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{{Short description|Sacred sound in Indic religions}}
{{Italic title}}
{{redirect|Aum|other uses|Aum (disambiguation)|and|Om (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}} {{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{About|the sacred sound and spiritual icon in Indian religions|movies and other uses|Om (disambiguation)}}
] ] in ] script]]
] with a '']'' at ], ]; ''Om'' appears frequently as an ] in temples ('']s'') and spiritual retreats]]
{{Contains Indic text}}
]'' featuring ''Om'' surrounded by stylised ]s; ''Om'' often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of ]]]
'''Om''' (or ''Auṃ'' {{IPA-sa|ə̃ũ|}}, Sanskrit: ॐ) is a sacred sound and a spiritual icon in ] religions.<ref name=james482>James Lochtefeld (2002), ''Om'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931804, page 482</ref> It is also a ] in ], ] and ].<ref>] (1963), The Indian Mantra, Oriens, Vol. 16, pages 244-297</ref><ref name=lipner>Julius Lipner (2010), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415456760, pages 66-67</ref> In Hinduism, ''Om'' is a spiritual symbol (''pratima'')<ref>Krishna Sivaraman (2008), Hindu Spirituality Vedas Through Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812543, page 433</ref> referring to ] (soul, self within) and ] (ultimate reality, entirety of the universe, truth, divine, supreme spirit, cosmic principles, knowledge).<ref>David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195156690, page 54</ref><ref>Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 318</ref><ref name=annette>Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110181593, pages 435-456</ref>
]'' in the shape of ''Om'']]
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}


'''''Om''''' (or '''''Aum''''') ({{audio|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|listen}}; {{langx|sa|ॐ, ओम्|translit=Oṃ, Auṃ|translit-std=IAST}}, ISO&nbsp;15919: ''Ōṁ'') is a ] symbol representing a sacred sound, syllable, ], and ] in ].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |url= |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=319–20 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/824698506 |title=Sonic liturgy: ritual and music in Hindu tradition |date=2012 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-108-2 |location=Columbia |pages=25 |oclc=824698506}}</ref> Its written form is the most important symbol in the Hindu religion.<ref name="wilke4352">{{Cite book |last1=Wilke |first1=Annette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC&pg=PA435 |title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism |last2=Moebus |first2=Oliver |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3110181593 |location=Berlin |page=435}}</ref> It is the essence of the supreme Absolute,<ref name=":1" /> consciousness,<ref name="james4822">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 482</ref><ref name="Holdrege19962">{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnUFxccJ4igC |title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7914-1640-2 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="merriam-webster.com2">"". ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\</ref> ''],'' ''],'' or the cosmic world.<ref name="David Leeming 20052">David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'', ], {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54</ref><ref name="ReferenceA2">Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 318</ref><ref name="annette2">Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 435–456</ref> In Indic traditions, ''Om'' serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of ] authority and a central aspect of ] doctrines and practices.<ref name=":2">{{Cite thesis |last1=Gerety |first1=Moore |last2=McKean |first2=Finnian |date=2015-05-20 |title=This Whole World Is OM: Song, Soteriology, and the Emergence of the Sacred Syllable |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/17467527 |publisher=Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences |pages=33 |issn=1746-7527}}</ref> It is the basic tool for meditation in the yogic path to ].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kudelska |first=Marta |url=https://www.peterlang.com/view/title/63055 |title=Why Is There I Rather Than It? |date=2019-01-01 |publisher=Peter Lang D |isbn=978-3-631-84429-8 |pages=244 |doi=10.3726/b17932}}</ref> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the ], the ], and other ].<ref name="annette2" /> It is described as the goal of all the Vedas. <ref> https://shlokam.org/texts/katha-1-2-15/ </ref>
The symbol is one of the most important symbol in ],<ref name=wilke435>Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3110181593, page 435</ref> and is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the ], the ], and other ]s.<ref name=annette/> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during ] and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (]) such as weddings, and sometimes during meditative and spiritual activities such as ].<ref>David White (2011), Yoga in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691140865, pages 104-111</ref><ref>Alexander Studholme (2012), The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791453902, pages 1-4</ref>


''Om'' is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era temples, monasteries and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.<ref>T A Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120808775, page 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan, ISBN 978-8170173489, page 5</ref> A related symbol ''Ik Onkar'' is also found in ].<ref>Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192806017, Chapter 4</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 500</ref> The symbol has a spiritual meaning in all Indian religions, but the meaning and connotations of ''Om'' vary between the diverse schools within and across the various traditions. ''Om'' emerged in the ] and is said to be an encapsulated form of ] chants or songs.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during '']'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage ('']'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as ].<ref name="David White 20112">David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691140865}}, pp. 104–111</ref><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122">Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791453902}}, pages 1–4</ref> It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in ], ], ], and ].<ref>T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), ''Elements of Hindu Iconography'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, p. 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), ''A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan'', {{ISBN|978-8170173489}}, p. 5</ref> As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during ] in Hinduism, ], and ].<ref name="The Indian Mantra pp. 2442">] (1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297</ref><ref name="lipner2">] (2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415456760}}, pp. 66–67</ref>


The syllable is also referred to as '''omkara''' (ओंकार, ''{{IAST|oṃkāra}}''), '''aumkara''' (औंकार, ''{{IAST|auṃkāra}}''), and '''pranava''' (प्रणव, ''{{IAST|praṇava}}'').<ref> Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany</ref> The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as '''Onkara (Omkara)''' and '''Pranava''' among ].<ref name="Misra20182">{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Nityanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104 |title=The Om Mala: Meanings of the Mystic Sound |date=25 July 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-87471-85-6 |pages=104–}}</ref><ref>"". ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', University of Köln, Germany</ref>


== Common names and synonyms ==
==Etymology==
The syllable ''Om'' is referred to by many names, including:
The etymological origins of ''Om'' are unclear. Scholars consider ''Om'' to have been variously held as the "cosmic sound" or "mystical syllable" in ancient India, or simply as "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name=annette/> It is found in most ancient layer of the Vedic texts such as the ], dated to be from the 2nd millennium BCE.<ref name=lipner/><ref name=annette/> The hymn 1.1.1 of Rig Veda ], for example, opens as<ref name=rigveda/>
* ''{{IAST|Praṇava}}'' ({{lang|sa|प्रणव}}); literally, "fore-sound", referring to ''Om'' as the primeval sound.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Pranava, ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 522</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 74-75, 347, 364, 667</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Oṅkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओङ्कार}}) or ''{{IAST|oṃkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओंकार}}); literally, "''Om''-maker", denoting the first source of the sound ''Om'' and connoting the ].<ref>Diana Eck (2013), ''India: A Sacred Geography'', Random House, {{ISBN|978-0385531924}}, page 245</ref><ref>R Mehta (2007), ''The Call of the Upanishads'', Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807495}}, page 67</ref><ref>, ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', University of Koeln, Germany</ref><ref>CK Chapple, W Sargeant (2009), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 435</ref>
** ''{{lang|pa-Latn|]}}'' ({{lang|pa|ੴ or ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an ] in ]. (see ]).
* ''{{IAST|Udgītha}}'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}); meaning "song, chant", a word found in ] and ''bhasya'' (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.<ref>Max Muller, , The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 12 with footnote 1</ref>
* ''{{IAST|]}}'' ({{lang|sa|अक्षर}}); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
** ''{{IAST|Ekākṣara}}''; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single ]. (see ])


== Origin and spiritual significance ==
{{Quote|
The etymological origins of ''ōm'' ''(aum)'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the ] having proposed multiple ] etymologies for ''aum'', including: from "''ām''" ({{lang|sa|आम्}}; "yes"), from "''ávam''" ({{lang|sa|आवम्}}; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" ({{lang|sa|अव्}}; "to urge") or "''āp-''" ({{lang|sa|आप्}}; "to attain").<ref name="PSSOM">{{Cite journal |last=Parpola |first=Asko |date=1981 |title=On the Primary Meaning and Etymology of the Sacred Syllable ōm |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49902 |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |language=en |volume=50 |pages=195–214 |issn=2323-5209}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Praṇava Upaniṣad in ] 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142}} In 1889, ] proposed an origin from a ] introductory ] "''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" ({{lang|sa|अथ}}).<ref name=PSSOM/> However, contemporary ] ] proposes a borrowing from ] "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern ] "''ām''" ({{lang|ta|ஆம்}}) meaning "yes".<ref name=PSSOM/><ref name="PRoH">{{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism : the Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |isbn=9780190226909 |location=New York}}</ref> In the ] spoken in Sri Lanka, ''aum''' is the word for yes.{{cn|date=June 2023}}
ॐ अग्निमीळे पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवमृत्विजम् । होतारं रत्नधातमम् ॥१॥
|Rigveda 1.1.1|<ref name=rigveda> Rigveda, Wikisource;<br>English Translation: HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, London</ref>}}


Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. ] and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a basic tool for meditation<ref name=":3" /> and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, ], ], and Self-knowledge".<ref>], , Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name="deussenmeaningofom">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>
The syllable means "affirmation" in the ] layer of texts in the Vedas. Aitareya Aranyaka, for example, in verse 23.6, explains ''Om'' as an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn,<ref name=wilke435/>


The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name="annette2"/> In the ] and the ] layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name="annette2"/> The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), ''Ganapati: The Song of Self'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791424391}}, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> The ] of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.<ref name="annette2"/><ref>, Rig Veda, pages 139-140 (Sanskrit); for English translation: See {{Cite book |last=Arthur Berriedale Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSgYAAAAYAAJ |title=The Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1920 |page=256}}</ref> However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/AitareyataittiriyaUpanishadsWithShankaraBhashya-English/page/n87/mode/2up?view=theater | title=Aitareya &Taittiriya Upanishads with Shankara Bhashya - English }}</ref> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equates ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', which symbolizes "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name="annette2"/> The ], the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract ] from it.<ref name="annette2"/>
{{Quote|
''Om'' (ॐ) is the ''pratigara'' (agreement) with a hymn. Likewise is ''tatha'' (so be it) with a song. But ''Om'' is something divine, and ''tatha'' is something human.
|Aitareya Aranyaka 23.6|<ref name=wilke435/>}}


== Pronunciation ==
Elsewhere in the Aranyaka and the ] layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name=annette/> The etymological foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the Vedic texts, as well the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), Ganapati: The Song of Self, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791424391, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> Aitareya Aranyaka, in sections 5.32 to 5.34, for example suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (pronounced ''AUM'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates those creative powers of the universe.<ref name=annette/> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate ''Om'' with ''Bhur-bhuvah-Svah'', the latter symbolizing "the whole Veda". The Aitareya Brahmana offers various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name=annette/> The ], the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.<ref name=annette/>
When occurring within spoken ], the syllable is subject to the normal rules of ] in ], with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the ] ] of ''u'', not the ] grade, and is therefore pronounced as a ] with a ] ({{IPA|sa|oː|}}), ie. ''ōm'' not ''aum''.{{efn-ua|see ], ] 6.1.95}}<ref name="Whitney1950">{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://en.wikisource.org/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney) |title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1950 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=12, 27–28}}</ref> Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often ] into the preceding vowel as ] ({{transliteration|sa|raṅga}}). As a result, ''Om'' is regularly pronounced {{IPA|sa|õː|}} in the context of Sanskrit.


