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| {{distinguish|glufosinate}} | |||
| {{chembox | |||
| | Verifiedfields = changed | |||
| | Watchedfields = changed | |||
| | verifiedrevid = 443847907 | |||
| | Name = Glyphosate | |||
| | ImageFile = Glyphosate.svg | |||
| | ImageSize = | |||
| | ImageFile2 = Glyphosate-3D-balls.png | |||
| | ImageFile3 = Glyphosate-3D-vdW.png | |||
| | IUPACName = ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine | |||
| | OtherNames = 2-acetic acid | |||
| |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | |||
| | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | |||
| | UNII = 4632WW1X5A | |||
| | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | |||
| | KEGG = C01705 | |||
| | InChI = 1/C3H8NO5P/c5-3(6)1-4-2-10(7,8)9/h4H,1-2H2,(H,5,6)(H2,7,8,9) | |||
| | InChIKey = XDDAORKBJWWYJS-UHFFFAOYAE | |||
| | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | |||
| | ChEMBL = 95764 | |||
| | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | |||
| | StdInChI = 1S/C3H8NO5P/c5-3(6)1-4-2-10(7,8)9/h4H,1-2H2,(H,5,6)(H2,7,8,9) | |||
| | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | |||
| | StdInChIKey = XDDAORKBJWWYJS-UHFFFAOYSA-N | |||
| | CASNo = 1071-83-6 | |||
| | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | |||
| | CASNo1_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}} | |||
| | CASNo1 = 38641-94-0 | |||
| | CASNo1_Comment = (isopropylammmonium salt) | |||
| | CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}} | |||
| | CASNo2 = 70393-85-0 | |||
| | CASNo2_Comment = (sesquisodium salt) | |||
| | CASNo3_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}} | |||
| | CASNo3 = 81591-81-3 | |||
| | CASNo3_Comment = (] salt)<!-- 38641-94-0 also verified at CAS Common Chemistry, 70393-85-0 and 81591-81-3 verified at ESIS --> | |||
| | EC_number = 213-997-4 <!-- 254-056-8 for isopropylammmonium salt, 274-591-0 for sesquisodium salt --> | |||
| | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | |||
| | ChemSpiderID = 3376 | |||
| | RTECS = MC1075000 | |||
| | PubChem = 3496 | |||
| | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | |||
| | ChEBI = 27744 | |||
| | SMILES = O=C(O)CNCP(=O)(O)O | |||
| }} | |||
| |Section2={{Chembox Properties | |||
| | Reference = <ref name="EHC">{{EHC-ref|number=159|name=Glyphosate|date=1994|isbn=92-4-157159-4}}</ref> | |||
| | C=3 | H=8 | N=1 | O=5 | P=1 | |||
| | Appearance = white crystalline powder | |||
| | Density = 1.704 (20 °C) | |||
| | MeltingPtC = 184.5 | |||
| | BoilingPt= decomposes at | |||
| | BoilingPtC = 187 | |||
| | Solubility = 1.01 g/100 mL (20 °C) | |||
| | LogP = −2.8 | |||
| | pKa = <2, 2.6, 5.6, 10.6 | |||
| }} | |||
| |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | |||
| | Reference = <ref name="EHC"/><ref>{{CLP Regulation|index=607-315-00-8|pages=570, 1100}}</ref> | |||
| | ExternalSDS = | |||
| | EUClass = Irritant ('''Xi''')<br />Dangerous for the environment ('''N''') | |||
| | RPhrases = {{R41}}, {{R51/53}} | |||
| | SPhrases = {{S2}}, {{S26}}, {{S39}}, {{S61}} | |||
| | GHSPictograms = {{GHS05|Eye Dam. 1}}{{GHS09|Aquatic Chronic 2}} | |||
| | GHSSignalWord = DANGER | |||
| | HPhrases = {{H-phrases|318|411}} | |||
| | PPhrases = {{P-phrases|273|280|305+351+338|310|501}} | |||
| | FlashPt = Non-flammable | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Glyphosate''' (''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum ] used to kill ]s, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses known to compete with commercial crops grown around the globe. It was discovered to be an herbicide by ] chemist ] in 1970.<ref>{{ cite patent | country = US | number = 3799758 | status =patent | title = N-phosphonomethyl-glycine phytotoxicant compositions | gdate = 1974-03-26 | fdate = 1971-08-09 | inventor = Franz JE | assign1 = Monsanto Company }}</ref> Monsanto brought it to market in the 1970s under the trade name '''Roundup''' and Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States ] expired in 2000. | |||
| Glyphosate was quickly adopted by farmers, even more so when Monsanto introduced glyphosate-resistant ], enabling farmers to kill weeds without killing their crops. In 2007, glyphosate was the most used herbicide in the United States agricultural sector, with 180 to 185 million pounds ({{convert|180000000|to|185000000|lb|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}}) applied, and the second-most used in home and garden market where users applied 5 to 8 million pounds ({{convert|5000000|to|8000000|lb|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}}); in addition, industry, commerce, and government applied 13 to 15 million pounds ({{convert|13000000|to|15000000|lb|t|abbr=off|disp=output only}}).<ref name="EPAusage">United States EPA 2007 Pesticide Market Estimates , </ref> | |||
| With its heavy use in ], weed resistance to glyphosate is a growing problem. While glyphosate and formulations such as Roundup have been approved by regulatory bodies worldwide and are widely used, concerns about their effects on humans and the environment persist.<ref name=NatureonWHO2015/> | |||
| Glyphosate's mode of action as an herbicide is to inhibit a plant ] involved in the synthesis of the ] ]s: ], ], and ]. It is absorbed through ], and minimally through roots,<ref>Sprankle, Paul, W. F. Meggitt, and Donald Penner. "Rapid inactivation of glyphosate in the soil." Weed Science (1975): 224-228.</ref><ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/><ref name=moneuro/> and translocated to growing points. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective as a ]. Some crops have been ] to be resistant to glyphosate (i.e., Roundup Ready, also created by Monsanto Company). Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a postemergence herbicide against both ] and cereal weeds, but the development of similar resistance in some weed species is emerging as a costly problem. ] was the first Roundup Ready crop. | |||
| Many regulatory and scholarly reviews have evaluated the relative toxicity of glyphosate as an herbicide. The German ] published a toxicology review in 2013, which found that "the available data is contradictory and far from being convincing" with regard to correlations between exposure to glyphosate formulations and risk of various cancers, including ] (NHL).<ref name=BFR2014>Renewal Assessment Report: Glyphosate, Volume 1, Report and Proposed Decision", German Institute for Risk Assessment, 18 December 2013, p. 65. Download available from (registration required){{rp|Volume 1, pp. 64–66}}</ref> A meta-analysis published in 2014 identified an increased risk of NHL in workers exposed to glyphosate formulations.<ref name=Schinasi/> In March 2015 the ]'s ] published a summary of its forthcoming monograph on glyphosate, and classified it as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (]) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name=NatureonWHO2015/><ref name=Lancet20March2015>{{cite journal | vauthors = Guyton KZ, Loomis D, Grosse Y, El Ghissassi F, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Scoccianti C, Mattock H, Straif K | title = Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate | journal = The Lancet. Oncology | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 490–1 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25801782 | doi = 10.1016/S1470-2045(15)70134-8 | url = http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanonc/article/PIIS1470-2045%2815%2970134-8/abstract }}</ref><ref name=IARC20March2015/> | |||
| == Discovery == | |||
| Glyphosate was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin, who worked for the Swiss company ]. The work was never published.<ref name=Dill>Dill GM et al. . Chapter 1 in Glyphosate Resistance in Crops and Weeds: History, Development, and Management, Vijay K. Nandula (Editor). Wiley, September 2010 ISBN 978-0-470-41031-8</ref>{{rp|1}} Stauffer Chemical patented the agent as a chemical ] in 1964 as it binds and removes minerals such as calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper and zinc.<ref></ref> | |||
| Somewhat later, glyphosate was independently discovered at Monsanto in 1970. Monsanto chemists had synthesized about 100 ] of ] as potential water-softening agents. Two were found to have weak herbicidal activity, and ], a chemist at Monsanto, was asked to try to make analogs with stronger herbicidal activity. Glyphosate was the third analog he made.<ref name=Dill/>{{rp|1–2}}<ref name="pmid11248008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Alibhai MF, Stallings WC | title = Closing down on glyphosate inhibition--with a new structure for drug discovery | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 98 | issue = 6 | pages = 2944–6 | date = Mar 2001 | pmid = 11248008 | pmc = 33334 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.061025898 | bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.2944A | jstor = 3055165 }}</ref> | |||
| Glyphosate has been called by experts in herbicides "virtually ideal" due to its broad spectrum and low toxicity to animal life compared with other herbicides.<ref name=Duke>Stephen O Duke and Stephen B. Powles (2008) Pest Management Science Pest Manag Sci 64:319–325</ref><ref> Chem. Eng. News, 1990, 68 (11), pp 29–30 {{DOI|10.1021/cen-v068n011.p029}}</ref><ref>Pesticide Action Network UK. Pesticides News No.33, September 1996, p28-29 PAN-UK says it is "a welcome move away from chemicals which are highly toxic to humans and other non target organisms, and from chemicals which cause direct and lasting damage to the environment" and of course cautions against overuse.</ref><ref>Dr. Kathleen A. Marrs </ref> Franz received the ] in 1987<ref name="urlThe National Medal of Technology and Innovation Recipients - 1987">{{cite web | url = http://www.uspto.gov/about/nmti/recipients/1987.jsp | title = The National Medal of Technology and Innovation Recipients - 1987 | work = | publisher = The United States Patent and Trademark Office | accessdate = 2012-11-29 }}</ref> and the ] for Applied Chemistry<ref>{{cite journal | title = People: Monsanto Scientist John E. Franz Wins 1990 Perkin Medal For Applied Chemistry | journal = The Scientist | author = Stong C |date=May 1990 | volume = 4 | issue = 10 | pages = 28 | url = http://classic.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/11141/ }}</ref> in 1990 for his discoveries. Franz was inducted into the National Inventor's Hall of Fame in 2007.<ref name="urlInvent Now | Hall of Fame | Induction | 2007 Inductees">{{cite web | url = http://www.invent.org/2007induction/index.asp | title = Meet the 2007 National Inventors Hall of Fame Inductees | year = 2007 | publisher = National Inventors Hall of Fame | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005141028/http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/1_3_07_induction_Franz.asp|archivedate=October 5, 2013}}</ref> | |||
| == Chemistry == | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Glyphosate is an aminophosphonic analogue of the natural amino acid ], and the name is a contraction of ] ]. The molecule has several dissociable hydrogens, especially the first hydrogen of the phosphate group. The molecule tends to exist as a ] where a phosphonic hydrogen dissociates and joins the amine group. Glyphosate is soluble in water to 12 g/L at room temperature. | |||
| ] The main deactivation path is hydrolysis to ] (AMPA).<ref name="urlwww.cdpr.ca.gov">{{cite web | url = http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/fatememo/glyphos.pdf | title = Environmental Fate of Glyphosate | author = Schuette J | format = | work = | publisher = Department of Pesticide Regulation, State of California }}</ref> | |||
| == Biochemistry == | |||
