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{{Short description|Alternative or complementary treatments for cancer that have not demonstrated efficacy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[File:WPA quack poster.jpg|thumb|right|1930s public information poster warning of "cancer quacks"<ref>{{cite web [[File:WPA quack poster.jpg|thumb|right|1930s public information poster warning of "cancer quacks"<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/98518641/ |url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/98518641/
|publisher=] |publisher=]
|title=Beware the cancer quack A reputable physician does not promise a cure, demand advance payment, advertise |title=Beware the cancer quack A reputable physician does not promise a cure, demand advance payment, advertise
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>]] |access-date=15 August 2013}}</ref>]]
'''Alternative cancer treatments''' are ] for ] that have not been approved by the government agencies responsible for the ]. They include diet and exercise, chemicals, herbs, devices, and manual procedures. The treatments are not supported by ], either because no proper testing has been conducted, or because testing did not demonstrate ] efficacy. Concerns have been raised about the safety of some of them. Some treatments that have been proposed in the past have been found in clinical trials to be useless or unsafe. Some of these obsolete or disproven treatments continue to be promoted, sold, and used.


{{Alternative medical systems|fringe}}
A distinction is typically made between complementary treatments which do not disrupt conventional medical treatment, and alternative treatments which may replace conventional treatment.
'''Alternative cancer treatment''' describes any ] treatment or practice that is not part of the conventional standard of cancer care.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient|title=Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) for Patients|date=2015-04-10|website=National Cancer Institute|language=en|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref> These include special diets and exercises, chemicals, ]s, devices, and manual procedures. Most alternative cancer treatments do not have high-quality evidence supporting their use and many have been described as fundamentally ].<ref name=pseudoscientific/><ref name="Vickers_2008">{{cite journal |last1=Vickers |first1=AJ |last2=Cassileth |first2=BR |title=Living proof and the pseudoscience of alternative cancer treatments. |journal=Journal of the Society for Integrative Oncology |date=2008 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=37–40 |pmid=18302909|pmc=2630257 }}</ref><ref name="Grimes2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Grimes | first1 = David Robert | title = The Struggle against Cancer Misinformation | journal = Cancer Discovery | date = 1 January 2022 | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–30 | issn = 2159-8274 | eissn = 2159-8290 | doi = 10.1158/2159-8290.CD-21-1468 | pmid = 34930788 | s2cid = 245373363 | url = |quote="This dubious amplification of pseudoscience diminishes trust in the medico-scientific sphere. Cancer misinformation is harmful even when it is not fully embraced or believed, precisely because it creates a lingering impression that no medical consensus exists on the topic or that official sources of information lack credibility."| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Ernst2001">{{cite journal | last1 = Ernst | first1 = E | title = Alternative cancer cures | journal = British Journal of Cancer | date = August 2001 | volume = 85 | issue = 5 | pages = 781–782 | issn = 0007-0920 | eissn = 1532-1827 | doi = 10.1054/bjoc.2001.1989 | pmid = 11531268 | pmc = 2364136 | url = |quote="Alternative cancer cures (ACCs) typically have a common life cycle (Ernst, 2000). At the origin of almost every ACC is a charismatic individual who claims to have found the answer to cancer. He (the male sex seems to dominate) often supports his claims with pseudoscientific evidence referring to (but rarely presenting) many cured patients. Thus he soon gathers ardent supporters who lobby for a wider acceptance of this ACC. The pressure on the medical establishment increases to a point where the treatment is finally submitted to adequate testing. When the results turn out to be negative, the ACC’s proponents argue that the investigations were not done properly. In fact, they were set up to generate a negative result so that the commercial interests of orthodoxy would not be threatened. A conspiracy theory is thus born, and the ACC lives on in the ‘alternative underground’."}}</ref> Concerns have been raised about the safety of some purported treatments and some have been found unsafe in clinical trials. Despite this, many ] are used around the world.
Alternative cancer treatments are typically contrasted with ]s&nbsp;&ndash; which are treatments for which experimental testing is underway&nbsp;&ndash; and with complementary treatments, which are non-invasive practices used alongside other treatment. All approved ] cancer treatments were considered experimental cancer treatments before their safety and efficacy testing was completed.


Alternative cancer treatments are typically contrasted with ]s&nbsp;– science-based treatment methods&nbsp;– and complementary treatments, which are non-invasive practices used in combination with conventional treatment. All approved ] medications were considered experimental treatments before completing safety and efficacy testing.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}}
Since the 1940s, medical science has ], ], ] and the newer ], as well as refined ] for removing cancer. Before the development of these modern, evidence-based treatments, 90% of cancer patients died within five years.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2268104/ |title=Who's a Survivor? |author= Schattner, Elaine |journal=Slate Magazine |date=5 October 2010}}</ref> With modern mainstream treatments, only 34% of cancer patients die within five years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html#survival |title=Cancer of All Sites - SEER Stat Fact Sheets |accessdate=6 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100926191037/http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html| archivedate= 26 September 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> However, while mainstream forms of cancer treatment generally prolong life or permanently cure cancer, most treatments also have side effects ranging from unpleasant to fatal, such as pain, blood clots, fatigue, and infection.<ref name=Complications>{{cite web|last=McMillen|first=Matt|title=8 Common Surgery Complications|url=http://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/features/common-surgery-complications|work=WebMD Feature|publisher=WebMD|accessdate=2013-03-31}}</ref> These side effects and the lack of a guarantee that treatment will be successful create appeal for alternative treatments for cancer, which purport to cause fewer side effects or to increase survival rates.


Since the late 19th century, medical researchers have established modern cancer care through the ], ], ], and refined ]. {{asof|2019}}, only 32.9% of cancer patients in the ] died within five years of their diagnosis.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cancer of All Sites – SEER Stat Fact Sheets |access-date=12 October 2019| url=https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html | date= 12 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012011409/https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/all.html|archive-date=12 October 2019}}</ref> Despite their effectiveness, many conventional treatments are accompanied by a wide range of side effects, including pain, fatigue, and nausea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sugerman|first=Deborah Tolmach|date=2013-07-10|title=Chemotherapy|journal=JAMA|language=en|volume=310|issue=2|pages=218|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.5525|pmid=23839767|issn=0098-7484|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatments-and-side-effects/treatment-types/surgery/risks-of-cancer-surgery.html|title=Risks of Cancer Surgery|website=www.cancer.org|language=en|access-date=2019-11-15}}</ref> Some side effects can even be life-threatening.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} Many supporters of alternative treatments claim increased effectiveness and decreased side effects when compared to conventional treatments. However, one retrospective cohort study showed that patients using alternative treatments instead of conventional treatments were 2.5 times more likely to die within five years.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1093/jnci/djx145|pmid = 28922780|title = Use of Alternative Medicine for Cancer and Its Impact on Survival|journal = JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume = 110|issue = 1|pages = 121–124|year = 2018|last1 = Johnson|first1 = Skyler B.|last2 = Park|first2 = Henry S.|last3 = Gross|first3 = Cary P.|last4 = Yu|first4 = James B.|doi-access = free}}</ref>
Alternative cancer treatments have typically not undergone properly conducted, well-designed clinical trials, or the results have not been published due to ] (a refusal to publish results of a treatment outside that journal's focus area, guidelines or approach). Among those that have been published, the methodology is often poor. A 2006 systematic review of 214 articles covering 198 clinical trials of alternative cancer treatments concluded that almost none conducted ] studies, which are necessary to ensure that the patients are being given a useful amount of the treatment.<ref name=Vickers2006>{{cite journal |author=Vickers AJ, Kuo J, Cassileth BR |title=Unconventional anticancer agents: a systematic review of clinical trials |journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=136–40 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16382123 |pmc=1472241 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2005.03.8406}}</ref> These kinds of treatments appear and vanish frequently, and have throughout history.<ref name=Cassileth1996/>


Most alternative cancer treatments have not been tested in proper clinical trials. Among studies that have been published, the quality is often poor. A 2006 review of 196 clinical trials that studied unconventional cancer treatments found a lack of early-phase testing, little rationale for dosing regimens, and poor statistical analyses.<ref name=Vickers2006>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vickers AJ, Kuo J, Cassileth BR |title=Unconventional anticancer agents: a systematic review of clinical trials |journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=136–40 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16382123 |pmc=1472241 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2005.03.8406}}</ref> These kinds of treatments have appeared and vanished throughout history.<ref name=Cassileth1996/>
== Terminology ==


==Terminology==
Complementary and alternative cancer treatments are often grouped together, in part because of the adoption of the phrase "complementary and alternative medicine" by the United States Congress.<ref name="whccamp.hhs.gov">{{cite book |title=White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy |url=http://whccamp.hhs.gov/fr2.html |chapter=Overview of CAM in the United States: Recent History, Current Status, And Prospects for the Future |date=March 2002}}</ref> However, according to ], in cancer treatment the distinction between complementary and alternative therapies is "crucial".<ref name=Cassileth1996/>
Complementary and alternative cancer treatments are often grouped together, in part because of the adoption of the phrase '']'' by the United States Congress.<ref name="whccamp.hhs.gov">{{cite book|title=White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy |chapter-url=http://whccamp.hhs.gov/fr2.html |chapter=Overview of CAM in the United States: Recent History, Current Status, And Prospects for the Future |date=March 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902075517/http://whccamp.hhs.gov/fr2.html |archive-date=2 September 2011 }}</ref> The ] uses the phrase '']'' (TCIM) to describe a similar set of treatments.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Mao |first1=Jun J. |last2=Pillai |first2=Geetha Gopalakrishna |last3=Andrade |first3=Carlos Jose |last4=Ligibel |first4=Jennifer A. |last5=Basu |first5=Partha |last6=Cohen |first6=Lorenzo |last7=Khan |first7=Ikhlas A. |last8=Mustian |first8=Karen M. |last9=Puthiyedath |first9=Rammanohar |last10=Dhiman |first10=Kartar Singh |last11=Lao |first11=Lixing |last12=Ghelman |first12=Ricardo |last13=Cáceres Guido |first13=Paulo |last14=Lopez |first14=Gabriel |last15=Gallego-Perez |first15=Daniel F. |date=March 2022 |title=Integrative oncology: Addressing the global challenges of cancer prevention and treatment |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/caac.21706 |journal=CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians |language=en |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=144–164 |doi=10.3322/caac.21706 |pmid=34751943 |s2cid=243862088 |issn=0007-9235}}</ref>


Complementary treatments are used in conjunction with proven mainstream treatments. They tend to be pleasant for the patient, not involve substances with any pharmacological effects, inexpensive, and intended to treat side effects rather than to kill cancer cells.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wesa KM, Cassileth BR |title=Is there a role for complementary therapy in the management of leukemia? |journal=Expert Rev Anticancer Ther |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1241–9 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19761428 |pmc=2792198 |doi=10.1586/era.09.100 }}</ref> ] and ] to treat pain are examples of complementary treatments. Complementary treatments are used in conjunction with proven mainstream treatments. They tend to be pleasant for the patient, not involve substances with any pharmacological effects, inexpensive, and intended to treat side effects rather than to kill cancer cells.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wesa KM, Cassileth BR |title=Is there a role for complementary therapy in the management of leukemia? |journal=Expert Rev Anticancer Ther |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1241–9 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19761428 |pmc=2792198 |doi=10.1586/era.09.100 }}</ref> ] and ] to treat pain are examples of complementary treatments.


About half the practitioners who dispense complementary treatments are physicians, although they tend to be generalists rather than ]s. As many as 60% of American physicians have referred their patients to a complementary practitioner for some purpose.<ref name=Cassileth1996>{{cite journal |author=Cassileth BR |title=Alternative and Complementary Cancer Treatments |journal=The Oncologist |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=173–179 |year=1996 |pmid=10387984 |url=http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10387984}}</ref> About half the practitioners who dispense complementary treatments are physicians, although they tend to be generalists rather than ]s.<ref name="Cassileth1996" /> As many as 60% of American physicians have referred their patients to a complementary practitioner for some purpose.<ref name="Cassileth1996">{{cite journal |author=Cassileth BR |year=1996 |title=Alternative and Complementary Cancer Treatments |journal=The Oncologist |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=173–179 |doi=10.1634/theoncologist.1-3-173 |pmid=10387984 |doi-access=free}}</ref> While conventional physicians should always be kept aware of any complementary treatments used by a patient, many physicians in the United Kingdom are at least tolerant of their use, and some might recommend them.<ref name=":0">, ], accessed 20 November 2014</ref>


Alternative treatments, by contrast, are used in place of mainstream treatments. The most popular alternative cancer therapies include restrictive ], ]s, ]s, ]s, and ].<ref name=Cassileth1996/> The popularity and prevalence of different treatments varies widely by region.<ref name=Cassileth2001>{{cite journal |author=Cassileth BR, Schraub S, Robinson E, Vickers A |title=Alternative medicine use worldwide: the International Union Against Cancer survey |journal=Cancer |volume=91 |issue=7 |pages=1390–3 |date=April 2001 |pmid=11283941 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(20010401)91:7<1390::AID-CNCR1143>3.0.CO;2-C}}</ref> Although the conventional physicians should always be kept aware of any complementary treatments used, many are supportive or at least tolerant of their use, and may actually recommend them.<ref>, ], accessed 20 November 2014</ref> Alternative treatments, by contrast, are used in place of mainstream treatments. The most popular alternative cancer therapies include restrictive ], ]s, ]s, ]s, and ].<ref name=Cassileth1996/> The popularity and prevalence of different treatments varies widely by region.<ref name="Cassileth2001">{{cite journal|vauthors=Cassileth BR, Schraub S, Robinson E, Vickers A|date=April 2001|title=Alternative medicine use worldwide: the International Union Against Cancer survey|journal=Cancer|volume=91|issue=7|pages=1390–3|doi=10.1002/1097-0142(20010401)91:7<1390::AID-CNCR1143>3.0.CO;2-C|pmid=11283941|doi-access=free}}</ref> ] warns that alternative treatments may interact with conventional treatment, may increase the side effects of medication, and can give people false hope.<ref name=":0" />


==Prevalence==
== Extent of their usage ==
Survey data about how many cancer patients use alternative or complementary therapies vary from nation to nation as well as from region to region. Reliance on alternative therapies is common in developing countries, because people cannot afford effective medical treatment.<ref name=":5" /> For example, in Latin America, most cancer patients have used natural products, ], and ] (such as ]) in addition to, or instead of, medical care.<ref name=":5" /> In Africa, where millions of people do not have financial or geographical access to an ], many Africans with cancer rely on ], which uses ], ], and ].<ref name=":5" /> About 40% of African cancer patients take herbal preparations.<ref name=":5" /> Three-quarters of Chinese people with cancer use some form of ], especially ].<ref name=":5" /> About a third of people with cancer in India use ] or other elements of ].<ref name=":5" />