However, this ''o'' reflects the older ] ] ''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet ]ised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often ] considered as consisting of three ]s: "a-u-m".<ref>Osho (2012). '''', unpaginated. Osho International Foundation. {{ISBN|9780880507707}}.</ref><ref>Mehta, Kiran K. (2008). ''Milk, Honey and Grapes'', p.14. Puja Publications, Atlanta. {{ISBN|9781438209159}}.</ref><ref>Misra, Nityanand (2018). '''', unpaginated. Bloomsbury Publishing. {{ISBN|9789387471856}}.</ref><ref>Vālmīki; trans. Mitra, Vihārilāla (1891). '''', p.61. Bonnerjee and Company. {{pre-ISBN}}.</ref> Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the ].
The syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas in the earliest Upanishads. ] and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a "tool for meditation", explain various meanings that the syllable may be in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, Brahman, Atman, and Self-knowledge".<ref>Max Muller, , Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name=deussenmeaningofom>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>


In the context of the ], particularly the Vedic ]s, the vowel is often '']'' ("three times as long"), ] of three ] ({{transliteration|sa|trimātra}}), that is, the time it takes to say three ]s. Additionally, a diphthong becomes {{transliteration|sa|pluta}} with the prolongation of its first vowel.<ref name="Whitney1950" /> When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo {{transliteration|sa|pluti}} they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |year=2006 |title=Pāṇini's Phonological Rules and Vedic: Aṣṭādhyāyī 8.2* |url=http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf |journal=Journal of Indological Studies |volume=18 |page=16}}</ref> realised as an ] ] (''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' {{IPA|sa|ɑːːum|}}). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as ].
The syllable is also referred to as ''praṇava''.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), ''Pranava'', The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-0823931804, page 522</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 74-75, 347, 364, 667</ref> Other used terms are ''{{IAST|]}}'' (lit. symbol, character) or ''{{IAST|ekākṣara}}'' (lit. one symbol, character), and in later times ''{{IAST|omkāra}}'' becomes prevalent.{{cn|date=June 2015}}


However, ''Om'' is also attested in the ] without '']'',{{efn-ua|see {{IAST|Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad}} 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes ''Om'' as having three {{transliteration|sa|mātra}}s corresponding to the three letters a-u-m}} and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as ], share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ({{IPA|sa|õː|}} or {{IPA|sa|oːm|}}).
Om or Aum is also written ओ३म् (''o̿m'' {{IPA-sa|õːːm|}}), where ३ is ''pluta'' ("three times as long"), ] of three ] (that is, the time it takes to say three syllables) — an ] ] ] —, though there are other enunciations adhered to in received traditions.{{cn|date=June 2015}}


== Written representations ==
==Hinduism==

=== South Asia ===
] as the ] dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for ''Om''; ] argued that the ] statue represents ''Om'' as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"<ref>Joseph Campbell (1949), '']'', 108f.</ref>]]

] or ] representations are found ] on sculpture dating from ] and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. ''Om'' is represented in ] as '''{{lang|sa|ओम्}}''', composed of four elements: the ] {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}), the ] {{script|Deva|ो}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|o}}), the ] {{script|Deva|म}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|m}}), and the '']'' stroke {{script|Deva|्}} which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination {{script|Deva|ओ}} represented a diphthong, often transcribed as {{IAST|au}}, but it now represents a long vowel, {{IAST|ō}}. (See ].) The syllable is sometimes written '''{{lang|sa|ओ३म्}}''', where {{script|Deva|३}} (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates '']'' ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओऽम्}}''' in languages such as ], with the {{IAST|]}} ({{script|Deva|ऽ}}) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the {{IAST|avagraha}} in ], where it would instead indicate the ] of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओं}}''', with an {{IAST|]}} reflecting the pronunciation of {{IPA|sa|õː|}} in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as ] and ] ''Om'' may be written '''{{script|Arab|اوم}}''' in ], although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.

The commonly seen representation of the syllable ''Om,'' '''{{lang|sa|{{large|ॐ}}}}''', is a ] ] in ], combining {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}) with {{script|Deva|उ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|u}}) and the ] (],{{nbsp}}{{IAST|ṃ}}). In ], the symbol is encoded at {{unichar|0950|Devanagari OM|ulink=Devanagari (Unicode block)}} and at {{unichar|1f549|OM Symbol|ulink=Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs}} as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".

In some South Asian ]s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In ] ''Om'' is written simply as '''{{script|Beng|ওঁ}}''' without an additional curl. In languages such as ] differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for {{IAST|u}} redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains {{IPA|bn|õː|}}. Similarly, in ] ''Om'' is written as '''{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}}''' without an additional diacritic.

In ], ''Om'' is written as {{script|Taml|ௐ}}, a ligature of {{lang|ta|ஓ}} (''ō'') and {{lang|ta|ம்}} (''m''), while in ], ], and ], ''Om'' is written simply as the letter for ''ō'' followed by {{IAST|anusvāra}} ({{lang|kn|ಓಂ}}, {{lang|te|ఓం}}, and {{lang|ml|ഓം}}, respectively).

There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in ], dating to before the ]. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the '']'' is a ]matic representation of the syllable ''Om'', wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters ({{unichar|11011|Brahmi letter O}}) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deb |first=Harit Krishna |title=The Svastika and the Oṁkāra |year=1921 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=17 |number=3 |pages=231–247 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/97555#page/313/}}</ref> A commentary in '']'' (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1922 |title=Research Items: The Swastika, Gammadion, Fylfot |journal=Nature |volume=110 |issue=2758 |page=365 |doi=10.1038/110365a0 |s2cid=4114094 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }} {{Google books|1bMzAQAAMAAJ|The Swastika|page=PA365}}</ref> ] (1951) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" ({{script|Brah|𑀅𑀉𑀫}}), and that this may have influenced the unusual ]al features of the symbol {{script|Deva|ॐ}} for ''Om''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Ankita |year=2011 |title=Rediscovering the Brahmi Script |url=http://www.mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003025656/https://mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2015 |publisher=Industrial Design Center, IDC, IIT |location=Bombay}} See the section, "Ancient Symbols".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kak |first=SC |year=1990 |title=Indus and Brahmi: Further Connections |journal=Cryptologia |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=169–183|doi=10.1080/0161-119091864878 }}</ref> ] (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among ] ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Parker (author) |title=Ancient Ceylon |year=1909 |page=}}</ref> including ] coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |title=Ancient Ceylon |year=1909 |page=}}</ref>

=== East and Southeast Asia ===
The ''Om'' symbol, with ]al variations, is also found in many ]n countries.

In ], the ''Om'' symbol is widely conflated with that of the ]; originally a representation of the Buddha's ] curl and later a symbol of the path to ], it is a popular ] in Southeast Asia, particularly in ] and ]. It frequently appears in ] religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the ] of ] ({{reign|1851|1868}})<ref>Deborah Wong (2001), ''Sounding the Center: History and Aesthetics in Thai Buddhist Performance'', ], {{ISBN|978-0226905853}}, page 292</ref> and the present-day ].<ref>James Minahan (2009), ''The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems'', {{ISBN|978-0313344961}}, pages 28-29</ref>

The ] adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the ], where it is also seen on artefacts from ], once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from ] to ] periods and still in used until the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម: ប្រភពនៃរូបសញ្ញាឱម |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum02.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម : អំណាចឱមនៅក្នុងសាសនា |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum01.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Khmer language blog articles; historical claims need scholarly sources, preferably in English|date=August 2021}}

In ], ''Om'' is typically ] as either ] ({{zh|p=ǎn}}) or ] ({{zh|p=wēng}}).

=== Representation in various scripts ===

==== Northern Brahmic ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 10pt;"
! Script
! Unicode
! Image
|-
| ]
| {{script|Deva|ওঁ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Deva|ॐ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Deva|ओम्}}
| ]
|-
| ] (])
| ꣽ
| ]
|-
| ] (])
| {{script|Guru|ੴ}}
| ]
|-
| ] (])
| {{script|Guru|ੴ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Lepc|ᰣᰨᰵ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Limb|ᤀᤥᤱ}}
| ]
|-
| ] (Anji)
| {{script|Mtei|ꫲ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Modi|𑘌𑘽}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{Phagspa|v|ꡝꡡꡏ}}{{efn|As used in the ], dated to 1348.}}
|
|-
| ]
| {{script|Newa|𑑉}}
| ]
|-
| ]
|
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Shrd|𑇄}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Sidd|𑖌𑖼}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Soyo|𑩐𑩖𑪖}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Takr|𑚈𑚫}}
| ]
|-
| ] (])
| {{efn|{{bo-textonly|ༀ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Tirh|𑓇}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Tirh|𑨀𑨆𑨵}}
|
|}

<!--
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in ]
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:Aum Om black.svg| ] ligature,{{efn|{{script|Deva|ॐ}} (U+0950)}} ]{{efn|{{script|Gujr|ૐ}} (U+0AD0)}}
|File:Devanagari_AUM_ओम्.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Deva|ओम्}} (U+0913 & U+092E & U+094D)}} (] for variants)
|File:Om symbol1.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Beng|ওঁ}} (U+0993 & U+0981)}}
|File:Ek_onkar.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Guru|ੴ}} (U+0A74)}}, ]
|File:EK ONKAR GURMUKHÎ 0A74.svg| ] cursive variant, ]
|File:Om jaïn orange.svg| ]{{efn|ꣽ (U+A8FD)}}
|File:Lepcha Om.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Lepc|ᰣᰨᰵ}} (U+1C23 & U+1C28 & U+1C35)}}
|File:Limbu Om.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Limb|ᤀᤥᤱ}} (U+1900 & U+1925 & U+1931)}}
|File:Om - Anji in Meetei Mayek.svg| ], Anji symbol{{efn|{{script|Mtei|ꫲ}} (U+AAF2)}}
|File:Om in Modi script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Modi|𑘌𑘽}} (U+1160C & U+1163D)}}
|File:Odia Om symbol.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+0B01)}}
|File:Odia Om sign.svg| ] cursive variant{{efn|{{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+200D & U+0B01)}}
|File:Om in Pracalit(Newa) script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Newa|𑑉}} (U+11449)}}
|File:Shukla Ranjana Om.svg| ]
|File:Om in Sharada script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Shrd|𑇄}} (U+111C4)}}
|File:Om in Siddham script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Sidd|𑖌𑖼}} (U+1158C & U+115BC)}}
|File:Soyombo Om symbol.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Soyo|𑩐𑩖𑪖}} (U+11A50 & U+11A55 & U+11A96)}}
|File:Om in Takri script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Takr|𑚈𑚫}} (U+11688 & U+116AB)}}
|File:Om tibetain-red.svg| ]{{efn|{{bo-textonly|ༀ}} (U+0F00)}}
|File:Om in Tirhuta script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Tirh|𑓇}} (U+114C7)}}
}}
-->

