref> | |||
The prototype B-17, with the Boeing factory designation of Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and ], and was built at Boeing's own expense.<ref name="WoF p41"/> It combined features of the experimental ] bomber with the ] transport aircraft.<ref name="Swan Mil p74"/> The B-17's armament consisted of up to {{convert|4800|lb|kg}} of bombs on two racks in the bomb bay behind the cockpit, and initially possessed five {{convert|0.30|in|mm|2}} ]s. It was powered by four ] "Hornet" radial engines each producing {{convert|750|hp|kW|-2}} at {{convert|7000|ft|m|-2}}.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p291-2"/> | |||
Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use.{{NoteTag |1 = The 1 January 1938 ''Air Corps News Letter'' noted the Langley Field correspondent used the appellation "Jeep" to the B-17, which it objected to as "not befitting" the aircraft and adding, "Why not let the term 'Flying Fortress' suffice?" <ref>{{citation |url=http://newpreview.afnews.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-110421-039.pdf |title= Performances of B-17's invokes enthusiasm |work=Air Corps News Letter |volume= XXI |number= 1 |date=1 January 1938 |page=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903213218/http://newpreview.afnews.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-110421-039.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2015 }}</ref> }} Boeing also claimed in some of the early press releases that Model 299 was the first combat aircraft that could continue its mission if one of its four engines failed.<ref>. ''Popular Mechanics'', October 1935.</ref> On {{Nowrap|20 August 1935}}, the prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes with an average ground speed of {{cvt|252|mph|kn km/h}}, much faster than the competition.<ref name="NYTimes.299Record" /> | |||
The first flight of the Model 299 was on {{Nowrap|28 July}} 1935 with Boeing chief test-pilot Leslie Tower at the controls.<ref name="first flight"/><ref name="Sal.p46"/> Richard Williams, a reporter for the '']'', coined the name "Flying Fortress" when the Model 299 was rolled out bristling with multiple machine gun installations.<ref name="Yenne.p12"/> The most unusual gun emplacement was the nose installation (see note for description and drawing), which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward almost any frontal angle that an approaching enemy fighter would take to attack the B-17.<ref> ''Popular Science Monthly,'' August 1937.</ref> | |||
At the fly-off, the four-engined Boeing's performance was superior to those of the twin-engine DB-1 and Model 146. In March 1935 Army Chief of Staff General ] created ] and promoted lieutenant colonel ] to brigadier general to become the head of GHQ Air Force. MacArthur and Andrews both believed that the capabilities of large four-engined aircraft exceeded those of shorter-ranged, twin-engine aircraft, and that the B-17 was better suited to new, emerging USAAC doctrine.<ref name="Zamzow.33" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://media.defense.gov/2016/Mar/14/2001480192/-1/-1/0/0908GHQ.PDF|title=GHQ Air Force: This strange arrangement in 1935 split the Air Corps into two camps—but it led the way to an independent Air Force Page 64-66|work=Air Force Magazine|date=September 2008|access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref> Their opinions were shared by the air corps procurement officers, and even before the competition had finished, they suggested buying 65 B-17s.<ref name="Tate 165" /><ref name="Zamzow.34" /> | |||
Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use. Boeing also claimed in some of the early press releases that Model 299 was the first combat aircraft that could continue its mission if one of its four engines failed.<ref> ''Popular Mechanics'', October 1935.</ref> On {{Nowrap|20 August 1935}}, the prototype flew from ] to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes at an average cruising speed of {{convert|252|mph|km/h}}, much faster than the competition.<ref name="NYTimes.299Record" /> | |||
On 30 October 1935, a test flight determining the rate of climb and service ceiling was planned. The command pilot was Major ], Wright Field Material Division Chief of the Flying Branch, his first flight in the Model 299. Copilot was Lieutenant Donald Putt, while Boeing chief test pilot Leslie R. Tower was behind the pilots in an advisory role. Also on board were Wright Field test observer John Cutting and mechanic Mark Koegler. The plane stalled and spun into the ground soon after takeoff, bursting into flames. Though initially surviving the impact, Hill died within a few hours, and Tower on 19 November. Post-accident interviews with Tower and Putt determined the control surface ] had not been released.<ref name="Museum">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=2478 |title=Model 299 Crash, 15 November 1935 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516004104/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=2478 |archive-date=16 May 2007 |access-date=18 February 2024 |url-status=dead}}.</ref> Doyle notes, "The loss of Hill and Tower, and the Model 299, was directly responsible for the creation of the modern written ] used by pilots to this day."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Doyle |first1=David |title=B-17 Flying Fortress, Vol. 1: Boeing's Model 299 through B-17D in World War II |date=2020 |publisher=Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. |location=Atglen |isbn=9780764359552 |pages=6–7}}</ref><ref name="Checks"/> | |||
At the fly-off, the four-engine Boeing's performance was superior to those of the twin-engine DB-1 and Model 146. Then-] ] of the ] believed that the long-range capabilities of four-engine large aircraft were more effective than shorter-ranged, twin-engined aircraft, and that the B-17 was better suited to their doctrine.<ref name = "Zamzow.33" /> His opinions were shared by the Air Corps procurement officers, and even before the competition had finished they suggested buying 65 B-17s.<ref name="Tate 165"/><ref name="Zamzow.34" /> | |||
The crashed Model 299 could not finish the evaluation, thus disqualifying it from the competition.<ref name="Zamzow.34" /> While the Air Corps was still enthusiastic about the aircraft's potential, Army officials were daunted by its cost;<ref name="Sal.p48" /> Douglas quoted a unit price of $58,200 ({{inflation|US-GDP|58200|1935|r=-3|fmt=eq}}{{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}}) based on a production order of 220 aircraft, compared with $99,620 ({{inflation|US-GDP|99620|1935|r=-3|fmt=eq}}{{Inflation/fn|US-GDP}} ) from Boeing.<ref name="Francillon Doug p201-2" /> MacArthur's successor, Army Chief of Staff ], canceled the order for 65 YB-17s and ordered 133 of the twin-engined Douglas B-18 Bolo, instead. Secretary of War ] in October 1938 decided that no four-engine bombers, including B-17s, would be purchased by the War Department in 1939.<ref name="Tate 165" /><ref name="Zamzow.34" /><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.airandspaceforces.com/article/rise-of-the-air-corps|title=Rise of the Air Corps|work=Air & Space Forces Magazine|date=May 12, 2022|access-date=January 3, 2024}}</ref> | |||
Development continued on the Boeing Model 299, and on {{Nowrap|30 October}} 1935, Army Air Corps test-pilot Major ] and Boeing employee Les Tower took the Model 299 on a second evaluation flight. The crew forgot to disengage the "]s," a system of devices integral to the design that held the bomber's movable control surfaces in place while the aircraft was parked on the ground. After take-off, due to the failure to manually disengage all of the gust locks, the aircraft entered a steep climb, stalled, nosed over, and crashed, killing Hill and Tower (other observers survived with injuries).<ref name="Museum"/><ref name="Checks"/><ref group=N>On board the aircraft were pilots ] Ployer P. Hill (his first time flying the 299) and Lieutenant Donald Putt (the primary Army pilot for the previous evaluation flights), Leslie Tower, Boeing mechanic C.W. Benton, and Pratt and Whitney representative Henry Igo. Putt, Benton and Igo escaped with burns, and Hill and Tower were pulled from the wreckage alive, but later died from their injuries.</ref> | |||
{{blockquote|The loss was not total... But Boeing's hopes for a substantial bomber contract were dashed.|Peter Bowers, 1976<ref name="Bowers1976.p37">Bowers 1976, p. 37.</ref>}} | |||
=== Initial orders === | |||
The crashed Model 299 could not finish the evaluation and, while the Air Corps was still enthusiastic about the aircraft's potential, Army officials were daunted by the much greater expense per aircraft<ref name= "Sal.p48" /> (Douglas quoted a unit price of $58,200 based on a production order of 220 aircraft, compared with a price of $99,620 from Boeing<ref name="Francillon Doug p201-2"/>), and as the competition could not be completed Boeing was legally disqualified from the consideration for the contract.<ref name="Zamzow.34"/> Army Chief of Staff ] cancelled the order for 65 YB-17s, and ordered 133 of the twin-engine ] instead.<ref name="Tate 165"/><ref name="Zamzow.34" /> | |||
] plant in ], October 1942]] | |||
{{quote|The loss was not total... but Boeing's hopes for a substantial bomber contract were dashed.|Peter Bowers, 1976<ref name="Bowers1976.p37">Bowers 1976, p. 37.</ref>}} | |||
Despite the crash, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance, and on {{Nowrap|17 January}} 1936, through a legal loophole,<ref name="Erickson"/><ref name="Meilinger" /> the Air Corps ordered 13 YB-17s (designated Y1B-17 after November 1936 to denote its special F-1 funding) for service testing.<ref name="Zamzow.34" /> The YB-17 incorporated a number of significant changes from the Model 299, including more powerful ]-39 Cyclone engines. Although the prototype was company-owned and never received a military serial (the B-17 designation itself did not appear officially until January 1936, nearly three months after the prototype crashed),<ref name="Bowers1976.p12" /> the term "XB-17" was retroactively applied to the ''NX13372's'' airframe and has entered the lexicon to describe the first Flying Fortress. | |||
=== Aircraft orders === | |||
Despite problems, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance, and on {{Nowrap|17 January}} 1936, through a legal loophole,<ref name="Meilinger"/> the Air Corps ordered 13 YB-17s (designated Y1B-17 after November 1936 to denote its special F-1 funding) for service testing.<ref name="Zamzow.34"/> The YB-17 incorporated a number of significant changes from the Model 299, including more powerful ]-39 Cyclone engines replacing the original Pratt & Whitneys. Although the prototype was company-owned and never received a military serial (the B-17 designation itself did not appear officially until January 1936, nearly three months after the prototype crashed),<ref name="Bowers1976.p12"/> the term "XB-17" was retroactively applied to the airframe and has entered the lexicon to describe the first Flying Fortress. | |||
Between 1 March and 4 August 1937, 12 of the 13 Y1B-17s were delivered to the 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field in Virginia for operational development and flight tests.<ref name="Swan Mil p75" /> One suggestion adopted was the use of a ] to avoid accidents such as that which befell the Model 299.<ref name="Meilinger" /><ref name="Checks2" />{{NoteTag|The idea of a pilot's checklist spread to other crew members, other air corps aircraft types, and eventually throughout the aviation world. ''Life'' published the lengthy B-17 checklist in its 24 August 1942 issue.<ref>. ''Life'', 24 August 1942.</ref>}} In one of their first missions, three B-17s, directed by lead navigator ] ], were sent by General Andrews to ] {{convert|610|mi|km}} off the Atlantic coast.<ref name="Zamzow.47" /> The mission was successful and widely publicized.<ref name="Maurer" /><ref name="USAF Rex" /> The 13th Y1B-17 was delivered to the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio, to be used for flight testing.<ref name="Y1B-17" /> | |||
A 14th Y1B-17 (''37-369''), originally constructed for ground testing of the airframe's strength, was upgraded by Boeing with exhaust-driven General Electric ]s, and designated Y1B-17A. Designed by ], engine exhaust gases turned the turbine's steel-alloy blades, forcing high-pressure air into the Wright Cyclone GR-1820-39 engine supercharger.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://aviationshoppe.com/manuals/wwii_aircraft_superchargers/wwii_aircraft_turbosupercharger.html |title = World War II – General Electric Turbosupercharges |website = aviationshoppe.com |access-date = 8 June 2017 |archive-date = 8 October 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191008054906/https://aviationshoppe.com/manuals/wwii_aircraft_superchargers/wwii_aircraft_turbosupercharger.html |url-status = dead }}</ref> Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers, and its first flight was delayed until {{Nowrap|29 April}} 1938.<ref name="Donald" /> The aircraft was delivered to the Army on {{Nowrap|31 January}} 1939.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p293-4" /> Once service testing was complete, the Y1B-17s and Y1B-17A were redesignated B-17 and B-17A, respectively, to signify the change to operational status.<ref name="Wixley p23" /> The Y1B-17A had a maximum speed of {{cvt|311|mph|kn kph}}, at its best operational altitude, compared to {{cvt|239|mph|kn kph}} for the Y1B-17. Also, the Y1B-17A's new service ceiling was more than {{convert|2|miles|m}} higher at {{convert|38000|ft|m}}, compared to the Y1B-17's {{convert|27800|ft|m}}. These turbo-superchargers were incorporated into the B-17B.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Caidin |first1=Martin |title=Flying Forts: The B-17 in World War II |date=1968 |publisher=Bantam Books |location=New York |isbn=9780553287806 |pages=80, 95–99}}</ref> | |||
], California, prior to attack on ], with framed nose glazing of the style retained through the B-17E model.]] | |||
A 14th Y1B-17 (''37-369''), originally constructed for ground testing of the airframe's strength, was upgraded and fitted with exhaust-driven turbochargers. It became the sole Y1B-17A. Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers, and its first flight was delayed until {{Nowrap|29 April}} 1938.<ref name="Donald"/> Boeing delivered the aircraft to the Army on {{Nowrap|31 January}} 1939.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p293-4"/> Once service testing was complete, the Y1B-17s and Y1B-17A were redesignated B-17 and B-17A respectively to signify the change to operational status.<ref name="Wixley p23"/> | |||
Opposition to the Air Corps' ambitions for the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-17B were ordered to equip two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast.<ref name="B-17B"/> Improved with larger flaps |
Opposition to the Air Corps' ambitions for the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-17B were ordered to equip two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast.<ref name="B-17B" /> Improved with larger flaps and rudder and a well-framed, 10 panel ] nose, the B-17Bs were delivered in five small batches between July 1939 and March 1940. In July 1940, an order for 512 B-17s was issued,<ref name="Pop1" /> but at the time of the ], fewer than 200 were in service with the army.<ref name="Meilinger" /> | ||
A total of 155 B-17s of all variants were delivered between {{nowrap|11 January}} 1937 and {{nowrap|30 November}} 1941, but production quickly accelerated, with the B-17 once holding the record for the highest production rate for any large aircraft.<ref name="Serling.p55" />{{NoteTag|Quote: "At the peak of production, Boeing was rolling out as many as 363 B-17s a month, averaging between 14 and 16 Forts a day, the most incredible production rate for large aircraft in aviation history."<ref>Serling, p. 55</ref> This production rate was, however, surpassed by that of the ]: at its peak in 1944, the ] plant alone produced one B-24 per hour and 650 B-24s per month.<ref name="Willowrun">Nolan, Jenny. {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20121204140927/http://info.detnews.com/redesign/history/story/historytemplate.cfm?id=73&category=locations |date=4 December 2012 }} ''The Detroit News'', 28 January 1997. Retrieved: 7 August 2010.</ref><!--end NoteTag-->}} The aircraft went on to serve in every World War II combat zone, and by the time production ended in May 1945, 12,731 B-17s had been built by Boeing, ], and ] (a subsidiary of ]).<ref name="Yenne.p6" /><ref>Herman, Arthur. ''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II'', pp. 292–99, 305, Random House, New York, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4000-6964-4}}.</ref><ref>Parker 2013, pp. 35, 40–48, 59, 74.</ref><ref>Borth 1945, pp. 70–71, 83, 92, 256, 268–69.</ref> | |||
Next came the order of 80 aircraft in fiscal year 1940. These materialized as 38 B-17C and 42 B-17D.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} . In early fiscal year 1941 the AAF placed two orders for the new B-17E. The first procured 277 planes follow quickly by an additional 235. The U.S. enter the war with most of the first order still undelivered. Orders for 512 B-17s were placed in July 1940.<ref name="Pop1"/> Yet prior to the ], fewer than 200 B-17s were in service with the Army.<ref name="Meilinger"/> Boeing delivered 177 B-17s of all variants between {{Nowrap|11 January}} 1937 and {{Nowrap|30 November}} 1941.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Thus ends the pre-war phase of the B-17 program. | |||
{{blockquote|Though the crash of the prototype 299 in 1935 had almost wiped out Boeing, now it was seen as a boon. Instead of building models based on experimental engineering, Boeing had been hard at work developing their bomber and now had versions ready for production far better than would have been possible otherwise. One of the most significant weapons of World War II would be ready, but only by a hair.|Jeff Ethell, 1985<ref name="Pop1" />}} | |||
== Design and variants == | |||
== Mass Production== | |||
{{Main|List of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants}} | |||
After the U.S. entered the war, production accelerated quickly. The AAF ordered 300 B-17F and Boeing delivered these between June and September, 1942. Soon 435 more followed from Boeing taking production into December. Vega and Douglas also began producing the F series in 1942. Meanwhile Boeing got an order for several thousand more Fortress. Boeing delivered 2,300 F series with Douglas and Vega combining to add over a thousand more. The pool switched over to manufacture of the G series is August and September 1943, delivering about 8,700 B-17G in total. Boeing temporarily set the record for achieving the highest production rate for large aircraft.<ref name="Serling.p55"/><ref group=N>Quote: "At the peak of production, Boeing was rolling out as many as 363 B-17s a month, averaging between 14 and 16 Forts a day, the most incredible production rate for large aircraft in aviation history." Ford eventually surpassed this production rate on the ].</ref> The aircraft went on to serve in every ] combat zone, and by the time production ended in August, 1945, a total of 12,731 aircraft had been built by Boeing, ], and ] (a subsidiary of ]).<ref name="Yenne.p6"/><ref>Herman, Arthur. ''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II,'' pp. 292–99, 305, Random House, New York, NY, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4000-6964-4.</ref><ref>Parker 2013, pp. 35, 40–48, 59, 74.</ref><ref>Borth 1945, pp. 70–71, 83, 92, 256, 268–269.</ref> | |||
{{quote|Though the crash of the prototype 299 in 1935 had almost wiped out Boeing, now it was seen as a boon. Instead of building models based on experimental engineering, Boeing had been hard at work developing their bomber and now had versions ready for production far better than would have been possible otherwise. One of the most significant weapons of World War II would be ready, but only by a hair.|Jeff Ethell, 1985<ref name="Pop1"/>}} | |||
] | |||
==Design and variants== | |||
{{Main|Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants}} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style=" |
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:center; width:25em" | ||
|+ Production numbers | |+ Production numbers | ||
! Variant |
! Variant | ||
! Produced |
! Produced | ||
! First flight | ! First flight | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Model 299 || 1 || 28 July 1935<ref name="first flight"/> | | Model 299 || style="text-align:right;| 1 || 28 July 1935<ref name="first flight" /> | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| YB-17 || 13 || 2 December 1936<ref name="Bowers Boeing p292"/> | | YB-17 || style="text-align:right;| 13 || 2 December 1936<ref name="Bowers Boeing p292" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| YB-17A || 1 || 29 April 1938 |
| YB-17A || style="text-align:right;| 1 || 29 April 1938<ref name="Donald" /> | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| B-17B || 39 || 27 June 1939<ref name="Bowers boeing p294"/> | | B-17B || style="text-align:right;| 39 || 27 June 1939<ref name="Bowers boeing p294" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B-17C || 38 || 21 July 1940<ref name="Bowers Boeing p295"/> | | B-17C || style="text-align:right;| 38 || 21 July 1940<ref name="Bowers Boeing p295" /> | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| B-17D || 42 || 3 February 1941<ref name="Swan Mil p76"/> | | B-17D || style="text-align:right;| 42 || 3 February 1941<ref name="Swan Mil p76" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B-17E || 512 || 5 September 1941<ref name="Bowers Boeing p297"/> | | B-17E || style="text-align:right;| 512 || 5 September 1941<ref name="Bowers Boeing p297" /> | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| B-17F (total) || 3,405 || 30 May 1942<ref name="Bowers Boeing p299"/><ref name="Swan Mil p78"/> | | B-17F (total) || style="text-align:right;| '''3,405''' || 30 May 1942<ref name="Bowers Boeing p299" /><ref name="Swan Mil p78" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B-17F-BO || 2,300 || <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299"/> |
| B-17F-BO || style="text-align:right;| 2,300 || <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299" /> | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| B-17F-DL || 605 || <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299"/> |
| B-17F-DL || style="text-align:right;| 605 || <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299" /> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B-17F-VE || 500 || <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299"/> |
| B-17F-VE || style="text-align:right;| 500 || <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299" /> | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| B-17G (total) || 8,680 || |
| B-17G (total) || style="text-align:right;| '''8,680''' || 16 August 1943 <!--- what is this?---<Osborne, Story, page 98/>----> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B-17G-BO || 4,035 || | | B-17G-BO || style="text-align:right;| 4,035 || | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;"|| | |- style="background:#f5faff;"|| | ||
| B-17G-DL || 2,395 || | | B-17G-DL || style="text-align:right;| 2,395 || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| B-17G-VE || 2,250 || |
| B-17G-VE || style="text-align:right;| 2,250 || | ||
|- style="background:#f5faff;" | |- style="background:#f5faff;" | ||
| |
| Total || style="text-align:right;| '''12,731''' || | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left;" font-size: 70%| |
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left;" font-size: 70%| B-17s were built at Boeing Plant 2, Seattle, Washington (BO), Lockheed-Vega, Burbank, California (VE) and Douglas Aircraft, Long Beach, California (DL)<ref>Yenne, Bill, ''B-17 at War'': p. 16; Zenith Press; 2006: {{ISBN|978-0760325223}}</ref> | ||
|} | |} | ||
The aircraft went through several alterations in each of its design stages and variants. Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd Bomb Group |
The aircraft went through several alterations in each of its design stages and variants. Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd Bomb Group at Langley Field, Virginia, to develop heavy bombing techniques, and the 13th was used for flight testing at the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio.<ref name="Y1B-17" /> Experiments on this aircraft led to the use of a quartet of General Electric turbo-superchargers, which later became standard on the B-17 line. A 14th aircraft, the YB-17A, originally destined for ground testing only and upgraded with the turbochargers,<ref name="flightinter" /> was redesignated B-17A after testing had finished.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p293-4" /><ref name="Wixley p23" /> | ||
As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon the basic design. To enhance performance at slower speeds, the B-17B was altered to include larger ]s and ].<ref name="Bowers boeing p294" /> The B-17C changed from three bulged, oval-shaped gun blisters to two flush, oval-shaped gun window openings, and on the lower fuselage, a single "bathtub" gun ] housing,<ref name="Bowers Boeing p295" /> which resembled the similarly configured and located ''Bodenlafette''/"Bola" ventral defensive emplacement on the German ]P-series medium bomber. | |||
] | |||
While models A through D of the B-17 were designed defensively, the large-tailed B-17E was the first model primarily focused on offensive warfare.<ref name="flightinter" /> The B-17E was an extensive revision of the Model 299 design: The fuselage was extended by {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}}; a much larger rear fuselage, vertical tailfin, rudder, and horizontal stabilizer were added; ];{{NoteTag| During the crash investigation of ], it was found that two B-17s had already spun from lack of directional stability. British combat experience with the B-17 was also showing the need for a tail gunner. Boeing was not willing to add a turret because they did not want to disrupt the clean aerodynamics. The inadequate directional stability exposed by two spin incidents and a crash, brought about a redesigned vertical stabilizer and dorsal fin. A compromise for the tail turret resulted in handheld tail guns. The combination created a successful design. Not only were defensive needs solved, but the improved lateral stability made precision high altitude bombing possible.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/tag/boeing-model-307-stratoliner/ |title=Boeing Model 307 Stratoliner |website=Archives – This Day in Aviation |access-date=2021-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b17queenofthesky.com/variants/prototype.php?id=10&tle=B-17E |website=B-17 Queen of the Sky |title=B-17E page |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621212650/http://b17queenofthesky.com/variants/prototype.php?id=10&tle=B-17E |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} the nose (especially the bombardier's framed, 10-panel nose glazing) remained relatively the same as the earlier B through D versions had; a ] electrically powered manned dorsal ] just behind the cockpit was added; a similarly powered (also built by Sperry) manned ventral ] just aft of the bomb bay – replaced the relatively hard-to-use, Sperry model 645705-D<ref>B-17 Erection and Maintenance Manual 01-20EE-2</ref> remotely operated ventral turret on the earliest examples of the E variant. These modifications resulted in a 20% increase in aircraft weight.<ref name="flightinter" /> The B-17's ] ] Cyclone 9 engines were upgraded to increasingly more powerful versions of the same powerplants throughout its production, and similarly, the number of machine gun emplacement locations was increased.<ref name="WoF p56-7" /> | |||
As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon the basic design. To enhance performance at slower speeds, the B-17B was altered to include larger ] and ].<ref name="Bowers boeing p294"/> The B-17C changed from three bulged, oval shaped machine gun blisters to two flush, oval-shaped machine gun window openings and a single "bathtub" machine gun housing on the lower fuselage,<ref name="Bowers Boeing p295"/> that resembled the similarly configured and located ventral defensive emplacement on the German ]P-series medium bomber. Models ''A'' through ''D'' of the B-17 were designed defensively, while the large-tailed B-17E was the first model primarily focused on offensive warfare.<ref name="flightinter"/> | |||
] | |||
The B-17E was an extensive revision of the Model 299 design: The fuselage was extended by {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}}; a much larger rear fuselage, vertical tail fin, rudder, and horizontal stabilizer were added to the design; a gunner's position was added in the new tail; the nose (especially the bombardier's well-framed nose glazing) remained relatively the same as the earlier -B through -D versions had, but with the addition of a ] electrically powered manned dorsal ] just behind the cockpit, and the similarly powered (also built by Sperry) manned ventral ] just aft of the bomb bay – replacing a relatively hard-to-use, Sperry-designed remotely operated ventral turret on the earliest examples of the -E variant. (Note that the A-10 Type K turret used in the B-24 and B-25 was periscopically sighted from above the turret and would not have required the remote sighting blister of the early B-17E. The often cited reference to the Bendix is one of the most persistent B-17 misconceptions. A modified version of the A-10 was used in the chin of some Fortresses.) The cummulative B-17E improvements resulted in a 20% increase in aircraft weight.<ref name="flightinter"/> The B-17's ] ] ''Cyclone 9'' engines were upgraded to increasingly more powerful versions of the same powerplants multiple times throughout its production, and similarly, the number of machine gun emplacement locations were increased to enhance their aircraft's combat effectiveness.<ref name="WoF p56-7"/> | |||
The B-17F variant was the primary version used by the Eighth Air Force to face the Germans in 1943, and standardized the manned Sperry ball turret for ventral defense, also replacing the earlier, 10-panel framed bombardier's nose glazing from the B subtype with an enlarged, nearly frameless Plexiglas bombardier's nose enclosure for improved forward vision. | |||
Two experimental versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations, the ] and the ].' The XB-38 was an engine testbed for ] liquid-cooled engines, should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable. The only prototype XB-38 to fly crashed on its ninth flight, and the concept was abandoned. The Allison V-1710 was reallocated to fighter aircraft.<ref name="Francillon Lock p213-5" /><ref name="WoF p66" /> | |||
The B-17F series was the first version produced at all three BVD sources (i.e. Boeing, Vega and Douglas), and the unlike earlier marks, production was divided into distinct production blocks. Delivered from June 1942, it was the first B-17 version introduced after the U.S. entered WWII It standardized on the manned Sperry ball turret for ventral defense and introduced an enlongated, nearly frameless Plexiglas bombardier's nose enclosure that much improved forward visibility. Beginning in late 1942, until the advent of the G series in late 1943, the F series was deployed to Europe and to the Pacific (See Operational History.) | |||
The ] was a heavily armed modification of the standard B-17 used before the ], an effective long-range fighter, became available to act as escort. Additional armament included an additional dorsal turret in the radio room, a remotely operated and fired Bendix-built "chin turret" directly below the bombardier's accommodation, and twin 50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns in each of the waist positions. The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds. All of these modifications made the YB-40 well over {{convert|10000|lb|abbr=on}} heavier than a fully loaded B-17F. The YB-40s with their greater weight, had trouble keeping up with the lighter bombers once they had dropped their bombs, so the project was abandoned and finally phased out in July 1943.<ref name="WoF 62-3,5" /><ref name="Francillon Lock p212" /><ref name="Bowers Boeing p307-8" /> The final production blocks of the B-17F from Douglas' plants did, however, adopt the YB-40's "chin turret", giving them a much-improved forward defense capability.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b17queenofthesky.com/variants/prototype.php?id=12&tle=B-17F |title=B17 – Queen of the Sky – The B-17F |last=Lyman |first=Troy |date=12 May 2003 |website=Troy Lyman's B-17 Flying Fortress Site |access-date=24 June 2014 |archive-date=9 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809192902/http://b17queenofthesky.com/variants/prototype.php?id=12&tle=B-17F |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