Survey data about how many cancer patients use alternative or complementary therapies vary from nation to nation as well from region to region. A 2000 study published by the '']'' evaluated a sample of 1023 women from a British cancer registry suffering from ] and found that 22.4% had consulted with a practitioner of complementary therapies in the previous twelve months. The study concluded that the patients had spent many thousands of pounds on such measures and that use "of practitioners of complementary therapies following diagnosis is a significant and possibly growing phenomenon".<ref>http://www.ejcancer.com/article/S0959-8049(00)00099-X/abstract?cc=y?cc=y</ref> A 2000 study published by the '']'' evaluated a sample of 1023 women from a British cancer registry who had ] and found that 22.4% had consulted with a practitioner of complementary therapies in the previous twelve months. The study concluded that the patients had spent many thousands of pounds on such measures and that use "of practitioners of complementary therapies following diagnosis is a significant and possibly growing phenomenon".<ref>{{Cite journal | url=http://www.ejcancer.com/article/S0959-8049(00)00099-X/abstract?cc=y?cc=y | doi=10.1016/S0959-8049(00)00099-X| pmid=10899648| title=Prevalence of complementary therapy use by women with breast cancer| journal=European Journal of Cancer| volume=36| issue=11| pages=1359–1364| year=2000| last1=Rees| first1=R.W| last2=Feigel| first2=I.| last3=Vickers| first3=A.| last4=Zollman| first4=C.| last5=McGurk| first5=R.| last6=Smith| first6=C.}}</ref>


In terms of ], one study reported that 46% of children suffering from cancer have utilized at least one non-traditional therapy. As well, 40% of those of any age receiving ] had tried at least one such therapy. Some of the most popular alternative cancer treatments were found to be dietary therapies, antioxidants, high dose vitamins, and herbal therapies.<ref>https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2000/172/3/australian-oncologists-self-reported-knowledge-and-attitudes-about-non</ref> In ], one study reported that 46% of children with cancer have been treated with at least one non-traditional therapy. Further 40% of those of any age receiving ] had tried at least one such therapy. Some of the most popular alternative cancer treatments were found to be dietary therapies, antioxidants, high dose vitamins, and herbal therapies.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2000/172/3/australian-oncologists-self-reported-knowledge-and-attitudes-about-non |title = Australian oncologists' self-reported knowledge and attitudes about non-traditional therapies used by cancer patients|journal = The Medical Journal of Australia|volume = 172|issue = 3|pages = 110–113|date = 7 February 2000|last1 = Sanson-Fisher|first1 = Rob W.|last2 = Newell|first2 = Sallie|doi = 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb127933.x|pmid = 10735020|s2cid = 22274510}}</ref>


Usage of unconventional cancer treatments in the United States have been influenced by the U.S. federal government's ] (NCCAM), initially known as the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), which was established in 1992 as a ] (NIH) adjunct by the ]. Over thirty American ] have offered general courses on alternative medicine. That includes the ], ], and ] university systems among others.<ref name=Cassileth1996/> In the United States, nearly all adults who use non-conventional medical therapies do so in addition to conventional medical treatment, rather than as an alternative to it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Tainya C. |last2=Black |first2=Lindsey I. |last3=Stussman |first3=Barbara J. |last4=Barnes |first4=Patricia M. |last5=Nahin |first5=Richard L. |date=2015-02-10 |title=Trends in the use of complementary health approaches among adults: United States, 2002-2012 |journal=National Health Statistics Reports |issue=79 |pages=1–16 |issn=2164-8344 |pmc=4573565 |pmid=25671660}}</ref> Use of unconventional cancer treatments in the United States {{Citation needed span|text=has been influenced by|date=December 2022}} the U.S. federal government's ] (NCCAM), initially known as the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), which was established in 1992 as a ] (NIH) adjunct by the ]. More specifically, the NIC's ] sponsors over $105 million a year in grants for pseudoscientific cancer research.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022|reason=Not found in the source cited at the end of the paragraph}} Over thirty American ] have offered general courses in alternative medicine, including the ], ], and ] university systems, among others.<ref name=Cassileth1996/>


==People who choose alternative treatments== ==People who choose alternative treatments==
People who are drawn to alternative treatments tend to believe that ] is extremely invasive or ineffective, while still hoping that their own health could be improved.<ref name="pmid8071452">{{cite journal|vauthors=Furnham A, Forey J|date=May 1994|title=The attitudes, behaviors and beliefs of patients of conventional vs. complementary (alternative) medicine|journal=J Clin Psychol|volume=50|issue=3|pages=458–69|doi=10.1002/1097-4679(199405)50:3<458::AID-JCLP2270500318>3.0.CO;2-V|pmid=8071452}}</ref> They are loyal to their alternative healthcare providers and believe that "treatment should concentrate on the whole person".<ref name="pmid8071452" /> Among people who (correctly or incorrectly) believe their condition is untreatable, "desperation drives them into the hands of anyone with a promise and a smile."<ref name="Olson">{{cite book |author=Olson, James Stuart |title=Bathsheba's breast: women, cancer & history |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=2002 |pages= |isbn=0-8018-6936-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/bathshebasbreast00olso/page/146 }}</ref> Con artists have long exploited patients' perceived lack of options to extract payments for ineffectual and even harmful treatments.<ref name="Olson" />


No evidence suggests that the use of alternative treatments improves survival.<ref name="Vickers" /> In 2017, one retrospective, observational study suggested that people who chose alternative medicine instead of conventional treatments were more than twice as likely to die within five years of diagnosis.<ref name=":4" /> Breast cancer patients choosing alternative medicine were 5.68 times more likely to die within five years of diagnosis.<ref name=":4" />
People who choose alternative treatments tend to believe that evidence-based medicine is extremely invasive or ineffective, while still believing that their own health could be improved.<ref name="pmid8071452">{{cite journal |author=Furnham A, Forey J |title=The attitudes, behaviors and beliefs of patients of conventional vs. complementary (alternative) medicine |journal=J Clin Psychol |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=458–69 |date=May 1994 |pmid=8071452 |doi=10.1002/1097-4679(199405)50:3<458::AID-JCLP2270500318>3.0.CO;2-V }}</ref> They are ] to their alternative healthcare providers and believe that "treatment should concentrate on the whole person".<ref name="pmid8071452"/>


Cancer patients who choose alternative treatments instead of conventional treatments believe themselves less likely to die than patients who choose only conventional treatments.<ref name="pmid16504038">{{cite journal |author=Helyer LK, Chin S, Chui BK |title=The use of complementary and alternative medicines among patients with locally advanced breast cancer--a descriptive study |journal=BMC Cancer |volume=6|pages=39 |year=2006 |pmid=16504038 |pmc=1475605 |doi=10.1186/1471-2407-6-39 |url=|display-authors=etal}}</ref> They feel a greater sense of control over their destinies, and report less anxiety and depression.<ref name="pmid16504038"/> They are more likely to engage in ], which is the psychological process of adapting to a traumatic situation and deciding that the trauma was valuable, usually because of perceived personal and spiritual growth during the crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Garland SN, Valentine D, Desai K |title=Complementary and alternative medicine use and benefit finding among cancer patients |journal=J Altern Complement Med |volume=19 |issue=11 |pages=876–81 |date=November 2013 |pmid=23777242 |doi=10.1089/acm.2012.0964|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Although they are more likely to die than non-users, some users of alternative treatments feel a greater ] over their destinies and report less anxiety and depression.<ref name="pmid16504038">{{cite journal|display-authors=etal|vauthors=Helyer LK, Chin S, Chui BK|year=2006|title=The use of complementary and alternative medicines among patients with locally advanced breast cancera descriptive study|url=|journal=BMC Cancer|volume=6|pages=39|doi=10.1186/1471-2407-6-39|pmc=1475605|pmid=16504038 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They are more likely to engage in ], which is the psychological process of adapting to a traumatic situation and deciding that the trauma was valuable, usually because of perceived ] and ] during the crisis.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=etal|vauthors=Garland SN, Valentine D, Desai K|date=November 2013|title=Complementary and alternative medicine use and benefit finding among cancer patients|journal=J Altern Complement Med|volume=19|issue=11|pages=876–81|doi=10.1089/acm.2012.0964|pmc=3842868|pmid=23777242}}</ref>


In a survey of American cancer patients, ] were more likely to support complementary and alternative treatments than people from an older generation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Do attitudes and beliefs regarding complementary and alternative medicine impact its use among patients with cancer? A cross-sectional survey|journal = Cancer|author = Bauml, J. M.|author2 = Chokshi, S.|author3 = Schapira, M. M.|author4 = Im, E.-O.|author5 = Li, S. Q.|author6 = Langer, C. J.|author7 = Ibrahim, S. A.|author8 = Mao, J. J.|name-list-style=amp|doi = 10.1002/cncr.29173|date = 26 May 2015|volume=121|issue = 14|pages=2431–38|pmid=26011157|pmc = 5589132}}
However, patients who use alternative treatments have a poorer survival time, even after controlling for type and stage of disease.<ref name=Vickers /> The reason that patients using alternative treatments die sooner may be because patients who accurately perceive that they are likely to survive do not attempt unproven remedies, and patients who accurately perceive that they are unlikely to survive are attracted to unproven remedies.<ref name=Vickers /> Among patients who believe their condition to be untreatable by evidence-based medicine, "desperation drives them into the hands of anyone with a promise and a smile."<ref name="Olson">{{cite book |author=Olson, James Stuart |title=Bathsheba's breast: women, cancer & history |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=2002 |pages=146 |isbn=0-8018-6936-6 }}</ref> ]s have long exploited fear, ignorance, and desperation to strip dying people of their money, comfort, and dignity.<ref name="Olson" />
*{{lay source |template=cite news |author=Lisa Rapaport |date=26 May 2015 |title=Younger cancer patients more open to alternative therapies |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/26/us-cancer-treatment-alternative-idUSKBN0OB2G120150526 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527145422/https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/26/us-cancer-treatment-alternative-idUSKBN0OB2G120150526 |archive-date=2015-05-27 |work=Reuters}}</ref> White, female, college-educated patients who had been diagnosed more than a year ago were more likely than others to report a favorable impression of at least some complementary and alternative benefits.<ref name=":1" />


== {{anchor|Ineffective treatments}} Unproven and disproven treatments ==
In a survey of American cancer patients, ] were more likely to support complementary and alternative treatments than people from an older generation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Do attitudes and beliefs regarding complementary and alternative medicine impact its use among patients with cancer? A cross-sectional survey|url = http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/cncr.29173|journal = Cancer|last = Bauml, J. M., Chokshi, S., Schapira, M. M., Im, E.-O., Li, S. Q., Langer, C. J., Ibrahim, S. A. and Mao, J. J.|doi = 10.1002/cncr.29173|date = 26 May 2015|lay-url = http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/05/26/us-cancer-treatment-alternative-idUSKBN0OB2G120150526|lay-source = Reuters|lay-date = 26 May 2015}}</ref> White, female, college-educated patients who had been diagnosed more than a year ago were more likely than others to report a favorable impression of at least some complementary and alternative benefits.<ref name=":1" />
:{{main|List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments}}
Many ] without evidence have been promoted to treat or prevent cancer in humans. In many cases, evidence suggests that the treatments do not work. Unlike ], unproven and disproven treatments are generally ignored or avoided by the ].<ref name=pseudoscientific>{{cite journal |author =Green S |title=Pseudoscience in Alternative Medicine: Chelation Therapy, Antineoplastons, The Gerson Diet and Coffee Enemas |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |volume=21 |issue=5 |year=1997 |page=39}}</ref>


Despite this, many of these therapies have continued to be promoted as effective, particularly by promoters of ]. Scientists consider this practice ],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cassileth BR, Yarett IR |title=Cancer quackery: the persistent popularity of useless, irrational 'alternative' treatments |journal=Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.) |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=754–58 |date=August 2012 |pmid=22957409}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author =Lerner IJ |title=The whys of cancer quackery |journal=Cancer |volume=53 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=815–19 |date=February 1984 |pmid=6362828 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19840201)53:3+<815::aid-cncr2820531334>3.0.co;2-u|s2cid=36332694 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and some of those engaged in it have been investigated and prosecuted by ] ] such as the US ],<ref name=nw>{{cite journal
== Ineffective treatments<!-- this title is the target of a redirect from ] -->==

This section contains a list of ] that have been recommended to treat or prevent cancer in humans but which lack good scientific and medical evidence of effectiveness. In many cases, there is good scientific evidence that the alleged treatments do not work. Unlike ], unproven and disproven treatments are generally ignored or avoided by the ], and are often ].<ref name=pseudoscientific>{{cite journal |author=Green S |title=Pseudoscience in Alternative Medicine: Chelation Therapy, Antineoplastons, The Gerson Diet and Coffee Enemas |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |volume=21 |issue=5 |year=1997 |page=39}}</ref>

Despite this, many of these therapies have continued to be promoted as effective, particularly by promoters of ]. Scientists consider this practice ],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cassileth BR, Yarett IR |title=Cancer quackery: the persistent popularity of useless, irrational 'alternative' treatments |journal=Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.) |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=754–8 |date=August 2012 |pmid=22957409}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lerner IJ |title=The whys of cancer quackery |journal=Cancer |volume=53 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=815–9 |date=February 1984 |pmid=6362828 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19840201)53:3+<815::aid-cncr2820531334>3.0.co;2-u}}</ref> and some of those engaged in it have been investigated and prosecuted by ] ] such as the US ],<ref name=nw/> the Mexican ]<ref name=qw-zoetron/> and the Canadian ].<ref name=bbb/> In the ], the ] makes the unauthorized promotion of cancer treatments a criminal offense.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/10510345/Harley-Street-practitioner-claimed-he-could-cure-cancer-and-HIV-with-lifestyle-changes-and-herbs-court-hears.html |newspaper=] |title=Harley Street practitioner claimed he could cure cancer and HIV with lifestyle changes and herbs, court hears |date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/2-3/13/section/4 |title=Cancer Act 1939 section 4 |date=7 May 2014}}</ref>