==== Southern Brahmic ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 10pt;"
! Script
! Unicode
! Image
|-
| ]
| {{script|Bali|ᬒᬁ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Mymr|ဥုံ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Cakm|𑄃𑄮𑄀}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Cham|ꨅꩌ}}
| ]
|-
| ] (Homkar)
| {{script|Cham|ꨀꨯꨱꩌ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{efn|{{script|Gran|𑍐}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Java|ꦎꦴꦀ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Knda|ಓಂ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{Script|Kawi|𑼐𑼀}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Khmr|ឱំ}}
| ]
|-
| ] (])
| {{script|Khmr|៚}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Laoo|ໂອໍ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Mlym|ഓം}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Sinh|ඕම්}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{Script|Lana|ᩒᩴ}}
|
|-
| ]
| {{script|Taml|ௐ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{efn|{{script|Telu|ఓం}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Thai|โอํ}}
| ]
|-
| ] (Khomut)
| {{script|Thai|๛}}
| ]
|}
<!--
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in ]
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:Bali Omkara Red.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Bali|ᬒᬁ}} (U+1B12 & U+1B01)}}
|File:Om in Burmese script.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Mymr|ဥုံ}} (U+1025 & U+102F & U+1036)}}
|File:Om in Chakma script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Cakm|𑄃𑄮𑄀}} (U+11103 & U+1112E & U+11100)}}
|File:Om in Cham script.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Cham|ꨯꩌ}} (U+AA05 & U+AA4C)}}
|File:Cham Homkar (Om) symbol.svg| ] ''homkar'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Cham|ꨀꨯꨱꩌ}} (U+AA00 & U+AA2F & U+AA31 & U+AA4C)}}
|File:Om in Grantha script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Gran|𑍐}} (U+11350)}}
|File:Simbol aum.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Java|ꦎꦴꦀ}} (U+A98E & U+A980 & U+A9B4)}}
|File:Kannada OM.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Knda|ಓಂ}} (U+0C93 & U+0C82)}}
|File:Om in Khmer script.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Khmr|ឱំ}} (U+17B1 & U+17C6)}}
|File:Khmer Sacred Symbol, Om or Unalom.svg| ] ''Aom, ],'' or ''Komutr'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Khmr|៚}} (U+17DA)}}
|File:Om in Lao script.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Laoo|ໂອໍ}} (U+0EAD & U+0EC2 & U+0ECD)}}
|File:Ohm Malayalam.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Mlym|ഓം}} (U+0D13 & U+0D02)}}
|File:Sinhala Om symbol.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Sinh|ඕං}} (U+0D95 & U+0D82)}}
|File:Tamil Om.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Taml|ௐ}} (U+0BD0)}}
|File:Om in telugu.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Telu|ఓం}} (U+0C13 & U+0C02)}}
|File:Thai Om symbol.png| ]{{efn|{{script|Thai|โอํ}} (U+0E2D & U+0E42 & U+0E4D)}}
|File:Thai Khomut symbol.svg| ] ''Om, ],'' or ''Khomut'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Thai|๛}} (U+0E5B)}}
}}
-->

==== Non-Brahmic ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 10pt;"
! Script
! Unicode
! Image
|-
| ]
| {{script|Latin|Ōm̐}}
|
|-
| ]
| {{nq|اوم}}{{efn|Used for example in ] and ], although speakers of these languages may also use Brahmic representation such as Devanagari.}}
|
|-
| ]
| {{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Hang|옴}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{linktext|阿吽}}
|
|-
| ]
| {{script|Kana|オーム}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{MongolUnicode|ᢀᠣ}}
|
|-
| ] (])
| {{MongolUnicode|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{Tangut|𗙫}}{{efn|As used in the ], dated to 1348.}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Thaa|އޮމ}}
| ]
|-
| ]
| {{script|Wara|𑣿}}
| ]
|}
<!--
+{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in East Asian scripts
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:| ]{{efn| (U+5535)}}
|File:| ]{{efn| (U+C634)}}
|File:Om in Katakana(Japanese).svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Kana|オーム}} (U+30AA & U+30FC & U+30E0)}}
|File:Om in Mongolian script.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Mong|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}} (U+1826 & U+1838 & U+1820 & U+1880)}}
}}

==== Other ====
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in other scripts
|width=100
|height=100
|align=center
|File:OM_in_divehi.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Thaa|އޮމ}} (U+0787 & U+07AE & U+0789)}}
|File:Shukla Warang Citi Om.svg| ]{{efn|{{script|Wara|𑣿}} (U+118FF)}}
}}
-->

== Hinduism ==
]{{efn-ua|in the early 19th-century manuscript above ''Om'' is written {{lang|sa|अउ३म्}} with "{{script|Deva|अउ}}" as ligature as in ॐ without ]}}]]
{{Hinduism}} {{Hinduism}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width1 = 270
| width2 = 270
| footer = ''Om'' is a common symbol found in the ancient texts of Hinduism, such as in the first line of Rig veda (top), as well as a icon in temples and spiritual retreats.
| image1 = Rigveda MS2097.jpg
| image2 = Aum Art on Proceilin at Jyoti Mandir - at Satyanand Yoga Rocklyn Ashram, Australia.jpg
}}
===Vedic literature===
The syllable "Om" is described with various meanings in the Vedas and different early ].<ref name=deussenmeaningofom/> The meanings include "the sacred sound, the Yes!, the Vedas, the ''Udgitha'' (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, the ultimate reality, the finest essence, the cause of the Universe, the essence of life, the ], the ], the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and Self-knowledge".<ref name=deussenmeaningofom/>


In ], ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds.<ref name="wilke4352"/> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the ], the ], and other ]s,<ref name="annette2"/> and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during ] and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (]) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as ].<ref name="David White 20112"/><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122"/>
====Vedas====
The chapters in Vedas, and numerous hymns, chants and benedictions therein use the syllable ''Om''.<ref name=lipner/> The ] from the Rig Veda, for example, begins with ''Om''. The mantra is extracted from the 10th verse of Hymn 62 in Book III of the Rig Veda.<ref name=mmwpage17>Monier Monier-Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom, Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> These recitations continue to be in use, and m ajor incantations and ceremonial functions begin and end with ''Om''.<ref name=lipner/>


It is the most sacred syllable symbol and ] of ],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2020 |title=Om |url=https://slife.org/om/}}</ref> which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or ] (Self within).<ref name="David Leeming 20052"/><ref name="ReferenceA2"/><ref name="james4822"/><ref name="Holdrege19962"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ellwood |first1=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Alles |first2=Gregory D. |date=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438110387 |pages=327–328 |language=en}}</ref>
{{Quote|
<poem>
ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: <nowiki>|
तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् |
भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि |
धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात् ||</nowiki>


It is called the ''] Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound ({{transl|sa|pranava}}) of the universe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1995 |isbn=9788120812611 |pages=42–48 |language=en}}</ref>
Om. Earth, atmosphere, heaven.
Let us think on that desirable splendour
of Savitr, the Inspirer. May he stimulate
us to insightful thoughts.
</poem>
|Rig Veda III.62.10|Translated by ]<ref name=lipner/><ref name=mmwpage17/>}}


====Chandogya Upanishad==== === Vedas ===
''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the ]s. For example, the ], which consists of a verse from the ] Samhita (].62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.<ref name="mmwpage17">] (1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.<ref name="lipner2"/>
The ] is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".<ref name=maxmuller11>Max Muller, , The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1-3 with footnotes</ref> It calls the syllable Om as ''udgitha'' (उद्गीथ, song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings in earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rig Veda, the essence of the Rig Veda is the Sama Veda, and the essence of Sama Veda is the ''udgitha'' (song, ''Om'').<ref name=pauldeussen11/>


==== Brahmanas ====
''Rik'' (ऋच्, Ṛc) is speech, states the text, and ''Sāman'' (सामन्) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love and desire for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce song.<ref name=maxmuller11/><ref name=pauldeussen11/> The highest song is Om, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of three fold knowledge because ''Adhvaryu'' invokes it, the ''Hotr'' recites it, and ''Udgatr'' sings it.<ref name=pauldeussen11>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 68-70</ref><ref>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 171-185</ref>


===== Aitareya Brahmana =====
The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between ''Devas'' (gods) and ''Asuras'' (demons).<ref name=pauldeussen12>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 70-71 with footnotes</ref> Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.<ref name=maxmuller12>Max Muller, , The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-6 with footnotes</ref> The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the ''Udgitha'' (song of Om) unto themselves, thinking, "with this we shall overcome the demons".<ref name=hume12>Robert Hume, , The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 178-180</ref> The syllable ''Om'' is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations with man.<ref name=maxmuller12/><ref name=hume12/>
The ] (7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".<ref name="wilke4352"/>


{{Blockquote|''Om'' is the agreement (''pratigara'') with a hymn. Likewise is ''tathā'' {{=}} 'so be it' with a song (gāthā) . But ''Om'' is something divine, and ''tathā'' is something human.
Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable ''Om'' in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.<ref>Max Muller, , The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-19 with footnotes</ref><ref>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 171-185</ref>
|Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13<ref name="wilke4352"/>}}


====Katha Upanishad==== ==== Upanishads ====
], including "the sacred sound, the ''Yes!'', the ], the ''udgitha'' (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, ], the finest essence, ], the essence of life, the '']'', the '']'', the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and ] (''ātma ]'')".<ref name=deussenmeaningofom />]]
The ] is the legendary story of a little boy, ] – the son of sage Vajasravasa, who meets ] – the Indian deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, ] (Soul, Self) and ] (liberation).<ref name=pauldeussenintro>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterizes Knowledge/Wisdom as the pursuit of good, and Ignorance/Delusion as the pursuit of pleasant,<ref name=maxmuller121>Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads - Part II, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0486209937, page 8</ref> that the essence of Veda is make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.<ref name=pauldeussen1214>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 284-286</ref>


===== Chandogya Upanishad =====
{{Quote|
The ] is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".<ref name="maxmuller11">], , ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 1-3 with footnotes</ref> It calls the syllable ''Om'' as ''udgitha'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the ], the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the ''udgitha'' (song, ''Om'').<ref name=pauldeussen11 />
<poem>

{{IAST|Ṛc}} ({{lang|sa|ऋच्}}) is speech, states the text, and {{IAST|sāman}} ({{lang|sa|सामन्}}) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.<ref name=maxmuller11 /><ref name=pauldeussen11 /> The highest song is ''Om'', asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because ''Adhvaryu'' invokes it, the ''Hotr'' recites it, and ''Udgatr'' sings it.<ref name="pauldeussen11">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 68-70</ref><ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185">Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195124354}}, page 171-185</ref>