] | |||
By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to 13, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were completed. The B-17G was the final version of the Flying Fortress, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F,<ref name="flightinter" /> and in total, 8,680 were built,<ref name="WoF p63-4" /> the last (by Lockheed) on {{Nowrap|28 July}} 1945.<ref name="Francillon Lock p211" /> Many B-17Gs were converted for other missions such as cargo hauling, engine testing, and ].<ref name="Bowers Boeing p286-7" /> Initially designated SB-17G, a number of B-17Gs were also converted for search-and-rescue duties, later to be redesignated B-17H.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p303-4" /> | |||
Two experimental versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations, the ] and the ]. The XB-38 was an engine testbed for ] liquid-cooled engines, should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable. The only prototype XB-38 to fly crashed on its ninth flight and the type was abandoned, the V-1710 being kept for fighters.<ref name="Francillon Lock p213-5"/><ref name="WoF p66"/> | |||
Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls and television cameras, loaded with {{convert|20000|lb|abbr=on}} of high explosives and designated BQ-7 "Aphrodite missiles" for ] against bombing-resistant German bunkers. The operation, which involved remotely flying the Aphrodite drones onto their targets by accompanying CQ-17 "mothership" control aircraft, was approved on {{nowrap|26 June}} 1944, and assigned to the ] stationed at ], a satellite of ].<ref name="Ramsey" /> | |||
The YB-40 was a heavily armed modification of the standard B-17 used before the ], an effective long-range fighter, became available to act as escort. Additional armament included an additional dorsal turret in the radio room, a remotely operated and fired Bendix A-10 "chin turret" and twin {{convert|.50|in|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} guns in each of the waist positions. The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds. All of these modifications made the YB-40 well over {{convert|10000|lb|abbr=on}} heavier than a fully loaded B-17F. The YB-40s with their numerous heavy modifications had trouble keeping up with the lighter bombers once they had dropped their bombs, and so the project was abandoned and finally phased out in July 1943,<ref name="WoF 62-3,5"/><ref name="Francillon Lock p212"/><ref name="Bowers Boeing p307-8"/> The YB-40 contributed to the inclusion of modified A-10 chin turrets in Vega B-17F from the United modification center during June and July 1943 in advance of the August production Douglas installation of the new Bendix A-16 remotely operated "chin turret" for a much-improved forward defensive weapons. | |||
The first four drones were sent to ] (V-3 site), the ], and the V-2 ] at Watten, and ] at Wizernes on 4 August, causing little damage and two pilots were killed. On August 12, a ], part of the ]'s contribution ("Project Anvil"), en route for ] piloted by Lieutenant ] (future U.S. president ]'s elder brother) exploded over the ]. Blast damage was caused over a radius of {{convert|5|mi}}. Naval flights stopped but a few more missions were flown by the USAAF. The Aphrodite project was effectively scrapped in early 1945.<ref name="Ramsey">Ramsey, Winston G. "The V-Weapons". London: ''After the Battle'', Number 6, 1974, pp. 20–21.</ref> | |||
] | |||
== Operational history == | |||
By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to thirteen, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were completed. The B-17G was the final version of the Flying Fortress, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F,<ref name="flightinter"/> adopting the remotely operated "chin turret" for forward defense from the YB-40 "gunship" version, and in total 8,680 were built,<ref name="WoF p63-4"/> the last one (by Lockheed) on {{Nowrap|28 July}} 1945.<ref name="Francillon Lock p211"/> Many B-17Gs were converted for other missions such as cargo hauling, engine testing and ].<ref name="Bowers Boeing p286-7"/> Initially designated SB-17G, a number of B-17Gs were also converted for search-and-rescue duties, later to be redesignated B-17H.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p303-4"/> | |||
] | |||
The B-17 began operations in World War II with the ] (RAF) in 1941, and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army. | |||
] | |||
During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide.<ref name="Baugher Squads" /> The British heavy bombers, the ] and ], dropped {{cvt|608612|LT|ST t}} and {{cvt|224207|LT|ST t}} <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafbramptonwytonhenlow/aboutus/handleypagehalifax.cfm|title=Handley Page Halifax|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530210057/http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafbramptonwytonhenlow/aboutus/handleypagehalifax.cfm|archive-date=30 May 2008|website=RAF.mod.uk|access-date=4 October 2019}}</ref> respectively. | |||
Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls and television cameras, loaded with {{convert|20000|lb|abbr=on}} of high-explosives and dubbed BQ-7 "Aphrodite missiles" for ]. The operation, which involved remotely flying Aphrodite drones onto their targets by accompanying CQ-17 "mothership" control aircraft, was approved on {{nowrap|26 June}} 1944, and assigned to the ] stationed at ], a satellite of ].<ref name="Ramsey"/> | |||
=== RAF use === | |||
The first four drones were sent to ], the ], ] and ] on 4 August, causing little damage. The project came to a sudden end with the unexplained mid-air explosion over the ] estuary of a ], part of the ]'s contribution as "Project Anvil", en route for ] piloted by Lieutenant ], future U.S. president ]'s elder brother. Blast damage was caused over a radius of {{convert|5|mi}}. British authorities were anxious that no similar accidents should again occur, and the Aphrodite project was scrapped in early 1945.<ref name="Ramsey">Ramsey, Winston G. "The V-Weapons". London: ''After the Battle'', Number 6, 1974, p. 21.</ref> | |||
] ''AN529'', with ]-style "bathtub" ventral ]]] | |||
The RAF entered World War II without a sufficient supply of modern heavy bombers, with the largest available long-range medium bombers in any numbers being the ], which could carry {{convert|4500|lb}} of bombs.<ref name="Andrews & Morgan p340">Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 340.</ref> While the ] and ] became its primary bombers by 1941, in early 1940, the RAF agreed with the U.S. Army Air Corps to acquire 20 B-17Cs, which were given the ] Fortress Mk.I. Their first operation, against ] on {{Nowrap|8 July}} 1941 was unsuccessful.<ref name="Yenne.p23" /><ref name="Chant" /> On {{Nowrap|24 July}} three B-17s of ] took part in a ] and ] anchored in ] from {{cvt|30000|ft}}, to draw German fighters away from 18 ]s attacking at lower altitudes, and in time for 79 Vickers Wellingtons to attack later with the German fighters refueling. The operation did not work as expected, with 90 Squadron's Fortresses being unopposed.<ref name="Chorlton p38">Chorlton ''Aeroplane'' January 2013, p. 38.</ref><ref name="hardest p122-3">Richards 1995, pp. 122–23.</ref>{{sfn|Garzke|Dulin|1985|pp=159–60}} | |||
By September, the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat and had experienced numerous mechanical problems,<ref group=Note>problems the RAF found included the tendency to burn when hit, icing problems, crew fatigue due to altitude, oxygen system failures</ref> and ] abandoned daylight bombing raids using the Fortress I because of the aircraft's poor performance. The experience showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads, and more accurate bombing methods were required. However, the USAAF continued using the B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings by the RAF that attempts at daylight bombing would be ineffective.<ref name="Weigley.338" /> | |||
==Operational history== | |||
] fly a bombing run to ], Germany, on 13 April 1945. On 8 May, Germany surrendered, and ] was declared.]] | |||
The B-17 began operations in ] with the ] (RAF) in 1941 (but was not successful), and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army. The 19th Bombardment Group had deployed to Clark Field in the Philippines a few weeks before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor as the first of a planned heavy bomber buildup in the Pacific. Half of the group's B-17s were wiped out on 8 December 1941 when they were caught on the ground during refueling and rearming for a planned attack on Japanese airfields on Formosa. The small force of B-17s operated against the Japanese invasion force until they were withdrawn to Darwin, in Australia's Northern Territory. In early 1942, the 7th Bombardment Group began arriving in Java with a mixed force of B-17s and LB-30/B-24s.<ref name="Edmonds">Edmonds, Walter. ''They Fought With They Had''. 1951, pp. 1–314.{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> A squadron of B-17 from this force detached to the Middle East to join the First Provisional Bombardment Group thus becoming the first American B-17 squadron to go to war against the Germans.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} After the defeat in Java, the 19th withdrew to Australia where it continued in combat until it was sent back home by Gen. George C. Kenney when he arrived in Australia in mid-1942.<ref>Kenney, George C. ''General Kenney Reports.'' New York: Duell, Sloan and Pierce, 1949.</ref> In July 1942, the first USAAF B-17s were sent to England to join ]. Later that year two groups moved to Algeria to join Twelfth Air Force for operations in North Africa. The B-17s were primarily involved in the daylight precision ] campaign against German targets ranging from U-boat pens, docks, warehouses and airfields to industrial targets such as aircraft factories.<ref name="Cravens, Wesley 1956">Cravens, Wesley ''Army Air Forces in WW II.'' Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1956.</ref> In ] in preparation for the invasion of France, B-17 and B-24 raids were directed against German aircraft production while their presence drew the ''Luftwaffe'' fighters into battle with Allied fighters.<ref name="Carey Pointblank"/> | |||
As use by Bomber Command had been curtailed, the RAF transferred its remaining Fortress Mk.I aircraft to ] for use as a long-range maritime patrol aircraft.<ref name="Stitt 1" /> These were augmented starting in July 1942 by 45 Fortress Mk.IIA (B-17E) followed by 19 Fortress Mk II (B-17F) and three Fortress Mk III (B-17G). A Fortress IIA from ] sank ] on {{Nowrap|27 October}} 1942, the first of 11 U-boat kills credited to RAF Fortress bombers during the war.<ref name="Wynn.93" /> | |||
Early models proved to be unsuitable for combat use over Europe and it was the B-17E that was first successfully used by the USAAF. The defense expected from bombers operating in close formation alone did not prove effective and the bombers needed fighter escorts to operate successfully. | |||
As sufficient Consolidated Liberators finally became available, Coastal Command withdrew the Fortress from the Azores, transferring the type to the meteorological reconnaissance role. Three squadrons undertook Met profiles from airfields in Iceland, Scotland, and England, gathering data for vital weather forecasting purposes. | |||
During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide.<ref name="Baugher Squads"/> B-17s dropped {{convert|640036|short ton|metric ton|lk=in}} of bombs on European targets (compared to {{convert|452508|short ton|metric ton|abbr=on}} dropped by the Liberator and {{convert|463544|short ton|metric ton|abbr=on}} dropped by all other U.S. aircraft).{{Clarify|is this a summary of data further on in this section? should it have a reference here?|date=June 2010}} The British heavy bombers, the ] and ], dropped 608,612 long tons (681,645 short tons) and 224,207 long tons (251,112 short tons) <ref> ''The Pathfinder Museum'' via ''raf.mod.uk.'' Retrieved: 1 July 2011.</ref> respectively. | |||
The RAF's ], as part of ], operated several Fortresses equipped with an electronic warfare system known as "]" (ABC). This was operated by German-speaking radio operators to identify and jam German ground controllers' broadcasts to their ]s. They could also pose as ground controllers themselves to steer nightfighters away from the ]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/news/2007/12/13/db1301.xml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214211240/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=%2Fnews%2F2007%2F12%2F13%2Fdb1301.xml|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 December 2007|title=Obituaries: John Hereford|newspaper=]|date=13 December 2007|access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref> | |||
===RAF use=== | |||
]'', with ]-style "bathtub" ventral ].]] | |||
The ] entered World War II with no heavy bomber of its own in service; the biggest available were long-range medium bombers such as the ] which could carry up to {{convert|4500|lb|kg}} of bombs.<ref name="Andrews & Morgan p340"/> While the ] and ] would become its primary bombers by 1941, in early 1940 the RAF entered into an agreement with the U.S. Army Air Corps to be provided with 20 B-17Cs, which were given the ] Fortress I. Their first operation, against ] on {{Nowrap|8 July}} 1941 was unsuccessful;<ref name="Yenne.p23"/><ref name="Chant"/> on {{Nowrap|24 July}}, the target was ], but again the bombers missed completely. | |||
=== Initial USAAF operations over Europe === | |||
By September, after the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat or to accidents and many instances of aborts due to mechanical problems, ] abandoned daylight bombing raids using the Fortress I because of the aircraft's poor performance. The experience showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads and more accurate bombing methods were required. However the USAAF continued using the B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings by the RAF that attempts at daylight bombing would be ineffective.<ref name="Weigley.338"/> | |||
] | |||
The air corps – renamed ] (USAAF) on 20 June 1941 – used the B-17 and other bombers to bomb from high altitudes with the aid of the then-secret ], known as the "Blue Ox",<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/second-generation-norden-bombsight-vault.htm |title=Second-Generation Norden Bombsight Vault |work=] |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref><ref>"Blue Ox." ''National Geographic Magazine'', Vol. LXXXIII, Number One, January 1943, p. 7, Ad(i).</ref> which was an optical electromechanical gyrostabilized ].<ref>Peterson, Paul. ''Ludington Daily News'', 16 April 1994, p. 1.</ref> The device was able to determine, from variables put in by the bombardier, the point at which the bombs should be released to hit the target. The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level altitude during the final moments before release.<ref name="Baugher B-17B" /> | |||
As usage by Bomber Command had been curtailed, the RAF transferred its remaining Fortress I aircraft to ] for use as a long-range maritime patrol aircraft instead.<ref name="Stitt 1"/> These were later augmented in August 1942 by 19 Fortress Mk II (B-17F) and 45 Fortress Mk IIA (B-17E). A Fortress from ] sank ] on {{Nowrap|27 October}} 1942, the first of 11 U-boat kills credited to RAF Fortress bombers during the war.<ref name="Wynn.93"/> | |||
The USAAF began building up its air forces in Europe using B-17Es soon after entering the war. The first ] units arrived in ], on {{Nowrap|12 May}} 1942, to form the 97th Bomb Group.<ref name="Northstar" /> On {{Nowrap|17 August}} 1942, 12 B-17Es of the 97th, with the lead aircraft piloted by Major ] and carrying ] ] as an observer, were close escorted by four squadrons of RAF ] (and a further five squadrons of Spitfire Vs to cover the withdrawal) on the first USAAF heavy bomber raid over Europe, against the large railroad ] at ]-Sotteville in France, while a further six aircraft flew a diversionary raid along the French coast.<ref name="WoF p59-0" /><ref name="AAF combat" /> The operation, carried out in good visibility, was a success, with only minor damage to one aircraft, unrelated to enemy action, and half the bombs landing in the target area.<ref>{{citation |chapter-url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/I/AAF-I-18.html |chapter=Chapter 18: Rouen-Sotteville, No. 1, 17 August 1942 |volume=I: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942 |pages=662–63 |date=1975 |orig-date=1948 |first=Arthur B. |last=Ferguson |editor-last1=Craven |editor-first1=W F |editor-last2=Cate |editor-first2= J L |title= ] |via=Hyperwar Foundation }}</ref> | |||
The RAF's ], as part of ], operated a number of Fortresses equipped with an electronic warfare system known as "Airborne Cigar" (ABC). This was operated by German–speaking radio operators who would identify and jam German ground controllers' broadcasts to their ]s. They could also pose as ground controllers themselves with the intention of steering nightfighters away from the ]s.<ref> '']'', 13 December 2007.</ref> | |||
Two additional groups arrived in Britain at the same time, bringing with them the first B-17Fs, which served as the primary AAF heavy bomber fighting the Germans until September 1943. As the raids of the American bombing campaign grew in numbers and frequency, German interception efforts grew in strength (such as during the attempted bombing of Kiel on 13 June 1943<ref name="Bowman.7" />), such that unescorted bombing missions came to be discouraged.<ref name="Weigley 339" /> | |||
] training to ferry B-17 aircraft. Left to right are Frances Green, Marget Kirchner, Ann Waldner and Blanche Osborn.]] | |||
=== Combined offensive === | |||
==AAF doctrine== | |||
], Germany, {{Nowrap|17 August}} 1943]] | |||
] (USAAF), using the B-17 and other bombers, bombed from high altitudes using the then-secret ], known as the "Blue Ox",<ref></ref><ref>"Blue Ox." ''National Geographic Magazine'', Vol. LXXXIII, Number One, January 1943, p. 7, Ad(i).</ref> which was an optical electro-mechanical gyro-stabilized ].<ref>Peterson, Paul. ''Ludington Daily News'', 16 April 1994, p. 1.</ref> The device was able to determine, from variables input by the bombardier, the point at which the aircraft's bombs should be released to hit the target. The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level altitude during the final moments before release.<ref name="Baugher B-17B"/> | |||
The two different strategies of the American and British bomber commands were organized at the ] in January 1943. The resulting "]" weakened the ], destroyed German morale, and established air superiority through ]'s destruction of German fighter strength in preparation for a ground offensive.<ref name="Carey Pointblank" /> The USAAF bombers attacked by day, with British operations – chiefly against industrial cities – by night.<ref>{{Cite web|last=November 1998|first=Brian Todd Carey|date=2006-06-12|title=How Allied Air Attacks Evolved During World War II|url=https://www.historynet.com/how-allied-air-attacks-evolved-during-world-war-ii.htm|access-date=2021-03-24|website=HistoryNet|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
===Initial USAAF operations over Europe=== | |||
Following Project X and Brereton establishing the First Provisional Bomb Group in the Middle East as a composite force of B-17 and B-24, the AAF began Bolero, the building up its air forces in Europe. The first ] unit to arrived in ], on {{Nowrap|12 May}} 1942, with B-17E was the 97th Bomb Group.<ref name="Northstar"/> On {{Nowrap|17 August}} 1942, 12 B-17Es of the 97th, with the lead aircraft piloted by Major ] and carrying ] ] as an observer, were escorted by four squadrons of RAF ] (and a further five squadrons to cover the withdrawal) on the first USAAF heavy bomber raid over Europe, against railroad ] at ]-Sotteville in France, while a further six aircraft flew a diversionary raid along the French coast.<ref name="WoF p59-0"/><ref name="AAF combat"/> The operation was a success, with only minor damage to two aircraft and half the bombs landing in the target area. The raid helped assuage British doubts about the capabilities of American heavy bombers in operations over Europe.<ref>''The Army Air Forces in WWII'' p662-663</ref> | |||
Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe. General ] and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories, and ball-bearing manufacturers.<ref name="Carey Pointblank" /> Attacks began in April 1943 on heavily fortified key industrial plants in ] and ].<ref name="Bowman.8" /> | |||
As the raids of the American bombing campaign grew in numbers and frequency, German interception efforts grew in strength (such as during the attempted bombing of Kiel on 13 June 1943<ref name="Bowman.7"/>), such that unescorted bombing missions came to be discouraged.<ref name="Weigley 339"/> | |||
Since the airfield bombings were not appreciably reducing German fighter strength, additional B-17 groups were formed, and Eaker ordered major missions deeper into Germany against important industrial targets. The 8th Air Force then targeted the ball-bearing factories in ], hoping to cripple the war effort there. The ] on {{Nowrap|17 August}} 1943 did not result in critical damage to the factories, with the 230 attacking B-17s being intercepted by an estimated 300 Luftwaffe fighters. The Germans shot down 36 aircraft with the loss of 200 men, and coupled with a raid earlier in the day against ], a total of 60 B-17s were lost that day.<ref name="Hess.pp59-60" /> | |||
===Combined offensive=== | |||
The two different strategies of the American and British bomber commands were organized at the ] in January 1943. The resulting "]" would weaken the '']'', destroy German morale and establish air superiority through ]'s destruction of German fighter strength in preparation of a ground offensive.<ref name="Carey Pointblank"/> The USAAF bombers would attack by day, with British operations – chiefly against industrial cities – by night. | |||
A second attempt on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 later came to be known as "]".<ref name="Hess.pp65-67" /> While the attack was successful at disrupting the entire works, severely curtailing work there for the remainder of the war, it was at an extreme cost.<ref name="Bowman.22" /> Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 60 were shot down over Germany, five crashed on approach to Britain, and 12 more were scrapped due to damage – a loss of 77 B-17s.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> Additionally, 122 bombers were damaged and needed repairs before their next flights. Of 2,900 men in the crews, about 650 did not return, although some survived as ]. Only 33 bombers landed without damage. These losses were a result of concentrated attacks by over 300 German fighters.<ref name="Hess.p64" /> | |||
], Germany, {{Nowrap|17 August}} 1943]] | |||
] bombing through clouds: ], Germany, on {{Nowrap|13 November}} 1943.]] | |||
] | |||
Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe. General ] and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories and ball-bearing manufacturers.<ref name="Carey Pointblank"/> Attacks began in April 1943 on heavily fortified key industrial plants in ] and ].<ref name="Bowman.8"/> | |||
Such high losses of aircrews could not be sustained, and the USAAF, recognizing the vulnerability of heavy bombers to interceptors when operating alone, suspended daylight bomber raids deep into Germany until the development of an escort fighter that could protect the bombers all the way from the United Kingdom to Germany and back. At the same time, the German nightfighting ability noticeably improved to counter the nighttime strikes, challenging the conventional faith in the cover of darkness.<ref name="Weigley.341" /> The 8th Air Force alone lost 176 bombers in October 1943,<ref name="Hess.p67" /> and was to suffer similar casualties on {{Nowrap|11 January}} 1944 on missions to ], ], and ]. ] ], commander of the 8th, had ordered the second Schweinfurt mission to be cancelled as the weather deteriorated, but the lead units had already entered hostile air space and continued with the mission. Most of the escorts turned back or missed the rendezvous, and as a result, 60 B-17s were destroyed.<ref name="Hess.69-71" /><ref name="C&W.151" /> | |||
Since the airfield bombings were not appreciably reducing German fighter strength, additional B-17 groups were formed, and Eaker ordered major missions deeper into Germany against important industrial targets. The 8th Air Force then targeted the ball-bearing factories in ], hoping to cripple the war effort there. The ] on {{Nowrap|17 August}} 1943 did not result in critical damage to the factories, with the 230 attacking B-17s being intercepted by an estimated 300 ''Luftwaffe'' fighters. The Germans shot down 36 aircraft with the loss of 200 men, and coupled with a raid earlier in the day against ], a total of 60 B-17s were lost that day.<ref name="Hess.pp59-60"/> | |||
A third raid on Schweinfurt on {{Nowrap|24 February}} 1944 highlighted what came to be known as "]",<ref name="Weigley.340-1" /> during which the bombing missions were directed against German aircraft production.<ref name="Weigley.341" /> German fighters needed to respond, and the ] and ] fighters (equipped with improved ]s to extend their range) accompanying the American heavies all the way to and from the targets engaged them.<ref name="Weigley.342" /> The escort fighters reduced the loss rate to below 7%, with a total of 247 B-17s lost in 3,500 ]s while taking part in the Big Week raids.<ref name="C&W.162" /> | |||
A second attempt on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 would later come to be known as "]".<ref name=Hess.pp65-67/> While the attack was successful at disrupting the entire works, severely curtailing work there for the remainder of the war, it was at an extreme cost.<ref name="Bowman.22"/> Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 60 were shot down over Germany, five crashed on approach to Britain, and 12 more were scrapped due to damage – a total loss of 77 B-17s.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> A total of 122 bombers were damaged and needed repairs before their next flight. Out of 2,900 men in the crews, about 650 men did not return, although some survived as ]. Only 33 bombers landed without damage. These losses were a result of concentrated attacks by over 300 German fighters.<ref name="Hess.p64"/> | |||
By September 1944, 27 of the 42 bomb groups of the 8th Air Force and six of the 21 groups of the ] used B-17s. Losses to ] continued to take a high toll of heavy bombers through 1944, but the war in Europe was being won by the Allies. And by {{Nowrap|27 April}} 1945, 2 days after the last heavy bombing mission in Europe, the rate of aircraft loss was so low that replacement aircraft were no longer arriving and the number of bombers per bomb group was reduced. The Combined Bomber Offensive was effectively complete.<ref name="USAAF.04-45" /> | |||
As the bombing raids ranged deeper into Germany the need for full escort coverage of penetration and withdrawal become acute. The Eighth Air Force scaled back the deep penetrations for a period in late 1943 until escort relays were perfected and sizable defensive bomber formation could be sustained. | |||
=== Pacific Theater === | |||
] | |||
]: An onboard fire burnt the aircraft in two shortly after landing on {{Nowrap|7 December}} 1941. One crewman was killed by a Zero attack.<ref name="A&K.1" />]] | |||
On 7 December 1941, a group of 12 B-17s of the 38th (four B-17C) and 88th (eight B-17E) Reconnaissance Squadrons, en route to reinforce the Philippines, was flown into Pearl Harbor from ], arriving while the surprise ] was going on. Leonard "Smitty" Smith Humiston, co-pilot on ] Robert H. Richards' B-17C, AAF S/N ''40-2049'', reported that he thought the U.S. Navy was giving the flight a 21-gun salute to celebrate the arrival of the bombers, after which he realized that Pearl Harbor was under attack. The Fortress came under fire from Japanese fighter aircraft, though the crew was unharmed with the exception of one member who suffered an abrasion on his hand. Japanese activity forced them to divert from ] to ]. On landing, the aircraft overran the runway and ran into a ditch, where it was then strafed. Although initially deemed repairable, ''40-2049'' (11th BG / 38th RS) received more than 200 bullet holes and never flew again. Ten of the 12 Fortresses survived the attack.<ref name="A&K.2" /> | |||
Such high losses of air crews could not be sustained, and the USAAF, recognizing the vulnerability of heavy bombers to interceptors when operating alone, suspended daylight bomber raids deep into Germany until the development of an escort fighter that could protect the bombers all the way from the United Kingdom to Germany and back. At the same time, the German night fighting ability noticeably improved to counter the nighttime strikes, challenging the conventional faith in the cover of darkness.<ref name="Weigley.341"/> The ] alone lost 176 bombers in October 1943,<ref name="Hess.p67"/> and was to suffer similar casualties on {{Nowrap|11 January}} 1944 on missions to ], ] and ]. ] ], commander of the Eighth, had ordered the second Schweinfurt mission to be cancelled as the weather deteriorated, but the lead units had already entered hostile air space and continued with the mission. Most of the escorts turned back or missed the rendezvous, and as a result 60 B-17s were destroyed.<ref name="Hess.69-71"/><ref name="C&W.151"/> A third raid on Schweinfurt on {{Nowrap|24 February}} 1944 highlighted what came to be known as "]",<ref name="Weigley.340-1"/> during which the bombing missions were directed against German aircraft production.<ref name="Weigley.341"/> German fighters would have to respond, and the ] and ] fighters (equipped with improved ]s to extend their range) accompanying the American heavies all the way to and from the targets would engage them.<ref name="Weigley.342"/> The escort fighters reduced the loss rate to below seven percent, with only 247 B-17s lost in 3,500 ]s while taking part in the Big Week raids.<ref name="C&W.162"/> | |||
By 1941, the ] (FEAF) based at ] in the Philippines had 35 B-17s, with the War Department eventually planning to raise that to 165.<ref name="bloody p55-6" /> When the FEAF received word of the attack on Pearl Harbor, ] ] sent his bombers and fighters on various patrol missions to prevent them from being caught on the ground. Brereton planned B-17 raids on Japanese airfields in ], in accordance with ] war plan directives, but this was overruled by General Douglas MacArthur.<ref name="Bloody p163" /> A series of ], followed by several confusing and false reports of air attacks, delayed the authorization of the sortie. By the time the B-17s and escorting ] fighters were about to get airborne, they were destroyed by Japanese bombers of the ]. The FEAF lost half its aircraft during the first strike,<ref name="Bloody p166-7" /> and was all but destroyed over the next few days.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} | |||
By September 1944, 27 of the 42 bomb groups of the Eighth Air Force and six of the 21 groups of the ] used B-17s. Losses to ] continued to take a high toll of heavy bombers through 1944, but by {{Nowrap|27 April}} 1945 (two days after the last heavy bombing mission in Europe), the rate of aircraft loss was so low that replacement aircraft were no longer arriving and the number of bombers per bomb group was reduced. The Combined Bomber Offensive was effectively complete.<ref name="USAAF.04-45"/> | |||
Another early World War II Pacific engagement, on {{Nowrap|10 December}} 1941, involved ], who reportedly crashed his B-17 into the ], which was later acknowledged as a near bomb miss on the ]. Nonetheless, this deed made him a celebrated ]. Kelly's B-17C AAF S/N ''40-2045'' (19th BG / 30th BS) crashed about {{convert|6|mi|km|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} from Clark Field after he held the burning Fortress steady long enough for the surviving crew to bail out. Kelly was posthumously awarded the ].<ref name="Sal.p64" /> | |||
===Pacific Theater=== | |||
Noted Japanese ace ] is credited with this kill, and in the process, came to respect the ability of the Fortress to absorb punishment.<ref name="Sakai" /> | |||
