| Revision as of 18:38, 13 October 2015 view sourceAlexis Ivanov (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,699 edits Consensus was never established← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 17:03, 24 December 2024 view source Beshogur (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users33,160 edits partial rv. the Ottoman empire and caliphate are completely different things. places bound to Ottoman caliph weren't always part of the empire, and every place wasn't part of the caliphate. | ||
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| {{Short description|Turkish empire (ca. 1299–1922)}} | |||
| {{pp-pc1|expiry=May 26, 2016}} | |||
| {{about|the empire|the associated caliphate|Ottoman Caliphate}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}} | |||
| {{Pp|small=yes}} | |||
| {{Infobox former country | |||
| {{EngvarB|date=January 2021}} | |||
| |common_name = Ottoman Empire | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} | |||
| |continent = Afroeurasia | |||
| {{Infobox country | |||
| |native_name = {{lang|ota-Arab|دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه}} <br />''Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osmâniyye'' | |||
| | |
| common_name = Ottoman Empire | ||
| | |
| life_span = {{circa|1299}}–1922 | ||
| | native_name = {{ubl|{{Lang|ota|دولت علیهٔ عثمانیه}}|<small>{{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}}</small>}} | |||
| |image_flag = Flag of the Ottoman Empire.svg | |||
| | conventional_long_name = Sublime Ottoman State | |||
| |flag = Flags of the Ottoman Empire | |||
| | |
| status = ] | ||
| | |
| image_coat = ] | ||
| | |
| image_flag = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg | ||
| | flag_type_article = ] | |||
| |image_map = OttomanEmpireIn1683.png | |||
| | flag_type = ]<br />{{Nowrap|(1844–1922)}} | |||
| |image_map_caption = The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent, in 1683. | |||
| | symbol_type_article = ] | |||
| |national_motto = {{lang|ota-Arab|دولت ابد مدت}}<br />''Devlet-i Ebed-müddet''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ottoman_Empire|title=Ottoman Empire general information|date=2014-07-30}}</ref><br /><small>"The Eternal State"</small> | |||
| | |
| symbol_type = ]<br />{{Nowrap|(1882–1922)}} | ||
| | image_map = {{Switcher|]|The Ottoman Empire in 1481|]|The Ottoman Empire in 1566|]|The Ottoman Empire in 1683| | |||
| |capital = {{plainlist| | |||
| ]|The Ottoman Empire in 1739|]|The Ottoman Empire in 1914|default=3}} | |||
| *] | |||
| | national_motto = {{ubl|{{Lang|ota|دولت ابدمدت}}|{{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i Ebed-müddet}}|"The Eternal State"<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Sean |last2=Moore |first2=Simon |date=2015-10-20 |title=Communicating Identity in the Ottoman Empire and Some Implications for Contemporary States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |journal=Atlantic Journal of Communication |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=269–283 |doi=10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |issn=1545-6870 |s2cid=146299650 |access-date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151026/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | |||
| * <small>(1299–1335)</small> | |||
| | national_anthem = {{Collapsible list | |||
| | title = Various | |||
| |"]"<br/>(1829–1839, 1918–1922){{center|]}} | |||
| |"]"<br/>(1839–1861){{center|]}} | |||
| |"]"<br />(1861–1876){{center|}} | |||
| |"]" (modified)<br/>(1876–1909){{center|]}} | |||
| |"]"<br />(1909–1918){{center|]}} | |||
| }} | |||
| | capital = {{Plainlist| | |||
| * ]<ref name="Shaw-13">{{Cite book |first1=Stanford |last1=Shaw |first2=Ezel |last2=Shaw |date=1977 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=I |isbn=978-0-521-29166-8 |page=13}}</ref> | |||
| * ({{circa|1299}}–1331) | |||
| * ] (]){{sfn|Atasoy|Raby|1989|p=19–20}} | |||
| * (1331–1335) | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * (1335–1360s) | |||
| * <small>(1335–1363)</small> | |||
| * ] (]){{efn|'']'': "It is disputed when the Ottomans conquered this place; Various dates have been put forward in this regard, such as 1361, 1362, 1367 and 1369. Among these, the opinion that Edirne was captured in 1361 as a result of a systematic conquest policy by Murad and Lala Şahin, while Orhan Gazi was still alive, gains prominence. However, it has also been stated that the date of conquest may have occurred after 1366 (1369), based on an elegy showing that the city metropolitan Polykarpos was in Edirne in this capacity until 1366.<ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Edirne|author=M. Tayyib Gökbilgin|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/edirne}}</ref>}} | |||
| * ]<ref>"In 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne, although Bursa retained its spiritual and economic importance." . Official website of Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref> | |||
| * (1360s–1453) | |||
| * <small>(1363–1453)</small> | |||