The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable ''Om'', explaining its use as a struggle between '']'' (gods) and '']'' (demons).<ref name="pauldeussen12">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 70-71 with footnotes</ref> Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient ] scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.<ref name="maxmuller12">], , ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-6 with footnotes</ref> The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the ''Udgitha'' (song of ''Om'') unto themselves, thinking, "with this ''song'' we shall overcome the demons".<ref name="hume12">Robert Hume, , ''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, pages 178-180</ref> The syllable ''Om'' is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.<ref name=maxmuller12 /><ref name=hume12 />

Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable ''Om'' in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.<ref name="Patrick Olivelle 2014 page 171-185" /><ref>], , ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, pages 4-19 with footnotes</ref> In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of ''Om'' evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where ''Om'' is linked to the Highest Self,<ref>], , ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, page 28 with footnote 1</ref> and section 2.23 where the text asserts ''Om'' is the essence of three forms of knowledge, ''Om'' is ] and "Om is all this ".<ref>], , ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, page 35</ref>

===== Katha Upanishad =====
The ] is the legendary story of a little boy, ], the son of sage {{transliteration|sa|Vājaśravasa|italic=no}}, who meets ], the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, ] (Self) and ] (liberation).<ref name="pauldeussenintro">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge ({{transliteration|sa|]}}) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance ({{transliteration|sa|]}}) as the pursuit of the pleasant.<ref name="maxmuller121">Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0486209937}}, page 8</ref> It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.<ref name="pauldeussen1214">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 284-286</ref>

{{poem quote|
The word which all the Vedas proclaim, The word which all the Vedas proclaim,
That which is expressed in every ] (penance, austerity, meditation), That which is expressed in every ] (penance, austerity, meditation),
Line 84: Line 417:
He who knows that syllable, He who knows that syllable,
Whatever he desires, is his. Whatever he desires, is his.
|Katha Upanishad 1.2.15-1.2.16<ref name=pauldeussen1214 />}}
</poem>
|Katha Upanishad|1.2.15-1.2.16<ref name=pauldeussen1214/><ref>Max Muller, Oxford University Press, page 10</ref>}}


====Mandukya Upanishad==== ===== Maitri Upanishad =====
] of ''Om'' ({{lang|hi|ओं}}), {{circa|1780-1800}}, decorated with deities: ] and ] (could be ] or ]); ] and ] seated upon ]; ] (Vishnu-Shiva fusion deity); ]; and ] as a representation of the ] (top-to-bottom, left-to-right)]]
The ] opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world".<ref name=pauldeussenfull/>Thereafter it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.<ref name=humefull/> This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "silence" (or without an element).<ref name=pauldeussenfull>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814691, pages 605-637</ref><ref name=humefull>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|title=|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=391–393}}</ref>
The ] in sixth ''Prapathakas'' (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of ''Om''. The text asserts that ''Om'' represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M''.<ref name="maxmuller64">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up |title=The Upanishads: Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Muller |editor-first=Max |editor-link=Max Muller |volume=2 |pages=307–308}}</ref>


The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
'''Aum as all states of time'''
* as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
* as light-endowed body – ], ], and ];
* as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,{{efn-ua|later called Shiva}} and Vishnu;
* as mouth-endowed body – ''garhapatya'', ''dakshinagni'', and ''ahavaniya'';{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the three major Vedic ]}}
* as knowledge-endowed body – ], ], and ];{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the three major ]s}}
* as world-endowed body – {{IAST|bhūr}}, {{IAST|bhuvaḥ}}, and {{IAST|svaḥ}};{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the ] of the Vedas}}
* as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
* as heat-endowed body – ], ], and ];
* as growth-endowed body – food, water, and ];
* as thought-endowed body – ], ], and ].<ref name=maxmuller64 /><ref name="cowell64">{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260</ref>


Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.<ref>], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, , Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980 |isbn=978-8120814684 |editor-last=Deussen |editor-first=Paul |volume=1 |page=347 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Maitri Upanishad: Sanskrit Text with English Translation |editor-last=Cowell |editor-first=E.B. |series=Bibliotheca Indica |location=Cambridge University Press |page=258 |translator-last=Cowell |translator-first=E.B.}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Sanskrit original, quote: {{lang|sa|द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्}}<ref>{{Cite wikisource |wslink=मैत्रायण्युपनिषत् |wslanguage=sa |title=Maitri Upanishad |language=Sanskrit}}</ref>}}
In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are "Aum". The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is "Aum" expressed.<ref name=humefull/>


The world is ''Om'', its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable ''Om'', asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on ''Om'', is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).<ref name=maxmuller64 />
'''Aum as all states of Atman'''


===== Mundaka Upanishad =====
In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Soul, Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.<ref name=pauldeussenfull/> Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.<ref name=johnston>Charles Johnston, Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162</ref>
] with ''Om'' ({{lang|ta|ௐ}}) at its center, ]; ]s are frequently used as aids in ]]]
The ] in the second ''Mundakam'' (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol ''Om''. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).<ref>] (Translator), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass (2010 Reprint), {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 580-581</ref><ref>Eduard Roer, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 144</ref>


{{poem quote|
'''Aum as all states of consciousness'''
That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
That is the indestructible Brahman.{{efn-ua|Hume translates this as "imperishable Aksara", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see: ], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, , Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" , page 367}}
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.


Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanishad,
In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep and the state of ''ekatma'' (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).<ref name=humefull/> These four are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "without an element" respectively.<ref name=humefull/>
one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation,
Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of That,
Penetrate{{efn-ua|The Sanskrit word used is ''Vyadh'', which means both "penetrate" and "know"; Robert Hume uses penetrate, but mentions the second meaning; see: Robert Hume, , ''Thirteen Principal Upanishads'', Oxford University Press, page 372 with footnote 1}} that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.


'''Om''' is the bow, the arrow is the Self, Brahman the mark,
'''Aum as all of knowledge'''
By the undistracted man is It to be penetrated,
One should come to be in It,
as the arrow becomes one with the mark.
|Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4<ref name="roberthume22">Robert Hume, , Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 372-373</ref><ref>Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920–1931), ''The Mukhya Upanishads'', Kshetra Books, {{ISBN|978-1495946530}} (Reprinted in 2014), from Theosophical Quarterly journal</ref>}}


], in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states ''Om'' as a symbolism for ] (Self).<ref>, in Upanishads and Sri Sankara's commentary – Volume 1: ''The Isa Kena and Mundaka'', SS Sastri (Translator), University of Toronto Archives, page 144 with section in 138-152</ref>
In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable "Aum". It states that the first element of "Aum" is ''A'', which is from ''Apti'' (obtaining, reaching) or from ''Adimatva'' (being first).<ref name=pauldeussenfull/> The second element is ''U'', which is from ''Utkarsa'' (exaltation) or from ''Ubhayatva'' (intermediateness).<ref name=humefull/> The third element is ''M'', from ''Miti'' (erecting, constructing) or from ''Mi Minati, or apīti'' (annihilation).<ref name=pauldeussenfull/> The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).<ref name=pauldeussenfull/><ref name=humefull/>


===The Epics=== ===== Mandukya Upanishad =====
The ] opens by declaring, "''Om''!, this syllable is this whole world".<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.<ref name=humefull /> This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "silence" (or without an element).<ref name="pauldeussenfull">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 605-637</ref><ref name="humefull">{{Citation |last=Hume |first=Robert Ernest |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n411/mode/2up |pages=391–393 |year=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
The ], in the Epic ], mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. For example, Fowler notes that verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal Brahman".<ref name=jfowler164/>
* ''Om'' as all states of ].
*: In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are ''Om''. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is ''Om'' expressed.<ref name=humefull />
* ''Om'' as all states of ] .
*: In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.<ref name="johnston">Charles Johnston, Theosophical Quarterly, October, 1923, pages 158-162</ref>
* ''Om'' as all states of ].
*: In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ''ekatma'' (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).<ref name=humefull /> These four are ''A'' + ''U'' + ''M'' + "without an element" respectively.<ref name=humefull />
* ''Om'' as all of ].
*: In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable ''Om''. It states that the first element of ''Om'' is ''A'', which is from ''Apti'' (obtaining, reaching) or from ''Adimatva'' (being first).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> The second element is ''U'', which is from ''Utkarsa'' (exaltation) or from ''Ubhayatva'' (intermediateness).<ref name=humefull /> The third element is ''M'', from ''Miti'' (erecting, constructing) or from ''Mi Minati, or apīti'' (annihilation).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /> The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).<ref name=pauldeussenfull /><ref name=humefull />


===== Shvetashvatara Upanishad =====
{{Quote|
The ], in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.<ref name="pauldeussen116">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 308</ref><ref>], , ''The Upanishads'', Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref> The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Hume |date=1921 |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n417/ |chapter=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.14 – 1.16 |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=396-397 with footnotes}}</ref>
I am the Father of this world, Mother, Ordainer, Grandfather, the Thing to be known, the Purifier, the syllable '''Om''', Rik, Saman and also Yajus.
|] to ], Bhagavad Gita 9.17|<ref name=jfowler164>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, page 164</ref>}}


] is sometimes referred to as "{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}" (''Omkara'' is his form) and used as the symbol for ]ic concept of Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoqB4n95pSoC |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2439-1 |pages=77–78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alter |first=Stephen |title=Elephas Maximus: a portrait of the Indian Elephant |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0143031741 |location=New Delhi |page=95}}</ref>]]
The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in various of its verses, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows,<ref name=jfowler271/>


===== Ganapati Upanishad =====
{{Quote|
{{See also|Ganesha#Om|Ganapatya}}
Therefore, uttering '''Om''', the acts of ] (fire ritual), ] (charity) and ] (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by expounders of ].
|Bhagavad Gita 17.24|<ref name=jfowler271>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, page 271</ref>}}


The ] asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and ''Om''.{{Sfnp|Grimes|1995|pp=23-24}}
===Puranic Hinduism===
{{refimprove section|date=June 2015}}
In ], as per ], ''om'' is the representation of the Hindu ], and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''a'' for ], ''u'' for ] and ''m'' for ]. The three sounds also symbolise the three ], namely (], ], ]).