]. An onboard fire burnt the aircraft in two shortly after landing on {{Nowrap|7 December}} 1941. One crewman was killed by Zero attack.<ref name="A&K.1"/>]] | |||
] | |||
On 7 December 1941, a group of 12 B-17s of the 38th (four B-17C) and 88th (eight B-17E) Reconnaissance Squadrons, en route to reinforce the Philippines, were flown into Pearl Harbor from ], ], arriving during the ]. Leonard "Smitty" Smith Humiston, co-pilot on ] Robert H. Richards' B-17C, AAF S/N ''40-2049'', reported that he thought the U.S. Navy was giving the flight a 21-gun salute to celebrate the arrival of the bombers, after which he realized that Pearl Harbor was under attack. The Fortress came under fire from Japanese fighter aircraft, though the crew was unharmed with the exception of one member who suffered an abrasion on his hand. Enemy activity forced an abort from ] to ], where the aircraft overran the runway and into a ditch where it was then strafed. Although initially deemed repairable, ''40-2049'' (11th BG / 38th RS) received more than 200 bullet holes and never flew again. Ten of the 12 Fortresses survived the attack.<ref name="A&K.2"/> | |||
B-17s were used in early battles of the Pacific with little success, notably the ]<ref name="WoF p96" /> and ].<ref name="Sword p180,329" /> While there, the ] B-17s were tasked with disrupting the Japanese sea lanes. Air Corps doctrine dictated bombing runs from high altitude, but they soon found only 1% of their bombs hit targets. However, B-17s were operating at heights too great for most ] fighters to reach. | |||
] | |||
The B-17's greatest success in the Pacific was in the ], in which aircraft of this type were responsible for damaging and sinking several Japanese transport ships. On 2 March 1943, six B-17s of the 64th Squadron flying at {{convert|10000|ft|m|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} attacked a major Japanese troop convoy off ], using ] to sink {{ship|SS|Kyokusei Maru||2}}, which carried 1,200 army troops, and damage two other transports, ''Teiyo Maru'' and ''Nojima''. On 3 March 1943, 13 B-17s flying at {{convert|7000|ft|m|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} bombed the convoy, forcing the convoy to disperse and reducing the concentration of their anti-aircraft defenses. The B-17s attracted a number of ] fighters, which were in turn attacked by the P-38 Lightning escorts. One B-17 broke up in the air, and its crew was forced to take to their parachutes. Japanese fighter pilots machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew members as they descended and attacked others in the water after they landed.<ref name="Gillison, pp. 692-693">], pp. 692–93</ref> Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings, though these were also then lost.<ref name="historynet">{{cite journal |url=http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-the-bismarck-sea.htm |title=Battle of the Bismarck Sea |first=Lawrence |last=Spinetta |date=November 2007 |journal=World War II |issn=0898-4204|access-date=2 August 2013}}</ref> The allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed, while the B-17 crews claimed five more.<ref name="Gillison, pp. 692-693"/><ref name="Watson, pp. 144-145">], pp. 144–45</ref> Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged.<ref name="Gamble 2010 313">], pp. 313</ref><ref name="awm" /> The remaining seven transports and three of the eight destroyers were then sunk by a combination of low level strafing runs by ] ], and skip bombing by USAAF ]s at {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}}, while B-17s claimed five hits from higher altitudes.<ref name="Frisbee" /> On the morning of 4 March 1943, a B-17 sank the destroyer ''Asashio'' with a {{convert|500|lb|kg|abbr=on}} bomb while she was picking up survivors from ''Arashio''.<ref>{{harvnb|Morison|1950|p=61}}</ref> | |||
By 1941, the ] (FEAF) based at ] in the Philippines had 35 B-17s, with the War Department eventually planning to raise that to 165.<ref name="bloody p55-6"/> When the FEAF received word of the attack on Pearl Harbor, ] ] sent his bombers and fighters on various patrol missions to prevent them from being caught on the ground. Brereton planned B-17 raids on Japanese air fields in ], in accordance with ] war plan directives, but this was overruled by General ].<ref name="Bloody p163"/> A series of ], followed by several confusing and false reports of air attacks, delayed the authorization of the sortie. By the time the B-17s and escorting ] fighters were about to get airborne, they were destroyed by Japanese bombers of the ]. The FEAF lost half its aircraft during the first strike,<ref name="Bloody p166-7"/> and was all but destroyed over the next few days. | |||
At their peak, 168 B-17 bombers were in the Pacific theater in September 1942, but already in mid-1942 Gen. Arnold had decided that the B-17 was unsuitable for the kind of operations required in the Pacific and made plans to replace all of the B-17s in the theater with B-24s (and later, B-29s) as soon as they became available. Although the conversion was not complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat operations in the Pacific theater came to an end after a little over a year.<ref>Kenney, George C. ''General Kenney Reports''. New York: Duall, Sloan and Pearce, 1949.</ref> Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the 54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop section and were used to drop supplies to ground forces operating in close contact with the enemy. Special airdrop B-17s supported Australian commandos operating near the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17 target in 1942 and early 1943.<ref>Jacobson 1945 {{page needed|date=January 2012}}</ref> | |||
Another early World War II Pacific engagement on {{Nowrap|10 December}} 1941 involved ] who reportedly crashed his B-17 into the ], which was later acknowledged as a near bomb miss on the ]. Nonetheless, this deed made him a celebrated ]. Kelly's B-17C AAF S/N ''40-2045'' (19th BG / 30th BS) crashed about {{convert|6|mi|km|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} from Clark Field after he held the burning Fortress steady long enough for the surviving crew to bail out. Kelly was posthumously awarded the ].<ref name="Sal.p64"/> | |||
Noted Japanese ace ] is credited with this kill, and in the process, came to respect the ability of the Fortress to absorb punishment.<ref name="Sakai"/> | |||
B-17s were still used in the Pacific later in the war, however, mainly in the ] role. A number of B-17Gs, redesignated B-17Hs and later SB-17Gs, were used in the Pacific during the final year of the war to carry and drop lifeboats to stranded bomber crews who had been shot down or crashed at sea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pbyrescue.com/Aircraft/b-17h.htm|title=The B-17H "Flying Dutchman"|website=www.pbyrescue.com|access-date=24 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420225027/http://www.pbyrescue.com/Aircraft/b-17h.htm|archive-date=20 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> These aircraft were nicknamed ], and remained in service for many years after the end of World War II.<ref>]</ref> | |||
B-17s were used in early battles of the Pacific with little success, notably the ]<ref name="WoF p96"/> and ].<ref name="Sword p180,329"/> While there, the ] B-17s were tasked with disrupting the Japanese sea lanes. Air Corps doctrine dictated bombing runs from high altitude, but it was soon discovered that only one percent of their bombs hit targets. However, B-17s were operating at heights too great for most ] fighters to reach, and the B-17's heavy gun armament was more than a match for lightly protected Japanese aircraft. | |||
{{clear left}} | |||
=== Bomber defense === | |||
On 2 March 1943, six B-17s of the 64th Squadron attacked a major Japanese troop convoy from {{convert|10000|ft|km|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} during the early stages of the ], off ], using ] to sink three merchant ships including the {{ship|SS|Kyokusei Maru||2}}. A B-17 was shot down by a ]-based ], whose pilot then machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew members as they descended in parachutes and attacked others in the water after they landed.<ref name="awm"/> Later, 13 B-17s bombed the convoy from medium altitude, causing the ships to disperse and prolonging the journey. The convoy was subsequently all but destroyed by a combination of low level strafing runs by ] ], and skip bombing by USAAF ]s at {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}}, while B-17s claimed five hits from higher altitudes.<ref name="Frisbee"/> | |||
] over ], Germany]] | |||
Before the advent of long-range ] escorts, B-17s had only their ] ]s to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor.<ref name="Boeing" /> Defensive armament increased from four {{convert|0.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} machine guns and one {{convert|0.30|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} nose machine gun in the B-17C, to thirteen {{convert|0.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} machine guns in the B-17G. But because the bombers could not ] when attacked by fighters and needed to be flown straight and level during their final bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack. | |||
A 1943 survey by the ] found that over half the bombers shot down by the Germans had left the protection of the main formation.<ref name="B-17.de 2" /> To address this problem, the United States developed the bomb-group formation, which evolved into the staggered ] formation in which all the B-17s could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns. This made a formation of bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters.<ref name="Manual 2" /> In order to more quickly form these formations, ]s, planes with distinctive paint schemes, were utilized to guide bombers into formation, saving assembly time.<ref name="MAH">{{cite web |title=Why Use Colourful Camouflage in World War 2? – Assembly Ships |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WYm1QEV69bo | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/WYm1QEV69bo| archive-date=2021-11-23 | url-status=live|website=Youtube | date=6 September 2018 |publisher=Military Aviation History}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Polka Dot">{{cite web |title=Polka Dot Warriors > Vintage Wings of Canada |url=http://www.vintagewings.ca/VintageNews/Stories/tabid/116/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/477/language/en-CA/Polka-Dot-Warriors.aspx |website=www.vintagewings.ca |publisher=Vintage Wings |access-date=7 February 2019 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201121322/http://www.vintagewings.ca/VintageNews/Stories/tabid/116/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/477/language/en-CA/Polka-Dot-Warriors.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Luftwaffe'' fighter pilots likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a ''fliegendes Stachelschwein'', "flying porcupine", with dozens of machine guns in a combat box aimed at them from almost every direction. However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive maneuvers: they had to fly constantly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to German flak. Moreover, German fighter aircraft later developed the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict damage with minimum risk.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} | |||
A peak of 168 B-17 bombers were in the Pacific theater in September 1942, with all groups converting to other types by mid-1943. In mid-1942, Gen. Arnold decided that the B-17 was inadequate for the kind of operations required in the Pacific and made plans to replace all of the B-17s in the theater with B-24s as soon as they became available. Although the conversion was not complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat operations in the Pacific theater came to an end after a little over a year.<ref>Kenney, George C. ''General Kenney Reports.'' New York: Duall, Sloan and Pearce, 1949.</ref> Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the 54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop section, and were used to drop supplies to ground forces operating in close contact with the enemy. Special airdrop B-17s supported Australian commandos operating near the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17 target in 1942 and early 1943.<ref>Jacobson 1945 {{page needed|date=January 2012}}</ref> | |||
The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely.<ref name="Manual" /><ref name="browne" /><ref name="Johnsen 2006" /> Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth Air Force during World War II, said, "The plane can be cut and slashed almost to pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew home."<ref name="Hoffman" /> ] reported one instance in which a B-17 suffered a midair collision with a ], losing an engine and suffering serious damage to both the starboard horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer, and being knocked out of formation by the impact. The B-17 was reported as shot down by observers, but it survived and brought its crew home without injury.<ref name="Caidin.p86" /> Its toughness was compensation for its shorter range and lighter bomb load compared to the B-24 and British Avro Lancaster heavy bombers.{{Clarify|is this statement backed by the ref for the following sentence?|date=June 2010}} Stories circulated of B-17s returning to base with tails shredded, engines destroyed and large portions of their wings destroyed by flak.<ref name="DurableB-17Colorado" /> This durability, together with the large operational numbers in the Eighth Air Force and the fame achieved by the '']'', made the B-17 a key bomber aircraft of the war. Other factors such as combat effectiveness and political issues also contributed to the B-17's success.<ref name="B17vB24" /> | |||
===Bomber defense=== | |||
] | |||
Before the advent of long-range ] escorts, B-17s had only their ] ]s to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor.<ref name="Boeing"/> The number of defensive guns increased from four {{convert|0.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} machine guns and one {{convert|0.30|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} nose machine gun in the B-17C, to thirteen {{convert|0.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} machine guns in the B-17G. But because the bombers could not ] when attacked by fighters, and needed to be flown straight and level during their final bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack. | |||
The B-17 adopted early ]s, such as ] and ] to confuse German radar. This greatly reduced the effectiveness of German Flak, by perhaps as much as 75%, meaning that 450 bombers were saved by these technologies.<ref>{{cite thesis|page=30|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA265494|title=The Radar Eye Blinded: The USAF and Electronic Warfare, 1945-1955| last=Kuehl |first= Daniel T.|year=1992}}</ref> | |||
] | |||
=== Luftwaffe attacks === | |||
A 1943 survey by the ] found that over half the bombers shot down by the Germans had left the protection of the main formation.<ref name="B-17.de 2"/> To address this problem, the United States developed the bomb-group formation, which evolved into the staggered ] formation where all the B-17s could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns, making a formation of the bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters.<ref name="Manual 2"/> ''Luftwaffe'' fighter pilots likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a ''fliegendes Stachelschwein'', "flying porcupine", with dozens of machine guns on a combat box formation of bombers, aimed at them from almost every direction. However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive maneuvers: they had to fly constantly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to the German ]. Moreover, German fighter aircraft later used the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict damage with minimum risk. | |||
], Germany, on {{Nowrap|15 October}} 1944; the bombardier was killed.<ref>. ''398th.org''. Retrieved: 24 January 2012.</ref>]] | |||
After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that on average it took about 20 hits with ] shells fired from the rear to bring them down.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> Pilots of average ability hit the bombers with only about two percent of the rounds they fired, so to obtain 20 hits, the average pilot had to fire one thousand {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}} rounds at a bomber.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> Early versions of the Fw 190, one of the best German interceptor fighters, were equipped with two {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}} ] cannons, which carried only 500 rounds when belt-fed (normally using 60-round ]s in earlier installations), and later with the better Mauser MG 151/20 cannons, which had a longer effective range than the MG FF weapon. Later versions carried four or even six MG 151/20 cannon and twin ]. The German fighters found that when attacking from the front, where fewer defensive guns were mounted (and where the pilot was exposed and not protected by armor as he was from the rear), it took only four or five hits to bring a bomber down.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> | |||
To rectify the Fw 190's shortcomings, the number of cannons fitted was doubled to four, with a corresponding increase in the amount of ammunition carried, creating ] bomber destroyer version. This type replaced the vulnerable twin-engine ''Zerstörer'' heavy fighters which could not survive interception by P-51 Mustangs flying well ahead of the combat boxes in an ] role starting very early in 1944 to clear any Luftwaffe defensive fighters from the skies. By 1944, a further upgrade to ]-]'s {{convert|30|mm|in|abbr=on}} ]s mounted either in the wing, or in underwing, conformal mount gun pods, was made for the ''Sturmbock'' Focke-Wulfs as either the ], enabling aircraft to bring a bomber down with just a few hits.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> | |||
As a result, the B-17s' loss rate was up to 25% on some early missions (60 of 291 B-17s were lost in combat on the second ]<ref name="Caidin"/>), and it was not until the advent of long-range fighter escorts (particularly the ]) resulting in the degradation of the ''Luftwaffe'' as an effective interceptor force between February and June 1944, that the B-17 became strategically potent. | |||
The adoption of the ]-derived '']'' (Wfr. Gr. 21) rocket mortar by the Luftwaffe in mid-August 1943 promised the introduction of a major "stand-off" style of offensive weapon – one strut-mounted tubular launcher was fixed under each wing panel on the Luftwaffe's single-engine fighters, and two under each wing panel of a few twin-engine ] daylight ''Zerstörer'' aircraft.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> However, due to the slow 715 mph velocity and characteristic ] of the fired rocket (despite the usual mounting of the launcher at about 15° upward orientation), and the small number of fighters fitted with the weapons, the Wfr. Gr. 21 never had a major effect on the combat box formations of Fortresses.<ref name="AFM.76-9" /> The Luftwaffe also fitted heavy-caliber ''Bordkanone''-series 37, 50 and even {{convert|75|mm|in|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} cannon as anti-bomber weapons on twin-engine aircraft such as the special ] fighters, as well as one model of the ] ''Hornisse'' but these measures did not have much effect on the American strategic bomber offensive. The ], however, had moderate success against the B-17 late in the war. With its usual nose-mounted armament of four ]s, and with some examples later equipped with the ], launched from underwing racks, it could fire from outside the range of the bombers' {{convert|.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} defensive guns and bring an aircraft down with one hit,<ref name="Schollars" /> as both the MK 108's shells and the R4M's warheads were filled with the "shattering" force of the strongly ] ] military explosive. | |||
] over ], Germany]] | |||
The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely. Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth Air Force during World War II, said, "The plane can be cut and slashed almost to pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew home."<ref name="Hoffman"/> ] reported one instance in which a B-17 suffered a mid-air collision with a ], losing an engine and suffering serious damage to both the starboard horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer, and being knocked out of formation by the impact. The B-17 was reported as shot down by observers, but it survived and brought its crew home without injury.<ref name="Caidin.p86"/> Its toughness was compensation for its shorter range and lighter bomb load compared to the B-24 and British ] heavy bombers.{{Clarify|is this statement backed by the ref for the following sentence?|date=June 2010}} Stories abound of B-17s returning to base with tails having been destroyed, with only a single engine functioning or even with large portions of wings having been damaged by ].<ref name="DurableB-17Colorado"/> This durability, together with the large operational numbers in the ] and the fame achieved by the '']'', made the B-17 a key bomber aircraft of the war. Other factors such as combat effectiveness and political issues also contributed to the B-17's success.<ref name="B17vB24"/> | |||
=== Luftwaffe-captured B-17s === | |||
The B-17 design went through eight major changes over the course of its production, culminating in the B-17G, differing from its immediate predecessor by the addition of a bombardier-operated, remotely controlled chin ] with two {{convert|.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} caliber ]s under the nose, also fitted to the final eighty-six production aircraft of the B-17F-DLs built by Douglas,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b17queenofthesky.com/variants/prototype.php?id=12&tle=B-17F |title=B17 — Queen of the Sky — The B-17F |last=Lyman |first=Troy |date=12 May 2003 |website=http://www.b17queenofthesky.com/ |publisher=Troy Lyman's B-17 Flying Fortress Site |accessdate=24 June 2014}}</ref> after being first tried in May 1943 as part of the increased armament system of the YB-40. This eliminated the B-17's main defensive weakness in head-on attacks. | |||
]'' markings, the USAAF-named "Wulfe-Hound", ''41-24585'', of the 360th BS/303rd BG, was downed on 12 December 1942 near ], ], while on a raid on ], ]. The first Flying Fortress to fall intact into German hands, it was operated by ] from March 1944.<ref>Thomas, Geoffrey J., and Ketley, Barry, "KG 200 – The Luftwaffe's Most Secret Unit", Hikoku Publications Ltd., Crowborough, East Sussex, UK, 2003, {{ISBN|1-902109-33-3}}, pp. 57–58, 66.</ref>]] | |||
During World War II approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished by Germany after crash-landing or being forced down, with about a dozen put back into the air. Given German '']'' national markings on their wings and fuselage sides, and ] tail fin–flashes, the captured B-17s were used to determine the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in attack tactics.<ref name="WoF p89" /> Others, with the cover designations Dornier Do 200 and Do 288, were used as long-range transports by the ] special duties unit, carrying out agent drops and supplying secret airstrips in the Middle East and North Africa. They were chosen specifically for these missions as being more suitable for this role than other available German aircraft; they never attempted to deceive the Allies and always wore full ''Luftwaffe'' markings.<ref name="Donald Am p23" /><ref name="Wixley p30" /> One B-17 of KG200, bearing the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s KG 200 ''Geschwaderkennung'' (combat wing code) markings ''A3+FB'', was interned by Spain when it landed at ] airfield, {{Nowrap|27 June}} 1944, remaining there for the rest of the war.<ref name="Northstar" /> It has been alleged that some B-17s kept their Allied markings and were used by the ''Luftwaffe'' in attempts to infiltrate B-17 bombing formations and report on their positions and altitudes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Aluminum Castles: WWII from a gunner's view|last=Richardson|first=Wilbur|publisher=Cantemos|date=26 May 2012|pages=29–30|quote=We also reported seeing a B17 flying at a safe distance from the formation. This mystery fortress shadowed the formation inbound from the Rhine river and we were informed others had seen it back across Belgium on the way out. A fortress manned by the enemy created an unsettling feeling in all of us.}}</ref> According to these allegations, the practice was initially successful, but Army Air Force combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's formation.<ref name="Northstar" /> | |||
===Luftwaffe attacks=== | |||
] collided with the aircraft. The B-17 flew home and landed in this condition without major injuries to any of the crew members.]] | |||
After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that on average it took around 20 hits with ] shells fired from the rear to bring them down.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> Pilots of average ability hit the bombers with only about two percent of the rounds they fired, so to obtain 20 hits, the average pilot had to fire one thousand {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}} rounds at a bomber.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> Early versions of the ], one of the best German interceptor fighters, were equipped with two {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}} ] cannons, which carried only 500 rounds when belt-fed (normally using 60-round ]s in earlier installations), and later with the better ] cannons, which had a longer effective range than the MG FF weapon. Later versions carried four or even six MG 151/20 cannon and twin ]s. The German fighters found that when attacking from the front, where fewer defensive guns were mounted (and where the pilot was exposed and not protected by armor as he was from the rear), it took only four or five hits to bring a bomber down.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> To address the Fw 190's shortcomings, the number of cannons fitted was doubled to four with a corresponding increase in the amount of ammunition carried, creating ] bomber destroyer version. This type replaced the vulnerable twin-engined ''Zerstörer'' heavy fighters which could not survive interception by P-51 Mustangs flying well ahead of the combat boxes in an ] role starting very early in 1944 — as ordered by the Eighth Air Force's commander, then-Maj. Gen. ] — to clear any Luftwaffe defensive fighters from the skies. By 1944, a further upgrade to ]-]'s {{convert|30|mm|in|abbr=on}} ]s mounted either in the wing, or in underwing, conformal mount gun pods, was made for the ''Sturmbock'' Focke-Wulfs as either the ], enabling aircraft to bring a bomber down with just a few hits.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> | |||
=== Soviet-interned B-17s === | |||
] | |||
The U.S. did not offer B-17s to the Soviet Union as part of its ], but at least 73 aircraft were acquired by the ]. These aircraft had landed with mechanical trouble during the ] over Germany or had been damaged by a ''Luftwaffe'' raid in ]. The Soviets restored 23 to flying condition and concentrated them in the 890th Bomber Regiment of the ],<ref>{{cite web|last=Holm |first=Michael |title=890th Bryanskiy Bomber Aviation Regiment|url=https://www.ww2.dk/new/air%20force/regiment/bap/890bap.htm}}</ref> but they never saw combat. In 1946 (or 1947, according to Holm), the regiment was assigned to the ] factory (moving from ]) to help the Soviet effort to reproduce the more advanced ] as the ].<ref name="Gordon p. 479">Gordon 2008, p. 479.</ref> | |||
The adoption of the ]-derived '']'' (Wfr. Gr. 21) rocket mortar by the Luftwaffe in mid-August 1943 promised the introduction of a major "stand-off" style of offensive weapon – one strut-mounted tubular launcher was fixed under each wing panel on the Luftwaffe's single-engined fighters, and two under each wing panel of a few twin-engined ] daylight ''Zerstörer'' aircraft.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> However, due to the slow 715 mph velocity and characteristic ] of the fired rocket (despite the usual mounting of the launcher at about 15° upward orientation), and the small number of fighters fitted with the weapons, the Wfr. Gr. 21 never had a major effect on the combat box formations of Fortresses.<ref name="AFM.76-9"/> The Luftwaffe also fitted heavy-calibre ''Bordkanone''-series 37, 50 and even {{convert|75|mm|in|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} cannon as anti-bomber weapons on twin-engined aircraft such as the special ] fighters, as well as one model of the ] ''Hornisse'' but these measures did not have much effect on the American strategic bomber offensive. The ], however, had moderate success against the B-17 late in the war. With its usual nose-mounted armament of four ]s, and with some examples later equipped with the ], launched from underwing racks, it could fire from outside the range of the bombers' {{convert|.50|in|mm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} defensive guns and bring an aircraft down with one hit,<ref name="Schollars"/> as both the MK 108's shells and the R4M's warheads were filled with the "shattering" force of the strongly ] ] military explosive. | |||
=== Swiss-interned B-17s === | |||
]'' markings, the USAAF-named "Wulfe-Hound", ''41-24585'', of the 360th BS/303rd BG, downed on 12 December 1942 near ], ], while on a raid on ], ], the first Flying Fortress to fall intact into German hands. Operated by ] from March 1944.<ref>Thomas, Geoffrey J., and Ketley, Barry, "KG 200 – The Luftwaffe's Most Secret Unit", Hikoku Publications Ltd., Crowborough, East Sussex, UK, 2003, ISBN 1-902109-33-3, pages 57–58, 66.</ref>]] | |||
During the ], some US and British bombers landed in Switzerland and were ]. Some had been damaged and were unable to get back to Allied bases. Others flew into Swiss airspace due to navigation errors, and on rare occasions, ]. Swiss fighter aircraft intercepted such aircraft and sought to force them to land. | |||
In October 1943, a B-17F-25-VE (tail number 25841) developed engine trouble after a raid over Germany and was forced to land in Switzerland. The plane and its US flight crew were interned. The aircraft was turned over to the ], which flew the bomber until the end of the war, using other interned but non-airworthy B-17s for spare parts. The bomber's topside surfaces were repainted a dark ], but it retained its light gray underwing and lower fuselage surfaces. It carried the Swiss national white cross insignia in red squares on the topside and underside of its wings, and on both sides of its rudder and its fuselage, with the light gray flash letters "RD" and "I" on either side of the fuselage insignias.<ref name="Cravens, Wesley 1956">Cravens, Wesley. ''Army Air Forces in World War II''. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1956.</ref> | |||
===Luftwaffe-captured B-17s=== | |||
During World War II, after crash-landing or being forced down, approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished, with about a dozen put back into the air. Given German '']'' national markings on their wings and fuselage sides, and '']'' tail fin-flashes, the captured B-17s were used to determine the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in attack tactics.<ref name="WoF p89"/> Others, with the cover designations Dornier Do 200 and Do 288, were used as long-range transports by the ] special duties unit, carrying out agent drops and supplying secret airstrips in the Middle East and North Africa. They were chosen specifically for these missions as being more suitable for this role than other available German aircraft; they never attempted to deceive the Allies and always wore full ''Luftwaffe'' markings.<ref name="Donald Am p23"/><ref name="Wixley p30"/> One B-17 of KG200, bearing the ''Luftwaffe's'' KG 200 ''Geschwaderkennung'' (combat wing code) markings ''A3+FB'', was interned by Spain when it landed at ] airfield, {{Nowrap|27 June}} 1944, remaining there for the rest of the war.<ref name="Northstar"/> It has been alleged that some B-17s kept their Allied markings and were used by the ''Luftwaffe'' in attempts to infiltrate B-17 bombing formations and report on their positions and altitudes. According to these allegations, the practice was initially successful, but Army Air Force combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's formation.<ref name="Northstar"/> | |||