=== Alternative health systems ===
]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the use of fragrant substances, such as ], in the belief that smelling them will positively affect health. There is some evidence that aromatherapy improves general well-being, however it has also been promoted for its ability to fight diseases, including cancer. The ] state, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that aromatherapy is effective in preventing or treating cancer".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|title=Aromatherapy
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=September 2013
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/aromatherapy}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a 5,000 year-old system of traditional medicine which originated on the Indian subcontinent. According to ], "there is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Ayurvedic medicine
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/ayurvedic-medicine
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a popular medical system devised by ] (1935&nbsp;&ndash; ), in which all disease is seen as deriving from emotional shock, and mainstream medicine is regarded as a ] promulgated by ]. There is no evidence to support its claims, and no biological reason why it should work.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22957409|year=2012|last1=Cassileth|first1=BR|last2=Yarett|first2=IR|title=Cancer quackery: The persistent popularity of useless, irrational 'alternative' treatments|volume=26|issue=8|pages=754–8|journal=Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.)}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a whole-body approach to promoting health, in which substances are derived from entire plants so as not to disturb what herbalists believe is the delicate chemistry of the plant as a whole.<ref name="cruk-herbs">{{cite web
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/herbal-medicine
|title=Herbal medicine
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref> According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer".<ref name="cruk-herbs" />
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a general term for an approach to medicine which encompasses mental and spiritual aspects, and which is manifested in sundry complementary and alternative methods. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that these complementary and alternative methods, when used without mainstream or conventional medicine, are effective in treating cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/holistic-medicine
|title=Holistic Medicine
|date=January 2013
|publisher=]
|accessdate=19 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a pseudoscientific system of medicine based on ultra-diluted substances. Some proponents promote homeopathy as a cancer cure; however, according to the American Cancer Society, "there is no reliable evidence showing that homeopathic remedies can treat cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/homeopathy
|publisher=]
|title=Homeopathy
|date=12 February 2013
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; ] forms of medicine traditionally practiced by some indigenous American peoples and which have been claimed as being capable of curing human diseases, including cancer.<ref name=acs-nam/> The American Cancer Society say that while its supportive, community aspects might improve general well-being, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that Native American healing can cure cancer or any other disease".<ref name=acs-nam>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/native-american-healing|title=Native American healing|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a system of alternative medicine based on a belief in energy forces in the body, and an avoidance of conventional medicine; it is promoted as a treatment for cancer and other ailments. According to the American Cancer Society, "scientific evidence does not support claims that naturopathic medicine can cure cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web| title =Naturopathic Medicine | publisher =] | date =November 2008 | url =http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/MindBodyandSpirit/naturopathic-medicine | accessdate =August 2013 }}</ref>

=== Diet-based ===
]&nbsp;&ndash; inventor of a ]-based diet|alt=photo portrait of Johanna Budwig, an elderly lady with gray hair and a floral dress]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a restrictive diet of non-acid foods, such as that proposed by ] (1877–1945),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aletheia|first1=T.R.|title=Cancer : an American con$piracy|date=2010|isbn=9781936400553|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pBr9KDr8cOwC&pg=PA43&dq=edgar+cayce|quote=In the long run, the best diet to follow is one that promotes an alkaline pH using the 80/20 rule. The diet that best epitomizes this rule is the Edgar Cayce diet.}}</ref> based on the claim this will affect the ] of the body generally, so reducing the risk of heart disease and cancer. According to the ], "there is no evidence to support any of these claims."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.ca/en/prevention-and-screening/be-aware/cancer-myths-and-controversies/an-alkaline-diet-and-cancer|title=An alkaline diet and cancer|publisher=]|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a diet based on vegetable juice and tea devised by ] (1899&ndash;1990), who claimed it could cure cancer. Physicians have said that, in common with other "cancer diets", there is no evidence of effectiveness and some risk of harm.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=23152069|year=2012|last1=Hübner|first1=J|last2=Marienfeld|first2=S|last3=Abbenhardt|first3=C|last4=Ulrich|first4=CM|last5=Löser|first5=C|title=How useful are diets against cancer?|volume=137|issue=47|pages=2417–22|doi=10.1055/s-0032-1327276|journal=Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift (1946)
}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''Budwig diet''')&nbsp;&ndash; an anti-cancer diet developed in the 1950s by ] (1908–2003). The diet is rich in ] mixed with cottage cheese, and emphasizes meals high in fruits, vegetables, and fiber; it avoids sugar, animal fats, salad oil, meats, butter, and especially margarine. Cancer Research UK say, "there is no reliable evidence to show that the Budwig diet helps people with cancer".<ref>{{cite web| title = What is the Budwig diet?| publisher = ]| url = http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/what-is-the-budwig-diet| accessdate =August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; not eating or drinking for a period&nbsp;&ndash; a practice which has been claimed by some alternative medicine practitioners to help fight cancer, perhaps by "starving" tumors. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that fasting is effective for preventing or treating cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/fasting|title=Fasting|date=February 2012|publisher=]|accessdate=19 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a restrictive "biblical" diet based on raw food, claimed by its inventor to have cured his cancer. ] has written on Quackwatch: "Although low-fat, high-fiber diets can be healthful, the Hallelujah Diet is unbalanced and can lead to serious deficiencies."<ref>{{cite web|title=Rev. George M. Malkmus and his Hallelujah Diet|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/11Ind/malkmus.html|date=29 May 2003|accessdate=August 2013|author=Stephen Barrett, M.D.}}</ref>
* '''Kousmine diet'''&nbsp;&ndash; a restrictive diet devised by ] (1904–1992) which emphasized fruit, vegetables, grains, pulses and the use of vitamin supplements. There is no evidence that the diet is an effective cancer treatment.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jean-Marie Abgrall|title=Healing Or Stealing?: Medical Charlatans in the New Age|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kel6_1aN5JwC&pg=PA83|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-1-892941-28-2|pages=82–83}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a restrictive diet based around grains and unrefined foods, and promoted by some as a preventative and cure for cancer.<ref name="isbn0-89529-486-9">{{cite book |author=Esko, Edward; Kushi, Michio |title=The macrobiotic approach to cancer: towards preventing and controlling cancer with diet and lifestyle |publisher=Avery Pub. Group |location=Wayne, N.J |year=1991 |isbn=0-89529-486-9}}</ref> Cancer Research UK states "we don't support the use of macrobiotic diets for people with cancer".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/macrobiotic-diet?script=true|title=Macrobiotic diet|publisher=]|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a highly restrictive diet devised by Cornelis Moerman (1893&ndash;1988). Its effectiveness is supported by anecdote only&nbsp;&ndash; there is no evidence of its worth as a cancer treatment.<ref name="qw-moerman">{{cite web|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/moerman.html|author=Stephen Barrett, M.D.|date=11 December 2001|accessdate=May 2013|title=The Moerman Diet|publisher=]}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a marketing term applied to certain foods with supposed health-giving properties. Cancer Research UK note that superfoods are often promoted as having an ability to prevent or cure diseases, including cancer; they caution, "you shouldn't rely on so-called 'superfoods' to reduce the risk of cancer. They cannot substitute for a generally healthy and balanced diet".<ref>{{cite web|title='Superfoods' and cancer|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/healthyliving/cancercontroversies/superfoods/|publisher=]|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>

=== Electromagnetic and energy-based ===
], an energy force proposed by ]]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; diagnosis and therapy delivered by attaching an electrical device to the patient, on the basis that cancer cells emit certain electromagnetic oscillations. The ] says that such claims are not supported by any evidence and note that the US ] has prosecuted many sellers of such devices.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/bioresonance-therapy|title=BioResonance Therapy|publisher=]|accessdate=August 2013|date=29 May 2012}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''Mattei cancer cure''')&nbsp;&ndash; a treatment devised by Count Cesare Mattei (1809–1896), who proposed that different "colors" of electricity could be used to treat cancer. Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy has been described as "utter idiocy".<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=1692368|year=1906|last1=Kempf|first1=EJ|title=European Medicine: A Résumé of Medical Progress During the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries|volume=4|issue=1|page=238|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association|quote=The electrohomeopathic system is an invention of Count Mattei who prates of 'red,' 'blue,' and 'green' electricity, a theory that, in spite of its utter idiocy, has attracted a considerable following and earned a large fortune for its chief promoter.|pmid=18340885}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an electronic device promoted as being capable of diagnosing and treating cancer and a host of other ailments. However, according to Quackwatch: "The Quantum Xrroid device is claimed to balance 'bio-energetic' forces that the scientific community does not recognize as real. It mainly reflects skin resistance (how easily low-voltage electric currents from the device pass through the skin), which is not related to the body's health."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/xrroid.html|first=Stephen | last = Barrett | authorlink = Stephen Barrett|title=Some Notes on the Quantum Xrroid (QXCI) and William C. Nelson|accessdate=September 2013|date=July 2009|publisher=]}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the use of light to treat medical conditions. According to the American Cancer Society, alternative approaches&nbsp;&ndash; such as ] or the use of ]&nbsp;&ndash; have not been shown to be effective for cancer treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/HerbsVitaminsandMinerals/light-therapy|title=Light Therapy|date=14 April 2011|publisher=]|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of placing magnets on and around the body in order to treat illness. Although this has been promoted as a treatment for cancer and other diseases, the American Cancer Society say, "available scientific evidence does not support these claims".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/magnetic-therapy|title=Magnetic Therapy|date=December 2012|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a type of life force proposed to exist by ] (1897–1957) which he claimed could be harnessed to cure diseases, including cancer, perhaps by sitting inside an "orgone accumulator"&nbsp;&ndash; a cupboard-like box with metal and organic linings. Quackwatch comments that scientists investigating Reich's ideas have been "unable to find the slightest evidence in Reich's data or elsewhere that such a thing as orgone exists".<ref>{{cite web|title=Some Notes on Wilhelm Reich, M.D|author=Stephen Barrett, M.D.|publisher=]|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/11Ind/reich.html|date=15 February 2002|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a type of ] based on the idea that the positive or negative charge of a person's electromagnetic field affects their health. Although it is promoted as effective for curing a number of human ailments, including cancer, the American Cancer Society says "available scientific evidence does not support claims that polarity therapy is effective in treating cancer or any other disease".<ref name>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/polarity-therapy|title=Polarity Therapy|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an electronic device purported to cure cancer by transmitting radio waves. Cancer Research UK state, "there is no evidence to show that the Rife machine does what its supporters say it does".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/rife-machine-and-cancer|title=Rife machines and cancer|publisher=]|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''TT''')&nbsp;&ndash; contrary to its name, a technique that does not usually involve touching; rather, a practitioner holds their hands close to a patient to affect the "energy" in their body. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support any claims that TT can cure cancer or other diseases".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/therapeutic-touch|title=Therapeutic Touch|date=April 2011|publisher=]|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; therapy based around a large electromagnetic device that emitted a weak field which, it was claimed, could kill cancer cells. Patients were charged US$15,000 up-front for treatment in Mexican clinics. In 2005 criminal charges were brought against the owners of the company making the device for their claims of its worth.<ref name=bbb>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbb.org/mbc/business-reviews/occupational-health-and-safety/zoetron-cell-specific-cancer-therapy-in-penticton-bc-1143287|title=Zoetron Cell Specific Cancer Therapy|publisher=BBB Business Review|accessdate=14 September 2013}}</ref> Quackwatch says: "there is no scientific evidence or reason to believe that exposure to weak magnetic fields will kill any cells".<ref name=qw-zoetron>{{cite web
|title=Zoetron Therapy (Cell Specific Cancer Therapy)
|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/csct.html
|author=Stephen Barrett, M.D.
|publisher=]
|accessdate=September 2013
|date=1 March 2004}}</ref>

=== Hybrid ===
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an alternative medicine regime promoted by ] (1928–2009), who (before her death from cancer) claimed it could cure all human diseases, including all cancers. The regime was based on the belief that disease was caused by "parasites", and included herbal remedies, ], and the use of electronic devices. ] describes her notions as "absurd".<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Bizarre Claims of Hulda Clark
|author=Stephen Barrett, M.D.
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/clark.html
|date=23 October 2009
|accessdate=}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; treatment offered at the ] in ] which includes a number of ineffective treatments including the use of amgydalin and metabolic therapy. The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center lists "Contreras Therapy" alongside others which "show no evidence of efficacy".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/metabolic-therapies
|publisher=]
|accessdate=September 2013
|date=14 February 2013
|title=Metabolic Therapies}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a predominantly diet regime, generally based on: limiting salt, protein and other foods; ingesting large quantities of fruits and vegetables through juicing; augmenting the intake of potassium and iodine; and the use of coffee enemas. According to Cancer Research UK, "available scientific evidence does not support any claims that Gerson therapy can treat cancer Gerson therapy can be very harmful to your health."<ref>{{cite web| publisher = ] | title = What Gerson therapy is | url = http://cancerhelp.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/gerson-therapy | accessdate =August 2013}}</ref>
] all metal fillings are removed from the teeth|alt=human teeth filled with shiny dental amalgam]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a treatment regime devised by ] based on Gerson therapy. According to the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, the treatment is a type of metabolic therapy that shows "no evidence of efficacy".<ref name=mskcc-meta/>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a treatment consisting of a caustic herbal paste for external cancers or a herbal mixture for "internal" cancers, combined with laxatives, douches, vitamin supplements and dietary changes. A review by the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center found no evidence that the Hoxsey Therapy was effective as a treatment for cancer.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/hoxsey-herbal-therapy
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013
|date=29 October 2012
|title=Hoxsey Therapy}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a regime recommended to be used alongside conventional treatment. It requires removal of metal fillings from the patient's mouth, and adherence to a restrictive diet. Cancer Research UK state: "There is no scientific or medical evidence to back up the claims made by the Issels website".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/issels-treatment
|title=Issels Treatment
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a treatment regime devised by ] (1925&ndash;2005) based on Gerson therapy, with additional features including prayer and ] manipulation. Famously, ] used it for three months before his death. According to the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Kelley treatment is a type of metabolic therapy that shows "no evidence of efficacy".<ref name=mskcc-meta/>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; in alternative medicine, the practice of examining blood samples under a high-powered microscope, claiming this can detect and predict cancer and other illnesses, so leading to a prescription of ]s that are supposed to function as treatment. The practice has been dismissed as quackery by the medical profession.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/10732023/Duped-by-the-blood-analyst-who-says-he-can-cure-cancer.html |title=Duped by the 'blood analyst' who says he can cure cancer |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=30 March 2014 |first=Robert |last=Mendick}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a therapeutic regime that included a restricted diet, various drugs, therapy and the use of enemas. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that Livingston-Wheeler therapy was effective in treating cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/livingstone-wheeler-therapy
|publisher=]
|title=Livingston-Wheeler Therapy
|date=1 November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'s 10-step program'''&nbsp;&ndash; a regime devised by ] based on a restrictive diet and behavioral changes, such as giving up work and ceasing to watch television. Stephen Barrett wrote on Quackwatch, "In my opinion, her advice is untrustworthy and is particularly dangerous to people with cancer".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|date=16 March 2013
|url=http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/day.html
|title=Stay Away from Dr. Lorraine Day
|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an umbrella term for diet- and enema-based "]" regimes, such as the ], promoted to cure cancer and other disease. The ] states: "Retrospective reviews of the Gerson, Kelley, and Contreras therapies show no evidence of efficacy."<ref name=mskcc-meta>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/metabolic-therapies
|title=Metabolic Therapies
|publisher=]
|date=14 February 2013
|accessdate=September 2013
}}</ref>