| Glyphosate kills plants and many bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of the ] amino acids ], ], and ]. It does this by inhibiting the enzyme ] (EPSPS), which ] the reaction of ]-3-phosphate (S3P) and ] to form 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP).<ref name="pmid7396959">{{cite journal | vauthors = Steinrücken HC, Amrhein N | title = The herbicide glyphosate is a potent inhibitor of 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimic acid-3-phosphate synthase | journal = Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 1207–12 | date = Jun 1980 | pmid = 7396959 | doi = 10.1016/0006-291X(80)90547-1 }}</ref> | |||
| ]{{clear left}} | |||
| EPSP is subsequently ] to ], an essential precursor for the amino acids mentioned above.<ref>Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Metabolic Plant Physiology Lecture notes, .</ref> These amino acids are used in protein synthesis and to produce secondary metabolites such as ]s, ]s, and ]. | |||
| ] studies of glyphosate and EPSPS show that glyphosate functions by occupying the binding site of the phosphoenolpyruvate, mimicking an intermediate state of the ternary enzyme substrates complex.<ref name="pmid11171958">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schönbrunn E, Eschenburg S, Shuttleworth WA, Schloss JV, Amrhein N, Evans JN, Kabsch W | title = Interaction of the herbicide glyphosate with its target enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase in atomic detail | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 98 | issue = 4 | pages = 1376–80 | date = Feb 2001 | pmid = 11171958 | pmc = 29264 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.98.4.1376 | bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.1376S }}</ref><ref> in the Protein Data Bank</ref> Glyphosate inhibits the EPSPS enzymes of different species of plants and microbes at different rates.<ref>Schulz, A., A. Krüper, and N. Amrhein. "Differential sensitivity of bacterial 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthases to the herbicide glyphosate." FEMS Microbiology Letters 28.3 (1985): 297-301.</ref><ref name=Pollegioni>Pollegioni L et al. Molecular basis of glyphosate resistance-different approaches through protein engineering. FEBS J. 2011 Aug;278(16):2753-66. PMID 21668647 PMC 3145815</ref> | |||
| EPSPS is produced only by plants and micro-organisms; the gene coding for it is not in the mammalian genome.<ref name="Funke_2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Funke T, Han H, Healy-Fried ML, Fischer M, Schönbrunn E | title = Molecular basis for the herbicide resistance of Roundup Ready crops | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 103 | issue = 35 | pages = 13010–5 | date = Aug 2006 | pmid = 16916934 | pmc = 1559744 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0603638103 | bibcode = 2006PNAS..10313010 | jstor = 30050705 }}</ref><ref>Maeda H1, Dudareva N. The shikimate pathway and aromatic amino Acid biosynthesis in plants. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2012;63:73-105. doi: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105439. PMID 22554242 quote: "The AAA pathways consist of the shikimate pathway (the prechorismate pathway) and individual postchorismate pathways leading to Trp, Phe, and Tyr.... These pathways are found in bacteria, fungi, plants, and some protists but are absent in animals. Therefore, AAAs and some of their derivatives (vitamins) are essential nutrients in the human diet, although in animals Tyr can be synthesized from Phe by Phe hydroxylase....The absence of the AAA pathways in animals also makes these pathways attractive targets for antimicrobial agents and herbicides."</ref> ] of some animals contain EPSPS.<ref name="pmid16899736">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cerdeira AL, Duke SO | title = The current status and environmental impacts of glyphosate-resistant crops: a review | journal = Journal of Environmental Quality | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages = 1633–58 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16899736 | doi = 10.2134/jeq2005.0378 }}</ref> | |||
| Glyphosate is absorbed through foliage and minimally through roots. Because of this mode of action, it is only effective on actively growing plants; it is not effective in preventing seeds from germinating.<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/><ref name=moneuro/> | |||
| == Environmental fate == | |||
| Glyphosate adsorbs strongly to soil, and residues are expected to generally be immobile in soil. Ground and surface water pollution is limited. Glyphosate is readily degraded by soil microbes to ] (AMPA). Glyphosate and AMPA are not likely to move to ground water due to their strong adsorptive characteristics. Glyphosate does have the potential to contaminate surface waters due to its aquatic use patterns and through erosion, as it adsorbs to soil particles suspended in runoff. Limited leaching can also occur after high rainfall after application. If glyphosate reaches surface water, it is not broken down readily by water or sunlight.<ref name="epa_reds"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Borggaard OK, Gimsing AL | title = Fate of glyphosate in soil and the possibility of leaching to ground and surface waters: a review | journal = Pest Management Science | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 441–56 | date = Apr 2008 | pmid = 18161065 | doi = 10.1002/ps.1512 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18161065 }}</ref> | |||
| The half-life of glyphosate in soil ranges between 2 and 197 days; a typical field half-life of 47 days has been suggested. Soil and climate conditions affect glyphosate's persistence in soil. The median half-life of glyphosate in water varies from a few to 91 days.<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/> | |||
| According to the ] fact sheet, glyphosate is not included in compounds tested for by the Food and Drug Administration's Pesticide Residue Monitoring Program, nor in the United States Department of Agriculture's Pesticide Data Program. However, a field test showed that lettuce, carrots, and barley contained glyphosate residues up to one year after the soil was treated with 3.71 lb of glyphosate per acre (4.15 kg per hectare).<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/> | |||
| == Use == | |||
| ] | |||
| Glyphosate is effective in killing a wide variety of plants, including ]es and ] and ]s. By volume, it is one of the most widely used herbicides.<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet">{{cite web|url=http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/glyphotech.html|publisher=National Pesticide Information Center|title=Glyphosate technical fact sheet (revised June 2015)|year=2010|accessdate=September 1, 2015}}</ref> It is commonly used for ], ], ], and ] purposes, as well as garden maintenance (including home use).<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet" /><ref name=zurich>{{cite web |url=http://www.zenobi.ethz.ch/Analytik_2012/T.Amrein%20Analytical%20Strategy%202012.pdf |author=Thomas M Amrein |title=Analysis of pesticides in food| publisher=]| page=15| date=2012-12-21 |accessdate=2013-06-02}}</ref> It has a relatively small effect on some clover species and ].<ref>Stevan Z. Knezevic, University of Nebraska Extension Integrated Weed Management Specialist, last revised Revised February 2010 </ref> | |||
| In many cities, glyphosate is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of glyphosate applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.<ref>Luijendijk CD et al Plant Research International B.V., Wageningen May 2005</ref> Glyphosate contamination of surface water is attributed to urban and agricultural use.<ref name="pmid19482331">{{cite journal | vauthors = Botta F, Lavison G, Couturier G, Alliot F, Moreau-Guigon E, Fauchon N, Guery B, Chevreuil M, Blanchoud H | title = Transfer of glyphosate and its degradate AMPA to surface waters through urban sewerage systems | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 133–9 | date = Sep 2009 | pmid = 19482331 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.05.008 }}</ref> Glyphosate is used to clear ]s and get rid of unwanted aquatic vegetation.<ref name=moneuro/> Since 1994, glyphosate has been used in aerial spraying in Colombia in ] programs; Colombia announced in May 2015 that by October it would cease using glyphosate in these programs due to concerns about human toxicity of the chemical.<ref>BBC. May 10, 2015. </ref> | |||
| In addition to its use as an herbicide, glyphosate is also used for ] (siccation) to increase harvest yield<ref name=moneuro>{{cite web| url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/Agronomic%20benefits%20of%20glyphosate%20in%20Europe.pdf |title=The agronomic benefits of glyphosate in Europe| publisher=] Europe SA |date=February 2010| accessdate=2013-06-02}}</ref> | |||
| and, as a result of desiccation, to increase sucrose concentration in sugarcane before harvest.<ref name=LSUAgExt>Lousisana State University Agricultural Extension Office. Last Updated: 3 September 2014 Page Accessed 3 September 2014</ref> | |||
| == Formulations and tradenames == | |||
| <!-- proprietary? {{Expand section|1=examples of formulations of glyphosate – what are other surfactants and adjuvants? what are their qualities? Which are best for various purposes of farmers? What are the risks of those chemicals? |date=September 2012}} -->Glyphosate is marketed in the United States and worldwide by many ] companies, in different solution strengths and with various ], under dozens of tradenames.<ref>Farm Chemicals International </ref><ref name=AlbertaQuick2015/><ref name="urlISU Weed Science Online - Glyphosate - A Review">{{cite web | url = http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2001/glyphosate%20review.htm#Glyphosate%20Products | title = ISU Weed Science Online - Glyphosate - A Review | author = Hartzler B | format = | work = | publisher = Iowa State University Extension }}</ref><ref name="Weed Handbook Glyphosate">{{cite web | url = http://www.invasive.org/gist/products/handbook/14.Glyphosate.pdf | title = Glyphosate | author = Tu M, Hurd C, Robison R, Randall JM | date = 2001-11-01 | format = | work = Weed Control Methods Handbook | publisher = The Nature Conservancy }}</ref> As of 2010, there were more than 750 glyophosate products on the market.<ref>National Pesticide Information Center. Last updated September 2010 </ref> In 2012, in terms of volume about half of the total global consumption of glyphosate was for conventional crops; Asia Pacific was the largest and fastest growing market.<ref name=ReuterMarkets2014>Reuters. Apr 30, 2014. </ref> Chinese manufacturers collectively are the world's largest producers of glyphosate and its precursors<ref>China Research & Intelligence, June 5, 2013. </ref> and account for about 30% of global exports.<ref name=ReuterMarkets2014/> Key manufacturers include Anhui Huaxing Chemical Industry Compan], ], ], ], ], Jiangsu Good Harvest-Weien Agrochemical Company, ], Nantong Jiangshan Agrochemical & Chemicals Co., ], SinoHarvest, ], and Zhejiang Xinan Chemical Industrial Group Company.<ref name=ReuterMarkets2014/> | |||