=== |
=== Japanese-captured B-17s === | ||
] | |||
The U.S. did not offer B-17s to the Soviet Union as part of its war materiel assistance program, but at least 73 aircraft were acquired by the ]. These aircraft had landed with mechanical trouble during the ] over Germany or had been damaged by a ''Luftwaffe'' raid in ]. The Soviets restored 23 to flying condition and concentrated them in the 890th bomber regiment of the 45th bomber division, but they never saw combat. In 1946 the regiment was assigned to the ] factory to aid in the Soviet effort to reproduce the more advanced ] as the ].<ref name="Gordon p. 479">Gordon 2008, p. 479.</ref> | |||
In 1942, Japanese technicians and mechanics rebuilt three damaged B-17s, one "D" and two "E" series, using parts salvaged from abandoned B-17 wrecks in the Philippines and the Java East Indies.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.historynet.com/japans-fleet-flying-forts.htm| title = The Surprising Story of Japan's B-17 Fleet| date = 26 January 2018}}</ref> The three bombers, which still contained their top-secret ]s, were ] to Japan where they underwent extensive technical evaluation by the ''Giken'', the ]'s Air Technical Research Institute (''Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo'') at Tachikawa's air field. The "D" model, later deemed an obsolescent design, was used in Japanese training and propaganda films. The two "E"s were used to develop air combat tactics for use against B-17s; they were also used as enemy aircraft in pilot and crew training films. One of the two "E"s was photographed late in the war by US aerial recon. It was code-named "Tachikawa 105" after the mystery aircraft's wingspan ({{cvt|104|ft}}) but not correctly identified as a captured B-17 until after the war. No traces of the three captured Flying Fortresses were ever found in Japan by ] occupation forces. The bombers were assumed either lost by various means or scrapped late in the war for their vital war materials.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p314" /> | |||
===Swiss-interned B-17s=== | |||
During the war, the ] sometimes took U.S. or British bombers into Swiss airspace, either damaged craft seeking safe haven or on rare occasions ] by accident. Swiss aircraft would attempt to intercept and force individual aircraft to land, interning their crews; one Swiss pilot was killed, shot down by a U. S. bomber crew in September 1944. From then on, red and white neutrality bands were added to the wings of Swiss aircraft to stop accidental attacks by Allied aircraft.<ref>{{cite web|title=Swiss Morane|url = http://www.ww2incolor.com/other/SWISS-MS406.html |work= WW2 in color |accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref> | |||
=== Postwar history === | |||
Official Swiss records identify 6,501 airspace violations during the course of the war, with 198 foreign aircraft landing on Swiss territory and 56 aircraft crashing there. One prime example: in October 1943 the Swiss ] Boeing B-17F-25-VE, tail number 25841, and her U. S. flight crew after the Flying Fortress developed engine trouble and was forced to land following its bombing raid over Germany. The aircraft was then turned over to the ], who then flew the bomber until the end of the war, using other interned but non-flyable B-17s for spare parts. The bomber was repainted a dark ], but retained its light gray-painted under surfaces. It carried Swiss national white cross insignia in red squares on both sides of its rudder, fuselage sides, and the underside wings, with white crosses in red ]s atop both upper wings. As on its gray under surfaces, the B-17F also carried light gray flash letters "RD" and "I" on either side of the Swiss national insignia.<ref name="Cravens, Wesley 1956"/> | |||
==== U.S. Air Force ==== | |||
{{See also|3205th Drone Group}} | |||
] | |||
After World War II, the B-17 was quickly phased out of use as a bomber and the Army Air Forces retired most of its fleet. Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States where the majority were sold for scrap and melted down, although many remained in use in second-line roles such as VIP transports, air-sea rescue and photo-reconnaissance.<ref name="Swan mil p80" /><ref name="Bowers Boeing p290" /> ] (SAC), established in 1946, used reconnaissance B-17s (at first called F-9 , later RB-17) until 1949.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1" /><ref name="Knaack bomber p465" /> | |||
===Japanese-captured B-17s=== | |||
] | |||
The USAF ] of the ] (MATS) operated B-17s as so-called "Dumbo" ] aircraft. Work on using B-17s to carry ]s had begun in 1943, but they entered service in the European theater only in February 1945. They were also used to provide search and rescue support for ] raids against Japan. About 130 B-17s were converted to the air-sea rescue role, at first designated B-17H and later SB-17G. Some SB-17s had their defensive guns removed, while others retained their guns to allow use close to combat areas. The SB-17 served through the ], remaining in service with USAF until the mid-1950s.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p303-4" /><ref>Hess & Winchester 1997, pp. 86, 89–90</ref> | |||
Three damaged B-17s, one "D" model and two "E" models, were rebuilt to flying status by Japanese technicians and mechanics; the parts used were stripped from captured B-17 wrecks in both the Philippines and the Netherlands East Indies. The three bombers, containing captured top secret ]s, were then flown to Japan where they underwent extensive technical evaluation by the ]'s Air Technical Research Laboratory (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo). The "D" model was later deemed an obsolete design and the two "E" models were used to develop B-17 air combat counter-tactics; they were also used as enemy aircraft in several Japanese propaganda films. No traces of these captured Flying Fortresses were found in Japan by ] occupation forces following the war; they were assumed scrapped late in the war for their vital war materials.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p314"/> | |||
In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as ] for atmospheric sampling during the ] atomic bomb tests, being able to fly close to or even through the ]s without endangering a crew. This led to more widespread conversion of B-17s as drones and drone control aircraft, both for further use in atomic testing and as targets for testing ] and ]s.<ref name="WoF p91" /> {{nowrap|One hundred and seven B-17s}} were converted to drones.<ref name="Flight Sperry" /> The last operational mission flown by a USAF Fortress was conducted on {{Nowrap|6 August}} 1959, when a DB-17P, serial'' 44-83684 '', directed a QB-17G, out of ], New Mexico, as a target for an ] air-to-air missile fired from a ]. A retirement ceremony was held several days later at Holloman AFB, after which ''44-83684'' was retired.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} It was subsequently used in various films and in the 1960s television show '']'' before being retired to the ] aviation museum in Chino, California.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://warbirdregistry.org/b17registry/b17-4483684.html |title = Warbird Registry – Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress |website = warbirdregistry.org }}</ref> Perhaps the most famous B-17, the '']'', has been restored – with the B-17D '']'' under way – to her World War II wartime appearance by the ] at ], Ohio.<ref name="NMAF Memphis" /> | |||
===Postwar history=== | |||
====U.S. |
==== U.S. Navy and Coast Guard ==== | ||
] aircraft.]] | |||
] | |||
Following the end of World War II, the B-17 was quickly phased out of use as a bomber and the Army Air Forces retired most of its fleet. Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States where the majority were sold for scrap and melted down, although significant numbers remained in use in second-line roles such as VIP transports, air-sea rescue and photo-reconnaissance.<ref name="Swan mil p80"/><ref name="Bowers Boeing p290"/> ] (SAC), established in 1946, used reconnaissance B-17s (at first called F-9 , later RB-17) until 1949.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1"/><ref name="Knaack bomber p465"/> With the disestablishment of the U.S. Army Air Forces and the establishment of an independent ] in 1947, most extant B-17s were transferred to USAF. | |||
During the last year of World War II and shortly thereafter, the ] (USN) acquired 48 ex-USAAF B-17s for patrol and air-sea rescue work. The first two ex-USAAF B-17s, a B-17F (later modified to B-17G standard) and a B-17G were obtained by the Navy for various development programs.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1" /> At first, these aircraft operated under their original USAAF designations, but on 31 July 1945 they were assigned the naval aircraft designation PB-1, a designation which had originally been used in 1925 for the ] experimental flying boat.<ref name="Swan Navy" /> | |||
The USAF ] of the ] (MATS) operated B-17s as so-called ] ] aircraft. Work on using B-17s to carry ]s had begun in 1943, but they entered service in the European theater only in February 1945, also being used to provide search and rescue support for ] raids against Japan. About 130 B-17s were converted to the air-sea rescue role, at first designated B-17H and later SB-17G. Some SB-17s had their defensive guns removed, while others retained their guns to allow use close to combat areas. The SB-17 served through the ], remaining in service with USAF until the mid-1950s.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p303-4"/><ref name="WoF p86"/><ref name="WoF p89-0"/> | |||
Thirty-two B-17Gs<ref name="DABASv2 p661" /> were used by the Navy under the designation PB-1W, the suffix -W indicating an airborne early warning role. A large radome for an ] ] search radar was fitted underneath the fuselage and additional internal fuel tanks were added for longer range, with the provision for additional underwing fuel tanks. Originally, the B-17 was also chosen because of its heavy defensive armament, but this was later removed. These aircraft were painted dark blue, the standard Navy paint scheme which had been adopted in late 1944.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1" /><ref name="Swan Navy" /> PB-1Ws continued in USN service until 1955, gradually being phased out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known in the USAF as the ], a designation ]), a military version of the ] commercial airliner.{{Citation needed|date=October 2017}} | |||
: ''See also: ]'' | |||
In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as ] for atmospheric sampling during the ] atomic bomb tests, being able to fly close to or even through the ]s without endangering a crew. This led to more widespread conversion of B-17s as drones and drone control aircraft, both for further use in atomic testing and as targets for testing ] and ]s.<ref name="WoF p91"/> {{nowrap|One hundred and seven B-17s}} were converted to drones.<ref name="Flight Sperry"/> The last operational mission flown by a USAF Fortress was conducted on {{Nowrap|6 August}} 1959, when a DB-17P, serial '' 44-83684 '' directed a QB-17G, out of ], New Mexico, as a target for an ] air-to-air missile fired from an ]. A retirement ceremony was held several days later at Holloman AFB, after which ''44-83684'' was retired.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} It was subsequently used in various films and in the 1960s television show ''12 O'Clock High'' before being retired to the ] aviation museum in Chino, California.<ref></ref> Perhaps the most famous B-17, the '']'', is currently being fastidiously restored — simultaneously with the B-17D ''The Swoose'' — to its World War II wartime appearance by the ] at ], Ohio.<ref name="NMAF Memphis"/> | |||
In July 1945, 16 B-17s were transferred to the Coast Guard via the Navy; these aircraft were initially assigned U.S. Navy Bureau Numbers (BuNo), but were delivered to the Coast Guard designated as PB-1Gs beginning in July 1946.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1" /><ref name="WoF p89-0" /> Coast Guard PB-1Gs were stationed at a number of bases in the U.S. and Newfoundland, with five at ], North Carolina, two at ], two at ], Newfoundland, one at ], Alaska, and one in Washington state.<ref name="WoF p89-0" /> They were used primarily in the "Dumbo" air-sea rescue role, but were also used for ] duties and for photo mapping. The Coast Guard PB-1Gs served throughout the 1950s, the last example not being withdrawn from service until 14 October 1959.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1" /><ref name="USCG" /> | |||
====U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard==== | |||
{{multiple image | |||
| direction = vertical | |||
| width = 220 | |||
| image1 =US Navy PB-1W.jpg | |||
| caption1 = Under project '''Cadillac II''', an AN/APS-20 radar was fitted onto the B-17G, making the PB-1W the first ]. | |||
| image2 =US Coast Guard PB-1G in flight.jpg | |||
| caption2 =The U.S. Coast Guard PB-1G carried a droppable lifeboat. | |||
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}} | |||
=== Special operations === | |||
During the last year of World War II and shortly thereafter, the ] acquired 48 ex-USAAF B-17s for patrol and air-sea rescue work. The first two ex-USAAF B-17s, a B-17F (later modified to B-17G standard) and a B-17G were obtained by the Navy for various development programs.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1"/> At first, these aircraft operated under their original USAAF designations, but on 31 July 1945 they were assigned the naval aircraft designation PB-1, a designation which had originally been used in 1925 for the ] experimental flying boat.<ref name="Swan Navy"/> | |||
B-17s were used by the CIA front companies Civil Air Transport, Air America and Intermountain Aviation for special missions. These included B-17G ''44-85531'', registered as N809Z. These aircraft were primarily used for agent drop missions over the People's Republic of China, flying from Taiwan, with Taiwanese crews. Four B-17s were shot down in these operations.<ref>Pocock, Chris. ''The Black Bats: CIA Spy Flights Over China From Taiwan, 1951–1969''. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military History, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-7643-3513-6}}.</ref>{{page needed |date=February 2024}} | |||
In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been stripped of all weapons and painted black. One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was flown to ] in the Philippines in mid-September, assigned for covert missions into Tibet. | |||
Thirty-two B-17Gs<ref name="DABASv2 p661"/> were used by the Navy under the designation PB-1W, the suffix -W indicating an airborne early warning role. A large radome for an ] ] search radar was fitted underneath the fuselage and additional internal fuel tanks were added for longer range, with the provision for additional underwing fuel tanks. Originally, the B-17 was also chosen because of its heavy defensive armament, but this was later deleted. These aircraft were painted dark blue, a standard Navy paint scheme which had been adopted in late 1944.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1"/><ref name="Swan Navy"/> The PB-1W eventually evolved into an early warning aircraft by virtue of its APS-20 search radar.<ref name="DABASv2 p661"/> PB-1Ws continued in USN service until 1955, gradually being phased out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known in the USAF as the ], a designation adopted by USN in 1962), a military version of the ] commercial airliner. | |||
On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8, as ]. Smith and LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and searched the station for several days. On 1 June, Seigrist and Price returned and picked up Smith and LeSchack using a ] system installed on the B-17.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utdallas.edu/library/collections/speccoll/Leeker/b17.pdf |title=The Boeing B-17s |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928084808/http://www.utdallas.edu/library/collections/speccoll/Leeker/b17.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2010 |website=utdallas.edu |accessdate= 25 July 2011}}</ref> N809Z was used to perform a Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie '']'' in 1965. This aircraft, now restored to its original B-17G configuration, was on display in the ] in ] until it was sold to the ] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.collingsfoundation.org/2015/12/b-17-flying-fortress-to-join-cf/|title = B-17 Flying Fortress to join CF |publisher=the Collings Foundation |date=2015}}</ref> | |||
In July 1945, 16 B-17s were transferred to the Coast Guard via the Navy; these aircraft were initially assigned U.S. Navy Bureau Numbers (BuNo), but were delivered to the Coast Guard designated as PB-1Gs beginning in July 1946.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1"/><ref name="WoF p89-0"/> Coast Guard PB-1Gs were stationed at a number of bases in the U.S. and Newfoundland, with five at ], North Carolina, two at ], two at ], Newfoundland, one at ], Alaska, and one in Washington state.<ref name="WoF p89-0"/> They were used primarily for air-sea rescue, but were also used for iceberg patrol duties and for photo mapping. Air-sea rescue PB-1Gs usually carried a droppable lifeboat underneath the fuselage and the chin turret was often replaced by a radome.<ref name="WoF p89-0"/><ref name="USCG"/> The Coast Guard PB-1Gs served throughout the 1950s, the last example not being withdrawn from service until 14 October 1959.<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1"/><ref name="USCG"/> | |||
== |
== Operators == | ||
{{Main list|List of B-17 Flying Fortress operators}} | |||
A number of B-17s were used by the CIA front companies Civil Air Transport, Air America and Intermountain Aviation for special missions. These included B-17G ''44-85531'', registered as N809Z. These aircraft were primarily used for agent drop missions over the People's Republic of China, flying from Taiwan, with Taiwanese crews. Four B-17s were shot down in these operations.<ref>Pocock, Chris. ''The Black Bats: CIA Spy Flights Over China From Taiwan, 1951–1969''. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military History, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7643-3513-6.</ref> | |||
] | |||
In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been stripped of all weapons and painted black. One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was flown to ] in the Philippines in mid-September, assigned for covert missions into Tibet. | |||
] | |||
On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8, as ]. Smith and LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and searched the station for several days. On 1 June, Seigrist and Price returned and picked up Smith and LeSchack using a ] system installed on the B-17.<ref> ''utdallas.edu.'' Retrieved: 25 July 2011.</ref> N809Z was used to perform a Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie '']'' in 1965. This aircraft, now restored to its original B-17G configuration, is on display in the ] in ]. | |||
The B-17, a versatile aircraft, served in dozens of ] units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in other roles for the RAF. Its main use was in ], where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft did not hamper it as much as in the ]. Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide.<ref name="Baugher Squads" /> | |||
==Operators== | |||
] | |||
] | |||
{{div col|colwidth=25em}} | |||
{{Main|List of B-17 Flying Fortress operators}} | |||
The B-17 was a versatile aircraft, serving in dozens of USAAF units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in non-bomber roles for the RAF. Its main use was in ], where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft available did not hamper it as much as in the ]. Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide.<ref name="Baugher Squads"/> | |||
{{div col|colwidth=15em}} | |||
* {{AUT}} | |||
* {{ARG}} | * {{ARG}} | ||
* {{AUS}} | |||
* {{AUT}}<ref>{{cite web|title=OY Reg - OY-DFA|url=http://www.oy-reg.dk/register/1920.html|access-date=27 December 2020}}</ref> | |||
* {{BOL}} | * {{BOL}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{flag|Brazil|1889}} | ||
* {{flag|Canada|1921}} | * {{flag|Canada|1921}} | ||
* {{COL}} | * {{COL}} | ||
* {{DNK}} | * {{DNK}} | ||
* {{DOM}} | * {{DOM}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{flag|France|1830}} | ||
* {{flag|Germany| |
* {{flag|Germany|1935}} | ||
* {{flag|Iran|1925}} | * {{flag|Iran|1925}} | ||
* {{KSA}} | |||
* {{ISR}} | * {{ISR}} | ||
* {{flag|Japan}} | * {{flag|Japan|1937}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{flag|Mexico|1934}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{flag|Nicaragua|1908}} | ||
* {{PER}} | * {{PER}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{PRT}} | ||
* {{flag|South Africa|1928}} | * {{flag|South Africa|1928}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{ROC}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{flag|Soviet Union|1936}} | ||
* {{SUI}} | |||
* {{SWE}} | * {{SWE}} | ||
* {{ |
* {{CHE}} | ||
* {{GBR}} | |||
* {{flag|United States|1912}} | * {{flag|United States|1912}} | ||
{{Div col end}} | {{Div col end}} | ||
== Surviving aircraft and wrecks == | |||
==Survivors== | |||
Of the more than 12,000 B-17 made, six were known to be in flying as of 2023.{{Citation needed|reason=Do not add sources from SimpleFlying per WP:SIMPLEFLYING|date=June 2024}} There are about 40 B-17 in collections in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web |title=B-17G Flying Fortress – Air Mobility Command Museum |url=https://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/b-17g-flying-fortress/ |access-date=2024-05-03 |language=en-US}}</ref> and overall about 46 globally.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-19 |title=Surviving B-17s - Aero Vintage Books |url=https://www.aerovintage.com/b-17-locator-complete-aircraft/ |access-date=2024-05-03 |language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
{{Main|List of surviving Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses}} | |||
There are also nearly complete or partially complete B-17 wrecks that have been discovered: an example of this is a B-17F that ditched in the Pacific on 11 July 1943, but was located in 1986.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Complete Guide to the B-17F Black Jack WWII Wreck |url=http://www.indopacificimages.com/index.php/papua-new-guinea-2/b-17f-black-jack/ |access-date=2017-08-03 |work=Indo-Pacific Images |language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
{{further|List of surviving Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses}} | |||
{{anchor|The Fortress as a symbol}} | {{anchor|The Fortress as a symbol}} | ||
==Fortresses as a symbol== | == Fortresses as a symbol == | ||
] | ] | ||
], Germany, on {{Nowrap|15 October}} 1944; the bombardier was killed.<ref> ''398th.org.'' Retrieved: 24 January 2012.</ref>]] | |||
The B-17 Flying Fortress became symbolic of the United States of America's air power. In a 1943 ] poll of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated advertisements had been run in newspapers, 73% had heard of the B-24 and 90% knew of the B-17.<ref name="Johnsen 2006" /> | |||
The B-17 Flying Fortress has become, for many reasons, an icon of American power and a symbol of its Air Force. During the 1930s, the USAAC, as articulated by then-Major General ] and the ], touted the bomber as a strategic weapon.<ref name="Tate.149"/><ref group=N>Quote: "The Howell Commission's report ... stated '... an adequate striking force for use against objectives both near and remote is a necessity for a modern army ...{{'"}}</ref> General ], Chief of the Air Corps, recommended the development of bigger aircraft with better performance, and the Tactical School agreed.<ref name="Tate.161"/><ref group=N>Quote: "To them it seemed that the bomber was well-nigh invincible. They argued that pursuit was obsolete and attack an expensive luxury, since aviation was more effective when used for interdiction behind enemy lines and strategic bombardment to destroy the enemy's means and will to fight."</ref> | |||
After the first Y1B-17s were delivered to the Army Air Corps 2nd Bombardment Group, they were used on flights to promote their long range and navigational capabilities. In January 1938, group commander ] ] flew a Y1B-17 from the U.S. east coast to the west coast, setting a transcontinental record of 13 hours 27 minutes. He also broke the west-to-east coast record on the return trip, averaging {{convert|245|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} in 11 hours 1 minute.<ref name="Zamzow" /> Six bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group took off from ] on {{Nowrap|15 February}} 1938 as part of a goodwill flight to ]. Covering {{convert|12000|mi|km}} they returned on {{Nowrap|27 February}}, with seven aircraft setting off on a flight to ], Brazil, three days later.<ref name="WoF p46-7" /> In a well-publicized mission on 12 May of the same year, three Y1B-17s "intercepted" and took photographs of the Italian ocean liner ] {{convert|610|mi|km}} off the Atlantic coast.<ref name="AFM.91-12" />{{NoteTag|This is a commonly misreported error. The ''Rex'' was 725 miles offshore on her last position report as the Y1B-17s were taxiing for takeoff from Mitchel Field, four hours before interception{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} }} | |||
When the Model 299 was rolled out on {{Nowrap|28 July}} 1935, bristling with multiple ] installations, Richard Williams, a reporter for '']'' coined the name "Flying Fortress" with his comment, "Why, it's a flying fortress!"<ref name="Meilinger 87"/> Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use.<ref group=N>The ''Air Corps News Letter'', however, notes in its 1 January 1938 edition () an attempt by the Langley Field correspondent to apply the appellation "Jeep" to the B-17, which it objected to as "not befitting" the aircraft and adding, "Why not let the term 'Flying Fortress' suffice?"</ref> In 1943, ] commissioned a poll to see "to what degree the public is familiar with the names of the Liberator and the Flying Fortress." Of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated adverts had been run in newspapers, 73% had heard of the B-24, while 90% knew of the B-17.<ref name="Johnsen 2006"/> | |||
Many pilots who flew both the B-17 and the B-24 preferred the B-17 for its greater stability and ease in formation flying. The electrical systems were less vulnerable to damage than the B-24's hydraulics, and the B-17 was easier to fly than a B-24 when missing an engine.<ref name="levine1992">{{cite book |title = The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 |url = https://archive.org/details/strategicbombing00levi |url-access = limited |publisher=Praeger |last = Levine |first = Alan J. |year=1992 |location=Westport, Connecticut |pages=–15 |isbn = 0-275-94319-4}}</ref> During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the ], had an open preference for the B-17. ] ] wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping field forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their individual servicing and spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth. His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose mission studies showed that the Flying Fortress's utility and survivability was much greater than those of the B-24 Liberator.<ref name="Johnsen 2006" /> Making it back to base on numerous occasions, despite extensive battle damage, the B-17's durability became legendary;<ref name="Manual" /><ref name=browne /> stories and photos of B-17s surviving battle damage were widely circulated during the war.<ref name="Johnsen 2006" /> Despite an inferior performance and smaller bombload than the more numerous B-24 Liberators,<ref name="Birdsall 3">Birdsall 1968, p. 3.</ref> a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction with the B-17.<ref name="B-17.de" /> | |||
After the initial B-17s were delivered to the Air Corps 2nd Bombardment Group, they were used on promotional flights emphasizing their great range and navigational precision. In January 1938, group commander ] ] flew a YB-17 from the east to west coast, setting a transcontinental record of 13 hours 27 minutes. He also broke the west-to-east coast record on the return trip, averaging {{convert|245|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} in 11 hours 1 minute.<ref name="Zamzow"/> Six bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group took off from ] on {{Nowrap|15 February}} 1938 as part of a goodwill flight to ]. Covering {{convert|12000|mi|km}} they returned on {{Nowrap|27 February}}, with seven aircraft setting off on a flight to ], Brazil, three days later.<ref name="WoF p46-7"/> In a well-publicized mission on 12 May of the same year, three B-17s "intercepted" and took photographs of the Italian ocean liner ] {{convert|610|mi|km}} off the Atlantic coast.<ref name="AFM.91-12"/><ref group=N>This is a common error. The ''Rex'' was 725 miles offshore on her last position report as the B-17s were taxiing for takeoff from Mitchel Field, four hours before interception.</ref> | |||
== Notable B-17s == | |||
Pilots who flew both preferred the B-17 over the B-24 for its greater stability and ease in formation flying. Its electrical systems were less vulnerable to damage than the B-24's hydraulics, and the B-17 flew better than the B-24 when missing an engine.<ref name="levine1992">{{cite book | title=The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945 | publisher=Praeger | author=Levine, Alan J. | year=1992 | location=Westport, Connecticut | pages=14–15 | isbn=0-275-94319-4}}</ref> During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the ], had an open preference for the B-17. ] ] wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping field forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their individual servicing and spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth. His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose studies showed that Fortresses had utility and survivability much greater than that of the B-24.<ref name="Johnsen 2006"/> Making it back to base on numerous occasions despite extensive battle damage, its durability became mythical;<ref name="Manual"/><ref name=browne/> stories and photos of B-17s surviving battle damage were widely circulated during the war.<ref name="Johnsen 2006"/> Despite an inferior performance and smaller bombload than the more numerous B-24,<ref name="Birdsall 3"/> a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction in the B-17.<ref name="B-17.de"/> | |||
]'' continues to fly after collision with an attacking ], eventually landing without crew injuries.]] | |||
<!-- Many of these aircraft already have lengthy articles. This section only needs to be a brief summary of the notability of each aircraft. --> | |||
* '']'' – This B-17F survived having her tail almost cut off in a mid-air collision with a ] over Tunisia but returned safely to base in Algeria.<ref name=WarbirdsNews20130627>{{cite web |title=WWII's B-17 ''All American:'' Separating Fact and Fiction |url=http://www.warbirdsnews.com/warbird-articles/wwiis-b-17-all-american-separating-fact-fiction.html |website=Warbirds News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405014119/http://www.warbirdsnews.com/warbird-articles/wwiis-b-17-all-american-separating-fact-fiction.html |archive-date=5 April 2016 |date=27 June 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 August 2016 }}</ref> | |||
* ''Snap! Crackle! Pop!'' – B-17F-27-BO, 41-24620, part of the 360th Bomb Squadron, 303rd Bomb Group, was on a daylight bombing run over Saint-Nazaire, France when downed by flak. The ball turret gunner, ], his parachute damaged and unusable, free fell from 22,000 feet, survived and became a POW.<ref>{{cite web |title=41-24620 Snap! Crackle! Pop! |url=https://www.americanairmuseum.com/archive/aircraft/41-24620 |website=American Air Museum in Britain |publisher=Imperial War Museums |access-date=30 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Susskind |first1=Hal |title=20,000 Feet - Without a Chute The Alan Magee Story |url=http://www.303rdbg.com/magee.html |website=Hell's Angels Newsletter |publisher=via: 303rd Bomb Group (H) |access-date=30 November 2024 |date=February 1996}}</ref> | |||