=== Plant- and fungus-based ===
]
* ''''']''''' (or '''black cohosh''')&nbsp;&ndash; a flowering plant from which dietary supplements are made that are promoted for their health-giving properties. According to Cancer Research UK, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that black cohosh is effective in treating or preventing cancer".<ref>{{cite web|title=Black Cohosh|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/black-cohosh|publisher=]|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''''']'''''&nbsp;&ndash; a genus of flowering succulent plants native to Africa. According to Cancer Research UK, a potentially deadly product called T-UP is made of concentrated aloe, and promoted as a cancer cure. They say "there is currently no evidence that aloe products can help to prevent or treat cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/aloe-vera
|title=Aloe
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (sometimes going by the trade name '''Laetrile''')&nbsp;&ndash; a ], has been promoted as a cancer cure. However, it has been found to be ineffective and toxic; its promotion has been described as "the slickest, most sophisticated, and certainly the most remunerative cancer quack promotion in medical history."<ref name="CaCancer">{{cite journal|doi=10.3322/canjclin.31.2.91|title=Laetrile: A Lesson in Cancer Quackery|year=1981|last1=Lerner|first1=I. J.|journal=CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians|volume=31|issue=2|pages=91–5|pmid=6781723}}</ref>
* ''''']'''''&nbsp;&ndash; a herb used in ], and promoted as a dietary supplement for cancer prevention and cure. The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center has stated that there is no evidence that it helps prevent or cure cancer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/andrographis|title=Andrographis|publisher=]|date=13 February 2013|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (also called '''firestick plant''', '''pencil tree''' or '''''Euphorbia tirucalli''''')&nbsp;&ndash; a succulent shrub native to parts of Africa and South America. Its ] is promoted as a cancer treatment, however, according to the American Cancer Society, studies suggest that "aveloz sap may actually suppress the immune system, promote tumor growth, and lead to the development of certain types of cancer".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/aveloz | publisher = ] | title = Aveloz}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; preparations devised by ] (1886&ndash;1936) in which tiny amounts of plant material are diluted in a mixture of water and ]. According to Cancer Research UK, flower remedies are sometimes promoted as being capable of boosting the immune system, but "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/flower-remedies|title=Flower remedies|publisher=]|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
{{anchor|Cannabis}}
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; used as a recreational and medicinal drug. Chemicals derived from cannabis have been extensively studied for potential anti-cancer effect and while there has been much laboratory work, claims that cannabis has been proven to cure cancer are&nbsp;&ndash; according to ]&nbsp;&ndash; "highly misleading".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/07/25/cannabis-cannabinoids-and-cancer-the-evidence-so-far/|title=Cannabis, cannabinoids and cancer – the evidence so far|last=Arney|first=Kat|date=25 July 2012|publisher=]|accessdate=December 2013}}</ref> The US ] has concluded, "At this time, there is not enough evidence to recommend that patients inhale or ingest ''Cannabis'' as a treatment for cancer-related symptoms or side effects of cancer therapy."<ref>{{cite web|title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/cannabis/patient|publisher=National Cancer Institute|accessdate=17 March 2014}}</ref>
* ''']''' (also called '''black salve''')&nbsp;&ndash; a type of paste or ] often promoted as a cancer cure, especially for skin cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, there is no evidence that these are effective in treating cancer, and they can be harmful, causing burns and disfigurement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/cancer-salves|publisher=]|title=Cancer Salves|date=March 2011|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the name given to a group of plants in the ] family, well known for producing hot chilli peppers such as the ] and the ]. A number of capsicum-based products, including teas and capsules, are promoted for their health benefits, including as a claimed cancer treatment. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific research does not support claims for the effectiveness of capsicum or whole pepper supplements in preventing or curing cancer at this time".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/capsicum |title=Capsicum |date=November 2008 |publisher=] |accessdate=April 2014}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a herbal dietary supplement made from ] herbs. It has been aggressively marketed in the ] as a cancer treatment, but there is no evidence of its effectiveness.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1159/000193025|title=Carctol: Profit before Patients?|year=2009|last1=Ernst|first1=Edzard|journal=Breast Care|volume=4|pages=31–33|pmid=20877681|issue=1|pmc=2942009}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a woody ] native to South America, the root of which is a ]-rich foodstuff. Cassava root has been promoted as treatment for cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "there is no convincing scientific evidence that cassava or tapioca is effective in preventing or treating cancer".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/cassava|title=Cassava|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an oil made from the seeds of the ]. The claim has been made that applying it to the skin can help cure cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that castor oil on the skin cures cancer or any other disease."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/castor-oil|title=Castor Oil|date=March 2011|publisher=]|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''''Larrea tridentata''''')&nbsp;&ndash; a plant used to make a herbal remedy which is sold as cancer treatment. Cancer Research UK state that: "We don't recommend that you take chaparral to treat or prevent any type of cancer."<ref>{{cite web
|title=Chaparral
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/chaparral?script=true
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a type of ] promoted for its health-giving properties, including a claimed ability to treat cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific studies do not support its effectiveness for preventing or treating cancer or any other disease in humans".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/chlorella|title=Chlorella|date=29 April 2011|publisher=]|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref>
]&nbsp;&ndash; promoted for halting tumor growth; evidence says otherwise|alt=an unpeeled ginger root beside a small knife]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a group of ] ]s in the ] family, marketed as a herbal supplement that can help combat cancer. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to show that echinacea can help treat, prevent or cure cancer in any way."<ref>{{cite web| publisher = ] | title = Echinacea | url = http://cancerhelp.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/echinacea | accessdate =September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a ] found in some foods, especially ], and which has been marketed as having the ability to prevent and treat a number of human maladies, including cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, such claims are not proven.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/ellagic-acid |publisher=American Cancer Society |date=November 2008 |title=Ellagic acid |accessdate=August 2014}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a blended herbal tea devised in the early 20th century and promoted as a cancer cure. The ] include Essiac in a list of "Fake Cancer 'Cures' Consumers Should Avoid".<ref name="fda-essiac">{{cite web|title=187 Fake Cancer "Cures" Consumers Should Avoid|url=http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/EnforcementActivitiesbyFDA/ucm171057.htm|work=Guidance, Compliance &amp; Regulatory Information|publisher=USFDA|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a root of plants of the ''Zingiber'' family, and a popular spice in many types of ]. Ginger has been promoted as a cancer treatment for its supposed ability to halt tumor growth; however, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support this".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/ginger
|title=Ginger
|date=May 2010
|publisher=]
|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a species of perennial plant, the root of which is promoted for its therapeutic value, including a claimed ability to help fight cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that ginseng is effective in preventing or treating cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/ginseng
|title=Ginseng
|date=November 2008
|publisher=]
|accessdate=19 September 2013}}</ref>
* '''Glyconutrients'''&nbsp;&ndash; are types of sugar extracted from plants; they are mostly marketed in a product with the brand name "Ambrotose" by ]. According to the Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center these products have been "promoted aggressively to cancer patients" on the basis they can help cellular health and boost the immune system, but that "strong scientific evidence to support these claims is lacking".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|title=Glyconutrients
|date=11 October 2012
|accessdate=August 2013
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/glyconutrients}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''''Hydrastis canadensis''''')&nbsp;&ndash; a herb from the buttercup family promoted for treating many conditions, including cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, "evidence does not support claims that goldenseal is effective in treating cancer or other diseases. Goldenseal can have toxic side effects, and high doses can cause death."<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/goldenseal
|title=Goldenseal
|publisher=American Cancer Society
|accessdate=August 2013
|date=28 November 2008}}</ref>
]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a swamp plant native to parts of Asia and Africa. Supplements made from it are promoted as cancer treatment; however according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims of its effectiveness for treating cancer or any other disease in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Gotu Kola
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/gotu-kola
|publisher=]
|accessdate=September 2013
|date=28 November 2011}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; fruit, popularized for supposed anti-cancer effect by ] (1876&ndash;1964) who championed a "]", and promoted more recently in the form of ] (GSE). According to the American Cancer Society, "there is very little reliable scientific evidence available at this time that drinking red wine, eating grapes, or following the grape diet can prevent or treat cancer in people".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/grapes
|title=Grapes
|date=1 November 2011
|publisher=]
|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* '''']''''&nbsp;&ndash; commonly known as '''chaga mushroom'''. Chaga has been used as a folk remedy in Russia and Siberia since the 16th century.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3748/wjg.14.511|title=Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus ) induces G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis in human hepatoma HepG2 cells|year=2008|last1=Youn|first1=Myung-Ja|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=511–7|pmid=18203281|last2=Kim|first2=JK|last3=Park|first3=SY|last4=Kim|first4=Y|last5=Kim|first5=SJ|last6=Lee|first6=JS|last7=Chai|first7=KY|last8=Kim|first8=HJ|last9=Cui|first9=MX|pmc=2681140|last10=So|first10=HS|last11=Kim|first11=KY|last12=Park|first12=R}}</ref> According to the ], "no clinical trials have been conducted to assess chaga's safety and efficacy for disease prevention or for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes". They caution that the mushroom extract can interact with other drugs.<ref name=msk>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|date=18 July 2011
|accessdate=August 2013
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/chaga-mushroom
|title=Chaga Mushroom}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a branded line of dietary supplements containing concentrated fruit and vegetable juice extract. In October 2009, ], Chair and Chief of ] at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, cautioned that while Juice Plus is being "aggressively promoted to cancer patients based on claims of antioxidant effects", the supplement should not be taken by patients because it can interfere with chemotherapy, nor should it be considered a substitute for fruits and vegetables.<ref name="Cassileth">{{cite journal|pmid=19947351|year=2009|last1=Cassileth|first1=B|title=Juice Plus|volume=23|issue=11|pages=987|journal=Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.)}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''Juice Therapy''')&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of consuming juice made from raw fruit and vegetables. This has been claimed to bring many benefits such as slowing aging or curing cancer; however, according to the American Cancer Society, "there is no convincing scientific evidence that extracted juices are healthier than whole foods".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/juicing
|title=Juicing
|publisher=American Cancer Society
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013
}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; A kind of fermented tea claimed to cure a variety of human illnesses including AIDS and cancer; these purported uses are however not backed by evidence and drinking kombucha has been associated with a number of harms including poisoning and even death.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/kombucha |publisher=] |title=Kombucha |date=22 May 2014 |accessdate=June 2015}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a fruit native to Southeast Asia which is promoted as a "]" and in products such as ] for treating a variety of human ailments. According to the American Cancer Society, "there is no reliable evidence that mangosteen juice, puree, or bark is effective as a treatment for cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/mangosteen-juice
|publisher=]
|title=Mangosteen Juice
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' ('''''Silybum marianum''''')&nbsp;&ndash; a ] that grows in many locations over the word. ] say that milk thistle is promoted on the internet for its claimed ability to slow certain kinds of cancer, but that there is no good evidence in support of these claims.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Cancer Research UK |accessdate=March 2015 |title=Milk thistle and liver cancer |date=8 March 2015 |url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancers-in-general/cancer-questions/milk-thistle-and-liver-cancer}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''Iscador''')&nbsp;&ndash; a plant used in ], proposed as a cancer cure by ] (1861–1925), who believed it needed to be harvested when planetary alignment most influenced its potency. According to the American Cancer Society, "available evidence from well-designed clinical trials does not support claims that mistletoe can improve length or quality of life".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|date=January 2013
|accessdate=September 2013
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/mistletoe
|title=Mistletoe}}</ref>
] holds that harvesting it when the planets are aligned will yield a cancer treatment|alt=Mistletoe growing on a tree, showing white berries in medium close-up]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a substance chemically extracted from ]s and marketed in dietary supplement form as a treatment for ] and ]. According to Cancer Research UK, it has "not been shown to have any activity in fighting cancer in people".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancers-in-general/cancer-questions/what-is-modified-citrus-pectin |publisher=] |title=What is modified citrus pectin? |accessdate=September 2014}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice, used in conjunction with ] or ], of burning dried-up ] near the patient. The American Cancer Society comments, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that moxibustion is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Moxibustion
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/moxibustion
|publisher=]
|date=8 March 2011
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; promoted on the internet as useful for cancer treatment. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no evidence that any type of mushroom or mushroom extract can prevent or cure cancer".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/mushrooms-in-cancer-treatment
|title=Mushrooms and cancer
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''oleander''')&nbsp;&ndash; one of the most poisonous of commonly grown garden plants, is the basis of an extract which is promoted to treat cancer and other ailments. According to the American Cancer Society, "even a small amount of oleander can cause death", and "the effectiveness of oleander has not been proven".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/oleander-leaf
|title=Oleander Leaf
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
*''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; juice derived from the fruit of the '']'' tree indigenous to ], ], and the ]. Noni juice has been promoted as a cure for cancer. However, The American Cancer Society say "there is no reliable clinical evidence that noni juice is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|title=Noni Plant
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=September 2013
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/noni-plant}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a large South American rainforest tree whose bark (sometimes brewed into "]" tea) is promoted as a treatment for many ailments, including cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, "available evidence from well-designed, controlled studies does not support this substance as an effective treatment for cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|title=Pau d'arco
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/pau-d-arco
|accessdate=September 2013
|date=January 2013}}</ref>
* ''''']''''' (or '''snakeroot''')&nbsp;&ndash; a plant used as the basis of a herbal remedy that some believe may treat cancer. According to the American Cancer Society: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that Indian snakeroot is effective in treating cancer It also has many dangerous side effects and is likely to increase the risk of cancer."<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/indian-snakeroot
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130508051132/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/indian-snakeroot
|archivedate=8 May 2013
|title=Indian Snakeroot
|accessdate=August 2013
|date=November 2008}}</ref>
* ''']''' ('''''Trifolium pratense''''')&nbsp;&ndash; a European species of ], promoted as a treatment for a variety of health conditions, including cancers. According to the American Cancer Society, "available clinical evidence does not show that red clover is effective in treating or preventing cancer, menopausal symptoms, or any other medical conditions."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/red-clover|title=Red Clover|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''''Serenoa repens''''')&nbsp;&ndash; a type of palm tree found growing in the ]. Its ] has been promoted as a ] medicine; however, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific studies do not support claims that saw palmetto can prevent or treat prostate cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/saw-palmetto|title=Saw Palmetto|date=28 November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=13 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an expensive dietary supplement made mostly from plant extracts and promoted by two US companies. Extravagant claims for its curative powers led to the prosecution and fining of the companies' owners.<ref name=nw>{{cite journal
|title=Court orders Seasilver defendants to pay $120 million |title=Court orders Seasilver defendants to pay $120 million
|journal=Nutraceuticals World |journal=Nutraceuticals World
Line 308: Line 54:
|issue=6 |issue=6
|year=2008 |year=2008
|page=14}}</ref> According to the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, "no studies have shown the efficacy of this costly product".<ref>{{cite web |page=14}}</ref> the Mexican ]<ref name=qw-zoetron>{{cite web
|title=Zoetron Therapy (Cell Specific Cancer Therapy)
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/seasilver |url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/csct.html
|author =Stephen Barrett, M.D.
|accessdate=August 2013
|publisher=]
|date=29 September 2012
|access-date=15 September 2013
|title=Seasilver}}</ref>
|date=1 March 2004}}</ref> and the Canadian ]. In the ], the ] makes the unauthorized promotion of cancer treatments a criminal offense.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/10510345/Harley-Street-practitioner-claimed-he-could-cure-cancer-and-HIV-with-lifestyle-changes-and-herbs-court-hears.html |newspaper=]|title=Harley Street practitioner claimed he could cure cancer and HIV with lifestyle changes and herbs, court hears |date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/2-3/13/section/4 |title=Cancer Act 1939 section 4 |date=7 May 2014}}</ref>
]
* ''']''' (or '''Graviola''')&nbsp;&ndash; widely promoted on the internet as a cancer cure. According to the US ] soursop extract is among those products for which there is "no credible scientific evidence" of an ability to "prevent, cure, or treat cancer of any kind".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2008/09/boguscures.shtm |title=FTC Sweep Stops Peddlers of Bogus Cancer Cures |date=18 September 2008 |publisher=FTC}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the trademarked name of a drug (sometimes called "celandine") made from '']'', a plant in the poppy family. The drug is promoted for its health giving powers and its ability to treat cancer; however according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that celandine is effective in treating cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Celandine
|publisher=]
|date=August 2011
|accessdate=September 2013
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/celandine}}</ref>
* ''''']''''' (or '''cat's claw''')&nbsp;&ndash; a woody vine found in the tropical jungles of South and Central America, which is promoted as a remedy for cancer and other disease. The American Cancer Society state: "Available scientific evidence also does not support cat's claw's effectiveness in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease. Cat's claw is linked to some serious side effects, although the extent of those effects is not known".<ref>{{cite web
|date=12 September 2011
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/cats-claw
|title=Cat's Claw
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
]&nbsp;&ndash; its extract has been promoted as a cure for skin cancer|alt=Venus flytrap plant]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a carnivorous plant, the extract of which is promoted as a treatment for a variety of human ailments including ]. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that extract from the Venus flytrap plant is effective in treating skin cancer or any other type of cancer".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/venus-flytrap|title=Venus Flytrap|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; large, hard ] of any tree of the genus ''Juglans''. ] has been promoted as a cancer cure on the basis it kills a "parasite" responsible for the disease. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that hulls from black walnuts remove parasites from the intestinal tract or that they are effective in treating cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|date=April 2011
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/black-walnut
|title=Black Walnut
|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a food made from grains of wheat. According to the American Cancer Society, although some wheatgrass champions claim it can "shrink" cancer tumors, "available scientific evidence does not support the idea that wheatgrass or the wheatgrass diet can cure or prevent disease".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/wheatgrass
|title=Wheatgrass
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013
|date=November 2008}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or ''']''')&nbsp;&ndash; types of ], the roots of which are made into creams and dietary supplements that are promoted for a variety of medicinal purposes, including cancer prevention. The American Cancer Society says of these products, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that they are safe or effective."<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/wild-yam
|title=Wild Yam
|date=November 2008
|publisher=]
|accessdate=21 September 2013}}</ref>