| Glyphosate is an acid molecule, so it is formulated as a ] for packaging and handling. Various salt formulations include isopropylamine, diammonium, monoammonium, or potassium as the ]. Some brands include more than one salt. Some companies report their product as acid equivalent (ae) of glyphosate acid, or some report it as active ingredient (ai) of glyphosate plus the salt, and others report both. To compare performance of different formulations, knowledge of how the products were formulated is needed. Since the salt does not contribute to weed control and different salts have different weights, the acid equivalent is a more accurate method of expressing and comparing concentrations.<ref name=UDelFormulations>{{cite web | url = http://agdev.anr.udel.edu/weeklycropupdate/?p=96 | title = Glyphosate Formulations | author = VanGessel M | format = | work = Control Methods Handbook, Chapter 8, Adjuvants: Weekly Crop Update | publisher = University of Delaware Cooperative Extension }}</ref> Adjuvant loading refers to the amount of adjuvant<ref name="Tu_Randall_2003">{{cite web | url = http://www.invasive.org/gist/products/handbook/14.Glyphosate.pdf | title = Glyphosate | author = Tu M, Randall JM | date = 2003-06-01 | format = | work = Weed Control Methods Handbook | publisher = The Nature Conservancy }}</ref><ref name="urlCrops and Soils — Penn State Extension">{{cite web | url = http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg/facts/agronomy-facts-37 | title = Adjuvants for Enhancing Herbicide Performance | author = Curran WS, McGlamery MD, Liebl RA, Lingenfelter DD | year = 1999 | format = | work = | publisher =Penn State Extension }}</ref> already added to the glyphosate product. Fully loaded products contain all the necessary adjuvants, including ]; some contain no adjuvant system, while other products contain only a limited amount of adjuvant (minimal or partial loading) and additional surfactants must be added to the spray tank before application.<ref name=UDelFormulations /> As of 2000 (just before Monsanto's patent on glyphosate expired), over 400 commercial adjuvants from over 34 different companies were available for use in commercial agriculture.<ref name="urlPrinciples of Postemergence Herbicides">{{cite web | url = http://bulletin.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/articles/200007i.html | title = Principles of Postemergence Herbicides | author = Sprague C, Hager A | date = 2000-05-12 | work = | publisher = University of Illinois Extension Service | accessdate = 2012-11-29 }}</ref><ref name="urlAdjuvant Products by Manufacturer, Compendium of Herbicide Adjuvants, Bryan Young, PSAS, Southern Illinois University.">{{cite web | url = http://www.herbicide-adjuvants.com/adjcomp-name.htm | title = Adjuvant Products by Manufacturer, Compendium of Herbicide Adjuvants | author = Young B | work = | publisher = Southern Illinois University }}</ref> | |||
| Products are supplied most commonly in formulations of 120, 240, 360, 480, and 680 g/l of active ingredient. The most common formulation in agriculture is 360 g/l, either alone or with added cationic surfactants.<ref name=AlbertaQuick2015>Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development. April 26, 2006. </ref> | |||
| For 360 g/l formulations, European regulations allow applications of up to 12 l/ha for control of perennial weeds such as ]. More commonly, rates of 3 l/ha are practiced for control of annual weeds between crops.<ref></ref> | |||
| === Monsanto === | |||
| ]'s Roundup is the earliest formulation of glyphosate.]] | |||
| Monsanto developed and patented the use of glyphosate to kill weeds in the 1970s, and has marketed it as Roundup since 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the United States until its patent expired in September, 2000. | |||
| As of 2009, sales of these herbicide products represented about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from other producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides;<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14904184|title=The debate over whether Monsanto is a corporate sinner or saint|date=19 November 2009|work=The Economist|accessdate=20 November 2009}}</ref> their Roundup products (which include ] seeds) represented about half of Monsanto's ].<ref>{{Cite news | url = http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/29/monsanto-potash-fertilizer-personal-finance-investing-ideas-agrium-mosaic.html | title = The Seeds Of A Monsanto Short Play | author = Cavallaro M | date = 2009-06-26 | publisher = Forbes | accessdate = 2009-07-11 }}</ref> | |||
| The ] of the Monsanto herbicides is the ] ] of glyphosate. Another important ingredient in some formulations is the ] ]. | |||
| Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered to be tolerant to glyphosate. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a postemergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first ]. | |||
| == Toxicity == | |||
| Glyphosate is the active ingredient in herbicide formulations containing it. However, in addition to glyphosate salts, commercial formulations of glyphosate contain additives such as ]s which vary in nature and concentration. Laboratory toxicology studies have suggested that other ingredients in combination with glyphosate may have greater toxicity than glyphosate alone.<ref name="Bradberry_2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA | title = Glyphosate poisoning | journal = Toxicological Reviews | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 159–67 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15862083 | doi = 10.2165/00139709-200423030-00003 | url = http://content.wkhealth.com/linkback/openurl?issn=1176-2551&volume=23&issue=3&spage=159 }}</ref> Toxicologists have studied glyphosate alone, additives alone, and formulations. | |||
| === Glyphosate toxicity === | |||
| ===== Human ===== | |||
| Human acute toxicity is dose-related. Acute fatal toxicity has been reported in deliberate overdose.<ref name="Bradberry_2004"/><ref name="pmid22835958">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sribanditmongkol P, Jutavijittum P, Pongraveevongsa P, Wunnapuk K, Durongkadech P | title = Pathological and toxicological findings in glyphosate-surfactant herbicide fatality: a case report | journal = The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 234–7 | date = Sep 2012 | pmid = 22835958 | doi = 10.1097/PAF.0b013e31824b936c }}</ref> Early epidemiological studies did not find associations between long-term low-level exposure to glyphosate and any disease.<ref name="pmid21798302">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mink PJ, Mandel JS, Lundin JI, Sceurman BK | title = Epidemiologic studies of glyphosate and non-cancer health outcomes: a review | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | pages = 172–84 | date = Nov 2011 | pmid = 21798302 | doi = 10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.07.006 }}</ref><ref name="Mink_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mink PJ, Mandel JS, Sceurman BK, Lundin JI | title = Epidemiologic studies of glyphosate and cancer: a review | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 63 | issue = 3 | pages = 440–52 | date = Aug 2012 | pmid = 22683395 | doi = 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.05.012 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22202229">{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams AL, Watson RE, DeSesso JM | title = Developmental and reproductive outcomes in humans and animals after glyphosate exposure: a critical analysis | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–96 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22202229 | doi = 10.1080/10937404.2012.632361 }}</ref> In 2013 the ] reviewed a 2002 finding that had concluded equivocal evidence existed of a relationship between glyphosate exposure during pregnancy and ] malformations and found that "there is no increased risk at the levels of exposure | |||
| below those that caused maternal toxicity."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kimmel GL, Kimmel CA, Williams AL, DeSesso JM | title = Evaluation of developmental toxicity studies of glyphosate with attention to cardiovascular development | journal = Critical Reviews in Toxicology | volume = 43 | issue = 2 | pages = 79–95 | date = Feb 2013 | pmid = 23286529 | pmc = 3581053 | doi = 10.3109/10408444.2012.749834 }}</ref> A 2013 review found that neither glyphosate nor typical glyphosate-based formulations (GBFs) pose a ] risk in humans under normal conditions of human or environmental exposures.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kier LD, Kirkland DJ | title = Review of genotoxicity studies of glyphosate and glyphosate-based formulations | journal = Critical Reviews in Toxicology | volume = 43 | issue = 4 | pages = 283–315 | date = Apr 2013 | pmid = 23480780 | doi = 10.3109/10408444.2013.770820 }}</ref> A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".<ref name="wkc00">{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC | title = Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 Pt 1 | pages = 117–65 | date = Apr 2000 | pmid = 10854122 | doi = 10.1006/rtph.1999.1371 }}</ref> A 2002 review by the European Union reached the same conclusion.<ref name="urlec.europa.eu">{{cite web | url = http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/ph_ps/pro/eva/existing/list1_glyphosate_en.pdf | title = Review report for the active substance glyphosate | date = 2002-01-21 | format = | work = Commission working document | publisher = European Commission, Health and Protection Directorate-General: Directorate E – Food Safety: plant health, animal health and welfare, international questions: E1 - Plant Health }}</ref> A 2014 review article reported a significant association between B-cell lymphoma and glyphosate exposure.<ref name=Schinasi>{{cite journal|last1=Schinasi|first1=L|title=Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and occupational exposure to agricultural pesticide chemical groups and active ingredients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|date=April 23, 2014|volume=11|issue=4|page=4449|doi=10.3390/ijerph110404449|pmid=24762670|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4025008/|accessdate=31 August 2015}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Other mammals ==== | |||
| The ] of glyphosate is 5,000 mg/kg for rats, 10,000 mg/kg in mice and 3,530 mg/kg in goats. The acute dermal LD<sub>50</sub> in rabbits is greater than 2 g/kg. Mammalian LD<sub>50s</sub> are considered to be low to very low toxicity. Signs of glyphosate toxicity in animals typically appear within 30 minutes to 2 hours following ingestion, and include initial excitability and ], ], depression and ] but severe cases can develop into collapse and convulsions.<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/> | |||
| A review of unpublished short-term rabbit feeding studies reported severe toxicity effects at 150 mg/kg/day and "no observed adverse effect level" (]) doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg/kg/day.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kimmel|first1=Gary|title=Evaluation of developmental toxicity studies of glyphosate with attention to cardiovascular development|journal=Critical Reviews in Toxicology|date=2013|volume=43|issue=2|pages=79-95|doi=10.3109/10408444.2012.749834|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/10408444.2012.749834#.VeW7M_lViko|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Glyphosate can have carcinogenic effects in non-human mammals. These include the induction of positive trends in the incidence of ] and ] in male mice, and increased ] in male rats.<ref name=Lancet20March2015 /> | |||
| ==== Fish and aquatic life==== | |||
| Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60-day persistence observed in Canadian ponds, yet persistence of over a year has been recorded in the sediments of U.S. ponds.<ref name="epa_reds"/> Low glyphosate concentrations can be found in many creeks and rivers in the U.S. and in Europe.<ref name=autogenerated3>Pesticide Action Network Asia & the Pacific (PANAP) 2009</ref> The half-life of glyphosate in water is between 12 days to 10 weeks.<ref name="Sparling">{{cite journal|author=Sparling, D.W., Matson, C., Bickham, J. and Doelling‐Brown, P.|year=2006|title=Toxicity of glyphosate as Glypro® and LI700 to red‐eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) embryos and early hatchlings|journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|volume=25|issue=10|pages=2768-2774}}</ref> | |||