* ''Chief Seattle'' – sponsored by the city of Seattle, she disappeared (MIA) on 14 August 1942<ref>Nose art clearly shows "Chief Seattle", but often incorrectly reported as "Chief of Seattle"</ref> flying a recon mission for the 19th BG, 435th BS<ref>B-17E SN# 41-2656 at or MACR report at Fold3.org</ref> and the crew declared dead on 7 December 1945. | |||
* ''Hell's Kitchen'' – B-17F 41-24392 was one of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to complete more than 100 combat missions.<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url = http://www.reddog1944.com/414th_Squadron_Planes_and_Crews.htm | |||
|title = 414th Squadron Planes and Crews circa 1943 | |||
|website = reddog1944.com | |||
|access-date=20 December 2012 | |||
}}</ref> | |||
* ''Mary Ann'' – a fictional B-17D that was part of an unarmed flight which left Hamilton Air Field, Novato, California on 6 December 1941 en route to ] in ], arriving during the ]. The plane and her crew were immediately forced into action on ] and in the ] during the outbreak of ]. She became famous when her fictional exploits were featured in '']'', one of the first of the patriotic ] released in 1943.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0035616/trivia |title=Trivia |website=] |date=28 May 2013 |access-date=28 May 2013}}</ref> | |||
* '']'' – one of the first B-17s to complete a tour of duty of 25 missions in the 8th Air Force and the subject of ], now completely restored and on display since 17 May 2018<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/17/politics/memphis-belle-bomber-unveiling-air-force-museum/index.html |title=Memphis Belle bomber newly restored and unveiled at US Air Force museum |first=Andreas |last=Preuss |date=17 May 2018 |publisher=CNN |access-date=2018-05-17 }}</ref> at the ] at ] in Dayton, Ohio. | |||
* Milk Wagon - B-17G. Over the course of its tour of duty, ''Milk Wagon'' set a record in the 3rd Division, possibly the war, for 129 missions without aborting for mechanical failure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=43-37756 |url=http://www.447bg.com/43-37756.htm |access-date=2023-12-30 |website=www.447bg.com |archive-date=30 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130211356/http://447bg.com/43-37756.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
* '']'' – B-17C. Previously named 'Pamela'. Stationed in Mackay, Queensland, Australia during World War II. On 14 June 1943, ] shortly after takeoff from Mackay while ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to Port Moresby, with 40 of the 41 people on board killed. It remains the worst air disaster in Australian history. The sole survivor, Foye Roberts, married an Australian and returned to the States. He died in ], on 4 February 2004.<ref>{{cite web |last=Choate|first=Trish |title = Going from lucky in love to lucky to be alive in 1943 |url = http://www.timesrecordnews.com/columnists/choate-going-from-lucky-in-love-to-lucky-to-be-alive-in-1943-ep-427243459-339500392.html |website=timesrecordnews.com |access-date=28 October 2016}}</ref> | |||
* ''Murder Inc.'' – A B-17 bombardier wearing the name of the B-17 "Murder Inc." on his jacket was used for propaganda in German newspapers.<ref name="murder inc.">Williams, Kenneth Daniel. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330224444/http://www.merkki.com/murderinc.htm |date=30 March 2018 }}. ''World War II – Prisoners of War – Stalag Luft I''. Retrieved: 31 August 2010.</ref> | |||
* '']'' – B-17E flown by the most highly decorated crew in the Pacific Theater<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://zeamerseagerbeavers.com/old-666-lucy-history/ |title="Old 666"/"Lucy" – A History |last=Hayes |first=Clint |date=23 February 2014 |website=Zeamer's Eager Beavers |language=en-US |access-date=2018-07-26 }}</ref> | |||
* ''Royal Flush'' – B-17F ''42-6087'' from the ] and commanded on one mission by highly decorated USAAF officer ], she was the lone surviving 100th BG B-17 of 10 October 1943 raid against Münster to return to the unit's base at ].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://100thbg.com/index.php?option=com_bombgrp&view=personnel&id=4475&Itemid=334 |title=LT COL Robert ROSENTHAL |website=100th Bomber Group |language=en-gb |access-date=2018-07-26 }}</ref> | |||
* '']'' – B-17F featured in the June 1944 issue of '']'' magazine<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Powell |first=Hickman |title=Another Triumph for Yankee 'Know-How' |url = http://www.91stbombgroup.com/photo_history/sir_baboon_mcgoon_news.html |magazine=] |access-date=2018-07-26 }}</ref> and the 1945 issue of '']'' magazine.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://legendsintheirowntime.com/LiTOT/Content/1945/B17_Fl_4505_crash.html |title=Crash Landing |magazine=Flying |date=May 1945 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages= |first=Harold W. |last=Kulick |access-date=2018-07-26 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511200231/http://legendsintheirowntime.com/LiTOT/Content/1945/B17_Fl_4505_crash.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Articles discuss mobile recovery crews following October 1943 belly landing at Tannington, England. | |||
* '']'' – Initially nicknamed ''Ole Betsy'' while in service, ''The Swoose'' is the only remaining intact B-17D, built in 1940, the oldest surviving Flying Fortress, and the only surviving B-17 to have seen action in the ]; she is in the collection of the National Air and Space Museum and is being restored for final display at the ] at ] in Dayton, Ohio.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123106540 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121012220403/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123106540 |archive-date=2012-10-12 |title=The Swoose comes home to roost at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force |first=Sarah |last=Parke |publisher=National Museum of the U.S. Air Force }}</ref> ''The Swoose'' was flown by ], father of actress ], who named his daughter after the bomber. | |||
* ''Ye Olde Pub'' – A highly damaged B-17 piloted by ] that ] by ], as memorialized in the painting ''A Higher Call'' by John D. Shaw.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.valorstudios.com/Franz-Stigler-Charlie-Brown.htm |title = A Higher Call: autographed by JG 27 Bf-109 ace Franz Stigler and Charlie Brown of the B-17 "Ye Olde Pub" |website = www.valorstudios.com |access-date = 17 August 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190817190904/https://www.valorstudios.com/Franz-Stigler-Charlie-Brown.htm |archive-date = 17 August 2019 |url-status = dead }}</ref> | |||
* ''5 Grand'' – 5,000th B-17 made, emblazoned with Boeing employee signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe. Damaged and repaired after gear-up landing, transferred to 388th Bomb Group. Returned from duty following ], flown for war bonds tour, then stored at Kingman, Arizona. Following an unsuccessful bid for museum preservation, the aircraft was scrapped.<ref>''Air Classics'' magazine, July 2004, pp. 66–74</ref> | |||
== Accidents and incidents == | |||
==Notable B-17s== | |||
{{Main list|Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress}} | |||
] | |||
]) ]] | |||
<!-- All of these aircraft already have lengthy articles. This section only needs to be a brief summary of each aircraft. --> | |||
Most of the losses were during WWII, however because of the Warbird flights there have been losses in the 2020s as well. | |||
* '']'' — B-17F tail# 124406<ref>Good closeup view of B-17F tail number 112206 at , or search images for "B-17" almost cut in half</ref> survived having her ] in a collision over Tunisia, but made it back to base in Algeria — there are false stories about that claim it made it back to Britain. It flew again, but was later scrapped.<ref> ''414th Squadron Planes and Crews (reddog1944.com)''. Retrieved 19 September 2012.</ref><ref> ''secondworldwar.org.uk.'' Retrieved: 19 September 2012.</ref> | |||
* '']'' — flying example. | |||
* '']'' — sponsored by the city of Seattle, it disappeared (MIA) on 14 Aug 1942<ref>Nose art clearly shows "Chief Seattle", but often incorrectly reported as "Chief of Seattle"</ref> flying a recon mission for the 19th BG, 435th BS <ref>B-17E SN# 41-2656 at or MACR report at Fold3.org</ref> and the crew declared dead on 7 Dec 1945. | |||
* ''Hell's Kitchen'' — B-17F 41-24392 one of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to complete more than 100 combat missions.<ref> | |||
{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.reddog1944.com/414th_Squadron_Planes_and_Crews.htm | |||
|title=414th Squadron Planes and Crews circa 1943 | |||
|publisher=reddog1944.com | |||
|accessdate=2012-12-20 | |||
}}{{failed verification |date=December 2012}}</ref> | |||
* ''I'll Be Around'' — B-17G in the 390th Bomb Group Museum at the ] adjacent to ] near ]. | |||
* '']'' — former engine testbed restored as flying example, destroyed in a forced landing on 13 June 2011, outside of Chicago, Illinois; no fatalities. | |||
* ''Mary Ann'' — a B-17D that was part of an unarmed flight which left San Francisco on 6 December 1941 en route to ] in ], arriving during the ]. The plane and its crew were immediately forced into action on ] and in the ] during the outbreak of ]. It became famous when its exploits were featured in '']'', one of the first of the patriotic ] released in 1943.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0035616/trivia|title=Trivia|date=28 May 2013 |accessdate=28 May 2013}}</ref> | |||
* '']'' — one of the first B-17s to complete a tour of duty of 25 missions in the 8th Air Force, now being restored for display at the ] at ] in Dayton, Ohio. | |||
* '']'' — B 17C. Previously named 'Pamela'. Stationed in Mackay, Queensland, Australia during World War II. On 14 June 1943, crashed shortly after takeoff from Mackay whilst ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to Port Moresby. 40 of the 41 people on board were killed. It remains the worst air disaster in Australian history. The sole survivor, Foye Roberts, married an Australian and returned to the States. He passed away in Wichita Falls on 4 February 2004. | |||
* '']'' — A B-17 bombardier wearing the name of the B-17 "Murder Inc." on his jacket was used for propaganda in German newspapers.<ref name="murder inc.">Williams, Kenneth Daniel. ''World War II – Prisoners of War – Stalag Luft I.'' Retrieved: 31 August 2010.</ref> | |||
* '']'' -force landing during North Atlantic ferry flight was subject of LIFE magazine article. | |||
* '']'' — A high mission 91st Bomb Group B-17G now represented by a restored flying example, ] of Stow, Massachusetts. | |||
] | |||
* '']'' — the B-17 flown by the most highly decorated crew in the Pacific Theater | |||
* '']'' — 200th from last B-17G to be built, used in the movie '']''. {{as of|2011}}, currently being restored to Flight status, at the ] museum. | |||
* '']'' - surviving example. | |||
* ''Rosie's Riveters'' — B-17F bearing serial ''42-30758'' from the ] and commanded by highly decorated USAAF officer ], it was the lone surviving 100th BG B-17 of the 10 October 1943 raid against Münster to return to the unit's base at ]. | |||
* '']'' — The last flying example in Europe. | |||
* '']'' — flying example, Commemorative Air Force at Airbase Arizona, Mesa Arizona. | |||
* '']'' - Museum display combat veteran. | |||
* '']'' featured in June 1944 issue of ''Popular Science'' magazine and 1945 issue of ''Flying'' magazine. Articles talk about mobile recovery crews following Oct 1943 belly landing at ], England. Article omitted return to service in Feb 1944 and seven additional missions. Final crew called it "a real crate" and successfully ditched into North Sea on 29 Mar 1944, a few months before the first article appeared in print. | |||
* '']'' B-17E Serial Number 41-2446, a rare surviving E Seriesl recovered from a Papua New Guinea swamp, now at Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor. | |||
* '']'' — Also nicknamed ''Ole Betsy'' while in service, ''The Swoose'' is the only remaining intact B-17D, built in 1940, and the oldest surviving Flying Fortress; it is in the collection of the Smithsonian{{'}}s Air and Space Museum and is being restored for final display at the ] at ] in Dayton, Ohio, simultaneously with B-17F "Memphis Belle." The Swoose was flown by ], father of actress ], who named his daughter after the bomber. | |||
* '']'' — flying example. Last U.S. Navy PB-1W flying, Commemorative Air Force Gulf Coast Wing in Houston, Texas. | |||
* '']'' - 303rd BG HIGH-mission B-17G now represented by a non-combat showbird. | |||
* '']'' — flying example, Yankee Air Force. | |||
* '']'' — the B-17 that ] did not shoot down, as memorialized in the painting "''A Higher Call''" by John D. Shaw.<ref></ref> | |||
* '']'' — 5,000th Boeing-built B-17, emblazoned with Boeing employee signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe. Damaged and repaired after gear-up landing, transferred to 388th Bomb Group. Returned to US after ], flown for war bonds tour, then stored at Kingman, Arizona. Following an unsuccessful bid for museum preservation, the aircraft was scrapped.<ref>''Air Classics'' magazine, July 2004, pp. 66–74</ref> | |||
* '' The So What? I and II '' — flown by "3 engine Zip" (I was shot down over Germany and II was written off). | |||
== |
== Noted B-17 pilots and crew members == | ||
] receiving Medal of Honor from ] ]]] | |||
{{main|Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress}} | |||
] receiving Medal of Honor from President Roosevelt]] | |||
], pilot and ], co-pilot, the first women to fly the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber for the ]<ref name="museum2" />]] | |||
=== Medal of Honor recipients === | |||
==Noted B-17 pilots and crew members== | |||
Many B-17 crew members received military honors and 17 received the ], the highest military decoration awarded by the United States:<ref name="AFM" /> | |||
] receiving Medal of Honor from ], ].]] | |||
* Brigadier General ] (flying as co-pilot) – awarded posthumously for remaining at controls so others could escape damaged aircraft.<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: The Quiet Hero." ''Air Force Magazine'', Volume 68, Issue 5, May 1998.</ref> | |||
] receiving Medal of Honor from President Roosevelt.]] | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (navigator) – awarded posthumously<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: 'I Am the Captain of My Soul{{' "}}. ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 5, May 1985.</ref> | |||
], pilot and ], co-pilot, the first women to fly the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber]] | |||
* 1st Lt ] (pilot) – awarded posthumously<ref name="Valor at its Highest">Frisbee, John L. "Valor: 'Valor at its Highest{{' "}}. ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 72, Issue 6, June 1989.</ref> | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (bombardier) – awarded posthumously for tending to injured crew and giving up his parachute to another<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Rather Special Award". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 73, Issue 8, August 1990.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] – "heroism and exceptional flying skill"<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: One Turning and One Burning". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 82, Issue 6, June 1999.</ref> | |||
* Sgt ] (engineer-gunner) – awarded posthumously<ref name="Point of Honor">Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Point of Honor". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 8, August 1985.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] (bombardier) – posthumously, the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Tale of Two Texans". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 69, Issue 3, March 1986.</ref> | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (co-pilot) – awarded posthumously<ref name="Valor at its Highest" /> | |||
* 1st Lt ]<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Gauntlet of Fire". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 8, August 1985.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ]<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Crisis in the Cockpit". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 67, Issue 1, January 1984.</ref> | |||
* Capt ] (awarded posthumously)<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Rabaul on a Wing and a Prayer". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 73, Issue 7, July 1990.</ref> | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (awarded posthumously)<ref>. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623091114/http://www.homeofheroes.com/moh/citations_1940_wwii/sarnoski.html |date=23 June 2006 }} ''Home of Heroes''. Retrieved: 12 January 2007.</ref> | |||
* S/Sgt ] (gunner)<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: First of the Few". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 67, Issue 4, April 1984.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] (awarded posthumously)<ref name="Point of Honor" /> | |||
* T/Sgt ] (radio operator)<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: The Right Touch". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 81, Issue 9, September 1998.</ref><ref>]. Chapter 25, "Jeffrey Bounce Jr."</ref> | |||
* Brigadier General ] Commanding officer of V Bomber Command, killed while leading small force in raid on Rabaul – awarded posthumously<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Courage and Conviction". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 73, Issue 10, October 1990.</ref> | |||
* Maj ] (pilot) – earned on unescorted reconnaissance mission in Pacific, same mission as Sarnoski<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Battle Over Bougainville". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 12, December 1985.</ref> | |||
=== Other military achievements or events === | |||
===Medal of Honor recipients=== | |||
* ] (1925–2008), tail-gunner on a B-17 in the 483rd Bombardment Group. He received a Distinguished Unit Citation and set two individual records in a single day: (1) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner in one mission (two), and (2) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner during the entirety of World War II.<ref>{{cite news |first = Joe |last = Holley |title=WWII gunner 'Babe' Broyhill dies: Set record for downing Nazi jets |newspaper =The Washington Post |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/27/AR2008112702380.html |date=28 November 2008 |access-date=7 May 2010 }}</ref> | |||
Many B-17 crew members received military honors and 17 received the ], the highest military decoration awarded by the United States:<ref name="AFM"/> | |||
* ] (1917–2006), a B-17 pilot who was awarded numerous military decorations and was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and served in active duty until 1971.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.af.mil/bios/bio.asp?bioID=4800 |title = Major General Allison C. Brooks |publisher = United States Air Force |access-date=13 February 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040210205832/http://www.af.mil/bios/bio.asp?bioID=4800 |archive-date=10 February 2004 }}</ref> | |||
* Brigadier General ] (flying as co-pilot) – awarded posthumously for remaining at controls so others could escape damaged aircraft.<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: The Quiet Hero." ''Air Force Magazine,'' Volume 68, Issue 5, May 1998.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] (1921–1998): Lead pilot for ''Man O War II Horsepower Limited''. Received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through his formation over Germany. One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces. | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (navigator) – awarded posthumously<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: 'I Am the Captain of My Soul'". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 5, May 1985.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] (pilot) – awarded posthumously<ref name="Valor at its Highest">Frisbee, John L. "Valor: 'Valor at its Highest'". ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 72, Issue 6, June 1989.</ref> | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (bombardier) – awarded posthumously for tending to injured crew and giving up his parachute to another<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Rather Special Award." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 73, Issue 8, August 1990.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] – "heroism and exceptional flying skill" <ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: One Turning and One Burning." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 82, Issue 6, June 1999.</ref> | |||
* Sgt ] (engineer-gunner) – awarded posthumously<ref name="Point of Honor">Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Point of Honor." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 8, August 1985.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] (bombardier) – posthumously, the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Tale of Two Texans." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 69, Issue 3, March 1986.</ref> | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (Co-pilot) – awarded posthumously<ref name="Valor at its Highest"/> | |||
* 1st Lt ]<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Gauntlet of Fire." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 8, August 1985.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ]<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Crisis in the Cockpit." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 67, Issue 1, January 1984.</ref> | |||
* Capt ] (awarded posthumously)<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Rabaul on a Wing and a Prayer." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 73, Issue 7, July 1990.</ref> | |||
* 2nd Lt ] (awarded posthumously)<ref> ''Home of Heroes.'' Retrieved: 12 January 2007.</ref> | |||
* S/Sgt ] (gunner) <ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: First of the Few." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 67, Issue 4, April 1984.</ref> | |||
* 1st Lt ] (awarded posthumously)<ref name="Point of Honor"/> | |||
* T/Sgt ] (radio operator) <ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: The Right Touch." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 81, Issue 9, September 1998.</ref><ref>]. Chapter 25, "Jeffrey Bounce, Jr."</ref> | |||
* Brig Gen ] (not part of crew at time) – awarded posthumously<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Courage and Conviction." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 73, Issue 10, October 1990.</ref> | |||
* Maj ] (pilot) – earned on unescorted reconnaissance mission <ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Battle Over Bougainville." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 68, Issue 12, December 1985.</ref> | |||
===Other military achievements or events=== | |||
* ], The 483rd Bombardment Group received a Distinguished Unit Citation, and Broyhill set two individual records that day: (1) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner in one mission (two), and (2) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner during the entire war (two). | |||
* ] (1917–2006): Was awarded numerous military decorations, and was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and served in active duty until 1971. | |||
* 1st Lt. ] (1921–1998): Lead pilot for Man O War II Horsepower Limited. Received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through his formation over Germany. One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces. | |||
* ] (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II.<ref>Freeman 1993, pp. 497–500.</ref> | * ] (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II.<ref>Freeman 1993, pp. 497–500.</ref> | ||
* ] (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action.<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Colin Kelly (He was a Hero in Legend and in Fact)." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 77, Issue 6, June 1994.</ref> | * Capt ] (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action.<ref>Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Colin Kelly (He was a Hero in Legend and in Fact)." ''Air Force Magazine'' Volume 77, Issue 6, June 1994.</ref> | ||
* Col ] (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II. Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy. Clark Field Philippines attack survivor. ] bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945. Father of actress ], herself named for the still-surviving B-17D mentioned above. | * Col ] (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II. Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy. Clark Field Philippines attack survivor. ] bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945. Father of actress ], herself named for the still-surviving B-17D mentioned above. | ||
* Gen |
* Gen ] (1906–1990): Became head of the ] and Chief of Staff of the USAF. | ||
* Lt |
* Lt Col ] (1914–1976) and ] (1908–1998): The first women pilots to be certified to fly the B-17, in 1943 and to qualify for the ].<ref name="museum2" /> | ||
* SSgt ] (1919–2003): B-17 gunner who on 3 January 1943 survived a {{convert|22,000|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us|adj=on}} freefall after his aircraft was shot down by the Luftwaffe over ]. | |||
* Col. ] (1918–2004): Pilot of ''Memphis Belle''. | |||
* Col ] (1918–2004): Pilot of ''Memphis Belle''. | |||
* Lt. Col. ] (1917–2007): Commanded the only surviving B-17, "Rosie's Riveters", of a US 8th Air Force raid by the 100th Bomb Group on ] on 10 October 1943. Earned sixteen medals for gallantry (including one each from Britain and France), and led the raid on Berlin on 3 February 1945, that is likely to have ended the life of ], the ]'s infamous "hanging judge". | |||
* Lt Col ] (1917–2007): Commanded the only surviving B-17, ''Royal Flush'', of a US 8th Air Force raid by the 100th Bomb Group on ] on 10 October 1943. Completed 53 missions. Earned sixteen medals for gallantry (including one each from Britain and France), and ]<ref>{{cite web |url = https://100thbg.com/index.php?option=com_bombgrp&view=personnel&id=4475&Itemid=334 |title = 100th Bomb Group Foundation – Personnel – LT COL Robert ROSENTHAL |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=100thbg.com |publisher=100th Bomb Group Foundation |access-date=5 December 2016 |quote=Dec 1, 1944 – Feb 3, 1945 – 418th BS, 100th BG (H) ETOUSAAF (8AF) Squadron Commander, 55 hours, B-17 Air Leader 5 c/m (combat missions) 45 c/hrs (combat hours) '''1 Division Lead (Berlin Feb 3, 1945''', shot down, picked up by Russians and returned to England) Acting Command 4 Wing Leads, Pilot Feb 3, 1945 – BERLIN – MACR #12046, – A/C#44 8379 }}</ref> on 3 February 1945, that is likely to have ended the life of ], the infamous "]" of the ]. | |||
* 1st Lt ] (1920–2011): Pilot of ''Damn Yankee'' of the 384th Bomb Group was shot down over Belgium on 1 December 1943 and evaded capture until reaching Switzerland 5 May 1944.<ref>Miller, G. Wayne. ''Providence Journal,'' 2006. Retrieved 1 October 2011.</ref> | |||
* Brig Gen ] (1915–2007): Flew with the 97th Bombardment Group (Heavy) with both the 8th Air Force in England and the 12th Air Force in North Africa. Later pilot of the B-29 ], dropping the atomic bomb on ], Japan. | |||
==Specifications (B-17G)== | |||
===B-17 in popular culture=== | |||
] | |||
] featured the B-17 in its period films, such as director ]' '']'' starring ] and '']'' starring ].<ref name="imdb1"/> Both films were made with the full cooperation of the ] and used USAAF aircraft and (for ''Twelve O'Clock High'') combat footage. In 1964, the latter film was made into a ] and ran for three years on ]. Footage from ''Twelve O' Clock High'' was also used, along with three restored B-17s, in the 1962 film '']''. The B-17 also appeared in the 1938 movie '']'' with ] and ], with Clark Gable in '']'' in 1948, in '']'' in 1970, and in '']'' with ], ], ], and ] in 1990. The most famous B-17, the '']'', toured the U. S. with its crew to reinforce national morale (and to sell ]s). It starred in a USAAF documentary, '']''.<ref name="imdb2"/> | |||
] | |||
{{Aircraft specs | |||
|ref= The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft<ref name="Donald" /> | |||
|prime units?= imp | |||
<!-- | |||
General characteristics | |||
--> | |||
|genhide= | |||
|crew= 10: <small>Pilot, co-pilot, navigator, bombardier/nose gunner, flight engineer/top turret gunner, radio operator, waist gunners (2), ] gunner, tail gunner</small><ref name="Arizona" /> | |||
The B-17 has also been featured in artistic works expressing the physical and psychological stress of the combat conditions and the high casualty rates that crews suffered.<ref>Philo, Tom. ''taphilo.com.'' Retrieved: 19 May 2012.</ref><ref>Vargas, John. ''allexperts.com,'' 9 November 2010.</ref> Works such as ] by ] and ]'s section "B-17" depict the nature of these missions. The ] itself has inspired works like ]'s '']''. Artists who served on the bomber units also created paintings and drawings depicting the combat conditions in World War II.<ref>McCormick, Ken. ''Images Of War: The Artist's Vision of World War II.'' London: Orion Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0-517570-654.</ref><ref>Mitgang, Herbert. ''The New York Times,'' 3 November 1990. Retrieved 19 May 2012.</ref> | |||
|capacity= | |||
|length m= 22.66 | |||
|length ft= 74 | |||
|length in= 4 | |||
|length note= | |||
|span m= 31.62 | |||
|span ft= 103 | |||
|span in= 9 | |||
|span note= | |||
|height m= 5.82 | |||
|height ft= 19 | |||
|height in= 1 | |||
|height note= | |||
|wing area sqm= 131.92 | |||
|wing area sqft= 1,420 | |||
|wing area note= | |||
|airfoil= ] / NACA 0010 | |||
|empty weight kg= 16,391 | |||
|empty weight lb= 36,135 | |||
|empty weight note= | |||
|gross weight kg= 24,500 | |||
|gross weight lb= 54,000 | |||
|gross weight note= | |||
|max takeoff weight kg= 29,700 | |||
|max takeoff weight lb= 65,500 | |||
|max takeoff weight note= | |||
|fuel capacity= | |||
|more general= | |||
* '''Aspect ratio:''' 7.57 | |||
<!-- | |||
Powerplant | |||
--> | |||
|eng1 number= 4 | |||
|eng1 name= ]-97 "Cyclone" | |||
|eng1 type= turbosupercharged ]s | |||
|eng1 kw= 895 | |||
|eng1 hp= 1,200 | |||
|eng1 shp=<!-- prop engines --> | |||
|eng1 note= | |||
|power original= | |||
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|prop blade number=3 | |||
===Civilian achievements or events=== | |||
|prop name=] constant-speed propeller | |||
* ] (1927–1997): Author of '']'', the story that formed the basis of '']'' wrote the saga of the last transatlantic formation flight of B-17s ever made, ''Everything But the Flak''. | |||
|prop dia ft=<!-- propeller aircraft --> | |||
* ] (1901–1960): ]-winning film actor, five missions as waist gunner with several groups from May to September 1943, including the B-17 ''Eight Ball'' of the 359th Bomb Squadron (351st Bomb Group). | |||
|prop dia in=<!-- propeller aircraft --> | |||
*Irv Homer (1922–2009). Philadelphia Radio host served as 15th Air Force B-17 co-pilot during WW2. | |||
|prop dia note= | |||
* ] (1924–2000): American football player and coach, flew 30 missions over Europe in 1944–45 as a B-17 pilot with the 493rd Bomb Group, surviving a crash landing in Belgium. (His older brother Robert died in a B-17 crash)<ref> ''Untold Valor.'' Retrieved: 30 October 2011.</ref> | |||
<!-- | |||
] | |||
Performance | |||
* ]: Radio operator, with the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy; television producer of American sitcoms '']'', '']'' and '']'', among others. | |||
--> | |||
* ] (1921–1991): Creator of '']''; flew B-17s for the 394th Bomb Squadron, 5th Bomb Group (H), in the Pacific theater.<ref name="alexander"/> | |||
|perfhide= | |||
* ] (1917–2007): Assistant to the U.S. prosecutor at the ], where he interrogated ], pilot with the 100th Bomb Group. | |||
* Brigadier General ] (1908–2006): Best known for his autobiography ''God is My Co-Pilot'', about his exploits in World War II with the Flying Tigers and the United States Army Air Forces in China and Burma. | |||
* ] (1908–1997): Academy Award-winning film actor, instructed in B-17s before flying 20 combat missions in B-24s with the 8th Air Force, England; retired from Air Force Reserve as a Brigadier General.<ref name="Smith"/> | |||
* ] (1920–1944): ] co-pilot from March to October 1944, short-story author, killed in action flying a ] on a second tour. | |||
* ] (1920–2011): ] Pilot of B-17F ''Damn Yankee'' avoided capture after being shot down over ], {{Nowrap|1 December}} 1943 to become a lawyer, businessman and Governor of ] 1991–95. | |||