{{blockquote|(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) ], ], and ]. You are ]. You are fire {{bracket|]}} and air {{bracket|]}}. You are the sun {{bracket|]}} and the moon {{bracket|]ma}}. You are ]. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka , Antariksha-loka , and ]loka . You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
The ] states,
|Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6{{Sfnp|Saraswati|1987|p=127|ps=, In ]'s numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}}}
“ the letter a signifies Lord Viṣṇu, the letter u signifies the goddess Śrī, and the letter m refers to their servant, who is the twenty-fifth element ().” <ref>http://vedabase.com/en/sb/10/69/17</ref>


==== Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana ====
===Other views===
The ], a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gerety |first=Finnian M. M. |date=2021-02-01 |title=Between Sound and Silence in Early Yoga: Meditation on " Om " at Death |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/711944 |journal=History of Religions |language=en |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=217–218 |doi=10.1086/711944 |s2cid=233429885 |issn=0018-2710}}</ref>
Maheshwarananda suggests that the Om reflects the cosmological beliefs in Hinduism, as the primordial sound associated with the creation of universe from nothing.<ref name=Mahesh>], ''The hidden power in humans'', Ibera Verlag, page 15., ISBN 3-85052-197-4</ref>


=== Ramayana ===
''Om'' in scriptures of Hinduism is also called ''Ekam Aksharam'' (एकम् अक्षरम्, one syllable).<ref>CK Chapple, W Sargeant (2009), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, page 435</ref>
In ]'s ], ] is identified with ''Om'', with ] saying to Rama:


{{blockquote|"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable {{transliteration|sa|Vashat}} (on hearing which the {{transliteration|sa|Adhvaryu}} priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable ''OM''. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in {{transliteration|sa|brahmana}}s. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."|], Sarga 117<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://valmikiramayan.pcriot.com/utf8/yuddha/sarga117/yuddha_117_prose.htm|title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda - Sarga 117|website=valmikiramayan.pcriot.com}}</ref>}}
==Jainism==
In ], om is considered a condensed form of reference to the ], by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' (''{{IAST|o]}}{{IAST|m}}''). The ] quotes a ] line:
:{{lang|sa|ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत "अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां"}}<ref>''{{IAST|oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā"}}''</ref>
:"Om" is one syllable made from the initials of the five parameshthis. It has been said: "], ], ], ], ]".


=== ''Bhagavad Gita'' ===
Thus, {{lang|sa|ओं नमः}} ({{IAST|oṃ namaḥ}}) is a short form of the ].{{cn|date=June 2015}}
] manuscript, 1795, decorated with ]s of ], ], and ] to the left, ] (could be ]) on the ] point, and ] (holding a ]) to the right]]


The '']'', in the '']'', mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal ]".<ref name=jfowler164 />
==Buddhism==
Esoteric Buddhists place ''om'' at the beginning of their '']'' ("]") as well in as most other mantras and ]s. Moreover, as a seed syllable (a ''] ]'') ''aum'' is considered holy in ].{{cn|date=June 2015}}


{{Blockquote|"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the '''sacred syllable ''Om'''''. I am the ], ], and the ]."
In Buddhist texts of ], ''om'' is often written as the ] {{script|Hant|]}} (] ''{{lang|pny|ǎn}}'') or {{script|Hant|]}} (] ''{{lang|pny|wēng}}'').{{cn|date=June 2015}}
||] to ], Bhagavad Gita 9.17<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mukundananda |author-link=Mukundananda |year=2014 |title=Bhagavad Gita, The Song of God: Commentary by Swami Mukundananda |url=https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/16-17 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref name="jfowler164">{{Cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler |date=2012 |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1845193461 |page=164}}</ref>}}


The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the ''Gita'', such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:<ref name=jfowler271 />
==Sikhism==
{{Main|Ik Onkar}}
]


{{Blockquote|"Therefore, uttering '''Om''', the acts of ] (fire ritual), ] (charity) and ] (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the ]."
''Ik Onkar'', iconically represented as {{lang|p|ੴ}} in the ] (although sometimes spelt out in full as {{lang|pa|ਏਕੰਕਾਰੁ}}) has been interpreted in a number of ways within ].<ref name=wazirsingh>Wazir Singh, ''Aspects of Guru Nanak's philosophy'' (1969), p. 20: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ekonkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."</ref> It is part of the ] in Sikhism, where it contextually means "Onkar is one", an assertion of a monotheistic belief.<ref name=eleanor>Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0192806017, Chapter 4</ref><ref name = Sikhism>{{cite book |author = Singh, Khushwant| authorlink = Khushwant Singh| chapter=The Sikhs| chapterurl = http://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&pg=PA114& |editor=Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |location=London |year=2002 |page=114 |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate= |editor-link= Joseph Kitagawa}}</ref>
|Bhagavad Gita 17.24<ref name="jfowler271">{{Cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler |date=2012 |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1845193461 |page=271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |translator-first=K.T. |translator-last=Telang |editor-last=Muller |editor-first=Max |editor-link=Max Muller |url={{Google books|5cPKAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Bhagavadgita with the Sanatsujatiya and the Anugita |date=26 October 2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0700715473 |page=120}}</ref>}}


=== Puranas ===
The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Om of Hinduism – also called ''Omkāra''<ref>Jean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN , page 67</ref> – in Hinduism.<ref name=eleanor/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 500</ref> Some Sikh scholars disagree that ''Ik Onkar'' is related to ''Om''.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">{{cite book | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | year=1999 | publisher=Merriam-Webster | page=500 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA500&dq=%22ik+oankar%22&ct=result#v=onepage&q=%22ik%20oankar%22&f=false | accessdate=2011-08-24 | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0}}</ref> Other Sikh scholars suggest that there is deeper, historical relationship between ''Ik Onkar'' to ''Omkāra'',<ref>Jean Holm and John Bowker, Worship, Bloomsbury, ISBN , page 67</ref> – in Hinduism.<ref name=eleanor/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 500</ref> as well as to the metaphysical concept of ], particularly as ''nirguni Brahman'' – attributeless, formless, eternal Highest Reality.<ref name=sskohli39>SS Kohli (1993), The Sikh and Sikhism, Atlantic, ISBN 81-71563368, page 39</ref><ref>Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178</ref><ref>A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190</ref>
The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the ] adopt and expand the concept of ''Om'' in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.


==== Vaishnava traditions ====
==Modern reception==
The ] '']'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-garuda-purana-dutt/d/doc122701.html |title=The Vishnu-Dharma Vidya |date=16 April 2015}}</ref> According to the '']'',{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu ], and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for ], ''U'' for ] and ''M'' for ].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Esnoul |first=A.M. |chapter=Oṃ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Macmillan Reference |date=2005 |isbn=9780028659978 |edition=2nd |location=USA |pages=6820–6821}}</ref> The '']'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth, ], and the performance of sacrifice (]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/9/14/ |title=Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Canto 9 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |language=en |chapter=14, King Purūravā Enchanted by Urvaśī}}</ref>
The Brahmic script ''om''-ligature has become widely recognised in western ] since the 1960s. As to its precise graphic form, the Vedic or Indian ''om'' is what most Westerners are used to, and the ] ''om'' is less widespread in popular culture.<ref>{{cite web|last=Messerle|first=Ulrich|title=Graphics of the Sacred Symbol OM|url=http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/}}</ref> Even Tibetan handicrafts made in India tend to use the ] script ''om'' for recognisability.{{cn|date=June 2015}}


==== Shaiva traditions ====
In music, the symbol is shown on the album cover of the ]'s third album, '']''.{{cn|date=June 2015}}
] at ], ]]]


In ] traditions, the '']'' highlights the relation between deity ] and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Guy |last=Beck |year=1995 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120812611 |page=154}}</ref>
==Usage==
After this, an epithet of ] is ], the Lord, ], of oṃkāra.
{{refimprove section|date=June 2015}}
Phonologically, the syllable is {{IPA|/aum/}}, which is regularly ]ised to {{IPA|}} in ]. It is sometimes also written with ], as ''{{IAST|o3m}}'' ({{script|Deva|ओ३म्}}), notably by ]. When occurring within a Sanskrit utterance, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of ] in ], however with the additional peculiarity that after preceding ''a'' or ''ā'', the ''au'' of ''aum'' does not form ] (''au'') but ] (''o'') per ] 6.1.95 (i.e. 'om').


==== Shakta traditions ====
The om symbol ] (''{{IAST|oṃ}}'', encoded in ] at U+0950 {{unicode|]}}) is a ] of ] {{unicode|ओ}} (U+0913) + {{unicode|]}} (U+0901).
In the ] of ] traditions, ''Om'' connotes the female divine energy, ], represented in the ]: ''A'' for the creative energy (the ] of Brahma), ], ''U'' for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), ], and ''M'' for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), ]. The 12th book of the '']'' describes the ] as the mother of the Vedas, the ''Adya Shakti'' (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rocher |first=Ludo |title=The Purāṇas |date=1986 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3447025225 |location=Wiesbaden}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 August 2018 |title=Adi Parashakti - The Divine Mother |url=https://www.templepurohit.com/adi-parashakti-the-divine-mother/ |access-date=26 May 2021 |website=TemplePurohit - Your Spiritual Destination Bhakti, Shraddha Aur Ashirwad}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Narayanananda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_sKqkhwRzoC |title=The Primal Power in Man: The Kundalini Shakti |date=1960 |publisher=Health Research Books |isbn=9780787306311}}</ref>


=== Other texts ===
{{Gallery
] and ] intertwined with an ''Om'' ({{script|Beng|ওঁ}}) and surrounded by scenes from their life]]
|title=''Om'' in various scripts

|align=center
==== Yoga Sutra ====
|width=100
The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's '']'' links ''Om'' to ] practice, as follows:
|Image:Om.svg| ] (Hindi, Nepali, Marathi), ] and ]
{{poem quote|
|Image:O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG| ] as per ]
{{lang|sa|तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥}}
|Image:The_letter_Om,_in_Siddham_script.png| ] {{unicode|𑖍𑖼}} (U+1158D & U+115BC)
His word is '''Om'''.
|Image:Om.GIF| ] {{unicode|ଓଁ}} (U+0B13 & U+0B01) <br/> ] and ] {{unicode|ওঁ}} (U+0993 & U+0981)
|Yogasutra 1.27<ref name="charlesj">{{Cite book |last=Patanjali |author-link=Patanjali |url=https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/ |title=The Yogasutras of Patanjali |year=1912 |translator-first=Charles |translator-last=Johnston |page=15|publisher=New York, C. Johnston }}</ref>}}
|Image:TibAum.png| ] {{unicode|]}} (U+0F00)

|Image:Grantha.jpg| ] ''"oo m"''
] states this verse highlights the importance of ''Om'' in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.<ref name=charlesj />
|Image:Tamil om.png| ] {{unicode|ௐ}} (U+0BD0)

|Image:Kannada_OM.png| ] {{unicode|ಓಂ}} (U+0C93 & U+0C82) <br/> ] {{unicode|ఓం}} (U+0C13 & U+0C02)
==== Chaitanya Charitamrita ====
|Image:Ohm Malayalam.png| ] {{unicode|ഓം}} (U+0D13 & U+0D02)
In ] traditions, ] is revered as ], the Supreme Lord himself, and ''Om'' is interpreted in light of this. According to the '']'', ''Om'' is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. ''A'' is said to represent ] ] (Vishnu), ''U'' represents ] ] (]), and ''M'' represents ], the Self of the devotee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Century - OM |url=https://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |website=www.indiancentury.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaviraja |first=Krishnadasa |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/tlc/20/ |title=Teachings of Lord Caitanya |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |year=1967 |language=en |translator-last=] |chapter=20, the Goal of Vedānta Study}}</ref>
|Image:Om jaïn orange.svg| ]

|Image:Bali Omkara Red.png| ] {{script|Bali|ᬒᬁ}} (U+1B12 & U+1B01)
== Jainism ==
|Image:Simbol aum.png| ] {{script|Java|ꦎꦴꦀ}} (U+A98E & U+A980 & U+A9B4)
]
|Image:Om cinese.JPG| ] {{unicode|]}} (U+5535)
{{see also|Jainism and non-creationism|Jain symbols#Om}}

In ], ''Om'' is considered a condensed form of reference to the ] by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' (''{{IAST|o]}}{{IAST|m}}'').