| A study observing the impact of herbicides on the ] of aquatic communities containing ] and more than 25 species of animals showed that in contrast to ], glyphosate had great impact in the community, causing a decrease of 22% of the species richness.<ref name="Marin" /> | |||
| '''Fish''' | |||
| In various freshwater fish species, pure glyphosate has a 48-hour lethal concentration (LC<sub>50</sub>) of greater than 24 mg/L to 140 mg/L, while marketed glyphosate formulations can range from 1.3 mg/L to greater than 1000 mg/L. Specific species LC<sub>50s</sub> include 140 mg/L for ] (''Onchorynchus mykiss''), 97 mg/L for ]s (''Pimephales promelas''), 130 mg/L for channel catfish (''Icalurus punctatus'') and 150 mg/L for bluegill sunfish (''Lepomis macrochirus'').<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/> At environmentally relevant levels in field and laboratory studies, glyphosate has been found to cause ] abnormalities in fish.<ref name="Douros">{{cite journal|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|year=2015|volume=187|pages=114|title=Atrazine and glyphosate dynamics in a lotic ecosystem: The common snapping turtle as a sentinel species|author=Douros, D.L., Gaines, K.F. and Novak, J.M.|doi=10.1007/s10661-015-4336-6}}</ref> | |||
| In a study on developing '']'', a New Zealand freshwater fish, environmentally relevant levels of glyphosate alone had no effect on survival. However, when the fish were also exposed to the trematode parasite, '']'', there was a ] effect with the glyphosate, resulting in reduced survival rate.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite journal|author=Kelly, D.W., Poulin, R., Tompkins, D.M. and Townsend, C.R.|year=2010|title=Synergistic effects of glyphosate formulation and parasite infection on fish malformations and survival|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=47|pages=498–504}}</ref> | |||
| '''Amphibians''' | |||
| A 2014 review found that amphibians have been identified as particularly sensitive to glyphosate formulations in their larval and tadpole stages of development, and toxicity has been extensively studied for those stages; toxicity for terrestrial life cycle stages is less well understood.<ref name=FreshRev2014/> The review found that "across the spectrum of organisms likely to be exposed to glyphosate in the aquatic environment, it has been shown that sensitivity to glyphosate and the constituents of commercial formulas is highly species-specific. ...Across multiple phyla, studies have shown that the primary source of the toxicity of glyphosate-based herbicides can be attributed primarily to the surfactant portion of the formulation."<ref name=FreshRev2014>Annett R, Habibi HR, Hontela A. Impact of glyphosate and glyphosate-based herbicides on the freshwater environment. J Appl Toxicol. 2014 May;34(5):458-79. Review. PMID 24615870</ref> Environmental exposures are below the LC<sub50</sub> and the NOEC for several of the species that have been studied, but the ] and the ] appear to be more sensitive to acute exposures.<ref name=FreshRev2014/> Toxicity due to chronic exposures appears also to stem mostly from the surfactant POEA, but developmental toxicity appears to occur in the larval and tadpoles of the ] at levels of exposure to glyphosate that occur in common use of the herbicide.<ref name=FreshRev2014/> | |||
| '''Invertebrates''' | |||
| Glyphosate is "slightly toxic to practically non-toxic" to invertebrates.<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/> | |||
| ==== Soil biota ==== | |||
| ] | |||
| When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be bound to ], thereby slowing its degradation.<ref name="epa_reds"/><ref name=Andrea>{{cite journal | title = Influence of repeated applications of glyphosate on its persistence and soil bioactivity | year = 2003 | author = Andréa MM, Peres TB, Luchini LC, Bazarin S, Papini S, Matallo MB, Savoy VLT | journal = Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira | volume = 38 | issue = 11 | pages = 1329–1335 | doi = 10.1590/S0100-204X2003001100012 }}</ref> Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria.<ref name="pmid16346999">{{cite journal | vauthors = Balthazor TM, Hallas LE | title = Glyphosate-degrading microorganisms from industrial activated sludge | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 51 | issue = 2 | pages = 432–4 | date = Feb 1986 | pmid = 16346999 | pmc = 238888 | doi = | url = http://aem.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16346999 }}</ref> Glyphosate and its degradation product, ], residues are considered to be much more toxicologically and environmentally benign than most of the herbicides replaced by glyphosate.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cerdeira AL, Duke SO | title = Effects of glyphosate-resistant crop cultivation on soil and water quality | journal = GM Crops | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–24 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 21912208 | doi = 10.4161/gmcr.1.1.9404 }}</ref> | |||
| In soils, the ] varies from as little as three days at a site in Texas to 141 days at a site in Iowa.<ref name=Andrea /> A more general statement is that in soils, glyphosate has an average half-life of 47 days, with a range of 1 to 174 days. It strongly adsorbs to soil particles and does not readily leach.<ref name="Sparling" /> In addition, AMPA has been found in Swedish forest soils up to two years after a glyphosate application. In this case, the persistence of AMPA was attributed to the soil being frozen for most of the year.<ref name="pmid2806176">{{cite journal | vauthors = Torstensson NT, Lundgren LN, Stenström J | title = Influence of climatic and edaphic factors on persistence of glyphosate and 2,4-D in forest soils | journal = Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 230–9 | date = Oct 1989 | pmid = 2806176 | doi = 10.1016/0147-6513(89)90084-5 }}</ref> Glyphosate adsorption to soil, and later release from soil, varies depending on the kind of soil.<ref name="pmid19447533">{{cite journal | vauthors = Albers CN, Banta GT, Hansen PE, Jacobsen OS | title = The influence of organic matter on sorption and fate of glyphosate in soil--comparing different soils and humic substances | journal = Environmental Pollution | volume = 157 | issue = 10 | pages = 2865–70 | date = Oct 2009 | pmid = 19447533 | doi = 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.04.004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.asciencejournal.net/asj/index.php/TSPN/article/viewArticle/193|title=Does phosphate affect soil sorption and degradation of glyphosate? - A review|author=Ole K. Borggaard OK | journal = Trends in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition | volume = 2| issue = 1 | year = 2011 | pages = 17–27 }}</ref> A study using a RoundUp formulation concluded that absorption into plants delays subsequent soil degradation and can increase glyphosate persistence in soil from two to six times.<ref name="pmid19625069">{{cite journal | vauthors = Doublet J, Mamy L, Barriuso E | title = Delayed degradation in soil of foliar herbicides glyphosate and sulcotrione previously absorbed by plants: consequences on herbicide fate and risk assessment | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 77 | issue = 4 | pages = 582–9 | date = Oct 2009 | pmid = 19625069 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.06.044 }}</ref> | |||
| Laboratory studies indicate GBFs can harm beneficial ]s<ref>{{cite journal | title = Results of the fifth joint pesticide testing programme carried out by the IOBC/WPRS-Working Group 'Pesticides and beneficial organisms' | year = 1991 | author = Hassan SA, Bigler F, Bogenschütz H, Boller E, Brun J, Calis JNM, Chiverton P, Coremans-Pelseneer J, Duso C | journal = Entomophaga | volume = 36 | pages = 55–67 | doi = 10.1007/BF02374636 }}</ref> and ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0038-0717(92)90180-6 |title=Effect of repeated low doses of biocides on the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa in laboratory culture |year=1992 | author = Springett JA, Gray RAJ | journal = Soil Biology and Biochemistry | volume = 24 | issue = 12 | pages = 1739–1744 }}</ref> However, the reported effect of glyphosate on earthworms has been criticized.<ref name=Giesy2000 /> The results conflict with results from field studies where no effects were noted for the number of ]s, ]s, or ]s after treatment with Roundup at 2 kg/ha of active ingredient.<ref>{{cite journal |authors = Preston CM, Trofymow JA |year=1989 |title=Effects of glyphosate (Roundup) on biological activity of forest soils |journal=Proceedings of the Carnation Creek Workshop |pages=122–40 |isbn=0-7726-0917-9 |url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Frr/Frr063.htm}}</ref> | |||
| Glyphosate can harm the bacterial ecology of soil and cause micro-nutrient deficiencies in plants.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://www.iuss.org/19th%20WCSS/Symposium/pdf/1807.pdf | author = Dick R, Lorenz N, Wojno M, Lane M |year=2010 | title = Microbial dynamics in soils under long-term glyphosate tolerant cropping systems | conference = 19th World Congress of Soil Science }}</ref> Other studies found that while "recommended dosages of glyphosate did not affect growth rates", much higher dosages reduced respiration in ].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1472-765X.1995.tb01318.x |title=Effects of glyphosate on nitrogen fixation of free-living heterotrophic bacteria |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1472-765X.1995.tb01318.x/abstract |year=1995 | author = Santos A, Flores M | journal = Letters in Applied Microbiology | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 349–52 }}</ref><ref name=EJA2009>{{Cite journal | last1 = Yamada | first1 = T | last2 = Kremer | first2 = RJ | last3 = de Camargo e Castro | first3 = PR | last4 = Wood | first4 = BW | year = 2009 | title = Glyphosate interactions with physiology, nutrition, and diseases of plants: Threat to agricultural sustainability? | journal = European Journal of Agronomy | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 111–113 | publisher = Elsevier | jstor = | doi = 10.1016/j.eja.2009.07.004 | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref> | |||
| === Glyphosate-based formulation toxicity === | |||
| Glyphosate-based formulations (GBFs) may contain a number of ], the identities of which are considered trade secret<ref name="Hoy">{{cite journal|author=Hoy, J., Swanson, N. and Seneff, S.|journal=Poultry, Fish & Wildlife Sciences|year=2015|volume=3|issue=1|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2375-446X.100013|title=The high cost of pesticides: Human and animal disease}}</ref> and not disclosed by most government regulators. In the United States, the ] requires that all pesticides (including herbicides) be evaluated by the EPA prior to sale, including the product’s chemistry, environmental fate, residue chemistry, dietary and non-dietary hazards to humans, and hazards to domestic animals and non-target organisms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/lfra.html |title=Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) | Agriculture | US EPA |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> These evaluations are performed for each active ingredient, each inert ingredient, and for the final product formulation. Additional evaluations are performed by the ] to set permitted residue levels in food for pesticide products used on food crops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/pesticide-registration-manual |title=Pesticide Registration Manual | Pesticide Registration | US EPA |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