* ] (1923–2001): Award-winning motorsports car designer and premier ] crew chief flew 50 missions as a B-17 pilot with the 97th Bombardment Group (Heavy) of the 15th Air Force, out of Amendola Airfield, Foggia, Italy.<ref name="Yunick"/> | |||
|max speed kmh= 462 | |||
==Specifications (B-17G)== | |||
|max speed mph= 287 | |||
] | |||
|max speed kts= 249 | |||
{{aircraft specifications | |||
|max speed note= | |||
<!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at ] --> | |||
|cruise speed kmh= 293 | |||
| ref = The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft<ref name="Donald"/> | |||
|cruise speed mph= 182 | |||
|cruise speed kts= 158 | |||
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|minimum control speed note= | |||
|range km= 3,219 | |||
|range miles= 2,000 | |||
|range nmi= 1,738 | |||
|range note= with {{Nowrap|6,000 lb}} ({{Nowrap|2,700 kg}}) bombload | |||
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|endurance=<!-- if range unknown --> | |||
|ceiling m= 10,850 | |||
|ceiling ft= 35,600 | |||
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|climb rate ms= 4.6 | |||
|climb rate ftmin= 900 | |||
|climb rate note= | |||
|time to altitude= | |||
|lift to drag= | |||
|wing loading kg/m2= 185.7 | |||
|wing loading lb/sqft= 38.0 | |||
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|power/mass= 0.089 hp/lb (150 W/kg) | |||
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<!-- | |||
Armament | |||
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|armament= | |||
* '''Guns:''' 13 × .50 in (12.7 mm) ]s in 9 positions (2 in the Bendix chin turret, 2 on nose cheeks, 2 staggered waist guns, 2 in upper Sperry turret, 2 in Sperry ball turret in belly, 2 in the tail and one firing upwards from radio compartment behind bomb bay) | |||
* '''Bombs:''' | |||
** '''Short range missions; internal load only (<400 mi):''' 8,000 lb ({{Nowrap|3,600 kg}}) | |||
** '''Long range missions; internal load only (≈800 mi):''' 4,500 lb ({{Nowrap|2,000 kg}}) | |||
** '''Max internal and external load:''' 17,600 lb ({{Nowrap|7,800 kg}}) | |||
|avionics= | |||
|ferry range mi=3,750}} | |||
==Notable appearances in media== | |||
<!-- All content about the aircraft in fictional and gaming use has been moved to ], please see ] --> | |||
{{Main|Aircraft in fiction#B-17 Flying Fortress}} | |||
A ] B-17 assembly line is featured in the 1944 drama '']''.<ref>{{cite web |title=An American Romance (1944) - Filming & production - IMDb | website=] |url=https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0036596/locations/?item=lc0022457}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=B-17 assembly line, 1944 | website=] | date=2 October 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPW1L9jUGSw |language=en}}</ref> ] featured the B-17 in its period films, such as director ]' '']'' starring ] and '']'' starring ].<ref name="imdb1">. ''Internet Movie Database (IMDb)''. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> Both films were made with the full cooperation of the ] and used USAAF aircraft and (for ''Twelve O'Clock High'') combat footage. In 1964, the latter film was made into a ] and ran for three years on ]. Footage from ''Twelve O' Clock High'' was also used, along with three restored B-17s, in the 1962 film '']''. An early model YB-17 also appeared in the 1938 film '']'' with ] and ], and later with Clark Gable in '']'' in 1948, in '']'' in 1970, and in '']'' with ], ], ], and ] in 1990. The most famous B-17, the '']'', toured the U. S. with her crew to reinforce national morale (and to sell ]s). She was featured in a USAAF documentary, '']''.<ref name="imdb2">.''Internet Movie Database (IMDb)''. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> | |||
<!-- please answer the following questions --> | |||
| plane or copter? = plane | |||
| jet or prop? = prop | |||
The Flying Fortress has also been featured in artistic works expressing the physical and psychological stress of the combat conditions and the high casualty rates that crews suffered.<ref>Philo, Tom. . {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131044149/http://www.taphilo.com/history/8thaf/8aflosses.shtml |date=31 January 2010 }} ''taphilo.com''. Retrieved: 19 May 2012.</ref><ref>Vargas, John. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203223503/http://en.allexperts.com/q/Military-History-669/2010/9/WWII-Bomber-Flight-Crews.htm |date=3 February 2012 }} ''allexperts.com'', 9 November 2010.</ref> Works such as '']'' by ] and '']''{{'}}s section "B-17" depict the nature of these missions. The ] itself has inspired works like ]'s '']''. Artists who served on the bomber units also created paintings and drawings depicting the combat conditions in World War II.<ref>McCormick, Ken. ''Images of War: The Artist's Vision of World War II''. London: Orion Press, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-517-57065-4}}.</ref><ref>Mitgang, Herbert. ''The New York Times'', 3 November 1990. Retrieved 19 May 2012.</ref> | |||
<!-- Now, fill out the specs. Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). If an item does not apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right parenthesis ")" and start a new, fully formatted line beginning with an asterisk "*" --> | |||
"]", a 2024 American ] television miniseries created by ] and ],<ref name="WGA">{{Cite web |title=Masters of the Air |url=https://directories.wga.org/project/1246247/masters-of-the-air |access-date=November 6, 2023 |website=]}}</ref> based on the 2007 book ''Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany'' by ], follows the actions of the ], a B-17 unit in ] during ].<ref name="SI">{{cite web |last1=Solly |first1=Meilan |title=Watch the Trailer for 'Masters of the Air,' Steven Spielberg's Long-Awaited Follow-Up to 'Band of Brothers' |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/watch-the-trailer-for-masters-of-the-air-steven-spielbergs-long-awaited-follow-up-to-band-of-brothers-180982870/ |website=Smithsonian Magazine |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=10 November 2023 |date=9 November 2023}}</ref> | |||
| crew = 10: <small>Pilot, co-pilot, navigator, bombardier/nose gunner, flight engineer/top turret gunner, radio operator, waist gunners (2), ] gunner, tail gunner<ref name="Arizona"/></small> | |||
| length main = 74 ft 4 in | |||
| length alt = 22.66 m | |||
| span main = 103 ft 9 in | |||
| span alt = 31.62 m | |||
| aspect ratio = 7.57 | |||
| height main = 19 ft 1 in | |||
| height alt = 5.82 m | |||
| area main = 1,420 sq ft | |||
| area alt = 131.92 m<sup>2</sup> | |||
| airfoil = ] / NACA 0010 | |||
| empty weight main = 36,135 ] | |||
| empty weight alt = 16,391 kg | |||
| loaded weight main = 54,000 lb | |||
| loaded weight alt = 24,500 kg | |||
| max takeoff weight main = 65,500 lb | |||
| max takeoff weight alt = 29,700 kg | |||
| engine (prop) = ]-97 "Cyclone" | |||
| type of prop = turbosupercharged ]s | |||
| number of props = 4 | |||
| power main = 1,200 ] | |||
| power alt = 895 kW | |||
| max speed main = 287 mph | |||
| max speed alt = 249 ], {{Nowrap|462 km/h}} | |||
| cruise speed main = {{Nowrap|182 mph}} | |||
| cruise speed alt = 158 kn, 293 km/h | |||
| range main = 2,000 mi | |||
| range alt = 1,738 ], {{Nowrap|3,219 km}} | |||
| range more = with {{Nowrap|2,700 kg}} ({{Nowrap|6,000 lb}}) bombload | |||
| ceiling main = 35,600 ft | |||
| ceiling alt = 10,850 m | |||
| climb rate main = 900 ft/min | |||
| climb rate alt = 4.6 m/s | |||
| loading main = 38.0 lb/sq ft | |||
| loading alt = 185.7 kg/m<sup>2</sup> | |||
| power/mass main = 0.089 hp/lb | |||
| power/mass alt = 150 W/kg | |||
| more performance = | |||
| guns = 13 × .50 in (12.7 mm) ]s in 8 positions (2 in the Bendix chin turret, 2 on nose cheeks, 2 staggered waist guns, 2 in upper Sperry turret, 2 in Sperry ball turret in belly, 2 in the tail and one firing upwards from radio compartment behind bomb bay) | bombs =<br /> | |||
** '''Short range missions (<400 mi):''' 8,000 lb ({{Nowrap|3,600 kg}}) | |||
** '''Long range missions (≈800 mi):''' 4,500 lb ({{Nowrap|2,000 kg}}) | |||
** '''Overload:''' 17,600 lb ({{Nowrap|7,800 kg}})}} | |||
==See also== | == See also == | ||
{{Portal |
{{Portal|Aviation}} | ||
]. |
]. When testing concluded, the aircraft was restored to stock configuration as the "]", but was lost in a post-forced-landing fire near ], on 13 June 2011.]] | ||
*] | |||
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* ] | |||
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| lists = | | lists = | ||
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== |
== Notes == | ||
{{NoteFoot}} | |||
{{reflist|group=Note}} | |||
== |
== References == | ||
{{Reflist | |||
{{reflist|group=N}} | |||
|refs = | |||
<ref name="A&K.1">Arakaki and Kuborn 1991, pp. 73–75, 158–59.</ref> | |||
===Citations=== | |||
<ref name="A&K.2">Arakaki and Kuborn 1991, pp. 73, 158–59.</ref> | |||
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= | |||
<ref name="alexander">Alexander 1994, pp. 57–78.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Baugher B-17B">Baugher, Joe. . ''Encyclopedia of American Aircraft'', 22 May 2010.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Andrews & Morgan p340">Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 340.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Baugher Squads">Baugher, Joe. . ''Encyclopedia of American Aircraft'', Last revised 9 August 1999.</ref> | |||
<ref name="A&K.1">Arakaki and Kuborn 1991, pp. 73–75, 158–159.</ref> | |||
<ref name="B17vB24">Benitez, Nannette. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105040134/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA397895 |date=5 November 2016 }} ''Defense Technical Information Center'', 1997. Retrieved: 1 July 2011.</ref> | |||
<ref name="A&K.2">Arakaki and Kuborn 1991, pp. 73, 158–159.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Meilinger 87">Meilinger, Phillip S. ''airforce-magazine.com,'' Volume 87, Issue 10, October 2004'.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Baugher B-17B">Baugher, Joe. ''Encyclopedia of American Aircraft,'' 22 May 2010.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Baugher Squads">Baugher, Joe. ''Encyclopedia of American Aircraft,'' Last revised 9 August 1999.</ref> | |||
<ref name="B17vB24">Benitez, Nannette. ''Defense Technical Information Center,'' 1997. Retrieved: 1 July 2011.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Birdsall 3">Birdsall 1968, p. 3.</ref> | |||
<ref name="bloody p55-6">Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, pp. 55–56.</ref> | <ref name="bloody p55-6">Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, pp. 55–56.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bloody p163">Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, p. 163.</ref> | <ref name="Bloody p163">Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, p. 163.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bloody p166-7">Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, pp. |
<ref name="Bloody p166-7">Shores, Cull and Izawa 1992, pp. 166–67.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers1976">Bowers, Peter M. ''Fortress in the Sky''. Granada Hills, California: Sentry Books Inc., 1976. ISBN 0-913194-04-2.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Bowers1976.p12">Bowers 1976, p. 12.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers1976.p12">Bowers 1976, p. 12.</ref> | ||
<!-- <ref name="Bowers1976.p37" |
<!-- <ref name="Bowers1976.p37" /> --><!-- This reference is used in the text but is currently (September 2010) commented out. --> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p286-7">Bowers 1989, pp. |
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p286-7">Bowers 1989, pp. 286–87.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p290">Bowers 1989, p. 290.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers Boeing p290">Bowers 1989, p. 290.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p291-2">Bowers 1989, pp. |
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p291-2">Bowers 1989, pp. 291–92.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p292">Bowers 1989, p. 292.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers Boeing p292">Bowers 1989, p. 292.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p293-4">Bowers 1989, |
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p293-4">Bowers 1989, pp. 293–94.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers boeing p294">Bowers 1989, p. 294.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers boeing p294">Bowers 1989, p. 294.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p295">Bowers 1989, p. 295.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers Boeing p295">Bowers 1989, p. 295.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p297">Bowers 1989, p. 297.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers Boeing p297">Bowers 1989, p. 297.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p299">Bowers 1989, p. 299.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers Boeing p299">Bowers 1989, p. 299.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p303-4">Bowers 1989, pp. |
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p303-4">Bowers 1989, pp. 303–04.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p307-8">Bowers 1989, pp. |
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p307-8">Bowers 1989, pp. 307–08.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1">Bowers 1989, pp. |
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p310-1">Bowers 1989, pp. 310–11.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowers Boeing p314">Bowers 1989, p. 314.</ref> | <ref name="Bowers Boeing p314">Bowers 1989, p. 314.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowman.7">Bowman 2002, p. 7.</ref> | <ref name="Bowman.7">Bowman 2002, p. 7.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowman.8">Bowman 2002, p. 8.</ref> | <ref name="Bowman.8">Bowman 2002, p. 8.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Bowman.22">Bowman 2002, p. 22.</ref> | <ref name="Bowman.22">Bowman 2002, p. 22.</ref> | ||
<ref name="browne">Browne, Robert W. "The Rugged Fortress: Life-Saving B-17 Remembered." ''Flight Journal: WW II Bombers |
<ref name="browne">Browne, Robert W. "The Rugged Fortress: Life-Saving B-17 Remembered." ''Flight Journal: WW II Bombers'', Winter 2001.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Caidin">Caidin 1960.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Caidin.p86">Caidin 1960, p. 86.</ref> | <ref name="Caidin.p86">Caidin 1960, p. 86.</ref> | ||
<ref name="C&W.151">Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. |
<ref name="C&W.151">Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. 151–52.</ref> | ||
<ref name="C&W.162">Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 162.</ref> | <ref name="C&W.162">Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 162.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Carey Pointblank">Carey 1998, p. 4.</ref> | <ref name="Carey Pointblank">Carey 1998, p. 4.</ref> | ||
Line 578: | Line 603: | ||
<ref name="Donald">Donald 1997, p. 155.</ref> | <ref name="Donald">Donald 1997, p. 155.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Donald Am p23">Donald 1995, p. 23.</ref> | <ref name="Donald Am p23">Donald 1995, p. 23.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Erickson">Erickson, Mark St. John {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116140254/http://www.dailypress.com/features/history/dp-nws-langley-air-power-20160424-story.html |date=16 January 2018 }} ''Daily Press'', 1 March 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Francillon Doug p201-2">Francillon 1979, pp. 201–202.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Francillon Doug p201-2">Francillon 1979, pp. 201–02.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Francillon Lock p211">Francillon 1982, p. 211.</ref> | <ref name="Francillon Lock p211">Francillon 1982, p. 211.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Francillon Lock p212">Francillon 1982, p. 212.</ref> | <ref name="Francillon Lock p212">Francillon 1982, p. 212.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Francillon Lock p213-5">Francillon 1982, pp. |
<ref name="Francillon Lock p213-5">Francillon 1982, pp. 213–15.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Frisbee">Frisbee 1990</ref> | <ref name="Frisbee">Frisbee 1990</ref> | ||
<ref name="NYTimes.299Record"> ''The New York Times |
<ref name="NYTimes.299Record">. ''The New York Times'', 21 August 1935.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Hess.pp59-60">Hess 1994, pp. 59–60.</ref> | <ref name="Hess.pp59-60">Hess 1994, pp. 59–60.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Hess.p64">Hess 1994, p. 64.</ref> | <ref name="Hess.p64">Hess 1994, p. 64.</ref> | ||
Line 590: | Line 616: | ||
<ref name="Hess.69-71">Hess 1994, pp. 69–71.</ref> | <ref name="Hess.69-71">Hess 1994, pp. 69–71.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Knaack bomber p465">Knaack 1988, p. 465.</ref> | <ref name="Knaack bomber p465">Knaack 1988, p. 465.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Pop1">Ethell, Jeff. ''Popular Mechanics |
<ref name="Pop1">Ethell, Jeff. . ''Popular Mechanics'', Volume 162, Issue 1, January 1985, pp. 124–29.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Stitt 1">Stitt 2010, p. 1.</ref> | <ref name="Stitt 1">Stitt 2010, p. 1.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Weigley.338">Weigley 1977, p. 338.</ref> | <ref name="Weigley.338">Weigley 1977, p. 338.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Weigley 339">Weigley 1977, p. 339.</ref> | <ref name="Weigley 339">Weigley 1977, p. 339.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Weigley.340-1">Weigley 1977, pp. |
<ref name="Weigley.340-1">Weigley 1977, pp. 340–41.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Weigley.341">Weigley 1977, p. 341.</ref> | <ref name="Weigley.341">Weigley 1977, p. 341.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Weigley.342">Weigley 1977, p. 342.</ref> | <ref name="Weigley.342">Weigley 1977, p. 342.</ref> | ||
Line 601: | Line 627: | ||
<ref name="Zamzow.47">Zamzow 2008, p. 47.</ref> | <ref name="Zamzow.47">Zamzow 2008, p. 47.</ref> | ||
<!-- Air Force Magazine --> | <!-- Air Force Magazine --> | ||
<ref name="Johnsen 2006">Johnsen, Frederick A. ''Air Force Magazine |
<ref name="Johnsen 2006">Johnsen, Frederick A. . ''Air Force Magazine'', Volume 89, Issue 10, 2006. Retrieved: 15 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<ref name="AFM">Eylanbekov, Zaur. |
<ref name="AFM">Eylanbekov, Zaur. . ''Air Force Magazine'', February 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2008.</ref> | ||
<ref name="AFM.76-9">Price, Alfred. ''Air Force Magazine |
<ref name="AFM.76-9">Price, Alfred. . ''Air Force Magazine'', Volume 76, Issue 9, September 1993. Retrieved: 18 December 2008.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Meilinger">Meilinger, Phillip S. |
<ref name="Meilinger">Meilinger, Phillip S. . ''Air Force Magazine (Air Force Association)'', Volume 87, Issue 10, October 2004. Retrieved: 22 May 2010.</ref> | ||
<ref name="AFM.91-12">Correll, John T. " Rendezvous With the 'Rex'." ''Air Force Magazine |
<ref name="AFM.91-12">Correll, John T. " Rendezvous With the 'Rex'." ''Air Force Magazine'', Volume 91. Issue 12, December 2008, p. 56.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Maurer">Maurer 1987, pp. |
<ref name="Maurer">Maurer 1987, pp. 406–08.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Ramsey">Ramsey 1974, p. 20.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Sal.p46">Salecker 2001, p. 46.</ref> | <ref name="Sal.p46">Salecker 2001, p. 46.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Sal.p48">Salecker 2001, p. 48.</ref> | <ref name="Sal.p48">Salecker 2001, p. 48.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Sal.p64">Salecker 2001, pp. 64–71.</ref> | <ref name="Sal.p64">Salecker 2001, pp. 64–71.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Sakai">Sakai et al. 1996, pp. 68–72.</ref> | <ref name="Sakai">Sakai et al. 1996, pp. 68–72.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Schollars">Schollars, Todd J. ''Air Force Journal of Logistics |
<ref name="Schollars">Schollars, Todd J. . {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619091435/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0IBO/is_3_27/ai_111852898 |date=19 June 2006 }} ''Air Force Journal of Logistics'', Fall 2003. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Serling.p55">Serling 1992, p. 55.</ref> | <ref name="Serling.p55">Serling 1992, p. 55.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Smith">Smith 2005</ref> | |||
<ref name="Swan Mil p74">Swanborough and Bowers 1963, p. 74.</ref> | <ref name="Swan Mil p74">Swanborough and Bowers 1963, p. 74.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Swan Mil p75">Swanborough and Bowers 1963, p. 75.</ref> | <ref name="Swan Mil p75">Swanborough and Bowers 1963, p. 75.</ref> | ||
Line 622: | Line 646: | ||
<ref name="Swan Navy">Swanborough and Bowers 1976, pp. 66–67.</ref> | <ref name="Swan Navy">Swanborough and Bowers 1976, pp. 66–67.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Sword p180,329">Parshall and Tulley 2005, pp. 180, 329.</ref> | <ref name="Sword p180,329">Parshall and Tulley 2005, pp. 180, 329.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Tate.149">Tate 1998, pp. 149–150.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Tate.161">Tate 1998, p. 161.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Tate.p164">Tate 1998, p. 164.</ref> | <ref name="Tate.p164">Tate 1998, p. 164.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Tate 165">Tate 1998, p. 165.</ref> | <ref name="Tate 165">Tate 1998, p. 165.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Wixley p23">Wixley 1998, p. 23.</ref> | <ref name="Wixley p23">Wixley 1998, p. 23.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Wixley p30">Wixley 1998, p. 30.</ref> | <ref name="Wixley p30">Wixley 1998, p. 30.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p41">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p41">Hess and Winchester 1997, p. 41.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p46-7">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p46-7">Hess and Winchester 1997, pp. 46–47.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p56-7">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p56-7">Hess and Winchester 1997, pp. 56–57.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p59-0">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p59-0">Hess and Winchester 1997, pp. 59–60.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF 62-3,5">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF 62-3,5">Hess and Winchester 1997, pp. 62–63, 65.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p63-4">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p63-4">Hess and Winchester 1997, pp. 63–64.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p66">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p66">Hess and Winchester 1997, p. 66.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF |
<ref name="WoF p89">Hess and Winchester 1997, p. 89.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p89">Hess and Winchester |
<ref name="WoF p89-0">Hess and Winchester 1997, pp. 89–90.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF |
<ref name="WoF p91">Hess and Winchester 1997, p. 91.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF |
<ref name="WoF p96">Hess and Winchester 1997, p. 96.</ref> | ||
<ref name="WoF p96">Hess and Winchester ''Wings of Fame'' 1997, p. 96.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Wynn.93">Wynn 1998, p. 93.</ref> | <ref name="Wynn.93">Wynn 1998, p. 93.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Yenne.p46">Yenne 2005, p. 46.</ref> | <ref name="Yenne.p46">Yenne 2005, p. 46.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Yenne.p6">Yenne 2006, p. 6.</ref> | <ref name="Yenne.p6">Yenne 2006, p. 6.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Yenne.p8">Yenne 2006, p. 8.</ref> | <ref name="Yenne.p8">Yenne 2006, p. 8.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Yenne.p12">Yenne 2006, p. 12.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Yenne.p23">Yenne 2006, p. 23.</ref> | <ref name="Yenne.p23">Yenne 2006, p. 23.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Yunick">Yunick 2003, p. 650.</ref> | |||
<ref name="Zamzow">Zamzow 2008, pp. 42–43.</ref> | <ref name="Zamzow">Zamzow 2008, pp. 42–43.</ref> | ||
<!-- Boeing --> | <!-- Boeing --> | ||
<ref name="first flight"> ''Boeing |
<ref name="first flight">. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208181449/http://www.boeing.com/history/chronology/chron04.html |date=8 December 2006 }} ''Boeing''. Retrieved: 3 March 2009.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Boeing"> ''Boeing |
<ref name="Boeing">. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107080528/http://www.boeing.com/history/boeing/b17.html |date=7 January 2007 }} ''Boeing''. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Manual"> ''Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety |
<ref name="Manual">. ''Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety''. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<ref name="Manual 2"> ''Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety |
<ref name="Manual 2">. ''Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety''. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<!-- Various website references --> | <!-- Various website references --> | ||
<ref name="Arizona"> ''Arizona Wing CAF Museum |
<ref name="Arizona">. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202085050/http://www.arizonawingcaf.com/pages/crew.html |date=2 February 2007 }} ''Arizona Wing CAF Museum''. Retrieved: 16 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<ref name="B-17.de"> ''B-17 Flying Fortress: Queen of the Skies |
<ref name="B-17.de">. ''B-17 Flying Fortress: Queen of the Skies''. Retrieved: 9 January 2007.</ref> | ||
<ref name="B-17.de 2"> ''b17flyingfortress |
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}} | }} | ||
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* Yenne, Bill. ''The Story of the Boeing Company''. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2005. ISBN 0-7603-2333-X. | |||
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* Zamzow, Major (USAF) S. L. ], ]: ], 2008. | |||
{{refend}} | |||
==Further reading== | == Further reading == | ||
* Birdsall, Steve. ''The B-17 Flying Fortress''. Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965. {{OCLC|752618401}}. | |||
{{refbegin|1}} | |||
*{{cite journal |last1=Cahill |first1=Bill |title=Ghost Fortresses of the Apocalypse: Boeing B-17 Drones & the USA's Atomic Test Programme: Part 1: Crossroads to Sandstone, 1946–48|journal=The Aviation Historian |date=October 2022 |issue=41 |pages=74–85 |issn=2051-1930}} | |||
* Birdsall, Steve. ''The B-17 Flying Fortress''. Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965. | |||
* {{cite magazine |last1=Calegari|first1=Robert|title=A vendre: B-17G|magazine=Le Fana de l'Aviation |date=December 1976 |issue=85 |pages=34–36 |issn=0757-4169 |language=fr|trans-title=For Sale: B-17G}} | |||
* Davis, Larry. ''B-17 in Action''. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. ISBN 0-89747-152-0. | |||
* |
* Davis, Larry. ''B-17 in Action''. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. {{ISBN|0897471520}}. | ||
* |
* Jablonski, Edward. ''Flying Fortress''. New York: Doubleday, 1965. {{ISBN|0385038550}}. | ||
* |
* Johnsen, Frederick A. ''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 2001. {{ISBN|1580070523}}. | ||
* Gansz, David M. ''B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 4 January 1944 – 26 February 1944 B-17G-35 to G-45 42-31932 – 42-32116 and 42-97058 – 42-97407''. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2020. {{ISBN|978-1734380606}}. | |||
* Lloyd, Alwyn T. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 20: More derivatives, Part 3''. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986. ISBN 0-8168-5029-1. | |||
* Gansz, David M. ''B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 26 February 1944 – 25 April 1944 B-17G-50 to G-60 42-102379 – 42-102978''. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0692365465}}. | |||
* Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 1: Production Versions, Part 1''. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1981. ISBN 0-8168-5012-7. | |||
* Gansz, David M. ''B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 25 April 1944 – 22 June 1944 B-17G-65 to G-75 43-37509 – 43-38073''. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2017. {{ISBN|978-0692859841}}. | |||
* O'Leary, Michael. ''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2)''. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1-85532-814-3. | |||
* |
* Lloyd, Alwyn T. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 11: Derivatives, Part 2''. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1983. {{ISBN|0816850216}}. | ||
* |
* Lloyd, Alwyn T. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 20: More derivatives, Part 3''. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986. {{ISBN|0816850291}}. | ||
* Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore. ''B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 1: Production Versions, Part 1''. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1981. {{ISBN|0816850127}}. | |||
* Wagner, Ray, "American Combat Planes of the 20th Century", Reno, Nevada, 2004, Jack Bacon & Company, ISBN 0-930083-17-2. | |||
* O'Leary, Michael. ''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress'' (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. {{ISBN|1855328143}}. | |||
{{refend}} | |||
* {{cite magazine |last1=Stitt|first1=Robert M.|last2=Olson|first2=Janice L.|name-list-style=amp |title=Brothers in Arms: A Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Crew in New Guinea, Part 1|magazine=Air Enthusiast |date=July–August 2002 |issue=100 |pages=2–11 |issn=0143-5450}} | |||
* Thompson, Scott A. ''Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress, The Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition''. Highland County, Ohio: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 2000. {{ISBN|1575100770}}. | |||
* Wagner, Ray, ''American Combat Planes of the 20th Century'', Reno, Nevada, 2004, Jack Bacon & Company, {{ISBN|0930083172}}. | |||
* Willmott, H.P. ''B-17 Flying Fortress''. London: Bison Books, 1980. {{ISBN|0853684448}}. | |||
* Wisker Thomas J. "Talkback". ''Air Enthusiast'', No. 10, July–September 1979, p. 79. {{ISSN|0143-5450}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 04:05, 19 December 2024
American WWII-era heavy bomber "B-17" redirects here. For other uses, see B17 (disambiguation). "B-17 Bomber" and "B-17 Flying Fortress" redirect here. For the video games, see B-17 Bomber (video game) and B-17 Flying Fortress (video game). "Flying Fortress" redirects here. For the film, see Flying Fortress (film).
B-17 Flying Fortress | |
---|---|
A B-17G, Sentimental Journey, performing at the 2014 Chino Airshow in Chino, California | |
General information | |
Type | Heavy bomber |
National origin | United States |
Manufacturer | Boeing |
Status | Retired; small number in service as warbirds |
Primary users | United States Army Air Forces Royal Air Force |
Number built | 12,731 |
History | |
Manufactured | 1936–1945 |
Introduction date | April 1938 |
First flight | 28 July 1935 |
Variants | |
Developed into | Boeing 307 Stratoliner |
The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is an American four-engined heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). A fast and high-flying bomber, the B-17 was used primarily in the European Theater of Operations and dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during World War II. It is the third-most produced bomber of all time, behind the American four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator and the German multirole, twin-engined Junkers Ju 88. The B-17 was also employed in transport, anti-submarine warfare, and search and rescue roles.
In a USAAC competition, Boeing's prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the Douglas B-18 Bolo. Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938. The B-17 evolved through numerous design advances but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the United States Army Air Forces, USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon. It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bomb load. It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base.