The ] quotes a ] line:{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}
{{poem quote|
{{lang|pra-Deva|ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां}}
{{IAST|Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".}}
''AAAUM'' is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings : "], ], ], ], ]".<ref>{{Citation |last=Malaiya |first=Yashwant K. |article-url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |article=Om – significance in Jainism |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html |title=Languages and Scripts of India |publisher=Colorado State University}}</ref>}}

By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namokar Mantra |url=http://www.digambarjainonline.com/namo_index.htm |access-date=2014-06-04 |publisher=Digambarjainonline.com}}</ref> the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the {{IAST|Pañca-Parameṣṭhi}}. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}

== Buddhism ==
''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXgy1WvZCI0C&q=vajrayana+tantra&pg=PR9 |title=Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120827523 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajrayana Buddhism Origins, Vajrayana Buddhism History, Vajrayana Buddhism Beliefs |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Vajrayana-Buddhism |access-date=2017-08-04 |website=www.patheos.com}}</ref>

In ], ''Om'' is often ] as the ] {{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} (] {{transl|zh|ǎn}}) or {{script|Hant|]}} (] {{transl|zh|wēng}}).

=== Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana ===
] on the petals of a ] around the syllable ] at the center; ''Om'' is written on the top petal in white]]

In Tibetan ], ''Om'' is often placed at the beginning of mantras and ]s. Probably the most well known mantra is "]", the six syllable mantra of the ] of compassion, ]. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed {{IAST|Ṣaḍākṣarī}} form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (''] mantra''), ''Om'' is considered sacred and holy in ].<ref>{{Cite web |title="Om" - the Symbol of the Absolute |url=http://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |access-date=2015-10-13}}</ref>

Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra {{IAST|oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ}} to be {{IAST|auṃ}}, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.<ref name="carlolsenb">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |first=Carl |title=The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8135-3778-8 |page=215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Getty |first=Alice |url=https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett |title=The Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-486-25575-0 |pages=, 191–192 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

{{IAST|Oṃ}} has been described by the ] as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure ] of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyatso |first=Tenzin |title=On the meaning of: OM MANI PADME HUM - The jewel is in the lotus or praise to the jewel in the lotus |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tib/omph.htm |access-date=2017-04-17 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |pages=159–160}}</ref> According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |page=158}}</ref>

=== Japanese Buddhism ===
]

==== ''A-un'' ====
{{See also|Om mani padme hum}}
The term {{nihongo|'''''A-un'''''|{{linktext|阿吽}}}} is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "''a''" and "{{IAST|hūṃ}}", written in ] as {{script|Deva|अहूँ}}. In Japanese, it is often ] with the syllable ''Om''. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first ({{script|Deva|अ}}) and the last ({{script|Deva|ह}}) letters of the Devanagari ], with ] (including ]) on the latter indicating the "-{{IAST|ūṃ}}" of "{{IAST|hūṃ}}". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.<ref name="jaanus a-un">{{Cite web |year=2001 |title="A un" (阿吽) |url=http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/a/aun.htm |access-date=14 April 2011 |publisher=Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System}}</ref> In Japanese '']'' Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.<ref>] Japanese dictionary, 2008, Monokakido Co., Ltd.</ref> This is comparable to ], the first and last letters of the ], similarly adopted by ] to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.

The term ''a-un'' is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as {{nihongo|"''a-un'' breathing"|阿吽の呼吸|a-un no kokyū}} or {{nihongo|"''a-un'' relationship"|阿吽の仲|a-un no naka}}, indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or ].

==== ''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs ====
{{main|Niō|Komainu}}

The term is also used in ] and ] to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the '']'' ({{lang|ja|仁王}}) and the '']'' ({{lang|ja|狛犬}}).<ref name="jaanus a-un" /> One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "''A-un''". The general name for statues with an open mouth is {{nihongo|''agyō''|阿形||lit. "a" shape}}, that for those with a closed mouth {{nihongo|''ungyō''|吽形||lit. {{"'}}un' shape"}}.<ref name="jaanus a-un" />

] statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist ]s and ]s, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings ('']'').<ref name="adrian">{{Cite book |last=Snodgrass |first=Adrian |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass |year=2007 |isbn=978-8120807815 |page=303 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass}}</ref><ref name="helenbaroni">{{Cite book |last=Baroni |first=Helen J. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism |publisher=Rosen Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-2240-6 |page=240}}</ref>

], also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth ({{transl|ja|Agyō}}), the other closed ({{transl|ja|Ungyō}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.dentsdelion.com/NEWSLETTER/03_Komainu.pdf |title=Komainu and Niô |journal=Dentsdelion Antiques Tokyo Newsletter |volume=11 |issue=3 |date=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Katherine |title=Animal Motifs in Asian Art |publisher=Dover Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-486-43338-7 |pages=59–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arthur |first=Chris |title=Irish Elegies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-61534-2 |page=21}}</ref>

{{gallery
|title = Some ''a-un'' pairs
|File:Iwaya Jinja Komainu 2.JPG|An ''ungyō'' komainu
|File:Iwaya Jinja Komainu 1.JPG|An ''agyō'' komainu
|File:Horyu-ji15s3200.jpg|''Ungyō'' Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
|File:Horyu-ji14s3200.jpg|''Agyō'' Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
}} }}


==References== == Sikhism ==
{{Reflist|30em}} {{Main|Ik Onkar}}
]]]


''Ik Onkar'' ({{langx|pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}; iconically represented as {{script|Guru|ੴ}}) are the first words of the ], which is the opening verse of the ], the Sikh scripture.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">{{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA500 |title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=500 |access-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om ''";<ref name="gulati285">{{Cite book |first=Mahinder |last=Gulati |date=2008 |title=Comparative Religious And Philosophies: Anthropomorphlsm And Divinity |publisher=Atlantic |isbn=978-8126909025 |pages=284–285}}</ref> {{efn-ua|Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."<ref name="gulati285" />}} these words are a statement that there is "one God",<ref name="Sikhism">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khushwant |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2002 |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |editor-last=Kitagawa |editor-first=Joseph Mitsuo |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |location=London |page=114 |chapter=The Sikhs |author-link=Khushwant Singh |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&pg=PA114}}</ref> understood to refer to the "absolute ] unity of God"<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".<ref name="wazirsingh">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Wazir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWM9AAAAIAAJ&q=substitute+ekankar |title=Aspects of Guru Nanak's philosophy |publisher=Lahore Book Shop |year=1969 |page=20 |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."<ref name=wazirsingh />}}
==External links==
*
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Aum}}


According to Pashaura Singh, ''Onkar'' is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word ('']''), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".<ref name=pashaura227/>

''Ik Onkar'' is a significant ] in the Guru Granth Sahib and ], states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the ] and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds ('']'') of ].<ref name="sskohli39">{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=S.S. |title=The Sikh and Sikhism |publisher=Atlantic |year=1993 |isbn=81-71563368 |page=35}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."<ref name=sskohli39 />}} According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe".<ref> {{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Wazir |year=1969 |title=Guru Nanak's philosophy |journal=Journal of Religious Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=56}}</ref> ] wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" />
{{Poem quote|
''Onkar'' ('the Primal Sound') created ], ''Onkar'' fashioned the consciousness,
From ''Onkar'' came mountains and ages, ''Onkar'' produced the ],
By the grace of ''Onkar'', people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of ''Onkar'', they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.
|Ramakali Dakkhani|] 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh<ref name="pashaura227">{{Cite encyclopedia |first=Pashaura |last=Singh |date=2014 |title=Gurmat: The Teachings of the Gurus |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |editor-first=Pashaura |editor-last=Singh |editor2-first=Louis E. |editor2-last=Fenech |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199699308 |page=227}}</ref>}}

"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (''anahat naad'' or ''anahad naad''). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).{{cn|date=June 2023}}

== Thelema ==
For both symbolic and ] reasons, ] adapted ''aum'' into a ] ], ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word ']') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the ] 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of ], a number with ] significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's ] and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the '']''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of '']'' and in detail in chapter 7 of '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Liber Samekh |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/lib813.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick in Theory and Practice - Chapter 7 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/aba/chap7.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick : Liber ABA, book four, parts I–IV |date=1997 |isbn=9780877289197 |edition=Second revised |location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Liber XV : Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae Canon Missae |date=2016 |isbn=9788393928453 |location=Gothenburg}}</ref>

== Modern reception ==
The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western ] since the 1960s, mostly in its standard ] form ({{script|Deva|ॐ}}), but the ] ''Om'' ({{bo-textonly|ༀ|lang=bo}}) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Messerle |first=Ulrich |title=Graphics of the Sacred Symbol OM |url=http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231191837/http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |archive-date=31 December 2017 |access-date=14 January 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== In meditation ==
{{further|Pranava yoga}}

Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said{{by whom|date=February 2022}} to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.{{Sfn|Kumar|Nagendra|Manjunath|Naveen|2010|pages=2–5}}{{unreliable source?|date=January 2022}}

==See also==
* ]
* ]
* ]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|15em}}
{{notelist-ua|30em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S.|last2=Nagendra |first2=H.R.|last3=Manjunath |first3=N.K.|last4=Naveen |first4=K.V.|last5=Telles |first5=S.|year=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=International Journal of Yoga |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Chinmayananda |title=Glory of Ganesha |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-8175973589 |location=Bombay |author-link=Chinmayananda Saraswati}}
* {{Cite book |last=Von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |date=1999 |publisher=] |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |location=] |language=de |trans-title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Francke |first=A. H. |year=1915 |title=The Meaning of the "Om-mani-padme-hum" Formula |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=397–404 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00048425 |jstor=25189337|s2cid=170755544 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Gurjar |first1=A. A. |last2=Ladhake |first2=S. A. |last3=Thakare |first3=A. P. |year=2009 |title=Analysis of Acoustic of "OM " Chant to Study {{sic|I|t's|nolink=y}} Effect on Nervous System |journal=International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=363–367 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.8652}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Uttam |last2=Guleria |first2=Anupam |last3=Khetrapal |first3=Chunni Lal |year=2015 |title=Neuro-cognitive aspects of "OM" sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study |journal=Cognition and Emotion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=432–441 |doi=10.1080/02699931.2014.917609 |pmid=24845107 |s2cid=20292351}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Stein |first=Joel |date=4 August 2003 |title=Just say Om |url=http://www.thebuddhasaidiamawake.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Just-Say-Om-Printout-TIME.pdf |magazine=Time Magazine}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Telles |first1=S. |last2=Nagarathna |first2=R. |last3=Nagendra |first3=H. R. |year=1995 |title=Autonomic changes during "OM" meditation |url=http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1995_39_4/418-420.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=418–420 |issn=0019-5499 |pmid=8582759}}
* {{Cite wikisource |last=Vivekanda |title=The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom |wslink=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 3/Bhakti-Yoga/The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom}}
{{refend}}
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{{Buddhism topics}} {{Buddhism topics}}
{{Jainism topics}} {{Jainism topics}}
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Latest revision as of 09:53, 18 December 2024

Sacred sound in Indic religions

"Aum" redirects here. For other uses, see Aum (disambiguation) and Om (disambiguation).