| ] are used in herbicide formulations as ] agents and ] to maximize coverage and aid penetration of the herbicide(s) through plant leaves. As ]s, surfactants may be premixed in commercial formulations or they may be purchased separately and mixed on-site (tank mix). | |||
| ] (POEA) is a surfactant used in the original Roundup formulation and is still commonly used today.<ref name=usgs.glyphosate.poea>{{cite web|title=Measuring POEA, a Surfactant Mixture in Herbicide Formulations|url=http://toxics.usgs.gov/highlights/glyphosate_poea.html|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> Different versions of Roundup have included different percentages of POEA. Although Monsanto do not disclose surfactants and their percentages, a 1997 US government report said that Roundup is 15% POEA while Roundup Pro is 14.5%.<ref name="fs.fed.us"/> A review of the literature provided to the EPA in 1997 found that POEA was more toxic to fish than glyphosate was.<ref name="fs.fed.us">Gary L. Diamond and Patrick R. Durkin February 6, 1997, under contract from the United States Department of Agriculture. </ref> | |||
| Spreader 90 is a surfactant used in tank mixes.{{refn|Note: Prior versions were known as "X-77 Spreader".<ref name="Weed Handbook Glyphosate"/> This product itself had various versions: one included alkylphenol ethoxylate, ], ] fatty acid, ], and ].<ref>Loveland Products. </ref><ref>Loveland Products. </ref> Another version included alkylarylpolyoxyethylene, alkylpolyoxyethylene, gatty acids, glycols and dimethylpolysiloxane.<ref>Loveland Products. </ref>}} Spreader 90 contains 1,2 propanediol (also known as ]), propane 1,2,3 triol (also known as ]), ], and ].<ref>Loveland Products. </ref><ref>Loveland Products. </ref> Of these ingredients, alcohol ethoxylates are among the widely used detergents in consumer products; commercial preparations are often mixes of homologs. Due to known toxicities to aquatic species, the ] recommended Federal Water Quality Guideline values of 70 µg/l.<ref>Staff, Environment Canada. February 2013 </ref> | |||
| ==== Human ==== | |||
| A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".<ref name="wkc00">{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams GM, Kroes R, Munro IC | title = Safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide Roundup and its active ingredient, glyphosate, for humans | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 Pt 1 | pages = 117–65 | date = Apr 2000 | pmid = 10854122 | doi = 10.1006/rtph.1999.1371 }}</ref> A 2002 review by the European Union reached the same conclusion.<ref name="urlec.europa.eu">{{cite web | url = http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/ph_ps/pro/eva/existing/list1_glyphosate_en.pdf | title = Review report for the active substance glyphosate | date = 2002-01-21 | format = | work = Commission working document | publisher = European Commission, Health and Protection Directorate-General: Directorate E – Food Safety: plant health, animal health and welfare, international questions: E1 - Plant Health }}</ref> | |||
| Data from the ]'s Pesticide Illness Surveillance Program, which also tracks other agricultural chemicals, show glyphosate-related incidents are some of the most common.<ref name="pmid12507058">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldstein DA, Acquavella JF, Mannion RM, Farmer DR | title = An analysis of glyphosate data from the California Environmental Protection Agency Pesticide Illness Surveillance Program | journal = Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology | volume = 40 | issue = 7 | pages = 885–92 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12507058 | doi = 10.1081/CLT-120016960 }}</ref><ref name="EPA1996">{{cite web | url = http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/whs/pisp.htm | title = Pesticide Illness Surveillance Program | year = 2010 | work = California Pesticide Illness Serveillance Program Report HS-1733 | publisher = California EPA }}</ref> However, incident counts alone do not take into account the number of people exposed and the severity of symptoms associated with each incident.<ref name="EPA1996"/> For example, if hospitalization were used as a measure of the severity of incidents, then glyphosate would be considered relatively safe; over a 13-year period in California, none of the 515 reported hospitalizations was attributed to glyphosate.<ref name="EPA1996"/> | |||
| Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and ] has been occasionally reported. These effects are probably due to the preservative ]. Severe skin burns are very rare.<ref name="Bradberry_2004" /> Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, or tingling and irritation in the throat. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis. Superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.<ref name="Bradberry_2004" /> | |||
| Deliberate ingestion of Roundup in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml (of 41% solution) has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms.<ref name="pmid1673618">{{cite journal |vauthors=Talbot AR, Shiaw MH, Huang JS, Yang SF, Goo TS, Wang SH, Chen CL, Sanford TR |title=Acute poisoning with a glyphosate-surfactant herbicide ('Roundup'): a review of 93 cases |journal=Human & Experimental Toxicology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |date=Jan 1991 |pmid=1673618 |doi=10.1177/096032719101000101}}</ref> A reasonable correlation is seen between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of more than 85 ml of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Corrosive effects – mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia – are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent, and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary edema, infiltration on chest X-ray, shock, arrhythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. | |||
| A 2012 meta-analysis of all epidemiological studies of exposure to glyphosate formulations found no correlation with any kind of cancer.<ref name="Mink_2012"/> The 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment of epidemiological studies of workers who use pesticides, exposed to glyphosate formulations found no significant risk, stating that "the available data is contradictory and far from being convincing".<ref name=BFR2014/>{{rp|Volume 1, p64-66}} However, a 2014 meta-analysis of the same studies found a correlation between occupational exposure to glyphosate formulations and increased risk of ], the most common kind of ] (NHL). Workers exposed to glyphosate were about twice as likely to get B cell lymphoma.<ref name="Schinasi">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schinasi L, Leon ME |title=Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and occupational exposure to agricultural pesticide chemical groups and active ingredients: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=4449–527 |date=Apr 2014 |pmid=24762670 |pmc=4025008 |doi=10.3390/ijerph110404449}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Other terrestrial animals ==== | |||
| In reproductive toxicity studies performed in rats and rabbits, no adverse maternal or offspring effects were seen at doses below 175–293 mg/kg of body weight per day.<ref name="NPIC Data Sheet"/> | |||
| A 2000 ('''we need more recent data here''') review of the ecotoxicological data on Roundup shows at least 58 studies of the effects of Roundup itself on a range of organisms exist.<ref name=Giesy2000>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-1156-3_2 |title=Ecotoxicological risk assessment for Roundup® herbicide |journal=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |year=2000 | author =Giesy JP, Dobson S, Solomon KR | isbn = 978-0-387-95102-7 | volume = 167 | pages = 35–120 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=7iTdm5ii4NYC&pg=PA35 | series = Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology }}</ref> This review concluded, "...for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed non-target organisms". | |||
| ==== Fish and aquatic life==== | |||
| Glyphosate formulations are much more toxic for amphibians and fish than glyphosate alone.<ref name="fs.fed.us"/> Glyphosate formulations may contain a number of so-called ‘inert’ ingredients or adjuvants, most of which are not publicly known as in many countries the law does not require that they be revealed.<ref name=autogenerated3>Pesticide Action Network Asia & the Pacific (PANAP) 2009</ref> A 2003 study of various formulations of glyphosate found, " risk assessments based on estimated and measured concentrations of glyphosate that would result from its use for the control of undesirable plants in wetlands and over-water situations showed that the risk to aquatic organisms is negligible or small at application rates less than 4 kg/ha and only slightly greater at application rates of 8 kg/ha.".<ref name=Solomon>{{cite journal | vauthors = Solomon KR, Thompson DG | title = Ecological risk assessment for aquatic organisms from over-water uses of glyphosate | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 289–324 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12746143 | doi = 10.1080/10937400306468 }}</ref> Serious sub-lethal effects on aquatic animals have been noted for formulations of glyphosate.<ref name="Sparling" /> | |||
| '''Fish''' The ] of formulations for ] is 4.6 ppm<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Felix|first1=F|title=Impact of the Herbicide Glyphosate Roundup (41%) on the Haematology of the Freshwater Fish Catla Catla (Hamilton)|journal=Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology, and Food Technology|date=2015|volume=9|issue=4|pages=56-60|accessdate=3 September 2015}}</ref>, 4.2 ppm for ] (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'') and 1.3 ppm for ]<ref name=NRA>{{cite book|title=NRA Special Review of Glyphosate|date=June 1996|publisher=Chemical Review Section, National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemical, Australia|location=Canberra|url=http://apvma.gov.au/sites/default/files/publication/15106-glyphosate-review-final-report.pdf|accessdate=5 September 2015}}</ref> The 96 h-LC<sub>50</sub> toxicity of Roundup for the ] fish '']'' is 13.69 mg/L, indicating this fish is more sensitive to Roundup than rainbow trout and ] (''Salmo salar'').<ref name="Carmo">{{cite journal|author=do Carmo Langiano, V. and Martinez, C.B.|year=2008|title==Toxicity and effects of a glyphosate-based herbicide on the Neotropical fish Prochilodus lineatus.|journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology|volume=147|issue=2|pages=222-231}}</ref> Short-term exposure of ''Prochilodus lineatus'' to sub-lethal concentrations of Roundup results in biochemical, physiological and histological alterations. Histopathological changes are observed in the gills, livers and brains in other fishes at these concentrations.<ref name="Kelaniya">{{cite journal|author=Kelaniya, K.G.|year=2015|title=Effect of glyphosate-based herbicide, Roundup™ on territory deference of male Oreochromis mossambicus (Osteichthyes, Cichlidae) associated with mating behaviour.|journal=Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci.|volume=20|issue=1|pages=1-10}}</ref>. | |||