The B-17 saw early action in the Pacific War, where it conducted air raids against Japanese shipping and airfields. But it was primarily employed by the USAAF in the daylight component of the Allied strategic bombing campaign over Europe, complementing RAF Bomber Command's night bombers in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets. Of the roughly 1.5 million tons of bombs dropped on Nazi Germany and its occupied territories by Allied aircraft, over 640,000 tons (42.6%) were dropped from B-17s.
At the start of 2024, six aircraft remain in flying condition. About 50 survive in storage or are on static display, the oldest of which is The Swoose, a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II. There are also several reasonably complete wrecks, such as underwater, that have been found. B-17 survivors gained national attention in 2022 in the United States, when one was destroyed in a fatal mid-air collision with another warbird at an airshow.
Development
Origins
On 8 August 1934, the USAAC tendered a proposal for a multiengine bomber to replace the Martin B-10. The Air Corps was looking for a bomber capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama, and Alaska. Requirements were for it to carry a "useful bombload" at an altitude of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) for 10 hours with a top speed of at least 200 mph (320 km/h).
They also desired, but did not require, a bomber with a range of 2,000 mi (3,200 km) and a speed of 250 mph (220 kn; 400 km/h). The competition for the air corps contract was to be decided by a "fly-off" between Boeing's design, the Douglas DB-1, and the Martin Model 146 at Wilbur Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio.
The prototype B-17, with the Boeing factory designation of Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and Edward Curtis Wells, and was built at Boeing's own expense. It combined features of the company's experimental XB-15 bomber and 247 transport. The B-17's armament consisted of five .30 caliber (7.62 mm) machine guns, with a payload up to 4,800 lb (2,200 kg) of bombs on two racks in the bomb bay behind the cockpit. The aircraft was powered by four Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines, each producing 750 hp (600 kW) at 7,000 ft (2,100 m).
The first flight of the Model 299 was on 28 July 1935 with Boeing chief test pilot Leslie Tower at the controls. The day before, Richard Williams, a reporter for The Seattle Times, coined the name "Flying Fortress" when – observing the large number of machine guns sticking out from the new aircraft – he described it as a "15-ton flying fortress" in a picture caption. The most distinctive mount was in the nose, which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward nearly all frontal angles.
Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use. Boeing also claimed in some of the early press releases that Model 299 was the first combat aircraft that could continue its mission if one of its four engines failed. On 20 August 1935, the prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes with an average ground speed of 252 mph (219 kn; 406 km/h), much faster than the competition.
At the fly-off, the four-engined Boeing's performance was superior to those of the twin-engine DB-1 and Model 146. In March 1935 Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur created GHQ Air Force and promoted lieutenant colonel Frank Maxwell Andrews to brigadier general to become the head of GHQ Air Force. MacArthur and Andrews both believed that the capabilities of large four-engined aircraft exceeded those of shorter-ranged, twin-engine aircraft, and that the B-17 was better suited to new, emerging USAAC doctrine. Their opinions were shared by the air corps procurement officers, and even before the competition had finished, they suggested buying 65 B-17s.
On 30 October 1935, a test flight determining the rate of climb and service ceiling was planned. The command pilot was Major Ployer Peter Hill, Wright Field Material Division Chief of the Flying Branch, his first flight in the Model 299. Copilot was Lieutenant Donald Putt, while Boeing chief test pilot Leslie R. Tower was behind the pilots in an advisory role. Also on board were Wright Field test observer John Cutting and mechanic Mark Koegler. The plane stalled and spun into the ground soon after takeoff, bursting into flames. Though initially surviving the impact, Hill died within a few hours, and Tower on 19 November. Post-accident interviews with Tower and Putt determined the control surface gust lock had not been released. Doyle notes, "The loss of Hill and Tower, and the Model 299, was directly responsible for the creation of the modern written checklist used by pilots to this day."
The crashed Model 299 could not finish the evaluation, thus disqualifying it from the competition. While the Air Corps was still enthusiastic about the aircraft's potential, Army officials were daunted by its cost; Douglas quoted a unit price of $58,200 (equivalent to $1,018,000 in 2023) based on a production order of 220 aircraft, compared with $99,620 (equivalent to $1,743,000 in 2023 ) from Boeing. MacArthur's successor, Army Chief of Staff Malin Craig, canceled the order for 65 YB-17s and ordered 133 of the twin-engined Douglas B-18 Bolo, instead. Secretary of War Harry Hines Woodring in October 1938 decided that no four-engine bombers, including B-17s, would be purchased by the War Department in 1939.
The loss was not total... But Boeing's hopes for a substantial bomber contract were dashed.
— Peter Bowers, 1976
Initial orders
Despite the crash, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance, and on 17 January 1936, through a legal loophole, the Air Corps ordered 13 YB-17s (designated Y1B-17 after November 1936 to denote its special F-1 funding) for service testing. The YB-17 incorporated a number of significant changes from the Model 299, including more powerful Wright R-1820-39 Cyclone engines. Although the prototype was company-owned and never received a military serial (the B-17 designation itself did not appear officially until January 1936, nearly three months after the prototype crashed), the term "XB-17" was retroactively applied to the NX13372's airframe and has entered the lexicon to describe the first Flying Fortress.
Between 1 March and 4 August 1937, 12 of the 13 Y1B-17s were delivered to the 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field in Virginia for operational development and flight tests. One suggestion adopted was the use of a preflight checklist to avoid accidents such as that which befell the Model 299. In one of their first missions, three B-17s, directed by lead navigator Lieutenant Curtis LeMay, were sent by General Andrews to "intercept" and photograph the Italian ocean liner Rex 610 miles (980 km) off the Atlantic coast. The mission was successful and widely publicized. The 13th Y1B-17 was delivered to the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio, to be used for flight testing.
A 14th Y1B-17 (37-369), originally constructed for ground testing of the airframe's strength, was upgraded by Boeing with exhaust-driven General Electric turbo-superchargers, and designated Y1B-17A. Designed by Sanford Moss, engine exhaust gases turned the turbine's steel-alloy blades, forcing high-pressure air into the Wright Cyclone GR-1820-39 engine supercharger. Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers, and its first flight was delayed until 29 April 1938. The aircraft was delivered to the Army on 31 January 1939. Once service testing was complete, the Y1B-17s and Y1B-17A were redesignated B-17 and B-17A, respectively, to signify the change to operational status. The Y1B-17A had a maximum speed of 311 mph (270 kn; 501 km/h), at its best operational altitude, compared to 239 mph (208 kn; 385 km/h) for the Y1B-17. Also, the Y1B-17A's new service ceiling was more than 2 miles (3,200 m) higher at 38,000 feet (12,000 m), compared to the Y1B-17's 27,800 feet (8,500 m). These turbo-superchargers were incorporated into the B-17B.
Opposition to the Air Corps' ambitions for the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-17B were ordered to equip two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast. Improved with larger flaps and rudder and a well-framed, 10 panel plexiglass nose, the B-17Bs were delivered in five small batches between July 1939 and March 1940. In July 1940, an order for 512 B-17s was issued, but at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, fewer than 200 were in service with the army.
A total of 155 B-17s of all variants were delivered between 11 January 1937 and 30 November 1941, but production quickly accelerated, with the B-17 once holding the record for the highest production rate for any large aircraft. The aircraft went on to serve in every World War II combat zone, and by the time production ended in May 1945, 12,731 B-17s had been built by Boeing, Douglas, and Vega (a subsidiary of Lockheed).
Though the crash of the prototype 299 in 1935 had almost wiped out Boeing, now it was seen as a boon. Instead of building models based on experimental engineering, Boeing had been hard at work developing their bomber and now had versions ready for production far better than would have been possible otherwise. One of the most significant weapons of World War II would be ready, but only by a hair.
— Jeff Ethell, 1985
Design and variants
Main article: List of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variantsVariant | Produced | First flight |
---|---|---|
Model 299 | 1 | 28 July 1935 |
YB-17 | 13 | 2 December 1936 |
YB-17A | 1 | 29 April 1938 |
B-17B | 39 | 27 June 1939 |
B-17C | 38 | 21 July 1940 |
B-17D | 42 | 3 February 1941 |
B-17E | 512 | 5 September 1941 |
B-17F (total) | 3,405 | 30 May 1942 |
B-17F-BO | 2,300 | |
B-17F-DL | 605 | |
B-17F-VE | 500 | |
B-17G (total) | 8,680 | 16 August 1943 |
B-17G-BO | 4,035 | |
B-17G-DL | 2,395 | |
B-17G-VE | 2,250 | |
Total | 12,731 | |
B-17s were built at Boeing Plant 2, Seattle, Washington (BO), Lockheed-Vega, Burbank, California (VE) and Douglas Aircraft, Long Beach, California (DL) |
The aircraft went through several alterations in each of its design stages and variants. Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd Bomb Group at Langley Field, Virginia, to develop heavy bombing techniques, and the 13th was used for flight testing at the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio. Experiments on this aircraft led to the use of a quartet of General Electric turbo-superchargers, which later became standard on the B-17 line. A 14th aircraft, the YB-17A, originally destined for ground testing only and upgraded with the turbochargers, was redesignated B-17A after testing had finished.
As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon the basic design. To enhance performance at slower speeds, the B-17B was altered to include larger rudders and flaps. The B-17C changed from three bulged, oval-shaped gun blisters to two flush, oval-shaped gun window openings, and on the lower fuselage, a single "bathtub" gun gondola housing, which resembled the similarly configured and located Bodenlafette/"Bola" ventral defensive emplacement on the German Heinkel He 111P-series medium bomber.
While models A through D of the B-17 were designed defensively, the large-tailed B-17E was the first model primarily focused on offensive warfare. The B-17E was an extensive revision of the Model 299 design: The fuselage was extended by 10 ft (3.0 m); a much larger rear fuselage, vertical tailfin, rudder, and horizontal stabilizer were added; a gunner's position was added in the new tail; the nose (especially the bombardier's framed, 10-panel nose glazing) remained relatively the same as the earlier B through D versions had; a Sperry electrically powered manned dorsal gun turret just behind the cockpit was added; a similarly powered (also built by Sperry) manned ventral ball turret just aft of the bomb bay – replaced the relatively hard-to-use, Sperry model 645705-D remotely operated ventral turret on the earliest examples of the E variant. These modifications resulted in a 20% increase in aircraft weight. The B-17's turbocharged Wright R-1820 Cyclone 9 engines were upgraded to increasingly more powerful versions of the same powerplants throughout its production, and similarly, the number of machine gun emplacement locations was increased.
The B-17F variant was the primary version used by the Eighth Air Force to face the Germans in 1943, and standardized the manned Sperry ball turret for ventral defense, also replacing the earlier, 10-panel framed bombardier's nose glazing from the B subtype with an enlarged, nearly frameless Plexiglas bombardier's nose enclosure for improved forward vision.
Two experimental versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations, the XB-38 'Flying Fortress' and the YB-40 'Flying Fortress.' The XB-38 was an engine testbed for Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled engines, should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable. The only prototype XB-38 to fly crashed on its ninth flight, and the concept was abandoned. The Allison V-1710 was reallocated to fighter aircraft.
The YB-40 was a heavily armed modification of the standard B-17 used before the North American P-51 Mustang, an effective long-range fighter, became available to act as escort. Additional armament included an additional dorsal turret in the radio room, a remotely operated and fired Bendix-built "chin turret" directly below the bombardier's accommodation, and twin 50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns in each of the waist positions. The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds. All of these modifications made the YB-40 well over 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) heavier than a fully loaded B-17F. The YB-40s with their greater weight, had trouble keeping up with the lighter bombers once they had dropped their bombs, so the project was abandoned and finally phased out in July 1943. The final production blocks of the B-17F from Douglas' plants did, however, adopt the YB-40's "chin turret", giving them a much-improved forward defense capability.
By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to 13, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were completed. The B-17G was the final version of the Flying Fortress, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F, and in total, 8,680 were built, the last (by Lockheed) on 28 July 1945. Many B-17Gs were converted for other missions such as cargo hauling, engine testing, and reconnaissance. Initially designated SB-17G, a number of B-17Gs were also converted for search-and-rescue duties, later to be redesignated B-17H.
Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls and television cameras, loaded with 20,000 lb (9,100 kg) of high explosives and designated BQ-7 "Aphrodite missiles" for Operation Aphrodite against bombing-resistant German bunkers. The operation, which involved remotely flying the Aphrodite drones onto their targets by accompanying CQ-17 "mothership" control aircraft, was approved on 26 June 1944, and assigned to the 388th Bombardment Group stationed at RAF Fersfield, a satellite of RAF Knettishall.
The first four drones were sent to Mimoyecques (V-3 site), the Siracourt V-1 bunker, and the V-2 Blockhaus d'Éperlecques at Watten, and La Coupole at Wizernes on 4 August, causing little damage and two pilots were killed. On August 12, a Consolidated B-24 Liberator, part of the United States Navy's contribution ("Project Anvil"), en route for Heligoland piloted by Lieutenant Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. (future U.S. president John F. Kennedy's elder brother) exploded over the Blyth estuary. Blast damage was caused over a radius of 5 miles (8.0 km). Naval flights stopped but a few more missions were flown by the USAAF. The Aphrodite project was effectively scrapped in early 1945.
Operational history
The B-17 began operations in World War II with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1941, and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army.
During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide. The British heavy bombers, the Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax, dropped 608,612 long tons (681,645 short tons; 618,378 t) and 224,207 long tons (251,112 short tons; 227,805 t) respectively.
RAF use
The RAF entered World War II without a sufficient supply of modern heavy bombers, with the largest available long-range medium bombers in any numbers being the Vickers Wellington, which could carry 4,500 pounds (2,000 kg) of bombs. While the Short Stirling and Handley Page Halifax became its primary bombers by 1941, in early 1940, the RAF agreed with the U.S. Army Air Corps to acquire 20 B-17Cs, which were given the service name Fortress Mk.I. Their first operation, against Wilhelmshaven on 8 July 1941 was unsuccessful. On 24 July three B-17s of 90 Squadron took part in a raid on the German capital ship Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen anchored in Brest from 30,000 ft (9,100 m), to draw German fighters away from 18 Handley Page Hampdens attacking at lower altitudes, and in time for 79 Vickers Wellingtons to attack later with the German fighters refueling. The operation did not work as expected, with 90 Squadron's Fortresses being unopposed.
By September, the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat and had experienced numerous mechanical problems, and Bomber Command abandoned daylight bombing raids using the Fortress I because of the aircraft's poor performance. The experience showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads, and more accurate bombing methods were required. However, the USAAF continued using the B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings by the RAF that attempts at daylight bombing would be ineffective.
As use by Bomber Command had been curtailed, the RAF transferred its remaining Fortress Mk.I aircraft to Coastal Command for use as a long-range maritime patrol aircraft. These were augmented starting in July 1942 by 45 Fortress Mk.IIA (B-17E) followed by 19 Fortress Mk II (B-17F) and three Fortress Mk III (B-17G). A Fortress IIA from No. 206 Squadron RAF sank U-627 on 27 October 1942, the first of 11 U-boat kills credited to RAF Fortress bombers during the war.
As sufficient Consolidated Liberators finally became available, Coastal Command withdrew the Fortress from the Azores, transferring the type to the meteorological reconnaissance role. Three squadrons undertook Met profiles from airfields in Iceland, Scotland, and England, gathering data for vital weather forecasting purposes.
The RAF's No. 223 Squadron, as part of 100 Group, operated several Fortresses equipped with an electronic warfare system known as "Airborne Cigar" (ABC). This was operated by German-speaking radio operators to identify and jam German ground controllers' broadcasts to their nightfighters. They could also pose as ground controllers themselves to steer nightfighters away from the bomber streams.
Initial USAAF operations over Europe
The air corps – renamed United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 20 June 1941 – used the B-17 and other bombers to bomb from high altitudes with the aid of the then-secret Norden bombsight, known as the "Blue Ox", which was an optical electromechanical gyrostabilized analog computer. The device was able to determine, from variables put in by the bombardier, the point at which the bombs should be released to hit the target. The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level altitude during the final moments before release.
The USAAF began building up its air forces in Europe using B-17Es soon after entering the war. The first Eighth Air Force units arrived in High Wycombe, England, on 12 May 1942, to form the 97th Bomb Group. On 17 August 1942, 12 B-17Es of the 97th, with the lead aircraft piloted by Major Paul Tibbets and carrying Brigadier General Ira Eaker as an observer, were close escorted by four squadrons of RAF Spitfire IXs (and a further five squadrons of Spitfire Vs to cover the withdrawal) on the first USAAF heavy bomber raid over Europe, against the large railroad marshalling yards at Rouen-Sotteville in France, while a further six aircraft flew a diversionary raid along the French coast. The operation, carried out in good visibility, was a success, with only minor damage to one aircraft, unrelated to enemy action, and half the bombs landing in the target area.
Two additional groups arrived in Britain at the same time, bringing with them the first B-17Fs, which served as the primary AAF heavy bomber fighting the Germans until September 1943. As the raids of the American bombing campaign grew in numbers and frequency, German interception efforts grew in strength (such as during the attempted bombing of Kiel on 13 June 1943), such that unescorted bombing missions came to be discouraged.
Combined offensive
The two different strategies of the American and British bomber commands were organized at the Casablanca Conference in January 1943. The resulting "Combined Bomber Offensive" weakened the Wehrmacht, destroyed German morale, and established air superiority through Operation Pointblank's destruction of German fighter strength in preparation for a ground offensive. The USAAF bombers attacked by day, with British operations – chiefly against industrial cities – by night.
Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe. General Ira C. Eaker and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories, and ball-bearing manufacturers. Attacks began in April 1943 on heavily fortified key industrial plants in Bremen and Recklinghausen.
Since the airfield bombings were not appreciably reducing German fighter strength, additional B-17 groups were formed, and Eaker ordered major missions deeper into Germany against important industrial targets. The 8th Air Force then targeted the ball-bearing factories in Schweinfurt, hoping to cripple the war effort there. The first raid on 17 August 1943 did not result in critical damage to the factories, with the 230 attacking B-17s being intercepted by an estimated 300 Luftwaffe fighters. The Germans shot down 36 aircraft with the loss of 200 men, and coupled with a raid earlier in the day against Regensburg, a total of 60 B-17s were lost that day.
A second attempt on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 later came to be known as "Black Thursday". While the attack was successful at disrupting the entire works, severely curtailing work there for the remainder of the war, it was at an extreme cost. Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 60 were shot down over Germany, five crashed on approach to Britain, and 12 more were scrapped due to damage – a loss of 77 B-17s. Additionally, 122 bombers were damaged and needed repairs before their next flights. Of 2,900 men in the crews, about 650 did not return, although some survived as prisoners of war. Only 33 bombers landed without damage. These losses were a result of concentrated attacks by over 300 German fighters.
Such high losses of aircrews could not be sustained, and the USAAF, recognizing the vulnerability of heavy bombers to interceptors when operating alone, suspended daylight bomber raids deep into Germany until the development of an escort fighter that could protect the bombers all the way from the United Kingdom to Germany and back. At the same time, the German nightfighting ability noticeably improved to counter the nighttime strikes, challenging the conventional faith in the cover of darkness. The 8th Air Force alone lost 176 bombers in October 1943, and was to suffer similar casualties on 11 January 1944 on missions to Oschersleben, Halberstadt, and Brunswick. Lieutenant General James Doolittle, commander of the 8th, had ordered the second Schweinfurt mission to be cancelled as the weather deteriorated, but the lead units had already entered hostile air space and continued with the mission. Most of the escorts turned back or missed the rendezvous, and as a result, 60 B-17s were destroyed.
A third raid on Schweinfurt on 24 February 1944 highlighted what came to be known as "Big Week", during which the bombing missions were directed against German aircraft production. German fighters needed to respond, and the North American P-51 Mustang and Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fighters (equipped with improved drop tanks to extend their range) accompanying the American heavies all the way to and from the targets engaged them. The escort fighters reduced the loss rate to below 7%, with a total of 247 B-17s lost in 3,500 sorties while taking part in the Big Week raids.
By September 1944, 27 of the 42 bomb groups of the 8th Air Force and six of the 21 groups of the 15th Air Force used B-17s. Losses to flak continued to take a high toll of heavy bombers through 1944, but the war in Europe was being won by the Allies. And by 27 April 1945, 2 days after the last heavy bombing mission in Europe, the rate of aircraft loss was so low that replacement aircraft were no longer arriving and the number of bombers per bomb group was reduced. The Combined Bomber Offensive was effectively complete.
Pacific Theater
On 7 December 1941, a group of 12 B-17s of the 38th (four B-17C) and 88th (eight B-17E) Reconnaissance Squadrons, en route to reinforce the Philippines, was flown into Pearl Harbor from Hamilton Field, California, arriving while the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor was going on. Leonard "Smitty" Smith Humiston, co-pilot on First Lieutenant Robert H. Richards' B-17C, AAF S/N 40-2049, reported that he thought the U.S. Navy was giving the flight a 21-gun salute to celebrate the arrival of the bombers, after which he realized that Pearl Harbor was under attack. The Fortress came under fire from Japanese fighter aircraft, though the crew was unharmed with the exception of one member who suffered an abrasion on his hand. Japanese activity forced them to divert from Hickam Field to Bellows Field. On landing, the aircraft overran the runway and ran into a ditch, where it was then strafed. Although initially deemed repairable, 40-2049 (11th BG / 38th RS) received more than 200 bullet holes and never flew again. Ten of the 12 Fortresses survived the attack.
By 1941, the Far East Air Force (FEAF) based at Clark Field in the Philippines had 35 B-17s, with the War Department eventually planning to raise that to 165. When the FEAF received word of the attack on Pearl Harbor, General Lewis H. Brereton sent his bombers and fighters on various patrol missions to prevent them from being caught on the ground. Brereton planned B-17 raids on Japanese airfields in Formosa, in accordance with Rainbow 5 war plan directives, but this was overruled by General Douglas MacArthur. A series of disputed discussions and decisions, followed by several confusing and false reports of air attacks, delayed the authorization of the sortie. By the time the B-17s and escorting Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighters were about to get airborne, they were destroyed by Japanese bombers of the 11th Air Fleet. The FEAF lost half its aircraft during the first strike, and was all but destroyed over the next few days.
Another early World War II Pacific engagement, on 10 December 1941, involved Colin Kelly, who reportedly crashed his B-17 into the Japanese battleship Haruna, which was later acknowledged as a near bomb miss on the heavy cruiser Ashigara. Nonetheless, this deed made him a celebrated war hero. Kelly's B-17C AAF S/N 40-2045 (19th BG / 30th BS) crashed about 6 mi (10 km) from Clark Field after he held the burning Fortress steady long enough for the surviving crew to bail out. Kelly was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Noted Japanese ace Saburō Sakai is credited with this kill, and in the process, came to respect the ability of the Fortress to absorb punishment.
B-17s were used in early battles of the Pacific with little success, notably the Battle of Coral Sea and Battle of Midway. While there, the Fifth Air Force B-17s were tasked with disrupting the Japanese sea lanes. Air Corps doctrine dictated bombing runs from high altitude, but they soon found only 1% of their bombs hit targets. However, B-17s were operating at heights too great for most A6M Zero fighters to reach.
The B-17's greatest success in the Pacific was in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, in which aircraft of this type were responsible for damaging and sinking several Japanese transport ships. On 2 March 1943, six B-17s of the 64th Squadron flying at 10,000 ft (3,000 m) attacked a major Japanese troop convoy off New Guinea, using skip bombing to sink Kyokusei Maru, which carried 1,200 army troops, and damage two other transports, Teiyo Maru and Nojima. On 3 March 1943, 13 B-17s flying at 7,000 ft (2,000 m) bombed the convoy, forcing the convoy to disperse and reducing the concentration of their anti-aircraft defenses. The B-17s attracted a number of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, which were in turn attacked by the P-38 Lightning escorts. One B-17 broke up in the air, and its crew was forced to take to their parachutes. Japanese fighter pilots machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew members as they descended and attacked others in the water after they landed. Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings, though these were also then lost. The allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed, while the B-17 crews claimed five more. Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged. The remaining seven transports and three of the eight destroyers were then sunk by a combination of low level strafing runs by Royal Australian Air Force Beaufighters, and skip bombing by USAAF North American B-25 Mitchells at 100 ft (30 m), while B-17s claimed five hits from higher altitudes. On the morning of 4 March 1943, a B-17 sank the destroyer Asashio with a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb while she was picking up survivors from Arashio.
At their peak, 168 B-17 bombers were in the Pacific theater in September 1942, but already in mid-1942 Gen. Arnold had decided that the B-17 was unsuitable for the kind of operations required in the Pacific and made plans to replace all of the B-17s in the theater with B-24s (and later, B-29s) as soon as they became available. Although the conversion was not complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat operations in the Pacific theater came to an end after a little over a year. Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the 54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop section and were used to drop supplies to ground forces operating in close contact with the enemy. Special airdrop B-17s supported Australian commandos operating near the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17 target in 1942 and early 1943.
B-17s were still used in the Pacific later in the war, however, mainly in the combat search and rescue role. A number of B-17Gs, redesignated B-17Hs and later SB-17Gs, were used in the Pacific during the final year of the war to carry and drop lifeboats to stranded bomber crews who had been shot down or crashed at sea. These aircraft were nicknamed Dumbos, and remained in service for many years after the end of World War II.
Bomber defense
Before the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor. Defensive armament increased from four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and one 0.30 in (7.62 mm) nose machine gun in the B-17C, to thirteen 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the B-17G. But because the bombers could not maneuver when attacked by fighters and needed to be flown straight and level during their final bomb run, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack.
A 1943 survey by the USAAF found that over half the bombers shot down by the Germans had left the protection of the main formation. To address this problem, the United States developed the bomb-group formation, which evolved into the staggered combat box formation in which all the B-17s could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns. This made a formation of bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters. In order to more quickly form these formations, assembly ships, planes with distinctive paint schemes, were utilized to guide bombers into formation, saving assembly time. Luftwaffe fighter pilots likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a fliegendes Stachelschwein, "flying porcupine", with dozens of machine guns in a combat box aimed at them from almost every direction. However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive maneuvers: they had to fly constantly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to German flak. Moreover, German fighter aircraft later developed the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict damage with minimum risk.
The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely. Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth Air Force during World War II, said, "The plane can be cut and slashed almost to pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew home." Martin Caidin reported one instance in which a B-17 suffered a midair collision with a Focke-Wulf Fw 190, losing an engine and suffering serious damage to both the starboard horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer, and being knocked out of formation by the impact. The B-17 was reported as shot down by observers, but it survived and brought its crew home without injury. Its toughness was compensation for its shorter range and lighter bomb load compared to the B-24 and British Avro Lancaster heavy bombers. Stories circulated of B-17s returning to base with tails shredded, engines destroyed and large portions of their wings destroyed by flak. This durability, together with the large operational numbers in the Eighth Air Force and the fame achieved by the Memphis Belle, made the B-17 a key bomber aircraft of the war. Other factors such as combat effectiveness and political issues also contributed to the B-17's success.
The B-17 adopted early electronic countermeasures, such as Window and Carpet to confuse German radar. This greatly reduced the effectiveness of German Flak, by perhaps as much as 75%, meaning that 450 bombers were saved by these technologies.
Luftwaffe attacks
After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that on average it took about 20 hits with 20 mm shells fired from the rear to bring them down. Pilots of average ability hit the bombers with only about two percent of the rounds they fired, so to obtain 20 hits, the average pilot had to fire one thousand 20 mm (0.79 in) rounds at a bomber. Early versions of the Fw 190, one of the best German interceptor fighters, were equipped with two 20 mm (0.79 in) MG FF cannons, which carried only 500 rounds when belt-fed (normally using 60-round drum magazines in earlier installations), and later with the better Mauser MG 151/20 cannons, which had a longer effective range than the MG FF weapon. Later versions carried four or even six MG 151/20 cannon and twin 13 mm machine guns. The German fighters found that when attacking from the front, where fewer defensive guns were mounted (and where the pilot was exposed and not protected by armor as he was from the rear), it took only four or five hits to bring a bomber down.