In 2008, the ] acted against some companies that made unsupported claims that their products, some of which included highly toxic chemicals, could cure cancer. Targets included Omega Supply, Native Essence Herb Company, Daniel Chapter One, Gemtronics, Inc., Herbs for Cancer, Nu-Gen Nutrition, Inc., Westberry Enterprises, Inc., Jim Clark's All Natural Cancer Therapy, ], Cleansing Time Pro, and Premium-essiac-tea-4less.<ref>{{cite press release|url = http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2008/09/boguscures.shtm|title = FTC Sweep Stops Peddlers of Bogus Cancer Cures: Public Education Campaign Counsels Consumers, "Talk to Your Doctor"|date = 18 September 2008|publisher = Federal Trade Commission}}</ref>
=== Physical procedures ===
] and ]]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of diagnosing and treating illness by touching and observing patients to detect meaningful signs in the muscles. Claims have been made that in a session, "spontaneous remission" of cancer can be observed. However according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support the claim that applied kinesiology can diagnose or treat cancer or other illness".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Applied Kinesiology
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/applied-kinesiology
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of manipulating the ] to treat many human ailments. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that chiropractic treatment cures cancer or any other life-threatening illness".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/chiropractic |title=Chiropractic | publisher = ] |accessdate=August 2013 | date = March 2011}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''CST''')&nbsp;&ndash; a treatment devised by John Upledger in the 1970s. A CST practitioner will massage a patient's scalp in the belief that the precise positioning of their cranial bones can have a profound impact on their health. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that craniosacral therapy helps in treating cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Craniosacral therapy
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/craniosacral-therapy
|date=December 2012
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of cleansing the colon using laxatives and enemas to "detoxify" the body. Coffee enemas in particular are promoted as a cancer therapy. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that colon therapy is effective in treating cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/colon-therapy |title=Colon Therapy | publisher = ] |accessdate=August 2013 | date = November 2008}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a procedure in which cups are used to create areas of suction on the body. Although widely used as an alternative cancer treatment the American Cancer Society say "available scientific evidence does not support claims that cupping has any health benefits".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/manualhealingandphysicaltouch/cupping|title=Cupping|date=November 2008|accessdate=4 October 2013|publisher=]}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash;the use of ] or physical movement to improve physical or mental well-being. The American Cancer Society states, "Few scientific studies have been done to evaluate the effects of dance therapy on health, prevention, and recovery from illness. Clinical reports suggest dance therapy may be effective in improving self-esteem and reducing stress. As a form of exercise, dance therapy can be useful for both physical and emotional aspects of quality of life."<ref>{{cite web|title=Dance Therapy|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/dance-therapy|publisher=American Cancer Society|accessdate=30 April 2014}}</ref> A Cochrane review found too few studies to draw any conclusions about what effects dance therapy has on psychological or physical outcomes in cancer patients.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bradt|first=J|author2=Goodill, SW |author3=Dileo, C |title=Dance/movement therapy for improving psychological and physical outcomes in cancer patients.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=Oct 5, 2011|issue=10|pages=CD007103|pmid=21975762|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007103.pub2}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an alternative medical technique in which lighted candles are placed in the ears for supposed therapeutic effect. The practice has been promoted with extravagant claims it can "purify the blood" or "cure" cancer, but ] has found it has no health benefit; it does however carry a serious risk of injury.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/fda/stay-away-ear-candles |publisher=] |editor=] |title=Don't Get Burned: Stay Away From Ear Candles |date= |accessdate=September 2014}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a ] ] in which the practitioner pretends to remove a lump of tissue (typically raw animal entrails bought from a butcher) from a person. No change occurs, so no effect is possible.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a procedure in which the practitioner might look at, blow on, tap and touch a patient in an attempt to affect the "energy" in their body. Although there is some evidence that reiki sessions are relaxing and so might improve general well-being, Cancer Research UK say that "there is no scientific evidence to prove that Reiki can prevent, treat or cure cancer or any other disease".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Reiki
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/reiki
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a type of alternative medicine consisting of finger and palm pressure, stretches, and other massage techniques. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence to prove that shiatsu can cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer."<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/shiatsu
|title=Shiatsu
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>


==Areas of research==
=== Spiritual and mental healing ===
]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of attempting to treat cancer in oneself by imagining it away. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that imagery can influence the development or progress of cancer".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/imagery|title=Imagery|date=1 November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=7 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the attempt to cure disease by spiritual means, often by prayer or participation in religious ritual. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that faith healing can actually cure physical ailments".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Faith Healing
|publisher=]
|date=January 2013
|accessdate=August 2013
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/faith-healing}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the induction of a deeply relaxed and yet alert mental state. Some practitioners have claimed hypnosis might help boost the immune system. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support the idea that hypnosis can influence the development or progression of cancer.".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/hypnosis
|title=Hypnosis
|date=November 2008
|publisher=]
|accessdate=22 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (also ''']''' and ''']''')&nbsp;&ndash; mind-body practices in which patients attempt master their own mental processes. According to the American Cancer Society while meditation "may help to improve the quality of life for people with cancer", "available scientific evidence does not suggest that meditation is effective in treating cancer or any other disease."<ref>{{cite web
|title=Meditation
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/meditation
|publisher=]
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013}}
</ref>
* Anti-cancer ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a technique<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cassileth BR |title=History of psychotherapeutic intervention in cancer patients |journal=Support Care Cancer |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=264–6 |date=July 1995 |pmid=7551631 |doi= |url=}}</ref> claiming that a "cancer personality" caused cancer, which could be cured through talk therapy, e.g., that of the Simonton Cancer Center,<ref>Olson, 2002. p. 161</ref> ]'s "Exceptional Cancer Patients" (ECaP) or ]<ref name=Vickers />
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of maintaining a meditative state while making gentle and fluid bodily movements, in an attempt to balance internal life energy. A systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on cancer treatment concluded "the effectiveness of qigong in cancer care is not yet supported by the evidence from rigorous clinical trials."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/02841860701261584|title=Qigong for cancer treatment: A systematic review of controlled clinical trials|year=2007|last1=Soo Lee|first1=Myeong|last2=Chen|first2=Kevin W|last3=Sancier|first3=Kenneth M|last4=Ernst|first4=Edzard|journal=Acta Oncologica|volume=46|issue=6|pages=717–22|pmid=17653892}}</ref>