| '''Amphibians''' A study published in 2010 proposed commercial glyphosate can cause neural defects and craniofacial malformations in ]s (''Xenopus laevis''). The experiments used frog ] that were incubated with 1:5000 dilutions of a commercial glyphosate solution. The frog embryos suffered diminution of body size, alterations of brain morphology, reduction of the eyes, alterations of the ] and ]s, alterations of the ], and other abnormalities of the ]. The authors suggested glyphosate itself was responsible for the observed results because injection of pure glyphosate produced similar results in a chicken model.<ref name=AndresCarrasco>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paganelli A, Gnazzo V, Acosta H, López SL, Carrasco AE | title = Glyphosate-based herbicides produce teratogenic effects on vertebrates by impairing retinoic acid signaling | journal = Chemical Research in Toxicology | volume = 23 | issue = 10 | pages = 1586–95 | date = Oct 2010 | pmid = 20695457 | doi = 10.1021/tx1001749 }}</ref> A 2013 ] also reviewed the available data related to potential impacts of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians. According to the authors, the use of glyphosate-based pesticides cannot be considered the major cause of amphibian decline, the bulk of which occurred prior to the widespread use of glyphosate or in pristine tropical areas with minimal glyphosate exposure. The authors recommended further study of species- and development-stage chronic toxicity, of environmental glyphosate levels, and ongoing analysis of data relevant to determining what if any role glyphosate might be playing in worldwide amphibian decline, and suggest including amphibians in standardized test batteries.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wagner N, Reichenbecher W, Teichmann H, Tappeser B, Lötters S | title = Questions concerning the potential impact of glyphosate-based herbicides on amphibians | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry / SETAC | volume = 32 | issue = 8 | pages = 1688–700 | date = Aug 2013 | pmid = 23637092 | doi = 10.1002/etc.2268 }}</ref> The growth and development of ] (''Rana pipiens'') tadpoles are slowed by Roundup original, POEA, and several other formulations of Roundup.<ref name="Sparling" /> | |||
| '''Aquatic invertebrates''' Laboratory studies on the effects of Roundup on the ] '']'' found that all the biochemical parameters tested (glycogen, proteins, lipids, triglycerides, cholesterol and Na+/K+ATPase activity) were decreased and lipoperoxidation levels increased, even at the lowest levels tested for this formulation. It was noted that these results were highly relevant to the trophic structure of ] environments because these amphipods are important links in the food chain in these habitats.<ref name="Dutra">{{cite journal|title=Effect of roundup® (glyphosate formulation) in the energy metabolism and reproductive traits of Hyalella castroi (Crustacea, Amphipoda, Dogielinotidae)|journal=Ecotoxicology|year=2011|volume=20|issue=1|pages=255-263|author=Dutra, B.K., Fernandes, F.A., Failace, D.M. and Oliveira, G.T.|doi=10.1007/s10646-010-0577-x}}</ref> Similarly, environmentally relevant concentrations of Roundup has adverse effects on different clones and age-classes of the freshwater flea, '']''. These effects include reduced juvenile size, growth and ], and near 100% abortion rates. The researchers recommended in their 2013 report that the European Commission and the United States EPA should reconsider their classification of both glyphosate and Roundup.<ref name="Cuhra">{{cite journal|author=Cuhra, M., Traavik, T. and Bøhn, T.|year=2013|title=Clone-and age-dependent toxicity of a glyphosate commercial formulation and its active ingredient in Daphnia magna.|journal=Ecotoxicology|volume=22|issue=2|pages=251-262}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Plants ==== | |||
| A correlation was found between an increase in the infection rate of wheat by '']'' head blight and the application of glyphosate, but "because of the nature of this study, we could not determine if the association between previous GF (glyphosate formulation) use and FHB development was a cause-effect relationship".<ref name="Fernandeza">{{cite journal |doi=10.2135/cropsci2004.0197 |title=Crop Production Factors Associated with Fusarium Head Blight in Spring Wheat in Eastern Saskatchewan |year=2005 | author = Fernandez MR, Selles F, Gehl D, Depauw RM, Zentner RP | journal = Crop Science | volume = 45 | issue = 5 | pages = 1908–16 }}</ref> Other studies have found causal relationships between glyphosate and decreased disease resistance.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5799-1_15 |chapter=Interactions of Synthetic Herbicides with Plant Disease and Microbial Herbicides |title=Novel Biotechnologies for Biocontrol Agent Enhancement and Management |series=NATO Security through Science Series |year=2007 | vauthors = Duke SO, Wedge DE, Cerdeira AL, Matallo MB | isbn = 978-1-4020-5797-7 | pages = 277–96 | editor1-first = Maurizio | editor1-last = Vurro | editor2-first = Jonathan | editor2-last = Gressel | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref> Exposure to glyphosate has been shown to change the species composition of ] in plant hosts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosenblueth M, Martínez-Romero E | title = Bacterial endophytes and their interactions with hosts | journal = Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions | volume = 19 | issue = 8 | pages = 827–37 | date = Aug 2006 | pmid = 16903349 | doi = 10.1094/MPMI-19-0827 }}</ref> | |||
| Monsanto and other companies produce glyphosate products with alternative surfactants specifically formulated for aquatic use, for example the Monsanto products "Biactive" and "AquaMaster".<ref name="url_backrounder_aquatic">{{cite web | url = http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/bkg_amphib_05a.pdf | title =Response to "The impact of insecticides and herbicides on the biodiversity and productivity of aquatic communities" | date = 2005-04-01 | format = PDF | work = Backgrounder | publisher = Monsanto Company }}</ref><ref name="url_backgrounder_Aquatic_Australia">{{cite web | url = http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/gly_austfrog_bkg.pdf | title = Aquatic Use of Glyphosate Herbicides in Australia | date = 2003-05-01 | format = PDF | work = Backgrounder | publisher = Monsanto Company }}</ref> | |||
| In 2001, the Monsanto product Vision® was studied in a forest wetlands site in Canada. Substantial mortality occurred only at concentrations exceeding the expected environmental concentrations as calculated by Canadian regulatory authorities. While it was found that site factors such as pH and suspended sediments substantially affected the toxicity in the amphibian larvae tested, overall, "results suggest that the silvicultural use of Vision herbicide in accordance with the product label and standard Canadian environmental regulations should have negligible adverse effects on sensitive larval life stages of native amphibians."<ref name="pmid15095877">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wojtaszek BF, Staznik B, Chartrand DT, Stephenson GR, Thompson DG | title = Effects of Vision herbicide on mortality, avoidance response, and growth of amphibian larvae in two forest wetlands | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry / SETAC | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 832–42 | date = Apr 2004 | pmid = 15095877 | doi = 10.1897/02-281 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Endocrine disruption ==== | |||
| Daily feeding of Roundup Transorb to ] rats for 30 days reduces ] production and affects testicle morphology, but does not affect levels of ] and ].<ref name="pmid20012598">{{cite journal | vauthors = Romano RM, Romano MA, Bernardi MM, Furtado PV, Oliveira CA | title = Prepubertal exposure to commercial formulation of the herbicide glyphosate alters testosterone levels and testicular morphology | journal = Archives of Toxicology | volume = 84 | issue = 4 | pages = 309–17 | date = Apr 2010 | pmid = 20012598 | doi = 10.1007/s00204-009-0494-z }}</ref> | |||
| In 2007, the EPA selected glyphosate for further screening through its Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP). Selection for this program is based on a compound's prevalence of use and does not imply particular suspicion of endocrine activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = ((United States Environmental Protection Agency)) | journal = Federal Register | volume = 72 | issue = 116 | pages = 33486–503 | date = 18 June 2007 | title = Draft List of Initial Pesticide Active Ingredients and Pesticide Inerts to be Considered for Screening under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act | url = http://www.epa.gov/endo/pubs/draft_list_frn_061807.pdf }}</ref> On June 29, 2015 the EPA released Weight of Evidence Conclusion of the EDSP Tier 1 screening for glyphosate, recommending that glyphosate not be considered for Tier 2 testing. The Weight of Evidence conclusion stated "...there was no convincing evidence of potential interaction with the estrogen, androgen or thyroid pathways."<ref>{{cite web | author = United States Environmental Protection Agency | title = Memorandum: EDSP Weight of Evidence Conclusions on the Tier 1 Screening Assays for the List 1 Chemicals | url = http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/glyphosate-417300_2015-06-29_txr0057175.pdf | date = 29 June 2015 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Genetic damage ==== | |||
| Several studies have not found ],<ref>ToxNet. . National Library of Medicine.</ref> so glyphosate has not been listed in the ] or the ] databases.<ref name=Forty>András Székács and Béla Darvas. . In: ", Ed. Mohammed Naguib Abd El-Ghany Hasaneen, ISBN 978-953-307-803-8, Published: January 13, 2012.</ref> Various other studies suggest glyphosate may be mutagenic.<ref name=Forty/> | |||
| A study on the effects of environmentally realistic concentrations of AMPA on ''Anguilla anguilla L.'' concluded it is important to include the genotoxic hazard of AMPA to fish in future studies concerning the risk assessment of glyphosate-based herbicides in water systems.<ref name="Guilherme">{{cite journal|journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research|year=2014|volume=21|issue=14|pages=8730-8739|title=DNA and chromosomal damage induced in fish (Anguilla anguilla L.) by aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA)—the major environmental breakdown product of glyphosate|author=Guilherme, S., Santos, M.A., Gaivão, I. and Pacheco, M.}}</ref> | |||
| The ] (''Caiman latirostris'') exhibits increased ] and reduced growth when exposed to environmentally relevant levels of Roundup.<ref name="Gonzalez">{{cite journal|González, E.L., Latorre, M.A., Larriera, A., Siroski, P.A. and , G.L.|year=2013|title=Induction of micronuclei in broad snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) hatchlings exposed in vivo to Roundup®(glyphosate) concentrations used in agriculture|journal=Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology|volume=105|issue=2|pages=131-134}}</ref> | |||
| === Government and organization positions on glyphosate toxicity === | |||
| ==== European Food Safety Authority ==== | |||
| A 2013 systematic review by the German Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), conducted as part of the ]'s review process, examined ] studies, animal studies, and '']'' studies that it found valid, and found that "no classification and labelling for carcinogenicity is warranted" and did not recommend a carcinogen classification of either 1A or 1B.<ref name=BFR2014/>{{rp|Volume 1, p139, see also 34–37}} It was provided to the EFSA in January 2014 and published by the EFSA in December 2014<ref name=BFR2014>Renewal Assessment Report: Glyphosate. Volume 1. Report and Proposed Decision. December 18, 2013. German Institute for Risk Assessment, page 65. Downloaded from http://dar.efsa.europa.eu/dar-web/provision (registration required)</ref><ref name="Renewal Assessment Report">{{cite web | url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/238082730/Glyphosate-RAR-01-Volume-1-2013-12-18-San#scribd | title=Glyphosate RAR 01 Volume 1 2013-12-18 San | publisher=Hungry4Pesticides | work=Renewal Assessment Report | date=18 December 2013 | accessdate=27 March 2015}}</ref><ref>Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung. Updated 15 January 2014 </ref> | |||