To rectify the Fw 190's shortcomings, the number of cannons fitted was doubled to four, with a corresponding increase in the amount of ammunition carried, creating the Sturmbock bomber destroyer version. This type replaced the vulnerable twin-engine Zerstörer heavy fighters which could not survive interception by P-51 Mustangs flying well ahead of the combat boxes in an air supremacy role starting very early in 1944 to clear any Luftwaffe defensive fighters from the skies. By 1944, a further upgrade to Rheinmetall-Borsig's 30 mm (1.2 in) MK 108 cannons mounted either in the wing, or in underwing, conformal mount gun pods, was made for the Sturmbock Focke-Wulfs as either the /R2 or /R8 field modification kits, enabling aircraft to bring a bomber down with just a few hits.
The adoption of the 21 cm Nebelwerfer-derived Werfer-Granate 21 (Wfr. Gr. 21) rocket mortar by the Luftwaffe in mid-August 1943 promised the introduction of a major "stand-off" style of offensive weapon – one strut-mounted tubular launcher was fixed under each wing panel on the Luftwaffe's single-engine fighters, and two under each wing panel of a few twin-engine Bf 110 daylight Zerstörer aircraft. However, due to the slow 715 mph velocity and characteristic ballistic drop of the fired rocket (despite the usual mounting of the launcher at about 15° upward orientation), and the small number of fighters fitted with the weapons, the Wfr. Gr. 21 never had a major effect on the combat box formations of Fortresses. The Luftwaffe also fitted heavy-caliber Bordkanone-series 37, 50 and even 75 mm (2.95 in) cannon as anti-bomber weapons on twin-engine aircraft such as the special Ju 88P fighters, as well as one model of the Me 410 Hornisse but these measures did not have much effect on the American strategic bomber offensive. The Me 262, however, had moderate success against the B-17 late in the war. With its usual nose-mounted armament of four MK 108 cannons, and with some examples later equipped with the R4M rocket, launched from underwing racks, it could fire from outside the range of the bombers' .50 in (12.7 mm) defensive guns and bring an aircraft down with one hit, as both the MK 108's shells and the R4M's warheads were filled with the "shattering" force of the strongly brisant Hexogen military explosive.
Luftwaffe-captured B-17s
During World War II approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished by Germany after crash-landing or being forced down, with about a dozen put back into the air. Given German Balkenkreuz national markings on their wings and fuselage sides, and swastika tail fin–flashes, the captured B-17s were used to determine the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in attack tactics. Others, with the cover designations Dornier Do 200 and Do 288, were used as long-range transports by the Kampfgeschwader 200 special duties unit, carrying out agent drops and supplying secret airstrips in the Middle East and North Africa. They were chosen specifically for these missions as being more suitable for this role than other available German aircraft; they never attempted to deceive the Allies and always wore full Luftwaffe markings. One B-17 of KG200, bearing the Luftwaffe's KG 200 Geschwaderkennung (combat wing code) markings A3+FB, was interned by Spain when it landed at Valencia airfield, 27 June 1944, remaining there for the rest of the war. It has been alleged that some B-17s kept their Allied markings and were used by the Luftwaffe in attempts to infiltrate B-17 bombing formations and report on their positions and altitudes. According to these allegations, the practice was initially successful, but Army Air Force combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's formation.
Soviet-interned B-17s
The U.S. did not offer B-17s to the Soviet Union as part of its war materiel assistance program, but at least 73 aircraft were acquired by the Soviet Air Force. These aircraft had landed with mechanical trouble during the shuttle bombing raids over Germany or had been damaged by a Luftwaffe raid in Poltava. The Soviets restored 23 to flying condition and concentrated them in the 890th Bomber Regiment of the 45th Bomber Aviation Division, but they never saw combat. In 1946 (or 1947, according to Holm), the regiment was assigned to the Kazan factory (moving from Baranovichi) to help the Soviet effort to reproduce the more advanced Boeing B-29 as the Tupolev Tu-4.
Swiss-interned B-17s
During the Allied bomber offensive, some US and British bombers landed in Switzerland and were interned. Some had been damaged and were unable to get back to Allied bases. Others flew into Swiss airspace due to navigation errors, and on rare occasions, accidentally bombed Swiss cities. Swiss fighter aircraft intercepted such aircraft and sought to force them to land.
In October 1943, a B-17F-25-VE (tail number 25841) developed engine trouble after a raid over Germany and was forced to land in Switzerland. The plane and its US flight crew were interned. The aircraft was turned over to the Swiss Air Force, which flew the bomber until the end of the war, using other interned but non-airworthy B-17s for spare parts. The bomber's topside surfaces were repainted a dark olive drab, but it retained its light gray underwing and lower fuselage surfaces. It carried the Swiss national white cross insignia in red squares on the topside and underside of its wings, and on both sides of its rudder and its fuselage, with the light gray flash letters "RD" and "I" on either side of the fuselage insignias.
Japanese-captured B-17s
In 1942, Japanese technicians and mechanics rebuilt three damaged B-17s, one "D" and two "E" series, using parts salvaged from abandoned B-17 wrecks in the Philippines and the Java East Indies. The three bombers, which still contained their top-secret Norden bombsights, were ferried to Japan where they underwent extensive technical evaluation by the Giken, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's Air Technical Research Institute (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo) at Tachikawa's air field. The "D" model, later deemed an obsolescent design, was used in Japanese training and propaganda films. The two "E"s were used to develop air combat tactics for use against B-17s; they were also used as enemy aircraft in pilot and crew training films. One of the two "E"s was photographed late in the war by US aerial recon. It was code-named "Tachikawa 105" after the mystery aircraft's wingspan (104 ft (32 m)) but not correctly identified as a captured B-17 until after the war. No traces of the three captured Flying Fortresses were ever found in Japan by Allied occupation forces. The bombers were assumed either lost by various means or scrapped late in the war for their vital war materials.
Postwar history
U.S. Air Force
See also: 3205th Drone GroupAfter World War II, the B-17 was quickly phased out of use as a bomber and the Army Air Forces retired most of its fleet. Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States where the majority were sold for scrap and melted down, although many remained in use in second-line roles such as VIP transports, air-sea rescue and photo-reconnaissance. Strategic Air Command (SAC), established in 1946, used reconnaissance B-17s (at first called F-9 , later RB-17) until 1949.
The USAF Air Rescue Service of the Military Air Transport Service (MATS) operated B-17s as so-called "Dumbo" air-sea rescue aircraft. Work on using B-17s to carry airborne lifeboats had begun in 1943, but they entered service in the European theater only in February 1945. They were also used to provide search and rescue support for B-29 raids against Japan. About 130 B-17s were converted to the air-sea rescue role, at first designated B-17H and later SB-17G. Some SB-17s had their defensive guns removed, while others retained their guns to allow use close to combat areas. The SB-17 served through the Korean War, remaining in service with USAF until the mid-1950s.
In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as drone aircraft for atmospheric sampling during the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, being able to fly close to or even through the mushroom clouds without endangering a crew. This led to more widespread conversion of B-17s as drones and drone control aircraft, both for further use in atomic testing and as targets for testing surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. One hundred and seven B-17s were converted to drones. The last operational mission flown by a USAF Fortress was conducted on 6 August 1959, when a DB-17P, serial 44-83684 , directed a QB-17G, out of Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, as a target for an AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missile fired from a McDonnell F-101 Voodoo. A retirement ceremony was held several days later at Holloman AFB, after which 44-83684 was retired. It was subsequently used in various films and in the 1960s television show 12 O'Clock High before being retired to the Planes of Fame aviation museum in Chino, California. Perhaps the most famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, has been restored – with the B-17D The Swoose under way – to her World War II wartime appearance by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
U.S. Navy and Coast Guard
During the last year of World War II and shortly thereafter, the United States Navy (USN) acquired 48 ex-USAAF B-17s for patrol and air-sea rescue work. The first two ex-USAAF B-17s, a B-17F (later modified to B-17G standard) and a B-17G were obtained by the Navy for various development programs. At first, these aircraft operated under their original USAAF designations, but on 31 July 1945 they were assigned the naval aircraft designation PB-1, a designation which had originally been used in 1925 for the Boeing Model 50 experimental flying boat.
Thirty-two B-17Gs were used by the Navy under the designation PB-1W, the suffix -W indicating an airborne early warning role. A large radome for an S-band AN/APS-20 search radar was fitted underneath the fuselage and additional internal fuel tanks were added for longer range, with the provision for additional underwing fuel tanks. Originally, the B-17 was also chosen because of its heavy defensive armament, but this was later removed. These aircraft were painted dark blue, the standard Navy paint scheme which had been adopted in late 1944. PB-1Ws continued in USN service until 1955, gradually being phased out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known in the USAF as the EC-121, a designation adopted by the USN in 1962), a military version of the Lockheed 1049 Constellation commercial airliner.
In July 1945, 16 B-17s were transferred to the Coast Guard via the Navy; these aircraft were initially assigned U.S. Navy Bureau Numbers (BuNo), but were delivered to the Coast Guard designated as PB-1Gs beginning in July 1946. Coast Guard PB-1Gs were stationed at a number of bases in the U.S. and Newfoundland, with five at Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina, two at CGAS San Francisco, two at NAS Argentia, Newfoundland, one at CGAS Kodiak, Alaska, and one in Washington state. They were used primarily in the "Dumbo" air-sea rescue role, but were also used for iceberg patrol duties and for photo mapping. The Coast Guard PB-1Gs served throughout the 1950s, the last example not being withdrawn from service until 14 October 1959.
Special operations
B-17s were used by the CIA front companies Civil Air Transport, Air America and Intermountain Aviation for special missions. These included B-17G 44-85531, registered as N809Z. These aircraft were primarily used for agent drop missions over the People's Republic of China, flying from Taiwan, with Taiwanese crews. Four B-17s were shot down in these operations.
In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been stripped of all weapons and painted black. One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was flown to Clark Air Base in the Philippines in mid-September, assigned for covert missions into Tibet.
On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8, as Operation Coldfeet. Smith and LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and searched the station for several days. On 1 June, Seigrist and Price returned and picked up Smith and LeSchack using a Fulton Skyhook system installed on the B-17. N809Z was used to perform a Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie Thunderball in 1965. This aircraft, now restored to its original B-17G configuration, was on display in the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon until it was sold to the Collings Foundation in 2015.
Operators
For a more comprehensive list, see List of B-17 Flying Fortress operators.The B-17, a versatile aircraft, served in dozens of USAAF units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in other roles for the RAF. Its main use was in Europe, where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft did not hamper it as much as in the Pacific Theater. Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide.
- Argentina
- Australia
- Austria
- Bolivia
- Brazil
- Canada
- Colombia
- Denmark
- Dominican Republic
- France
- Germany
- Iran
- Israel
- Japan
- Mexico
- Nicaragua
- Peru
- Portugal
- South Africa
- Republic of China
- Soviet Union
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- United Kingdom
- United States
Surviving aircraft and wrecks
Of the more than 12,000 B-17 made, six were known to be in flying as of 2023. There are about 40 B-17 in collections in the United States, and overall about 46 globally.
There are also nearly complete or partially complete B-17 wrecks that have been discovered: an example of this is a B-17F that ditched in the Pacific on 11 July 1943, but was located in 1986.
Further information: List of surviving Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses
Fortresses as a symbol
The B-17 Flying Fortress became symbolic of the United States of America's air power. In a 1943 Consolidated Aircraft poll of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated advertisements had been run in newspapers, 73% had heard of the B-24 and 90% knew of the B-17.
After the first Y1B-17s were delivered to the Army Air Corps 2nd Bombardment Group, they were used on flights to promote their long range and navigational capabilities. In January 1938, group commander Colonel Robert Olds flew a Y1B-17 from the U.S. east coast to the west coast, setting a transcontinental record of 13 hours 27 minutes. He also broke the west-to-east coast record on the return trip, averaging 245 mph (394 km/h) in 11 hours 1 minute. Six bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group took off from Langley Field on 15 February 1938 as part of a goodwill flight to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Covering 12,000 miles (19,000 km) they returned on 27 February, with seven aircraft setting off on a flight to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, three days later. In a well-publicized mission on 12 May of the same year, three Y1B-17s "intercepted" and took photographs of the Italian ocean liner SS Rex 610 miles (980 km) off the Atlantic coast.
Many pilots who flew both the B-17 and the B-24 preferred the B-17 for its greater stability and ease in formation flying. The electrical systems were less vulnerable to damage than the B-24's hydraulics, and the B-17 was easier to fly than a B-24 when missing an engine. During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the Eighth Air Force, had an open preference for the B-17. Lieutenant General Jimmy Doolittle wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping field forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their individual servicing and spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth. His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose mission studies showed that the Flying Fortress's utility and survivability was much greater than those of the B-24 Liberator. Making it back to base on numerous occasions, despite extensive battle damage, the B-17's durability became legendary; stories and photos of B-17s surviving battle damage were widely circulated during the war. Despite an inferior performance and smaller bombload than the more numerous B-24 Liberators, a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction with the B-17.
Notable B-17s
- All American – This B-17F survived having her tail almost cut off in a mid-air collision with a Bf 109 over Tunisia but returned safely to base in Algeria.
- Snap! Crackle! Pop! – B-17F-27-BO, 41-24620, part of the 360th Bomb Squadron, 303rd Bomb Group, was on a daylight bombing run over Saint-Nazaire, France when downed by flak. The ball turret gunner, Alan Magee, his parachute damaged and unusable, free fell from 22,000 feet, survived and became a POW.
- Chief Seattle – sponsored by the city of Seattle, she disappeared (MIA) on 14 August 1942 flying a recon mission for the 19th BG, 435th BS and the crew declared dead on 7 December 1945.
- Hell's Kitchen – B-17F 41-24392 was one of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to complete more than 100 combat missions.
- Mary Ann – a fictional B-17D that was part of an unarmed flight which left Hamilton Air Field, Novato, California on 6 December 1941 en route to Hickam Field in Hawaii, arriving during the attack on Pearl Harbor. The plane and her crew were immediately forced into action on Wake Island and in the Philippines during the outbreak of World War II. She became famous when her fictional exploits were featured in Air Force, one of the first of the patriotic war films released in 1943.
- Memphis Belle – one of the first B-17s to complete a tour of duty of 25 missions in the 8th Air Force and the subject of a feature film, now completely restored and on display since 17 May 2018 at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio.
- Milk Wagon - B-17G. Over the course of its tour of duty, Milk Wagon set a record in the 3rd Division, possibly the war, for 129 missions without aborting for mechanical failure.
- Miss Every Morning Fix'n – B-17C. Previously named 'Pamela'. Stationed in Mackay, Queensland, Australia during World War II. On 14 June 1943, crashed shortly after takeoff from Mackay while ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to Port Moresby, with 40 of the 41 people on board killed. It remains the worst air disaster in Australian history. The sole survivor, Foye Roberts, married an Australian and returned to the States. He died in Wichita Falls, Texas, on 4 February 2004.
- Murder Inc. – A B-17 bombardier wearing the name of the B-17 "Murder Inc." on his jacket was used for propaganda in German newspapers.
- Old 666 – B-17E flown by the most highly decorated crew in the Pacific Theater
- Royal Flush – B-17F 42-6087 from the 100th Bomb Group and commanded on one mission by highly decorated USAAF officer Robert Rosenthal, she was the lone surviving 100th BG B-17 of 10 October 1943 raid against Münster to return to the unit's base at RAF Thorpe Abbotts.
- Sir Baboon McGoon – B-17F featured in the June 1944 issue of Popular Science magazine and the 1945 issue of Flying magazine. Articles discuss mobile recovery crews following October 1943 belly landing at Tannington, England.
- The Swoose – Initially nicknamed Ole Betsy while in service, The Swoose is the only remaining intact B-17D, built in 1940, the oldest surviving Flying Fortress, and the only surviving B-17 to have seen action in the Philippines campaign (1941–1942); she is in the collection of the National Air and Space Museum and is being restored for final display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. The Swoose was flown by Frank Kurtz, father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, who named his daughter after the bomber.
- Ye Olde Pub – A highly damaged B-17 piloted by Charlie Brown that was not shot down by Franz Stigler, as memorialized in the painting A Higher Call by John D. Shaw.
- 5 Grand – 5,000th B-17 made, emblazoned with Boeing employee signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe. Damaged and repaired after gear-up landing, transferred to 388th Bomb Group. Returned from duty following V-E Day, flown for war bonds tour, then stored at Kingman, Arizona. Following an unsuccessful bid for museum preservation, the aircraft was scrapped.
Accidents and incidents
For a more comprehensive list, see Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.Most of the losses were during WWII, however because of the Warbird flights there have been losses in the 2020s as well.
Noted B-17 pilots and crew members
Medal of Honor recipients
Many B-17 crew members received military honors and 17 received the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration awarded by the United States:
- Brigadier General Frederick Castle (flying as co-pilot) – awarded posthumously for remaining at controls so others could escape damaged aircraft.
- 2nd Lt Robert Femoyer (navigator) – awarded posthumously
- 1st Lt Donald J. Gott (pilot) – awarded posthumously
- 2nd Lt David R. Kingsley (bombardier) – awarded posthumously for tending to injured crew and giving up his parachute to another
- 1st Lt William R. Lawley Jr. – "heroism and exceptional flying skill"
- Sgt Archibald Mathies (engineer-gunner) – awarded posthumously
- 1st Lt Jack W. Mathis (bombardier) – posthumously, the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor
- 2nd Lt William E. Metzger Jr. (co-pilot) – awarded posthumously
- 1st Lt Edward Michael
- 1st Lt John C. Morgan
- Capt Harl Pease (awarded posthumously)
- 2nd Lt Joseph Sarnoski (awarded posthumously)
- S/Sgt Maynard H. Smith (gunner)
- 1st Lt Walter E. Truemper (awarded posthumously)
- T/Sgt Forrest L. Vosler (radio operator)
- Brigadier General Kenneth Walker Commanding officer of V Bomber Command, killed while leading small force in raid on Rabaul – awarded posthumously
- Maj Jay Zeamer Jr. (pilot) – earned on unescorted reconnaissance mission in Pacific, same mission as Sarnoski
Other military achievements or events
- Lincoln Broyhill (1925–2008), tail-gunner on a B-17 in the 483rd Bombardment Group. He received a Distinguished Unit Citation and set two individual records in a single day: (1) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner in one mission (two), and (2) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner during the entirety of World War II.
- Allison C. Brooks (1917–2006), a B-17 pilot who was awarded numerous military decorations and was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and served in active duty until 1971.
- 1st Lt Eugene Emond (1921–1998): Lead pilot for Man O War II Horsepower Limited. Received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through his formation over Germany. One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces.
- Immanuel J. Klette (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II.
- Capt Colin Kelly (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action.
- Col Frank Kurtz (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II. Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy. Clark Field Philippines attack survivor. Olympic bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945. Father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, herself named for the still-surviving B-17D mentioned above.
- Gen Curtis LeMay (1906–1990): Became head of the Strategic Air Command and Chief of Staff of the USAF.
- Lt Col Nancy Love (1914–1976) and Betty (Huyler) Gillies (1908–1998): The first women pilots to be certified to fly the B-17, in 1943 and to qualify for the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron.
- SSgt Alan Magee (1919–2003): B-17 gunner who on 3 January 1943 survived a 22,000-foot (6,700-meter) freefall after his aircraft was shot down by the Luftwaffe over St. Nazaire.
- Col Robert K. Morgan (1918–2004): Pilot of Memphis Belle.
- Lt Col Robert Rosenthal (1917–2007): Commanded the only surviving B-17, Royal Flush, of a US 8th Air Force raid by the 100th Bomb Group on Münster on 10 October 1943. Completed 53 missions. Earned sixteen medals for gallantry (including one each from Britain and France), and led the raid on Berlin on 3 February 1945, that is likely to have ended the life of Roland Freisler, the infamous "hanging judge" of the People's Court.
Specifications (B-17G)
Data from The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft
General characteristics
- Crew: 10: Pilot, co-pilot, navigator, bombardier/nose gunner, flight engineer/top turret gunner, radio operator, waist gunners (2), ball turret gunner, tail gunner
- Length: 74 ft 4 in (22.66 m)
- Wingspan: 103 ft 9 in (31.62 m)
- Height: 19 ft 1 in (5.82 m)
- Wing area: 1,420 sq ft (131.92 m)
- Airfoil: NACA 0018 / NACA 0010
- Empty weight: 36,135 lb (16,391 kg)
- Gross weight: 54,000 lb (24,500 kg)
- Max takeoff weight: 65,500 lb (29,700 kg)
- Aspect ratio: 7.57
- Powerplant: 4 × Wright R-1820-97 "Cyclone" turbosupercharged radial engines, 1,200 hp (895 kW) each
- Propellers: 3-bladed Hamilton-Standard constant-speed propeller
Performance
- Maximum speed: 287 mph (462 km/h, 249 kn)
- Cruise speed: 182 mph (293 km/h, 158 kn)
- Range: 2,000 mi (3,219 km, 1,738 nmi) with 6,000 lb (2,700 kg) bombload
- Ferry range: 3,750 mi (6,040 km, 3,260 nmi)
- Service ceiling: 35,600 ft (10,850 m)
- Rate of climb: 900 ft/min (4.6 m/s)
- Wing loading: 38.0 lb/sq ft (185.7 kg/m)
- Power/mass: 0.089 hp/lb (150 W/kg)
Armament
- Guns: 13 × .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns in 9 positions (2 in the Bendix chin turret, 2 on nose cheeks, 2 staggered waist guns, 2 in upper Sperry turret, 2 in Sperry ball turret in belly, 2 in the tail and one firing upwards from radio compartment behind bomb bay)
- Bombs:
- Short range missions; internal load only (<400 mi): 8,000 lb (3,600 kg)
- Long range missions; internal load only (≈800 mi): 4,500 lb (2,000 kg)
- Max internal and external load: 17,600 lb (7,800 kg)
Notable appearances in media
Main article: Aircraft in fiction § B-17 Flying FortressA Douglas Aircraft B-17 assembly line is featured in the 1944 drama An American Romance. Hollywood featured the B-17 in its period films, such as director Howard Hawks' Air Force starring John Garfield and Twelve O'Clock High starring Gregory Peck. Both films were made with the full cooperation of the United States Army Air Forces and used USAAF aircraft and (for Twelve O'Clock High) combat footage. In 1964, the latter film was made into a television show of the same name and ran for three years on ABC TV. Footage from Twelve O' Clock High was also used, along with three restored B-17s, in the 1962 film The War Lover. An early model YB-17 also appeared in the 1938 film Test Pilot with Clark Gable and Spencer Tracy, and later with Clark Gable in Command Decision in 1948, in Tora! Tora! Tora! in 1970, and in Memphis Belle with Matthew Modine, Eric Stoltz, Billy Zane, and Harry Connick Jr. in 1990. The most famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, toured the U. S. with her crew to reinforce national morale (and to sell war bonds). She was featured in a USAAF documentary, Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress.
The Flying Fortress has also been featured in artistic works expressing the physical and psychological stress of the combat conditions and the high casualty rates that crews suffered. Works such as The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner by Randall Jarrell and Heavy Metal's section "B-17" depict the nature of these missions. The Ball turret itself has inspired works like Steven Spielberg's The Mission. Artists who served on the bomber units also created paintings and drawings depicting the combat conditions in World War II. "Masters of the Air", a 2024 American war drama television miniseries created by John Shiban and John Orloff, based on the 2007 book Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany by Donald L. Miller, follows the actions of the 100th Bomb Group, a B-17 unit in eastern England during World War II.
See also
- Air warfare of World War II
- Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress variants
- B-17 Flying Fortress units of the United States Army Air Forces
- Accidents and incidents involving the B-17 Flying Fortress
Related development
Related lists
- List of bomber aircraft
- List of aircraft of World War II
- List of military aircraft of the United States
Notes
- The 1 January 1938 Air Corps News Letter noted the Langley Field correspondent used the appellation "Jeep" to the B-17, which it objected to as "not befitting" the aircraft and adding, "Why not let the term 'Flying Fortress' suffice?"
- The idea of a pilot's checklist spread to other crew members, other air corps aircraft types, and eventually throughout the aviation world. Life published the lengthy B-17 checklist in its 24 August 1942 issue.
- Quote: "At the peak of production, Boeing was rolling out as many as 363 B-17s a month, averaging between 14 and 16 Forts a day, the most incredible production rate for large aircraft in aviation history." This production rate was, however, surpassed by that of the Consolidated B-24 Liberator: at its peak in 1944, the Willow Run plant alone produced one B-24 per hour and 650 B-24s per month.
- During the crash investigation of Boeing 307 Stratoliner NX19901, it was found that two B-17s had already spun from lack of directional stability. British combat experience with the B-17 was also showing the need for a tail gunner. Boeing was not willing to add a turret because they did not want to disrupt the clean aerodynamics. The inadequate directional stability exposed by two spin incidents and a crash, brought about a redesigned vertical stabilizer and dorsal fin. A compromise for the tail turret resulted in handheld tail guns. The combination created a successful design. Not only were defensive needs solved, but the improved lateral stability made precision high altitude bombing possible.
- This is a commonly misreported error. The Rex was 725 miles offshore on her last position report as the Y1B-17s were taxiing for takeoff from Mitchel Field, four hours before interception
- problems the RAF found included the tendency to burn when hit, icing problems, crew fatigue due to altitude, oxygen system failures
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Further reading
- Birdsall, Steve. The B-17 Flying Fortress. Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965. OCLC 752618401.
- Cahill, Bill (October 2022). "Ghost Fortresses of the Apocalypse: Boeing B-17 Drones & the USA's Atomic Test Programme: Part 1: Crossroads to Sandstone, 1946–48". The Aviation Historian (41): 74–85. ISSN 2051-1930.
- Calegari, Robert (December 1976). "A vendre: B-17G" [For Sale: B-17G]. Le Fana de l'Aviation (in French). No. 85. pp. 34–36. ISSN 0757-4169.
- Davis, Larry. B-17 in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. ISBN 0897471520.
- Jablonski, Edward. Flying Fortress. New York: Doubleday, 1965. ISBN 0385038550.
- Johnsen, Frederick A. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 2001. ISBN 1580070523.
- Gansz, David M. B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 4 January 1944 – 26 February 1944 B-17G-35 to G-45 42-31932 – 42-32116 and 42-97058 – 42-97407. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2020. ISBN 978-1734380606.
- Gansz, David M. B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 26 February 1944 – 25 April 1944 B-17G-50 to G-60 42-102379 – 42-102978. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2013. ISBN 978-0692365465.
- Gansz, David M. B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 25 April 1944 – 22 June 1944 B-17G-65 to G-75 43-37509 – 43-38073. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2017. ISBN 978-0692859841.
- Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 11: Derivatives, Part 2. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1983. ISBN 0816850216.
- Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 20: More derivatives, Part 3. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986. ISBN 0816850291.
- Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 1: Production Versions, Part 1. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1981. ISBN 0816850127.
- O'Leary, Michael. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1855328143.
- Stitt, Robert M. & Olson, Janice L. (July–August 2002). "Brothers in Arms: A Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Crew in New Guinea, Part 1". Air Enthusiast. No. 100. pp. 2–11. ISSN 0143-5450.
- Thompson, Scott A. Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress, The Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition. Highland County, Ohio: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 1575100770.
- Wagner, Ray, American Combat Planes of the 20th Century, Reno, Nevada, 2004, Jack Bacon & Company, ISBN 0930083172.
- Willmott, H.P. B-17 Flying Fortress. London: Bison Books, 1980. ISBN 0853684448.
- Wisker Thomas J. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast, No. 10, July–September 1979, p. 79. ISSN 0143-5450
External links
- B-17 manuals from The Museum of Flight Digital Collections
- Pilot's flight operating instructions for the B-17F airplane
- Pilot training manual for the Flying Fortress, B-17
- Flight manual : Y1B-17 bombardment plane
- Flight manual B-17E bombardment airplane
- Boeing model B-17G bombardment airplane : The Flying Fortress field service manual
- Boeing model B-17F bombardment airplane field service manual
- Familiarization and inspection manual for the B-17F Flying Fortress manufactured by Boeing Aircraft Company - Seattle, Washington
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Main sequence (1930–1962) |
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RAAF Series One 1921–34 | |
RAAF Series Two 1935–63 |
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RAN Series | |
RAAF Series Three Tri-Service series 1964–present | |
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Prior to adoption of Tri-Service prefixes. |