=== Synthetic chemicals and other substances ===
] might be thought of as a cancer treatment because of a mistaken belief that sharks do not get cancer.|alt=A shark swimming underwater in a bright blue sea]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; sometimes called "trimethylbicyclonitramineoheptane chloride", is a mixture of chemicals marketed commercially as a cure for many human ailments, including cancer. There is however no scientific evidence for any anti-cancer effect from 714-X.<ref>{{cite web| publisher = ] | url = http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/714-x | title = 714-X | date= 1 November 2008 | accessdate= August 2013 }}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a form of chemotherapy promoted by the ] in ], ]. The American Cancer Society has found no evidence that antineoplastons have any beneficial effects in cancer, and it has recommended that people do not spend money on antineoplaston treatments.<ref name="Antineoplastic1983">{{cite journal |title=Antineoplastons |journal=CA |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=57–9 |year=1983 |pmid=6401577 |doi=10.3322/canjclin.33.1.57}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the use of products derived from ]s, such as ] and ], as a therapy. Apitherapy has been promoted for its anti-cancer effects; however according to the American Cancer Society, "there have been no clinical studies in humans showing that bee venom or other honeybee products are effective in preventing or treating cancer."<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/apitherapy
|title=Apitherapy
|date=November 2008
|publisher=]
|accessdate=21 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (also called '''Protocel''', '''Sheridan's Formula''', '''Jim's Juice''', '''Crocinic Acid''', '''JS–114''', '''JS–101''', '''126–F''', and '''Entelev''')&nbsp;&ndash; a formula that has been promoted as a treatment for a wide range of diseases, including cancer. The American Cancer Society and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center recommend against the use of CanCell, as there is no evidence that it is effective in treating any disease, and its proposed method of action is not consistent with modern science.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.3322/canjclin.43.1.57|title= Questionable methods of cancer management: Cancell/Entelev|year= 1993|journal= CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians|volume= 43|pages= 57–62|pmid=8422607|issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/69160.cfm | title = Cancell | accessdate = 2011-02-26 | publisher = ]}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of injecting cellular material from animals in an attempt to prevent or treat cancer. Although the use of human-to-human cell therapy has some established medical uses, the injection of animal material is, according to the American Cancer Society, not backed by any evidence of effectiveness, and "may in fact be lethal".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/cell-therapy|title=Cell Therapy|date=1 November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=15 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a toxic salt, promoted as a cancer cure (sometimes as "high pH therapy"), on the basis that it targets cancer cells. However, according to the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, there is no evidence to support these claims, while serious adverse reactions ''have'' been reported.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/herb/cesium-chloride
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013
|date=3 May 2012
|title=Cesium Chloride}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; removal of metals from the body by administering ]. Chelation therapy is a legitimate therapy for ] poisoning, but it has also been promoted as an alternative treatment for diseases including cancer. The American Cancer Society says: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that it is effective for treating other conditions such as cancer. Chelation therapy can be toxic and has the potential to cause kidney damage, irregular heartbeat, and even death."<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/chelation-therapy
|title=Chelation Therapy
|date=1 November 2008
|publisher=]
|accessdate=14 September 2013}}</ref>
* '''Cytokine therapy''' (or '''Klehr's autologous tumor therapy''')&nbsp;&ndash; a so-called ] with a therapeutic substrate made of ]s from the cancer patients' blood.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.24ur.com/novice/slovenija/dr-klehr-nima-referenc-v-berlinu.html |title=Dr. Klehr nima referenc v Berlinu | trans_title=Dr. Klehr doesn't have any references in Berlin | publisher=24ur.com |date=3 September 2008 |accessdate=14 October 2013|language=sl}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.24ur.com/novice/slovenija/salzburski-zdravilec-zavaja-paciente.html |title=Salzburški zdravilec zavajal paciente? | trans_title=Salzburg healer mislead patients? | publisher=24ur.com |date=27 August 2008 |accessdate=14 October 2013|language=sl}}</ref> The inventor of this method is ], a ], who practiced it in his private clinics in ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europehealth.com/en/portfolio/dr-klehr-institut-fur-immunologie-und-zellbiologie-2/ |title=Dr. Klehr – Institut für Immunologie und Zellbiologie |trans_title=Dr. Klehr - Institute for Immunology and Cell Biology |publisher=Europe Health GmbH |accessdate=14 October 2013|language=de}}</ref> The patients were mainly from ], ] and other ]an countries. Klehr is reported as claiming that his treatment leads to extended lifespan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dalje.com/en-world/suspicious-austrian-healer-conning-slovenes/176287|title=Suspicious Austrian Healer Conning Slovenes|date=27 August 2008|publisher=dalje.com|accessdate=15 October 2013}}</ref> According to ], the mechanism of action is unclear and the method's clinical effectiveness unproven.<ref>{{citation
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.tz-badsaarow.de/cms/(S(10tvcve11i5ae455acjgtd2a))/Docs/Attachements/072ae916-0a27-458e-b64b-c8437e3dd72b/DKH%20Ratgeber_Brustkrebs.pdf
|format=pdf
|language=de
|date=January 2005
|title=Brustkrebs, Ein Ratgeber für Betroffene, Angehörige und Interessierte
|issn=0946-4816}}</ref>
] has been fraudulently marketed as a cancer treatment|alt=An emu's head and neck]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; liquid containing a suspension of silver particles, marketed as a treatment for cancer and other ailments. Quackwatch states that colloidal silver dietary supplements have not been found safe or effective for the treatment of any condition.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/lyme.html
|title=Lyme Disease: Questionable Diagnosis and Treatment
|author=Edward McSweegan, Ph.D.
|publisher=]
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a dietary supplement supposedly made from crushed coral and promoted with claims it could treat a number of diseases including cancer. A consumer advisory issued by the ] stated "Consumers should be aware that claims that coral calcium can treat or cure cancer, multiple sclerosis, lupus, heart disease, or high blood pressure are not supported by existing scientific evidence".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nccam.nih.gov/news/alerts/coral/coral.htm|title=Consumer Advisory: Coral Calcium|publisher=]|date=November 2004 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120127103623/http://www.nccam.nih.gov/news/alerts/coral/coral.htm |archivedate=27 Jan 2012}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a cocktail of vitamins, drugs and hormones devised by ] (1912&ndash;2003) and promoted as a cancer treatment. According to the American Cancer Society: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that Di Bella therapy is effective in treating cancer. It can cause serious and harmful side effects. ... may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, increased blood sugar levels, low blood pressure, sleepiness, and neurological symptoms."<ref>{{cite web|title=Di Bella Therapy|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/di-bella-therapy|publisher=]|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''DMSO''')&nbsp;&ndash; an ] that has been promoted as a treatment for cancer since the 1960s. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not suggest that DMSO is effective in treating cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/dmso|title=DMSO|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=5 October 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an oil derived from adipose tissue of the ], and promoted in dietary supplement form with the claimed ability to treat a wide range of diseases, including cancer. These products have been cited by the US Food and Drug Administration as a prime example of a "rip-off".<ref>{{cite web | publisher = ] | url = http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/EmergencyPreparedness/BioterrorismandDrugPreparedness/ucm137284.htm | title = How to Spot Health Fraud | date = 30 April 2009 | accessdate = December 2014 | author=Kurtzweil P}}</ref>
* ''']''' (Gc protein-derived macrophage activating factor)&nbsp;&ndash; a type of protein that affects the immune system, and which has been promoted as a "miracle cure" for cancer and HIV. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is no solid scientific evidence to show that the treatment is safe or effective".<ref>{{cite web| last=Arney | first=Kat | url=http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2008/12/03/cancer-cured-for-good-gc-maf-and-the-miracle-cure/ |title='Cancer cured for good?' – Gc-MAF and the miracle cure | publisher= ] |date=25 July 2014 |accessdate=February 2015}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a chemical compound promoted (sometimes as "rocket fuel treatment") for its supposed ability to treat cancer. According to Cancer Research UK, although there is some evidence Hydrazine sulfate might help some people with cancer gain weight, "there is no evidence that it helps to treat cancer".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/what-is-rocket-fuel-treatment|title=What is rocket fuel treatment?|publisher=]|accessdate=8 September 2013}}</ref>
]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the use of a pressurized oxygen environment as therapy. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has a number of accepted uses&nbsp;&ndash; for example ]s are used for treating ]. The therapy has also been promoted as a cure-all for a wide range of conditions, including cancer, for which there is no evidence of effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy: Don't Be Misled |url=http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm364687.htm |publisher=Food and Drug Administration |date=August 22, 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of injecting insulin, usually alongside a low dose of conventional chemotherapy drugs, in the belief that this improves the overall effect of the treatment. Although it may cause a temporary reduction in tumor size for some patients, there is no evidence that it improves survival time or any other main outcomes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Insulin potentiation therapy|url = http://www.cam-cancer.org/CAM-Summaries/Dietary-approaches/Insulin-potentiation-therapy/%28merge%29|website = CAM-Cancer|accessdate = 2015-04-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = What cancer care providers need to know about CAM: the CAM-Cancer project|url = http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/fct.12017|journal = Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies|access-date = 2015-04-29|last = Wider|first = Barbara|date = 17 May 2013|publisher = Wiley|pmc = }}</ref>
* ''']''' (also known as '''Carcalon''', '''creatine''', '''substance X''', or '''drug X''')&nbsp;&ndash; a ]-based liquid sold as an alternative cancer treatment. According to the American Cancer Society: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that Krebiozen is effective in treating cancer or any other disease. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), creatine has been linked to several dangerous side effects."<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=]
|title=Krebiozen
|date=1 November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/krebiozen}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; an ] available as a dietary supplement and claimed by proponents to be capable of slowing cancer progression. According to the American Cancer Society, "there is no reliable scientific evidence at this time that lipoic acid prevents the development or spread of cancer".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/lipoic-acid|title=Lipoic Acid|date=November 2008|publisher=]|accessdate=5 October 2013}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''MMS''')&nbsp;&ndash; a toxic solution of 28% ] in distilled water, is promoted for treating cancer and other ailments. Quackwatch states, "the product, when used as directed, produces an industrial bleach that can cause serious harm to health".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/02ConsumerProtection/FDAActions/mms.html
|publisher=]
|title=FDA Warns Consumers of Serious Harm from Drinking Miracle Mineral Solution (MMS)
|date=1 August 2010
|accessdate=August 2013
}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or ''']''')&nbsp;&ndash; the use of high doses of ], claimed by proponents to help cure cancer. The view of the medical community is that there is no evidence that these therapies are effective for treating ''any'' disease.<ref name="Aaronson2003">{{cite book
|author=Aaronson S
|title=Cancer medicine 6
|editor=Frei Emil, Kufe Donald W, Holland James F
|publisher=BC Decker
|location=Hamilton, Ontario
|year=2003
|pages=76
|isbn=1-55009-213-8
|chapter=Cancer medicine
|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=cmed6.TOC&depth=2
|quote=There is no evidence that megavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in treating any disease.
|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; in alternative medicine, the practice of injecting hydrogen peroxide, oxygenating blood, or administering oxygen under pressure to the rectum, vagina, or other bodily opening. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that putting oxygen-releasing chemicals into a person's body is effective in treating cancer", and some of these treatments can be dangerous.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/oxygen-therapy
|title=Oxygen Therapy
|date=26 December 2012
|publisher=]
|accessdate=20 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a plant pigment used in dietary supplements that have been promoted for their ability to prevent and treat cancer; however, according to the American Cancer society, "there is no reliable clinical evidence that quercetin can prevent or treat cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Quercetin
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/dietandnutrition/quercetin
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a practice in which a chemical mixture (usually including ] alcohol and various metals) is given by mouth or injection, supposedly to cure cancer. The practice was devised by Emanuel Revici (1896&ndash;1997) and differs from modern chemotherapy despite being named with the same term. According to the American Cancer Society: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that Revici's guided chemotherapy is effective in treating cancer or any other disease. It may also cause potentially serious side effects."<ref>{{cite web
|title=Revici's Guided Chemotherapy
|publisher=]
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/revicis-guided-chemotherapy
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=September 2013}}</ref>
] patients attempt to treat cancer by ingesting their own urine.|alt=sample of human urine in plastic vessel with white screw-top]]
* ''']'''&nbsp;&ndash; a dietary supplement made from ground shark skeleton, and promoted as a cancer treatment perhaps because of the mistaken notion that sharks do not get cancer. The ] conducted research and were "unable to demonstrate any suggestion of efficacy for this shark cartilage product in patients with advanced cancer".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/cncr.21107|title=Evaluation of shark cartilage in patients with advanced cancer|year=2005|last1=Loprinzi|first1=Charles L.|last2=Levitt|first2=Ralph|last3=Barton|first3=Debra L.|last4=Sloan|first4=Jeff A.|last5=Atherton|first5=Pam J.|last6=Smith|first6=Denise J.|last7=Dakhil|first7=Shaker R.|last8=Moore Jr|first8=Dennis F.|last9=Krook|first9=James E.|last10=Rowland Jr|first10=Kendrith M.|last11=Mazurczak|first11=Miroslaw A.|last12=Berg|first12=Alan R.|last13=Kim|first13=George P.|journal=Cancer|volume=104|pages=176–82|pmid=15912493|author14=North Central Cancer Treatment Group|issue=1 }}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''baking soda''')&nbsp;&ndash; the ] with the formula ]], sometimes promoted as cure for cancer by alternative medical practitioners such as ]. According to the American Cancer Society: "evidence also does not support the idea that sodium bicarbonate works as a treatment for any form of cancer or that it cures yeast or fungal infections. There is substantial evidence, however, that these claims are false."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/sodium-bicarbonate|title=Sodium Bicarbonate|publisher=]|accessdate=7 September 2013|date=28 November 2008}}</ref>
* ''']''' (or '''urotherapy''')&nbsp;&ndash; the practice of attempting to treat cancer&nbsp;&ndash; or other illnesses&nbsp;&ndash; by drinking, injecting or taking an enema of one's own ], or by making and taking some derivative substance from it. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that urine or urea given in any form is helpful for cancer patients".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/pharmacologicalandbiologicaltreatment/urotherapy
|title=Urotherapy
|publisher=]
|date=November 2008
|accessdate=August 2013}}</ref>
* '''Vitacor'''&nbsp;&ndash; a type of vitamin supplement devised by ] and heavily promoted on the internet, alongside other products from Rath's company under the "Cellular Health" brand, as a claimed treatment for cancer and other human disease; these claims have led to Rath's prosecution.<ref name=rath>'']'', 10 October 2006, </ref> According to Cancer Research UK, "there is no scientific evidence at all to back up the claims that these products work".<ref>{{cite web
|title=Vitacor
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/vitacor-to-treat-cancer
|publisher=]
|accessdate=14 September 2013}}</ref>

==Areas of research ==
{{Distinguish|Experimental cancer treatment}} {{Distinguish|Experimental cancer treatment}}
*] (especially for "Appetite Stimulation" and "Analgesia")<ref name=cannabis>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/cannabis/healthprofessional/page4#Section_32 |title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids:Appetite Stimulation|accessdate=October 1, 2013}}</ref>
*] (Selenomethionine and Se-methylselenocysteine)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vadgama JV, Wu Y, Shen D, Hsia S, Block J |title=Effect of selenium in combination with Adriamycin or Taxol on several different cancer cells |journal=Anticancer Research |volume=20 |issue=3A |pages=1391–414 |year=2000 |pmid=10928049}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Nilsonne G, Sun X, Nyström C |title=Selenite induces apoptosis in sarcomatoid malignant mesothelioma cells through oxidative stress |journal=Free Radical Biology & Medicine |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=874–85 |date=September 2006 |pmid=16934670 |doi=10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2006.04.031|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*]
*], traditional Chinese medicine extracted from the skin of the Bufo toad<ref>{{cite web|title=HuaChanSu|url=http://www.cancer.gov/drugdictionary?cdrid=637352|publisher=National Cancer Institute|accessdate=17 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="ncbi">{{cite journal|last=Meng|first=Zhigiang|title=Pilot Study of Huachansu in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma, Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer, or Pancreatic Cancer|publisher=NIHPA|pmc=2856335|year=2009|last2=Yang|first2=P|last3=Shen|first3=Y|last4=Bei|first4=W|last5=Zhang|first5=Y|last6=Ge|first6=Y|last7=Newman|first7=RA|last8=Cohen|first8=L|last9=Liu|first9=L|
displayauthors=8|volume=115|issue=22|pages=5309–5318|doi=10.1002/cncr.24602|journal=Cancer|pmid=19701908}}</ref>


===Specific methods===
Most studies of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of ] are of low quality in terms of scientific evidence. Studies of ] have produced mixed results, but overall show some temporary benefit for reducing pain, anxiety, and depression and a very low risk of harm, unless the patient is at risk for bleeding disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The use of massage therapy for reducing pain, anxiety, and depression in oncological palliative care patients: a narrative review of the literature|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22007330|journal = ISRN nursing|date = 2011|access-date = 2015-05-05|issn = 2090-5491|pmc = 3168862|pmid = 22007330|pages = 929868|volume = 2011|doi = 10.5402/2011/929868|first = Maria|last = Falkensteiner|first2 = Franco|last2 = Mantovan|first3 = Irene|last3 = Müller|first4 = Christa|last4 = Them}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.cam-cancer.org/CAM-Summaries/Manipulative-body-based/Massage-Classical-Swedish|title = Massage (Classical/Swedish)|date = 17 December 2013|accessdate = |website = |publisher = CAM-Cancer Consortium|last = Cooke|first = Helen|last2 = Seers|first2 = Helen}}</ref> There is weak evidence for a modest benefit from hypnosis, ] and ]. Results about Reiki and touch therapy were inconclusive. The most studied such treatment, acupuncture, has demonstrated no benefit as an adjunct analgesic in cancer pain. The evidence for ] is equivocal, and some herbal interventions such as PC-SPES, mistletoe, and saw palmetto are known to be toxic to some cancer patients. The most promising evidence, though still weak, is for ] such as ] and ] techniques.<ref name = Induru>{{vcite journal |author=Induru RR, Lagman RL |title=Managing cancer pain: frequently asked questions |journal=Cleve Clin J Med |volume=78 |issue=7 |pages=449–64 |year=2011 |month=July |pmid=21724928 |doi=10.3949/ccjm.78a.10054 |url=http://www.ccjm.org/content/78/7/449.long }}</ref>
* ] is a component of ]. It is under preliminary research for therapeutic potential but according to ] no reputable organization supports claims that it can "cure" cancer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/turmeric|title=Turmeric {{!}} Complementary and alternative therapy {{!}} Cancer Research UK|website=www.cancerresearchuk.org|access-date=2019-11-08|archive-date=7 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707031913/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/turmeric|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*] is a psychedelic compound found in more than 100 mushroom species.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Matthew W.|last2=Griffiths|first2=Roland R.|date=July 2017|title=Potential Therapeutic Effects of Psilocybin|journal=Neurotherapeutics |volume=14|issue=3|pages=734–740|doi=10.1007/s13311-017-0542-y|issn=1878-7479|pmc=5509636|pmid=28585222}}</ref> Three small trials have demonstrated decreased cancer-related psychiatric distress, including anxiety and depression with its use.<ref name=":3" />
* ], traditional Chinese medicine derived from the ] secretion of toads of the genus '']''.<ref>{{cite web|title=HuaChanSu|url=http://www.cancer.gov/drugdictionary?cdrid=637352|publisher=National Cancer Institute|access-date=17 November 2012|date = 2 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="ncbi">{{cite journal|last1=Meng|first1=Zhigiang|title=Pilot Study of Huachansu in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma, Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer, or Pancreatic Cancer|publisher=NIHPA|pmc=2856335|year=2009|last2=Yang|first2=P|last3=Shen|first3=Y|last4=Bei|first4=W|last5=Zhang|first5=Y|last6=Ge|first6=Y|last7=Newman|first7=RA|last8=Cohen|first8=L|last9=Liu|first9=L|
display-authors=8|volume=115|issue=22|pages=5309–18|doi=10.1002/cncr.24602|journal=Cancer|pmid=19701908}}</ref>
* ] (for "appetite stimulation" and "pain")<ref name=cannabis>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/cannabis/healthprofessional/page4#Section_32 |title=Cannabis and Cannabinoids:Appetite Stimulation|access-date=1 October 2013|date=16 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whiting |first1=Penny F. |last2=Wolff |first2=Robert F. |last3=Deshpande |first3=Sohan |last4=Di Nisio |first4=Marcello |last5=Duffy |first5=Steven |last6=Hernandez |first6=Adrian V. |last7=Keurentjes |first7=J. Christiaan |last8=Lang |first8=Shona |last9=Misso |first9=Kate |last10=Ryder |first10=Steve |last11=Schmidlkofer |first11=Simone |last12=Westwood |first12=Marie |last13=Kleijnen |first13=Jos |title=Cannabinoids for Medical Use |journal=JAMA |date=23 June 2015 |volume=313 |issue=24 |pages=2456–73 |doi=10.1001/jama.2015.6358|pmid=26103030 |doi-access=free |hdl=10757/558499 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* ]