| ==== US Environmental Protection Agency ==== | |||
| The ], which last reviewed glyphosate in 1993, considers glyphosate to be ] and relatively low in ] and oral acute toxicity.<ref name="epa_reds">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0178fact.pdf | title = Registration Decision Fact Sheet for Glyphosate (EPA-738-F-93-011) | year = 1993 | format = PDF | work = R.E.D. FACTS | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency }}</ref> The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food derived entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields with residues at their maximum levels. This model indicated that no adverse health effects would be expected under such conditions.<ref name="epa_reds" /> As of March 2015, the EPA was in the midst of reviewing glyphosate's toxicity.<ref name=NatureonWHO2015>Daniel Cressey, , ''Nature'', 24 March 2015.</ref> | |||
| ==== World Health Organization ==== | |||
| In March 2015, the ]''' '''published a summary of their forthcoming monograph on glyphosate, and classified glyphosate as "probably carcinogenic in humans" (category 2A) based on epidemiological studies, animal studies, and ''in vitro'' studies; it noted that there was "limited evidence" of carcinogenicity in humans for ].<ref name=NatureonWHO2015/><ref name=Lancet20March2015/><ref name=IARC20March2015>{{cite web|title=Press release: IARC Monographs Volume 112: evaluation of five organophosphate insecticides and herbicides|date=March 20, 2015|url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/MonographVolume112.pdf|publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization}}</ref><ref>Michael Specter for the New Yorker. April 10, 2015 | |||
| . Quote:"‘Probable’ means that there was enough evidence to say it is more than possible, but not enough evidence to say it is a carcinogen,” Aaron Blair, a lead researcher on the I.A.R.C.’s study, said. Blair, a scientist emeritus at the National Cancer Institute, has studied the effects of pesticides for years. “It means you ought to be a little concerned about” glyphosate, he said."</ref> The German Institute for Risk Assessment responded that the work group reviewed only a selection of what they had reviewed earlier, and argued that other studies, among them the widely-cited cohort study Agricultural Health Study, do not support the classification.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/343/loest-glyphosat-krebs-aus.pdf |title=Löst glyphosat Krebs aus? (announcement 007/2015)|date=23 March 2015|publisher=]|language=German}}</ref> The IARC report did not include the German regulatory study published in December 2014, nor did it include industry-funded studies. The IARC also does not conduct ]; their goal is to classify carcinogenic potential, and "a few positive findings can be enough to declare a hazard, even if there are negative studies as well."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/28/business/energy-environment/decades-after-monsantos-roundup-gets-an-all-clear-a-cancer-agency-raises-concerns.html |title=Weed Killer, Long Cleared, Is Doubted|author=Andrew Pollack|date=27 March 2015|publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| == Effects of use == | |||
| ===Resistance=== | |||
| Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide.<ref name="canada"/><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/17/opinion/17mon3.html?ref=opinion | work=The New York Times | title=Resisting Roundup | date=2010-05-16}}</ref> Weeds resistant to the herbicide have been called 'superweeds'.<ref>{{Cite web| author = Tarter S | url = http://www.pjstar.com/business/x90676933/Attack-of-the-Superweeds |title=PJStar.com |publisher=PJStar.com |date=2009-04-06 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia in 1996, involving rigid ryegrass (''Lolium rigidum'') near ].<ref></ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Powles SB, Lorraine-Colwill DF, Dellow JJ, Preston C | year = 1998 | title = Evolved Resistance to Glyphosate in Rigid Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in Australia | journal = Weed Science | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 604–7 | jstor = 4045968 }}</ref><ref name=ResistanceBook2010>Glyphosate Resistance in Crops and Weeds: History, Development, and Management. Editor, Vijay K. Nandula. John Wiley & Sons, 2010 ISBN 9781118043547</ref> In 2006, farmers associations were reporting 107 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance.<ref name="SEFarmPressResistance">{{Cite web|url=http://southeastfarmpress.com/glyphosate-resistant-weeds-reality-cotton-growers/ |title=Glyphosate resistance is a reality that should scare some cotton growers into changing the way they do business |publisher=Southeastfarmpress.com |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref> In 2009, Canada identified its first resistant weed, giant ragweed, and at that time 15 weed species had been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.<ref name="canada">{{Cite web|author=Lori |url=http://www.uoguelph.ca/news/2009/05/u_of_g_research_19.html |title=U of G Researchers Find Suspected Glyphosate-Resistant Weed |publisher=Uoguelph.ca |date=2009-05-07 |accessdate=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weedscience.org/Maps/GlyphosateMap.htm | title=Map of Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds Globally | publisher=The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds | year=2010 | accessdate=12 Jan 2013}}</ref> As of 2010, in the United States {{convert|7|to|10|e6acre|km2}} of soil were afflicted by superweeds, or about 5% of the 170 million acres planted with corn, soybeans, and cotton, the crops most affected, in 22 states.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/business/energy-environment/04weed.html|title=U.S. Farmers Cope With Roundup-Resistant Weeds | author =Neuman W, Pollack A | date = 4 May 2010 | work = New York Times | pages = B1 | accessdate = 4 May 2010 | location = New York }}</ref> In 2012, Charles Benbrook reported that the Weed Science Society of America listed 22 super weeds in the U.S., with over 5.7 million has (14 million ac) infested by GR weeds and that ] had carried out a survey and reported a figure of around 40 million ha (100 million ac).<ref name=autogenerated2>Charles M Benbrook Environmental Sciences Europe 2012, 24:24</ref> As of 2014, the International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds database listed 211 weeds that were resistant to glyphosate.<ref>Heap, I. The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds. Online. Accessed April 13, 2014 (select "glyphosate" from the pulldown menu)</ref> | |||
| In response to resistant weeds, farmers are hand-weeding, using tractors to turn over soil between crops, and using other herbicides in addition to glyphosate. | |||
| Monsanto scientists have some resistant weeds that have as many as 160 extra copies of a gene called ''],'' the enzyme glyphosate disrupts.<ref>{{Cite web|title = With BioDirect, Monsanto Hopes RNA Sprays Can Someday Deliver Drought Tolerance and Other Traits to Plants on Demand {{!}} MIT Technology Review|url = http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/540136/the-next-great-gmo-debate|accessdate = 2015-08-31}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Palmer amaranth ==== | |||
| ] | |||
| In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of '']'', commonly known as Palmer amaranth, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1614/WS-06-001R.1 |title=Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri ) confirmed in Georgia |year=2006 | author = Culpepper AS, Grey TL, Vencill WK, Kichler JM, Webster TM, Brown SM, York AC Davis JW, Hanna WW | journal = Weed Science | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 620–6 | jstor = 4539441 }}</ref> In 2005, resistance was also found in North Carolina.<ref name="Hampton">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agcomm/magazine/winter09/cotton.html|title=Cotton versus the monster weed|author = Hampton N | accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> Widespread use of Roundup Ready crops led to an unprecedented ], and glyphosate resistance followed.<ref name="Hampton"/> The weed variation is now widespread in the southeastern United States.<ref name="FS03Mar09">{{Cite news|url=http://magissues.farmprogress.com/TFS/FS03Mar09/tfs024.pdf|title=Resistance a growing problem|author = Smith JT |date=March 2009|work=The Farmer Stockman|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> Cases have also been reported in Texas<ref name="FS03Mar09"/> and Virginia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://agfax.com/news/2009/peanutfax/0716pf.htm|title=Peanuts: variable insects, variable weather, Roundup resistant Palmer in new state | author = Taylor O |date=2009-07-16|work=PeanutFax|publisher=AgFax Media|accessdate=2009-07-19}}</ref> | |||
| ====''Conyza'' ==== | |||
| ]'']] | |||
| '']'' (also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and '']'' (known as horseweed or marestail), are other weed species that had lately developed glyphosate resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S0100-83582007000300017 |title=Buva (''Conyza bonariensis'') resistente ao glyphosate na região sul do Brasil |trans_title=''Conyza bonariensis'' biotypes resistant to the glyphosate in southern Brazil |language=Portuguese |year=2007 | author = Vargas L, Bianchi MA, Rizzardi MA, Agostinetto D, Dal Magro T |journal=Planta Daninha |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=573–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1614/WS-05-010R |title=Assessment of two nondestructive assays for detecting glyphosate resistance in horseweed (Conyza canadensis) |year=2005 | author = Koger CH, Shaner DL, Henry WB, Nadler-Hassar T, Thomas WE, Wilcut JW | journal = Weed Science | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 438–45 | jstor = 4047050}}</ref><ref name="pmid20063320">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ge X, d'Avignon DA, Ackerman JJ, Sammons RD | title = Rapid vacuolar sequestration: the horseweed glyphosate resistance mechanism | journal = Pest Management Science | volume = 66 | issue = 4 | pages = 345–8 | date = Apr 2010 | pmid = 20063320 | pmc = 3080097 | doi = 10.1002/ps.1911 }}</ref> A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded "resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use" and the use of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increases in glyphosate use.<ref name="pmid18161884">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vila-Aiub MM, Vidal RA, Balbi MC, Gundel PE, Trucco F, Ghersa CM | title = Glyphosate-resistant weeds of South American cropping systems: an overview | journal = Pest Management Science | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 366–71 | date = Apr 2008 | pmid = 18161884 | doi = 10.1002/ps.1488 }}</ref> In the 2015 growing season, glyphosate-resistant marestail proved to be especially problematic to control in Nebraska production fields.<ref name=cw-marestail>{{cite news|last1=Jhala|first1=Amit|title=Post-Emergence Herbicide Options for Glyphosate-Resistant Marestail in Corn and Soybean|url=http://cropwatch.unl.edu/controlling-glyphosate-resistant-marestail|accessdate=17 August 2015|agency=Nebraska Extension|publisher=CropWatch|date=4 June 2015 | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Ryegrass ==== | |||
| ] ''Lolium perenne'']] | |||
| Glyphosate-resistant ] (''Lolium'') has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural areas and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate the resistant ryegrass does not compete well against nonresistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.<ref>{{cite journal | title = A Decade of Glyphosate-Resistant Lolium around the World: Mechanisms, Genes, Fitness, and Agronomic Management |year=2009 | author = Preston C, Wakelin AM, Dolman FC, Bostamam Y, Boutsalis P | journal = Weed Science | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 435–41 | doi = 10.1614/WS-08-181.1 }}</ref> | |||