Om ligature in Devanagari script
Om (ௐ) in Tamil script with a trishula at Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple, Singapore; Om appears frequently as an icon in temples (kovils) and spiritual retreats
A rangoli featuring Om surrounded by stylised peacocks; Om often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of Indic religions
A rakhi in the shape of Om
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Om (or Aum) (listen; Sanskrit: ॐ, ओम्, romanized: Oṃ, Auṃ, ISO 15919: Ōṁ) is a polysemous symbol representing a sacred sound, syllable, mantra, and invocation in Hinduism. Its written form is the most important symbol in the Hindu religion. It is the essence of the supreme Absolute, consciousness, Ātman, Brahman, or the cosmic world. In Indic traditions, Om serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of Vedic authority and a central aspect of soteriological doctrines and practices. It is the basic tool for meditation in the yogic path to liberation. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts. It is described as the goal of all the Vedas.

Om emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of Samavedic chants or songs. It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (samskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as Pranava yoga. It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during meditation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.

Common names and synonyms

The syllable Om is referred to by many names, including:

  • Praṇava (प्रणव); literally, "fore-sound", referring to Om as the primeval sound.
  • Oṅkāra (ओङ्कार) or oṃkāra (ओंकार); literally, "Om-maker", denoting the first source of the sound Om and connoting the act of creation.
  • Udgītha (उद्गीथ); meaning "song, chant", a word found in Samaveda and bhasya (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.
  • Akṣara (अक्षर); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
    • Ekākṣara; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single ligature. (see below)

Origin and spiritual significance

The etymological origins of ōm (aum) have long been discussed and disputed, with even the Upanishads having proposed multiple Sanskrit etymologies for aum, including: from "ām" (आम्; "yes"), from "ávam" (आवम्; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" (अव्; "to urge") or "āp-" (आप्; "to attain"). In 1889, Maurice Bloomfield proposed an origin from a Proto-Indo-European introductory particle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (अथ). However, contemporary Indologist Asko Parpola proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "*ām" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "*ākum", cognate with modern Tamil "ām" (ஆம்) meaning "yes". In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka, aum' is the word for yes.

Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable Om evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend Om as a basic tool for meditation and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, Brahman, Atman, and Self-knowledge".

The syllable Om is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads. In the Aranyaka and the Brahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda". The symbolic foundations of Om are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads. The Aitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of Om (a + u + m) correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe. However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word. The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equates Om with bhur-bhuvah-svah, which symbolizes "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to Om, such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated". The Samaveda, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps Om to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (Oum, Aum, Ovā Ovā Ovā Um, etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.

Pronunciation

When occurring within spoken Classical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of sandhi in Sanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initial o of "Om" is the guṇa vowel grade of u, not the vṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as a monophthong with a long vowel ([oː]), ie. ōm not aum. Furthermore, the final m is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as nasalisation (raṅga). As a result, Om is regularly pronounced [õː] in the context of Sanskrit.

However, this o reflects the older Vedic Sanskrit diphthong au, which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to o. This being so, the syllable Om is often archaically considered as consisting of three phonemes: "a-u-m". Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong au viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the Vedas.

In the context of the Vedas, particularly the Vedic Brahmanas, the vowel is often pluta ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three morae (trimātra), that is, the time it takes to say three light syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomes pluta with the prolongation of its first vowel. When e and o undergo pluti they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial a prolonged, realised as an overlong open back unrounded vowel (ā̄um or a3um [ɑːːum]). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as Arya Samaj.

However, Om is also attested in the Upanishads without pluta, and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of Om ([õː] or [oːm]).

Written representations

South Asia

Statue depicting Shiva as the Nataraja dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for Om; Joseph Campbell argued that the Nataraja statue represents Om as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"

Nagari or Devanagari representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from Medieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. Om is represented in Devanagari as ओम्, composed of four elements: the vowel letter अ (a), the vowel diacritic ो (o), the consonant letter म (m), and the virama stroke ् which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination ओ represented a diphthong, often transcribed as au, but it now represents a long vowel, ō. (See above.) The syllable is sometimes written ओ३म्, where ३ (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates pluta ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason Om may also be written ओऽम् in languages such as Hindi, with the avagraha (ऽ) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the avagraha in Sanskrit, where it would instead indicate the prodelision of the initial vowel.) Om may also be written ओं, with an anusvāra reflecting the pronunciation of [õː] in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as Urdu and Sindhi Om may be written اوم‎ in Arabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.

The commonly seen representation of the syllable Om, ॐ, is a cursive ligature in Devanagari, combining अ (a) with उ (u) and the chandrabindu (ँ, ṃ). In Unicode, the symbol is encoded at U+0950 ॐ DEVANAGARI OM and at U+1F549 🕉 OM SYMBOL as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".

In some South Asian writing systems, the Om symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese Om is written simply as ওঁ without an additional curl. In languages such as Bengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for u redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains [õː]. Similarly, in Odia Om is written as ଓଁ without an additional diacritic.

In Tamil, Om is written as ௐ, a ligature of ஓ (ō) and ம் (m), while in Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, Om is written simply as the letter for ō followed by anusvāra (ಓಂ, ఓం, and ഓം, respectively).

There have been proposals that the Om syllable may already have had written representations in Brahmi script, dating to before the Common Era. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the swastika is a monogrammatic representation of the syllable Om, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters (U+11011 𑀑 BRAHMI LETTER O) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot. A commentary in Nature (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven. A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that Om was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (𑀅𑀉𑀫), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol ॐ for Om. Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka, including Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with Om along with other symbols.

East and Southeast Asia

The Om symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many Southeast Asian countries.

In Southeast Asia, the Om symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's urna curl and later a symbol of the path to nirvana, it is a popular yantra in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in sak yant religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of King Rama IV (r. 1851–1868) and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia.

The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day.

In Chinese characters, Om is typically transliterated as either 唵 (pinyin: ǎn) or 嗡 (pinyin: wēng).

Representation in various scripts

Northern Brahmic

Script Unicode Image
Bengali-Assamese ওঁ
Devanagari ॐ
Devanagari ओम्
Devanagari (Jain symbol) ꣽ
Gurmukhi (Ik Onkar) ੴ
Gurmukhi (Ik Onkar) ੴ
Lepcha ᰣᰨᰵ‎
Limbu ᤀᤥᤱ
Meitei Mayek (Anji) ꫲ
Modi 𑘌𑘽‎
Odia ଓ‍ଁ
Odia ଓ‍ଁ
ʼPhags-pa ꡝꡡꡏ
Pracalit 𑑉‎
Ranjana
Sharada 𑇄
Siddham 𑖌𑖼
Soyombo 𑩐𑩖𑪖‎
Takri 𑚈𑚫
Tibetan (Uchen) ༀ
Tirhuta, Mithilakshar 𑓇‎
Zanabazar 𑨀𑨆𑨵‎


Southern Brahmic

Script Unicode Image
Balinese ᬒᬁ
Burmese ဥုံ
Chakma 𑄃𑄮𑄀
Cham ꨅꩌ
Cham (Homkar) ꨀꨯꨱꩌ
Grantha 𑍐
Javanese ꦎꦴꦀ
Kannada ಓಂ
Kawi 𑼐𑼀
Khmer ឱំ
Khmer (Unalome) ៚
Lao ໂອໍ
Malayalam ഓം
Sinhala ඕම්
Tai Lanna ᩒᩴ
Tamil ௐ
Telugu ఓం
Thai โอํ
Thai (Khomut) ๛

Non-Brahmic

Script Unicode Image
Latin Ōm̐
Arabic اوم
Chinese 唵
Hangul 옴
Kanji 阿吽
Katakana オーム
Manchu ᢀᠣ
Mongolian (Ali Gali) ᢀᠣᠸᠠ
Tangut 𗙫
Thaana އޮމ
Warang Citi 𑣿‎

Hinduism

Om appears frequently in Hindu texts and scriptures, notably appearing in the first verse of the Rigveda
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In Hinduism, Om is one of the most important spiritual sounds. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts, and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as yoga.

It is the most sacred syllable symbol and mantra of Brahman, which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Self within).

It is called the Shabda Brahman (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (pranava) of the universe.

Vedas

Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the Rigveda Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by Om but by Om followed by the formula bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ. Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with Om.

Brahmanas

Aitareya Brahmana

The Aitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explains Om as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".

Om is the agreement (pratigara) with a hymn. Likewise is tathā = 'so be it' with a song (gāthā) . But Om is something divine, and tathā is something human.

— Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13

Upanishads

Ōṃ is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in the Upanishads, including "the sacred sound, the Yes!, the Vedas, the udgitha (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, the Ultimate Reality, the finest essence, the cause of the universe, the essence of life, the Brahman, the ātman, the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and self-knowledge (ātma jñāna)".
Chandogya Upanishad

The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om". It calls the syllable Om as udgitha (उद्गीथ; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the udgitha (song, Om).

Ṛc (ऋच्) is speech, states the text, and sāman (सामन्) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song. The highest song is Om, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because Adhvaryu invokes it, the Hotr recites it, and Udgatr sings it.

The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between Devas (gods) and Asuras (demons). Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively. The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the Udgitha (song of Om) unto themselves, thinking, "with this song we shall overcome the demons". The syllable Om is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.

Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable Om in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes. In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of Om evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where Om is linked to the Highest Self, and section 2.23 where the text asserts Om is the essence of three forms of knowledge, Om is Brahman and "Om is all this ".

Katha Upanishad

The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage Vājaśravasa, who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation). In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge (vidyā) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance (avidyā) as the pursuit of the pleasant. It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word Om.

The word which all the Vedas proclaim,
That which is expressed in every Tapas (penance, austerity, meditation),
That for which they live the life of a Brahmacharin,
Understand that word in its essence: Om! that is the word.
Yes, this syllable is Brahman,
This syllable is the highest.
He who knows that syllable,
Whatever he desires, is his.

— Katha Upanishad 1.2.15-1.2.16
Maitri Upanishad
A Pahari painting of Om (ओं), c. 1780-1800, decorated with deities: Shiva and Shakti (could be Vaishnavi or Siddhidatri); Vishnu and Lakshmi seated upon Shesha; Harihara (Vishnu-Shiva fusion deity); Brahma; and Dattatreya as a representation of the Trimurti (top-to-bottom, left-to-right)

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth Prapathakas (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of Om. The text asserts that Om represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are A + U + M.