===Pain relief===
*]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1430621681.html?dids=1430621681:1430621681&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+18%2C+2008&author=Brendan+Borrell&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&edition=&startpage=F.3&desc=MEDICINE+%2F+IN+THE+LAB%3B+GERMS+AS+A+TUMOR+FOE%3F%3B+Exposure+to+bacteria+may+help+ward+off+cancer%2C+studies+show.+Scientists+are+milking+the+concept+with+new+drugs. |title=Medicine / In the Lab; Germs as a Tumor Foe?; Exposure to bacteria may help ward off cancer, studies show. Scientists are milking the concept with new drugs. |format= |work= |accessdate= | first=Brendan | last=Borrell | date=2008-02-18}}</ref>
Most studies of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of ] are of low quality in terms of scientific evidence. Studies of ] have produced mixed results, but overall show some temporary benefit for reducing pain, anxiety, and depression and a very low risk of harm, unless the patient is at risk for bleeding disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The use of massage therapy for reducing pain, anxiety, and depression in oncological palliative care patients: a narrative review of the literature|journal = ISRN Nursing|date = 2011|issn = 2090-5491|pmc = 3168862|pmid = 22007330|pages = 929868|volume = 2011|doi = 10.5402/2011/929868|first1 = Maria|last1 = Falkensteiner|first2 = Franco|last2 = Mantovan|first3 = Irene|last3 = Müller|first4 = Christa|last4 = Them | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.cam-cancer.org/CAM-Summaries/Manipulative-body-based/Massage-Classical-Swedish|title = Massage (Classical/Swedish)|date = 17 December 2013|publisher = CAM-Cancer Consortium|last1 = Cooke|first1 = Helen|last2 = Seers|first2 = Helen|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150505055912/http://www.cam-cancer.org/CAM-Summaries/Manipulative-body-based/Massage-Classical-Swedish|archive-date = 5 May 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref> There is weak evidence for a modest benefit from hypnosis, ] and ]. Results about Reiki and touch therapy were inconclusive. The most studied such treatment, acupuncture, has demonstrated no benefit as an adjunct analgesic in cancer pain. The evidence for ] is equivocal, and some herbal interventions such as PC-SPES, mistletoe, and saw palmetto are known to be toxic to some cancer patients. The most promising evidence, though still weak, is for ] such as ] and ] techniques.<ref name = Induru>{{cite journal |author =Induru RR, Lagman RL |title=Managing cancer pain: frequently asked questions |journal=Cleve Clin J Med |volume=78 |issue=7 |pages=449–64 |date=July 2011|pmid=21724928 |doi=10.3949/ccjm.78a.10054 |s2cid=19598761 |url=http://www.ccjm.org/content/78/7/449.long |doi-access=free }}</ref>


==Examples of complementary therapy== ==Examples of complementary therapy==
As stated in the scientific literature, the measures listed below are defined as 'complementary' because they are applied in conjunction with mainstream anti-cancer measures such as chemotherapy, in contrast to the ineffective therapies viewed as 'alternative' since they are offered as substitutes for mainstream measures.<ref name=Cassileth1996/> As stated in the scientific literature, the measures listed below are defined as 'complementary' because they are applied in conjunction with mainstream anti-cancer measures such as chemotherapy, in contrast to the ineffective therapies viewed as 'alternative' since they are offered as substitutes for mainstream measures.<ref name=Cassileth1996/>
* ] may help with nausea but does not treat the disease.<ref name =Ernst2007>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst E, Pittler MH, Wider B, Boddy K |s2cid=40080937 |title=Acupuncture: its evidence-base is changing |journal=The American Journal of Chinese Medicine |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=21–25 |year=2007 |pmid=17265547 |doi=10.1142/S0192415X07004588}}</ref> A 2015 Cochrane review found unclear usefulness for cancer pain,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paley |first1=CA |last2=Johnson |first2=MI |last3=Tashani |first3=OA |last4=Bagnall |first4=AM |title=Acupuncture for cancer pain in adults. |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=15 October 2015 |volume=2021 |issue=10 |pages=CD007753 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007753.pub3 |pmid=26468973|pmc=6513493 }}</ref> though other reviews have found tentative evidence of benefit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Weidong|last2=Rosenthal|first2=David S|date=March 2013|title=Acupuncture for Cancer Pain and Related Symptoms|journal=Current Pain and Headache Reports|volume=17|issue=3|pages=321|doi=10.1007/s11916-013-0321-3|issn=1531-3433|pmc=4008096|pmid=23338773}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Gary|date=2019|title=Integrative Medicine Therapies for Pain Management in Cancer Patients|journal=The Cancer Journal|volume=25|issue=5|pages=343–348|doi=10.1097/PPO.0000000000000399|pmid=31567462|pmc=6777858|issn=1528-9117}}</ref> It is of unclear effect in hot flashes in people with breast cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=MK |last2=Graham-Getty |first2=L |last3=Haddad |first3=R |last4=Li |first4=Y |last5=McQuade |first5=J |last6=Lee |first6=RT |last7=Spano |first7=M |last8=Cohen |first8=L |title=Systematic review of acupuncture to control hot flashes in cancer patients. |journal=Cancer |date=15 November 2015 |volume=121 |issue=22 |pages=3948–58 |doi=10.1002/cncr.29630 |pmid=26281028|pmc=4635055 }}</ref>

* The effects of ] are unclear with no peer-reviewed research in regards to cancer treatment.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Aromatherapy With Essential Oils (PDQ®)–Patient Version |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/cam/patient/aromatherapy-pdq |website=National Cancer Institute |access-date=6 November 2019 |date=9 March 2007}}</ref>
* ] may help with nausea but does not treat the disease.<ref name =Ernst2007>{{cite journal |author=Ernst E, Pittler MH, Wider B, Boddy K |title=Acupuncture: its evidence-base is changing |journal=The American Journal of Chinese Medicine |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17265547 |doi=10.1142/S0192415X07004588}}</ref>
* ] may reduce ] and improve ] as well as allow for improving patient moods.<ref name=Vickers /> * ] may reduce ] and improve ] as well as allow for improving patient moods.<ref name=Vickers />
* ] may temporarily reduce pain.<ref name = Induru/> * ] may temporarily reduce pain.<ref name = Induru/>
* In laboratory animals, some ]s may stimulate appetite and reduce symptoms such as pain and nausea related to therapy, which helps reduce weight loss.<ref name=cannabis/> There is no evidence of similar effect for people.<ref name=cruk-cannabis>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/07/25/cannabis-cannabinoids-and-cancer-the-evidence-so-far/|title=Cannabis, cannabinoids and cancer – the evidence so far|last=Arney|first=Kat|date=2012-07-25|publisher=Cancer Research UK|accessdate=2014-03}}</ref> * There is no evidence that cannabis has a beneficial effect in preventing or treating cancer in humans.<ref name=cruk-cannabis>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/07/25/cannabis-cannabinoids-and-cancer-the-evidence-so-far/|title=Cannabis, cannabinoids and cancer – the evidence so far|last=Arney|first=Kat|date=2012-07-25|publisher=Cancer Research UK|access-date=2014-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211145440/http://scienceblog.cancerresearchuk.org/2012/07/25/cannabis-cannabinoids-and-cancer-the-evidence-so-far/|archive-date=11 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ] and ] may improve the quality of life of cancer patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vickers A, Zollman C, Payne DK |title=Hypnosis and relaxation therapies |journal=West. J. Med. |volume=175 |issue=4 |pages=269–72 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11577062 |pmc=1071579 |doi= 10.1136/ewjm.175.4.269|quote=Evidence from randomized controlled trials indicates that hypnosis, relaxation, and meditation techniques can reduce anxiety, particularly that related to stressful situations, such as receiving chemotherapy.}}</ref> * ] and ] may improve the quality of life of cancer patients.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Vickers A, Zollman C, Payne DK |title=Hypnosis and relaxation therapies |journal=West. J. Med. |volume=175 |issue=4 |pages=269–72 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11577062 |pmc=1071579 |doi= 10.1136/ewjm.175.4.269|quote=Evidence from randomized controlled trials indicates that hypnosis, relaxation, and meditation techniques can reduce anxiety, particularly that related to stressful situations, such as receiving chemotherapy.}}</ref>
* ] eases cancer-related symptoms by helping with mood disturbances.<ref name=Vickers /> * ] eases cancer-related symptoms by helping with mood disturbances.<ref name=Vickers />


Line 543: Line 91:
Some alternative cancer treatments are based on unproven or disproven theories of how cancer begins or is sustained in the body. Some common concepts are: Some alternative cancer treatments are based on unproven or disproven theories of how cancer begins or is sustained in the body. Some common concepts are:


===Mind-body connection===
* '''Mind-body connection''': This idea says that cancer forms because of, or can be controlled through, the person's mental and emotional state. Treatments based on this idea are ]s. Proponents say that cancer forms because the person is unhappy or stressed, or that a positive attitude can cure cancer after it has formed. A typical claim is that stress, anger, fear, or sadness depresses the immune system, whereas that love, forgiveness, confidence, and happiness cause the immune system to improve, and that this improved immune system will destroy the cancer. This belief that generally boosting the immune system's activity will kill the cancer cells is not supported by any scientific research.<ref name=Thyphronitis>{{cite journal
This idea says that cancer progression is related to a person's mental and emotional state. Treatments based on this idea are ]s. Proponents say that cancer forms because the person is unhappy or stressed, or that a positive attitude can cure cancer after it has formed. A typical claim is that stress, anger, fear, or sadness depresses the immune system, whereas that love, forgiveness, confidence, and happiness cause the immune system to improve, and that this improved immune system will destroy the cancer. This belief that generally boosting the immune system's activity will kill the cancer cells is not supported by any scientific research.<ref name=Thyphronitis>{{cite journal
|author=Thyphronitis G, Koutsilieris M
|title=Boosting the immune response: an alternative combination therapy for cancer patients |vauthors=Thyphronitis G, Koutsilieris M |title=Boosting the immune response: an alternative combination therapy for cancer patients
|journal=Anticancer Res. |journal=Anticancer Res.
|volume=24 |volume=24
Line 552: Line 100:
|year=2004 |year=2004
|pmid=15330197 |pmid=15330197
}}</ref> In fact, many cancers require the support of an active immune system (especially through inflammation) to establish the ] necessary for a tumor to grow.<ref>{{cite news
|doi=
|title=A Malignant Flame
|url=
|author=Stix, Gary
}}</ref> In fact, many cancers require the support of an active immune system (especially through inflammation) to establish the ] necessary for a tumor to grow.<ref>{{cite news
|date=July 2007
|title = A Malignant Flame
|journal=Scientific American
|author = Stix, Gary
|url=http://podcast.sciam.com/daily/pdf/sa_d_podcast_070619.pdf
|date = July 2007
|url-status=dead
|journal = Scientific American Magazine
|url = http://podcast.sciam.com/daily/pdf/sa_d_podcast_070619.pdf }}</ref> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716015048/http://podcast.sciam.com/daily/pdf/sa_d_podcast_070619.pdf
|archive-date=16 July 2011
* '''Toxin theory of cancer''': In this idea, the body's metabolic processes are overwhelmed by normal, everyday byproducts. These byproducts, called "toxins", are said to build up in the cells and cause cancer and other diseases through a process sometimes called '']'' or ''autotoxemia''. Treatments following this approach are usually aimed at detoxification or ], such as enemas.
}}</ref>
* '''Low activity by the immune system''': This claim asserts that if only the body's ] were strong enough, it would kill the "invading" or "foreign" cancer. Unfortunately, most cancer cells retain normal cell characteristics, making them appear to the immune system to be a normal part of the body. Cancerous tumors also actively induce ], which prevents the immune system from attacking them.<ref name=Thyphronitis />

===Toxin theory of cancer===
In this idea, the body's metabolic processes are overwhelmed by normal, everyday byproducts. These byproducts, called "toxins", are said to build up in the cells and cause cancer and other diseases through a process sometimes called '']'' or ''autotoxemia''. Treatments following this approach are usually aimed at detoxification or ], such as enemas.


===Low activity by the immune system===
==Regulatory action==
This claim asserts that if only the body's ] were strong enough, it would kill the "invading" or "foreign" cancer. Unfortunately, most cancer cells retain normal cell characteristics, making them appear to the immune system to be a normal part of the body. Cancerous tumors also actively induce ], which prevents the immune system from attacking them.<ref name=Thyphronitis />
Government agencies around the world routinely investigate purported alternative cancer treatments in an effort to protect their citizens from fraud and abuse.