| ==== Johnson grass ==== | |||
| Glyphosate-resistant ] (''Sorghum halepense'') is found in glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivation in northern Argentina.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Evolution of Glyphosate-Resistant Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) in Glyphosate-Resistant Soybean | year = 2007 | author = Vila-Aiub MM, Balbi MC, Gundel PE, Ghersa CM, Powles SB | journal = Weed Science | volume = 55 | issue = 6 |pages = 566–71 | doi = 10.1614/WS-07-053.1 | jstor = 4539618 }}</ref> | |||
| === Monarch Butterfly === | |||
| Use of glyphosate to clear milkweed along roads and fields has led to a decline in ] populations in the Midwest. The herbicide usage caused an estimated 58% decline in milkweeds, which resulted in 81% decline in monarchs.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pleasants|first=John M.|last2=Oberhauser|first2=Karen S.| title=Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: effect on the monarch butterfly population|journal=Insect Conservation and Diversity|year=2012|url=http://www.mlmp.org/results/findings/pleasants_and_oberhauser_2012_milkweed_loss_in_ag_fields.pdf|doi=10.1111/j.1752-4598.2012.00196.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|authors=Hartzler and Buhler| title=Occurrence of common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) in cropland and adjacent areas|journal=Crop Protection|year=2000|url=http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=agron_pubs}}</ref> The ] (NRDC) filed a suit in 2015 against the ], in which it is argued that the agency ignored warnings about the dangers of glyphosate usage for monarchs.<ref>{{cite web|title=NRDC Sues EPA Over Demise of Monarch Butterfly Population|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/nrdc-sues-epa-over-demise-monarch-butterfly-population-n314371|year=2015|publisher=NBC}}</ref> | |||
| ==Legal status== | |||
| Glyphosate was first approved for use in the 1970s, and as of 2010 was labelled for use in 130 countries.<ref name=Dill/>{{rp|2}} | |||
| In September 2013 the legislative assembly of ] approved legislation to ban 53 agrochemicals, including glyphosate; the ban on glyphosate was set to begin in 2015.<ref>Staff, Centralamericadata.com. September 6, 2013 </ref><ref>Staff, Centralamericadata.com. November 27, 2013 </ref><ref>Legislative Assembly of El Salvador. November 26, 2013 | |||
| </ref> | |||
| In April 2014 the legislature of the ] passed legislation prohibiting sale of glyphosate to individuals for use at home; commercial sales were not affected.<ref>Staff, Sustainable Pulse. Apr 4 2014 </ref> | |||
| In May 2015 the president of ] banned the use and import of glyphosate, effective immediately.<ref>Staff, Colombo Page. May 22, 2015 </ref><ref>Sarina Locke for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Updated May 27, 2015 </ref> | |||
| In May 2015, ] blocked importation on all new orders of glyphosate-based herbicides for a temporary suspension awaiting outcomes of research.<ref name=Bermuda1>{{cite news|title=HEALTH MINISTER: IMPORTATION OF ROUNDUP WEED SPRAY SUSPENDED|url=http://www.todayinbermuda.com/news/health/item/1471-health-minister-importation-of-roundup-weed-spray-suspended|accessdate=6 June 2015|publisher=Bermuda Today|date=11 May 2015}}</ref> | |||
| In May 2015, Colombia announced that it would stop using glyphosate by October 2015 in the destruction of illegal plantations of coca, the raw ingredient for cocaine. Farmers have complained that the aerial fumigation has destroyed entire fields of coffee and other legal produce.<ref>http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32677411</ref> | |||
| In June 2015, the French Ecology Minister asked nurseries and garden centers to sell glyphosate only from locked cabinets. This was only a request and all sales of glyphosate remained legal in France.<ref>Reuters.Jun 14, 2015 </ref> | |||
| == Legal cases == | |||
| === Advertising controversy === | |||
| ''The New York Times'' reported that in 1996, "Dennis C. Vacco, the Attorney General of New York, ordered the company Monsanto to pull ads that said Roundup was "safer than table salt" and "practically nontoxic" to mammals, birds and fish. The company withdrew the spots, but also said that the phrase in question was permissible under E.P.A. guidelines."<ref name="urlMonsanto recruits the horticulturist of the San Diego Zoo to pitch its popular herbicide. - New York Times">{{cite web | url = http://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/29/business/monsanto-recruits-horticulturist-san-diego-zoo-pitch-its-popular-herbicide.html?ref=monsantocompany | title = Monsanto recruits the horticulturist of the San Diego Zoo to pitch its popular herbicide | author = Charry T | date = 1997-05-29 | format = | work = Business Day | publisher = New York Times }}</ref> | |||
| In 2001, French environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case against Monsanto for misleading the public about the ] of its ] ], on the basis that glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms" by the ]. Monsanto's advertising for Roundup had presented it as biodegradable and as leaving the soil clean after use. In 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising and was fined 15,000 euros. Monsanto's French distributor Scotts France was also fined 15,000 euros. Both defendants were ordered to pay damages of 5,000 euros to the Brittany Water and Rivers Association and 3,000 euros to the CLCV (Consommation Logement Cadre de vie), one of the two main general consumer associations in France.<ref>. Terradaily.com (January 26, 2007).</ref> Monsanto appealed and the court upheld the verdict; Monsanto appealed again to the French Supreme Court, and in 2009 it also upheld the verdict.<ref>. BBC News (October 15, 2009).</ref> | |||
| === {{Anchor|Fraud}}Scientific fraud === | |||
| On two occasions, the United States EPA has caught scientists deliberately falsifying test results at research laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate.<ref name=MonsantoBackgrounder>{{cite web | url = http://www.monsanto.com/products/Documents/glyphosate-background-materials/ibt_craven_bkg.pdf | title = Testing Fraud: IBT and Craven Labs | date = June 2005 | format = PDF | work = Backgrounder | publisher = Monsanto Company }}</ref> The first incident involved ] (IBT). The United States Justice Department closed the laboratory in 1978, and its leadership was found guilty in 1983 of charges of falsifying statements, falsifying scientific data submitted to the government, and mail fraud.<ref name="urlPlanetWaves.net :: Faking it The Case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories">{{cite journal | url = http://planetwaves.net/contents/faking_it.html | title = Faking it The Case against Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories | author = Schneider K | journal = The Amicus Journal |date=Spring 1983 | pages = 14–26 | publisher = PlanetWaves.net }}</ref> | |||
| In 1991, Don Craven, the owner of ] and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts. Craven, along with fourteen employees were found guilty of similar crimes.<ref name="urlwww.epa.gov">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/reports/accomplishments/oeca/fy94accomplishment.pdf | title = EPA FY1994 Enforcement and Compliance Assurance Accomplishments Report | format = | work = | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency }}</ref> | |||
| Monsanto has stated the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities, that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT.<ref name=MonsantoBackgrounder /> | |||
| === Trade dumping allegations === | |||
| United States companies have cited trade issues with glyphosate being dumped into the western world market areas by Chinese companies and a formal dispute was filed in 2010.<ref name="urlAlbaugh accuses Chinese of dumping herbicide | Des Moines Register Staff Blogs">{{cite web | url = http://blogs.desmoinesregister.com/dmr/index.php/2010/04/01/albaugh-accuses-chinese-of-dumping-herbicide/ | title = Albaugh accuses Chinese of dumping herbicide | author = Piller D | date = 2010-04-01 | format = | work = Staff Blogs | publisher = Des Moines Register }}</ref><ref name="urlwww.usitc.gov">{{cite web | url = http://www.usitc.gov/trade_remedy/731_ad_701_cvd/investigations/2010/glyphosate/preliminary/PDF/Conference%2004-22-2010.pdf | title = In the Matter of: GLYPHOSATE FROM CHINA | date = 2010-04-22 | work = | publisher = United States International Trade Commission }}</ref> | |||
| == Genetically modified crops == | |||
| {{Main|Genetically modified crops|Genetically modified organism|Genetically modified food|Genetically modified food controversies}} | |||
| Some micro-organisms have a version of 5-enolpyruvoyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthetase (EPSPS) resistant to glyphosate inhibition. A version of the enzyme that both was resistant to glyphosate and that was still efficient enough to drive adequate plant growth was identified by Monsanto scientists after much trial and error in an '']'' strain called CP4, which was found surviving in a waste-fed column at a glyphosate production facility.<ref name="Green_2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Green JM, Owen MD | title = Herbicide-resistant crops: utilities and limitations for herbicide-resistant weed management | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 59 | issue = 11 | pages = 5819–29 | date = Jun 2011 | pmid = 20586458 | pmc = 3105486 | doi = 10.1021/jf101286h }}</ref><ref name="Pollegioni_2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pollegioni L, Schonbrunn E, Siehl D | title = Molecular basis of glyphosate resistance-different approaches through protein engineering | journal = The FEBS Journal | volume = 278 | issue = 16 | pages = 2753–66 | date = Aug 2011 | pmid = 21668647 | pmc = 3145815 | doi = 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08214.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = Rashid A | title = Introduction to Genetic Engineering of Crop Plants: Aims and Achievements | year = 2009 | publisher = I K International | isbn = 978-93-80026-16-9 | pages = 259 }}</ref>{{rp|56}} This CP4 EPSPS gene was ] and ] into soybeans. In 1996, genetically modified soybeans were made commercially available.<ref name="urlMonsanto | Company History">{{cite web | url = http://www.monsanto.com/whoweare/Pages/monsanto-history.aspx | title = Company History | format = | work = Web Site | publisher = Monsanto Company }}</ref> Current glyphosate-resistant crops include soy, ] (corn), ], ], and ], with ] still under development. | |||
| ] have become the norm in the United States. For example, in 2010, 70% of all the corn, 78% of cotton, and 93% of all soybeans planted were herbicide-resistant.<ref name="urlusda.mannlib.cornell.edu">{{cite web | url = http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/Acre/2010s/2010/Acre-06-30-2010.pdf | title = Acreage | author = Hamer H | work = National Agricultural Statistics Board Annual Report, | publisher = United States Department of Agriculture | date = 2010-06-30 }}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * {{PPDB|373|Name=Glyphosate}} | |||
| * {{PPDB|1062|Name=Glyphosate trimesium}} | |||
| * {{PPDB|2395|Name=Glyphosate, isopropylamine salt}} | |||
| * {{PPDB|2396|Name=Glyphosate, potassium salt}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist|33em}} | |||
| {{Herbicides}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 18:31, 1 December 2021
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