The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:

  • as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
  • as light-endowed body – Agni, Vayu, and Aditya;
  • as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra, and Vishnu;
  • as mouth-endowed body – garhapatya, dakshinagni, and ahavaniya;
  • as knowledge-endowed body – Rig, Saman, and Yajur;
  • as world-endowed body – bhūr, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ;
  • as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
  • as heat-endowed body – breath, fire, and Sun;
  • as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Moon;
  • as thought-endowed body – intellect, mind, and psyche.

Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless. The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable Om as the Self.

The world is Om, its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable Om, asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on Om, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).

Mundaka Upanishad
Shri Yantra with Om (ௐ) at its center, Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore; yantras are frequently used as aids in Hindu meditation

The Mundaka Upanishad in the second Mundakam (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol Om. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).

That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
That is the indestructible Brahman.
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.

Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanishad,
one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation,
Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of That,
Penetrate that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.

Om is the bow, the arrow is the Self, Brahman the mark,
By the undistracted man is It to be penetrated,
One should come to be in It,
as the arrow becomes one with the mark.

— Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4

Adi Shankara, in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states Om as a symbolism for Atman (Self).

Mandukya Upanishad

The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world". Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies. This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from A + U + M + "silence" (or without an element).

  • Om as all states of Time.
    In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are Om. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is Om expressed.
  • Om as all states of Ātman .
    In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold. Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.
  • Om as all states of Consciousness.
    In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ekatma (being one with Self, the oneness of Self). These four are A + U + M + "without an element" respectively.
  • Om as all of Knowledge.
    In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable Om. It states that the first element of Om is A, which is from Apti (obtaining, reaching) or from Adimatva (being first). The second element is U, which is from Utkarsa (exaltation) or from Ubhayatva (intermediateness). The third element is M, from Miti (erecting, constructing) or from Mi Minati, or apīti (annihilation). The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).
Shvetashvatara Upanishad

The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads. The text asserts that Om is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).

The Hindu deity Ganesha is sometimes referred to as "oṃkārasvarūpa" (Omkara is his form) and used as the symbol for Upanishadic concept of Brahman.
Ganapati Upanishad
See also: Ganesha § Om, and Ganapatya

The Ganapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and Om.

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka , Antariksha-loka , and Swargaloka . You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

— Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6

Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana

The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.

Ramayana

In Valmiki's Ramayana, Rama is identified with Om, with Brahma saying to Rama:

"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable Vashat (on hearing which the Adhvaryu priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable OM. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in brahmanas. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."

— Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda, Sarga 117

Bhagavad Gita

An illustration of Om from a Mahabharata manuscript, 1795, decorated with murtis of Surya, Brahma, and Vishnu to the left, Shakti (could be Maheshwari) on the chandrabindu point, and Shiva (holding a trishula) to the right

The Bhagavad Gita, in the Mahabharata, mentions the meaning and significance of Om in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "Om which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal Brahman".

"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the sacred syllable Om. I am the Ṛig Veda, Sāma Veda, and the Yajur Veda."

— Krishna to Arjuna, Bhagavad Gita 9.17

The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the Gita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of Om during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:

"Therefore, uttering Om, the acts of yagna (fire ritual), dāna (charity) and tapas (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the Brahman."

— Bhagavad Gita 17.24

Puranas

The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of Om in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.

Vaishnava traditions

The Vaishnava Garuda Purana equates the recitation of Om with obeisance to Vishnu. According to the Vayu Purana, Om is the representation of the Hindu Trimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. A for Brahma, U for Vishnu and M for Shiva. The Bhagavata Purana (9.14.46-48) identifies the Pranava as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of a-u-m as an invocation of seminal birth, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).

Shaiva traditions

Om symbol with a trishula at Kanaka Durga Temple, Vijayawada

In Shaiva traditions, the Shiva Purana highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the Pranava or Om. Shiva is declared to be Om, and that Om is Shiva. After this, an epithet of Shiva is Omkareshwar, the Lord, Ishvara, of oṃkāra.

Shakta traditions

In the thealogy of Shakta traditions, Om connotes the female divine energy, Adi Parashakti, represented in the Tridevi: A for the creative energy (the Shakti of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, U for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and M for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), Mahakali. The 12th book of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana describes the Goddess as the mother of the Vedas, the Adya Shakti (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.

Other texts

Radha and Krishna intertwined with an Om (ওঁ) and surrounded by scenes from their life

Yoga Sutra

The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's Yogasutra links Om to Yoga practice, as follows:

तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥
His word is Om.

— Yogasutra 1.27

Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of Om in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.

Chaitanya Charitamrita

In Krishnava traditions, Krishna is revered as Svayam Bhagavan, the Supreme Lord himself, and Om is interpreted in light of this. According to the Chaitanya Charitamrita, Om is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. A is said to represent Bhagavan Krishna (Vishnu), U represents Srimati Radharani (Mahalakshmi), and M represents jiva, the Self of the devotee.

Jainism

Painting illustrating the Jain Om symbol, from Jaipur, c. 1840
See also: Jainism and non-creationism and Jain symbols § Om

In Jainism, Om is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi by their initials A+A+A+U+M (o3m).

The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line:

ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां
Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".
AAAUM is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings : "Arihant, Ashariri, Acharya, Upajjhaya, Muni".

By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar mantra, the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".

Buddhism

Om is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.

In East Asian Buddhism, Om is often transliterated as the Chinese character 唵 (pinyin ǎn) or 嗡 (pinyin wēng).

Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana

The mantra om mani padme hum written in Tibetan script on the petals of a sacred lotus around the syllable hrih at the center; Om is written on the top petal in white

In Tibetan Buddhism, Om is often placed at the beginning of mantras and dharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed Ṣaḍākṣarī form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (Bīja mantra), Om is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism.

Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ to be auṃ, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.

Oṃ has been described by the 14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha". According to Simpkins, Om is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.

Japanese Buddhism

Nio statues in Kyoto prefecture of Japan, are interpreted as saying the start (open mouth) and the end (closed mouth) of syllable "AUM"

A-un

See also: Om mani padme hum

The term A-un (阿吽) is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "a" and "hūṃ", written in Devanagari as अहूँ. In Japanese, it is often conflated with the syllable Om. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first (अ) and the last (ह) letters of the Devanagari abugida, with diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-ūṃ" of "hūṃ". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things. In Japanese Mikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe. This is comparable to Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by Christianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.

The term a-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as "a-un breathing" (阿吽の呼吸, a-un no kokyū) or "a-un relationship" (阿吽の仲, a-un no naka), indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.

Niō guardian kings and komainu lion-dogs

Main articles: Niō and Komainu

The term is also used in Buddhist architecture and Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the Niō (仁王) and the komainu (狛犬). One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "A-un". The general name for statues with an open mouth is agyō (阿形, lit. "a" shape), that for those with a closed mouth ungyō (吽形, lit. "'un' shape").

Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist temple gates and stupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (Vajrapani).

Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (Agyō), the other closed (Ungyō).

Some a-un pairs
  • An ungyō komainu An ungyō komainu
  • An agyō komainu An agyō komainu
  • Ungyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji Ungyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
  • Agyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji Agyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji

Sikhism

Main article: Ik Onkar
Ik Onkar of Sikhism

Ik Onkar (Punjabi: ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ; iconically represented as ੴ) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture. Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar", Ik Onkar literally means "one Om "; these words are a statement that there is "one God", understood to refer to the "absolute monotheistic unity of God" and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".

According to Pashaura Singh, Onkar is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (shabad), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".

Ik Onkar is a significant name of God in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "Aum" in the Upanishads and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (Trailokya) of creation. According to Wazir Singh, Onkar is a "variation of Om (Aum) of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying seed-force that evolves as the universe". Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled Onkar in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".

Onkar ('the Primal Sound') created Brahma, Onkar fashioned the consciousness,
From Onkar came mountains and ages, Onkar produced the Vedas,
By the grace of Onkar, people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of Onkar, they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.

— Ramakali Dakkhani, Adi Granth 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh

"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (anahat naad or anahad naad). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).

Thelema

For both symbolic and numerological reasons, Aleister Crowley adapted aum into a Thelemic magical formula, AUMGN, adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to the m to form the compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, MGN, have a numerological value of 93, a number with polysemic significance in Thelema. Om appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's magical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the Gnostic Mass. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of Liber Samekh and in detail in chapter 7 of Magick (Book 4).

Modern reception

The Brahmic script Om-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard Devanagari form (ॐ), but the Tibetan Om (ༀ) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.

In meditation

Further information: Pranava yoga

Meditating and chanting of Om can be done by first concentrating on a picture of Om and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.

See also

Notes

  1. As used in the Stele of Sulaiman, dated to 1348.
  2. Used for example in Urdu and Sindhi, although speakers of these languages may also use Brahmic representation such as Devanagari.
  3. As used in the Stele of Sulaiman, dated to 1348.
  1. Praṇava Upaniṣad in Gopatha Brāhmaṇa 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142
  2. see Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.95
  3. see Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes Om as having three mātras corresponding to the three letters a-u-m
  4. in the early 19th-century manuscript above Om is written अउ३म् with "अउ" as ligature as in ॐ without chandrabindu
  5. later called Shiva
  6. this is a reference to the three major Vedic fire rituals
  7. this is a reference to the three major Vedas
  8. this is a reference to the three worlds of the Vedas
  9. Sanskrit original, quote: द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्
  10. Hume translates this as "imperishable Aksara", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see: Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Mundaka Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" , page 367
  11. The Sanskrit word used is Vyadh, which means both "penetrate" and "know"; Robert Hume uses penetrate, but mentions the second meaning; see: Robert Hume, Mundaka Upanishad, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 372 with footnote 1
  12. Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."
  13. Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."
  14. Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."

References

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  2. ^ Beck, Guy L. (2012). Sonic liturgy: ritual and music in Hindu tradition. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-61117-108-2. OCLC 824698506.
  3. ^ Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 435. ISBN 978-3110181593.
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  5. ^ Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996). Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. SUNY Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-7914-1640-2.
  6. "Om". Merriam-Webster (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\
  7. ^ David Leeming (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195156690, page 54
  8. ^ Hajime Nakamura, A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 318
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  10. ^ Gerety, Moore; McKean, Finnian (20 May 2015). This Whole World Is OM: Song, Soteriology, and the Emergence of the Sacred Syllable (Thesis). Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. p. 33. ISSN 1746-7527.
  11. ^ Kudelska, Marta (1 January 2019). Why Is There I Rather Than It?. Peter Lang D. p. 244. doi:10.3726/b17932. ISBN 978-3-631-84429-8.
  12. https://shlokam.org/texts/katha-1-2-15/
  13. ^ David White (2011), Yoga in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691140865, pp. 104–111
  14. ^ Alexander Studholme (2012), The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791453902, pages 1–4
  15. T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120808775, p. 248
  16. Sehdev Kumar (2001), A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan, ISBN 978-8170173489, p. 5
  17. Jan Gonda (1963), The Indian Mantra, Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297
  18. ^ Julius Lipner (2010), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415456760, pp. 66–67
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