===Epigenetic disregulation===
In 2008, the ] acted against companies that made unsupported claims that their products, some of which included highly toxic chemicals, could cure cancer.<ref>{{cite press release
This claim uses research into the mechanism of ] to understand how mutations in the epigenetic machinery of cells will alter histone acetylation patterns to create ]. DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer.<ref name="pmid18403632">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kastan MB |title=DNA damage responses: mechanisms and roles in human disease: 2007 G.H.A. Clowes Memorial Award Lecture |journal=Mol. Cancer Res. |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=517–24 |year=2008 |pmid=18403632 |doi=10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-08-0020 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=BernsteinPrasad>{{cite book |last1= Bernstein |first1=C |last2=Prasad |first2=AR |last3=Nfonsam |first3=V |last4=Bernstein |first4=H. |year=2013 |chapter= Chapter 16: DNA Damage, DNA Repair and Cancer |title= New Research Directions in DNA Repair |editor-first=Clark |editor-last=Chen |isbn=978-953-51-1114-6|page=413|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand }}</ref> If DNA repair is deficient, DNA damage tends to accumulate. Such excess DNA damage can increase ] errors during ] due to error-prone ]. Excess DNA damage can also increase ] alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations can give rise to ].{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}
|url = http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2008/09/boguscures.shtm
|title = FTC Sweep Stops Peddlers of Bogus Cancer Cures: Public Education Campaign Counsels Consumers, "Talk to Your Doctor"
|date = 18 September 2008
|publisher = Federal Trade Commission
}}</ref> Targets included Omega Supply, Native Essence Herb Company, Daniel Chapter One, Gemtronics, Inc., Herbs for Cancer, Nu-Gen Nutrition, Inc., Westberry Enterprises, Inc., Jim Clark's All Natural Cancer Therapy, ], Cleansing Time Pro, and Premium-essiac-tea-4less.


== See also == ==See also==
{{portal|Medicine}} {{Portal|Medicine}}
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
Line 580: Line 127:
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]


==References== ==References==
{{reflist|30em |refs= {{Reflist|30em |refs=
<ref name=Vickers>{{cite journal |last1=Vickers |first1=A. |title=Alternative Cancer Cures: 'Unproven' or 'Disproven'? |journal=CA |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=110–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15061600 |doi=10.3322/canjclin.54.2.110 | url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/canjclin.54.2.110/full }}</ref> <ref name=Vickers>{{cite journal |last1=Vickers |first1=A. |title=Alternative Cancer Cures: 'Unproven' or 'Disproven'? |journal=CA |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=110–18 |year=2004 |pmid=15061600 |doi=10.3322/canjclin.54.2.110 |s2cid=35124492 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
}} }}


== External links == ==External links==
* from the US Federal Trade Commission * from the US Federal Trade Commission
* from the US Food and Drug Administration * from the US Food and Drug Administration
* from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center * from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center


{{Pseudoscience}} {{Pseudoscience}}
{{Fraud}} {{Fraud}}
{{American Cancer Society}} {{American Cancer Society}}
{{Francis Crick Institute}} {{Francis Crick Institute}}
{{Authority control}}


]
]
] ]
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Latest revision as of 07:49, 2 May 2024

Alternative or complementary treatments for cancer that have not demonstrated efficacy

1930s public information poster warning of "cancer quacks"
Part of a series on
Alternative medicine
General information
Fringe medicine and science
Controversies
Classifications
Traditional medicine
Alternative diagnoses

Alternative cancer treatment describes any cancer treatment or practice that is not part of the conventional standard of cancer care. These include special diets and exercises, chemicals, herbs, devices, and manual procedures. Most alternative cancer treatments do not have high-quality evidence supporting their use and many have been described as fundamentally pseudoscientific. Concerns have been raised about the safety of some purported treatments and some have been found unsafe in clinical trials. Despite this, many untested and disproven treatments are used around the world.

Alternative cancer treatments are typically contrasted with experimental cancer treatments – science-based treatment methods – and complementary treatments, which are non-invasive practices used in combination with conventional treatment. All approved chemotherapy medications were considered experimental treatments before completing safety and efficacy testing.

Since the late 19th century, medical researchers have established modern cancer care through the development of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapies, and refined surgical techniques. As of 2019, only 32.9% of cancer patients in the United States died within five years of their diagnosis. Despite their effectiveness, many conventional treatments are accompanied by a wide range of side effects, including pain, fatigue, and nausea. Some side effects can even be life-threatening. Many supporters of alternative treatments claim increased effectiveness and decreased side effects when compared to conventional treatments. However, one retrospective cohort study showed that patients using alternative treatments instead of conventional treatments were 2.5 times more likely to die within five years.

Most alternative cancer treatments have not been tested in proper clinical trials. Among studies that have been published, the quality is often poor. A 2006 review of 196 clinical trials that studied unconventional cancer treatments found a lack of early-phase testing, little rationale for dosing regimens, and poor statistical analyses. These kinds of treatments have appeared and vanished throughout history.

Terminology

Complementary and alternative cancer treatments are often grouped together, in part because of the adoption of the phrase complementary and alternative medicine by the United States Congress. The World Health Organization uses the phrase traditional, complementary, and integrative medicine (TCIM) to describe a similar set of treatments.

Complementary treatments are used in conjunction with proven mainstream treatments. They tend to be pleasant for the patient, not involve substances with any pharmacological effects, inexpensive, and intended to treat side effects rather than to kill cancer cells. Medical massage and self-hypnosis to treat pain are examples of complementary treatments.

About half the practitioners who dispense complementary treatments are physicians, although they tend to be generalists rather than oncologists. As many as 60% of American physicians have referred their patients to a complementary practitioner for some purpose. While conventional physicians should always be kept aware of any complementary treatments used by a patient, many physicians in the United Kingdom are at least tolerant of their use, and some might recommend them.

Alternative treatments, by contrast, are used in place of mainstream treatments. The most popular alternative cancer therapies include restrictive diets, mind-body interventions, bioelectromagnetics, nutritional supplements, and herbs. The popularity and prevalence of different treatments varies widely by region. Cancer Research UK warns that alternative treatments may interact with conventional treatment, may increase the side effects of medication, and can give people false hope.

Prevalence

Survey data about how many cancer patients use alternative or complementary therapies vary from nation to nation as well as from region to region. Reliance on alternative therapies is common in developing countries, because people cannot afford effective medical treatment. For example, in Latin America, most cancer patients have used natural products, nutritional supplements, and spiritual practices (such as praying) in addition to, or instead of, medical care. In Africa, where millions of people do not have financial or geographical access to an oncologist, many Africans with cancer rely on traditional African medicine, which uses divination, spiritualism, and herbal medicine. About 40% of African cancer patients take herbal preparations. Three-quarters of Chinese people with cancer use some form of Traditional Chinese medicine, especially Chinese herbal preparations. About a third of people with cancer in India use Ayurveda or other elements of AYUSH.

A 2000 study published by the European Journal of Cancer evaluated a sample of 1023 women from a British cancer registry who had breast cancer and found that 22.4% had consulted with a practitioner of complementary therapies in the previous twelve months. The study concluded that the patients had spent many thousands of pounds on such measures and that use "of practitioners of complementary therapies following diagnosis is a significant and possibly growing phenomenon".

In Australia, one study reported that 46% of children with cancer have been treated with at least one non-traditional therapy. Further 40% of those of any age receiving palliative care had tried at least one such therapy. Some of the most popular alternative cancer treatments were found to be dietary therapies, antioxidants, high dose vitamins, and herbal therapies.

In the United States, nearly all adults who use non-conventional medical therapies do so in addition to conventional medical treatment, rather than as an alternative to it. Use of unconventional cancer treatments in the United States has been influenced by the U.S. federal government's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), initially known as the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), which was established in 1992 as a National Institutes of Health (NIH) adjunct by the U.S. Congress. More specifically, the NIC's Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine sponsors over $105 million a year in grants for pseudoscientific cancer research. Over thirty American medical schools have offered general courses in alternative medicine, including the Georgetown, Columbia, and Harvard university systems, among others.

People who choose alternative treatments

People who are drawn to alternative treatments tend to believe that evidence-based medicine is extremely invasive or ineffective, while still hoping that their own health could be improved. They are loyal to their alternative healthcare providers and believe that "treatment should concentrate on the whole person". Among people who (correctly or incorrectly) believe their condition is untreatable, "desperation drives them into the hands of anyone with a promise and a smile." Con artists have long exploited patients' perceived lack of options to extract payments for ineffectual and even harmful treatments.

No evidence suggests that the use of alternative treatments improves survival. In 2017, one retrospective, observational study suggested that people who chose alternative medicine instead of conventional treatments were more than twice as likely to die within five years of diagnosis. Breast cancer patients choosing alternative medicine were 5.68 times more likely to die within five years of diagnosis.

Although they are more likely to die than non-users, some users of alternative treatments feel a greater sense of control over their destinies and report less anxiety and depression. They are more likely to engage in benefit finding, which is the psychological process of adapting to a traumatic situation and deciding that the trauma was valuable, usually because of perceived personal and spiritual growth during the crisis.

In a survey of American cancer patients, baby boomers were more likely to support complementary and alternative treatments than people from an older generation. White, female, college-educated patients who had been diagnosed more than a year ago were more likely than others to report a favorable impression of at least some complementary and alternative benefits.

Unproven and disproven treatments

Main article: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments

Many therapies without evidence have been promoted to treat or prevent cancer in humans. In many cases, evidence suggests that the treatments do not work. Unlike accepted cancer treatments, unproven and disproven treatments are generally ignored or avoided by the medical community.

Despite this, many of these therapies have continued to be promoted as effective, particularly by promoters of alternative medicine. Scientists consider this practice quackery, and some of those engaged in it have been investigated and prosecuted by public health regulators such as the US Federal Trade Commission, the Mexican Secretariat of Health and the Canadian Competition Bureau. In the United Kingdom, the Cancer Act makes the unauthorized promotion of cancer treatments a criminal offense.

In 2008, the United States Federal Trade Commission acted against some companies that made unsupported claims that their products, some of which included highly toxic chemicals, could cure cancer. Targets included Omega Supply, Native Essence Herb Company, Daniel Chapter One, Gemtronics, Inc., Herbs for Cancer, Nu-Gen Nutrition, Inc., Westberry Enterprises, Inc., Jim Clark's All Natural Cancer Therapy, Bioque Technologies, Cleansing Time Pro, and Premium-essiac-tea-4less.

Areas of research

Not to be confused with Experimental cancer treatment.

Specific methods

  • Curcumin is a component of turmeric. It is under preliminary research for therapeutic potential but according to Cancer Research UK no reputable organization supports claims that it can "cure" cancer.
  • Psilocybin is a psychedelic compound found in more than 100 mushroom species. Three small trials have demonstrated decreased cancer-related psychiatric distress, including anxiety and depression with its use.
  • HuaChanSu, traditional Chinese medicine derived from the parotoid gland secretion of toads of the genus Bufo.
  • Medical cannabis (for "appetite stimulation" and "pain")
  • Selenium

Pain relief

Most studies of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of cancer pain are of low quality in terms of scientific evidence. Studies of massage therapy have produced mixed results, but overall show some temporary benefit for reducing pain, anxiety, and depression and a very low risk of harm, unless the patient is at risk for bleeding disorders. There is weak evidence for a modest benefit from hypnosis, supportive psychotherapy and cognitive therapy. Results about Reiki and touch therapy were inconclusive. The most studied such treatment, acupuncture, has demonstrated no benefit as an adjunct analgesic in cancer pain. The evidence for music therapy is equivocal, and some herbal interventions such as PC-SPES, mistletoe, and saw palmetto are known to be toxic to some cancer patients. The most promising evidence, though still weak, is for mind–body interventions such as biofeedback and relaxation techniques.

Examples of complementary therapy

As stated in the scientific literature, the measures listed below are defined as 'complementary' because they are applied in conjunction with mainstream anti-cancer measures such as chemotherapy, in contrast to the ineffective therapies viewed as 'alternative' since they are offered as substitutes for mainstream measures.

  • Acupuncture may help with nausea but does not treat the disease. A 2015 Cochrane review found unclear usefulness for cancer pain, though other reviews have found tentative evidence of benefit. It is of unclear effect in hot flashes in people with breast cancer.
  • The effects of aromatherapy are unclear with no peer-reviewed research in regards to cancer treatment.
  • Psychotherapy may reduce anxiety and improve quality of life as well as allow for improving patient moods.
  • Massage therapy may temporarily reduce pain.
  • There is no evidence that cannabis has a beneficial effect in preventing or treating cancer in humans.
  • Hypnosis and meditation may improve the quality of life of cancer patients.
  • Music therapy eases cancer-related symptoms by helping with mood disturbances.

Alternative theories of cancer

Some alternative cancer treatments are based on unproven or disproven theories of how cancer begins or is sustained in the body. Some common concepts are:

Mind-body connection

This idea says that cancer progression is related to a person's mental and emotional state. Treatments based on this idea are mind–body interventions. Proponents say that cancer forms because the person is unhappy or stressed, or that a positive attitude can cure cancer after it has formed. A typical claim is that stress, anger, fear, or sadness depresses the immune system, whereas that love, forgiveness, confidence, and happiness cause the immune system to improve, and that this improved immune system will destroy the cancer. This belief that generally boosting the immune system's activity will kill the cancer cells is not supported by any scientific research. In fact, many cancers require the support of an active immune system (especially through inflammation) to establish the tumor microenvironment necessary for a tumor to grow.

Toxin theory of cancer

In this idea, the body's metabolic processes are overwhelmed by normal, everyday byproducts. These byproducts, called "toxins", are said to build up in the cells and cause cancer and other diseases through a process sometimes called autointoxication or autotoxemia. Treatments following this approach are usually aimed at detoxification or body cleansing, such as enemas.

Low activity by the immune system

This claim asserts that if only the body's immune system were strong enough, it would kill the "invading" or "foreign" cancer. Unfortunately, most cancer cells retain normal cell characteristics, making them appear to the immune system to be a normal part of the body. Cancerous tumors also actively induce immune tolerance, which prevents the immune system from attacking them.

Epigenetic disregulation

This claim uses research into the mechanism of epigenetics to understand how mutations in the epigenetic machinery of cells will alter histone acetylation patterns to create cancer epigenetics. DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. If DNA repair is deficient, DNA damage tends to accumulate. Such excess DNA damage can increase mutational errors during DNA replication due to error-prone translesion synthesis. Excess DNA damage can also increase epigenetic alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations can give rise to cancer.

See also

References

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