| * ] (]){{efn|In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were {{transliteration|ota|Ḳosṭanṭīnīye}} ({{Lang|ota|قسطنطينيه}}) (replacing the suffix ''-polis'' with the Arabic suffix), ''Istanbul'' ({{Lang|ota|استنبول}}) and ''Islambol'' ({{lang|ota|اسلامبول}}, {{lit|full of Islam}}); see ]). Kostantiniyye became obsolete in Turkish after the ] in 1923,<ref name="Edhemp286">{{Cite book |last=Edhem |first=Eldem |chapter=Istanbul |editor-first=Ágoston |editor-last=Gábor |editor-first2=Bruce Alan |editor-last2=Masters |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase |date=21 May 2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page= |quote=With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, all previous names were abandoned and Istanbul came to designate the entire city.}}</ref> and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928,<ref>{{ cite book | |||
| * ] <small>(present-day ])</small><ref group=dn>The Ottoman Turkish rendition of the city's name was '']'' ({{lang|ota-Arab|قسطنطينيه}}), i.e. replacing the suffix ''-polis'' with the Arabic ]. The city's official name was changed to Istanbul by the Republican Turkish government, on March 28, 1930.</ref><small> | |||
| | title= History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey | |||
| * (1453–1922)</small>}} | |||
| | volume= 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975 | |||
| |common_languages = {{plainlist| | |||
| | author1-first= Stanford J. | |||
| * ] (official) | |||
| | author2-first= Ezel Kural | |||
| | author1-last= Shaw | author2-last= Shaw | |||
| | publisher= Cambridge University Press | |||
| |date= 1977b | isbn= 9780511614972 | doi= 10.1017/CBO9780511614972 | |||
| }}</ref> the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use ''Istanbul'', and that name became widely accepted internationally.<ref>{{Harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977b|page=, volume 2}}; {{Cite book |author=Robinson |date=1965 |title=The First Turkish Republic |page=298}}; {{Cite web |last=Society |date=2014-03-04 |title=Istanbul, not Constantinople |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople |access-date=2019-03-28 |publisher=National Geographic Society |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707175747/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ |url-status=deviated }})</ref>}} | |||
| * (1453–1922)}} | |||
| | languages_type = Other languages | |||
| | languages = {{plainlist| | |||
| * ]{{efn|]; among Arabic-speaking citizens}} | |||
| * ]{{efn|Court, diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, taught in state schools, and offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some '']s''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |chapter = Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian Learning in the Ottoman World|title=The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=88–89 |quote=As the Ottoman Turks learned Persian, the language and the culture it carried seeped not only into their court and imperial institutions but also into their vernacular language and culture. The appropriation of Persian, both as a second language and as a language to be steeped together with Turkish, was encouraged notably by the sultans, the ruling class, and leading members of the mystical communities.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tezcan |first1=Baki |editor1-last=Rabasa |editor1-first=José |title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=192–211 |chapter=Ottoman Historical Writing |quote=Persian served as a ‘minority’ prestige language of culture at the largely Turcophone Ottoman court.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Flynn |first=Thomas O. |title=The Western Christian Presence in the Russias and Qājār Persia, c. 1760–c. 1870 |date=2017 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-31354-5 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |page=30 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151110/https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fortna |first=B. |date=2012 |title=Learning to Read in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Early Turkish Republic |page=50 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-30041-5 |quote=Although in the late Ottoman period Persian was taught in the state schools... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205028/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Spuler |first=Bertold |title=Persian Historiography and Geography |page=68 |date=2003 |publisher=Pustaka Nasional Pte |isbn=978-9971-77-488-2 |quote=On the whole, the circumstance in Turkey took a similar course: in Anatolia, the Persian language had played a significant role as the carrier of civilization. where it was at time, to some extent, the language of diplomacy However Persian maintained its position also during the early Ottoman period in the composition of histories and even Sultan Salim I, a bitter enemy of Iran and the Shi'ites, wrote poetry in Persian. Besides some poetical adaptations, the most important historiographical works are: Idris Bidlisi's flowery "Hasht Bihist", or Seven Paradises, begun in 1502 by the request of Sultan Bayazid II and covering the first eight Ottoman rulers... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fetvacı |first=Emine |date=2013 |publisher=] |title=Picturing History at the Ottoman Court |page=31 |isbn=978-0-253-00678-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31 |quote=Persian literature, and belles-lettres in particular, were part of the curriculum: a Persian dictionary, a manual on prose composition; and Sa'dis 'Gulistan', one of the classics of Persian poetry, were borrowed. All these titles would be appropriate in the religious and cultural education of the newly converted young men. |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205027/https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature |editor-last=Yarshater |editor-first=Ehsan |editor-link=Ehsan Yarshater |date=359 |volume=10 |page=437 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-85773-657-4 |quote=Persian held a privileged place in Ottoman letters. Persian historical literature was first patronized during the reign of Mehmed II and continued unabated until the end of the 16th century. |editor-last2=Melville |editor-first2=Charles |editor-link2=Charles P. Melville |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205027/https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |editor1-link=Nile Green |title=The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |page=92 (note 27) |chapter=Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World|quote=Though Persian, unlike Arabic, was not included in the typical curriculum of an Ottoman madrasa, the language was offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas. For those Ottoman madrasa curricula featuring Persian, see Cevat İzgi, Osmanlı Medreselerinde İlim, 2 vols. (Istanbul: İz, 1997),1: 167–169.}}</ref>}} | |||
| * ]{{efn|Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans.}} | |||
| * ]{{efn|Decrees in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ayşe Gül Sertkaya |title=Archivum Ottomanicum |date=2002 |editor-last=György Hazai |volume=20 |pages=114–115 |chapter=Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı |quote=As a result, we can claim that ''Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı'' was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters (''bitig'') and firmans (''yarlığ'') sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result%2C+we+can%22 |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024132428/https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result,+we+can%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | |||
| * ]{{efn|Foreign language among educated people in the post-]/late imperial period.<ref name="Strauss-2010">{{Cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann |title=The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy |date=2010 |publisher=] |editor-last=Herzog, Christoph |location=] |pages=21–51 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the ''Kanun-ı Esasi'' and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages |editor-last2=Malek Sharif |chapter-url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233851/https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |url-status=live }} ( {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231333/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 |date=20 September 2019 }} at ]) // CITED: p. 26 (PDF p. 28): "French had become a sort of semi-official language in the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the ''Tanzimat'' reforms. It is true that French was not an ethnic language of the Ottoman Empire. But it was the only Western language which would become increasingly widespread among educated persons in all linguistic communities."</ref>}} | |||
| * ]}} | * ]}} | ||
| | official_languages = ] | |||
| |religion = {{plainlist| | |||
| | religion = {{Plainlist| | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] |
* ] (]) | ||
| * ]: ]}} | |||
| * ]: ]<ref name=Gunduz>Gunduz, Sinasi Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, p.104-105</ref><ref> July 22, 2015</ref>}} | |||
| |government_type = {{plainlist| | | government_type = {{plainlist| | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ({{circa|1299}}–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922) | |||
| * <small>(1299–1876)</small> | |||
| * ] ] ] | |||
| * <small>(1878–1908)</small> | |||
| * (1876–1878; 1908–1920) | |||
| * <small>(1920–1922)</small> | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * (1913–1918)}} | |||
| * <small>(1876–1878)</small> | |||
| | title_leader = ] | |||
| * <small>(1908–1920)</small>}} | |||
| | |
| leader1 = ] | ||
| | |
| year_leader1 = {{Nowrap|{{circa|1299}}–1323/4 (first)}} | ||
| | |
| leader2 = ] | ||
| | |
| year_leader2 = 1918–1922 (last) | ||
| | title_representative = ] | |||
| |year_leader2 = 1918–1922 | |||
| | year_representative1 = 1517–1520 (first) | |||
| |title_representative= ] | |||
| | representative1 = ]<ref name="Lambton-1995"/>{{efn|The sultan from 1512 to 1520.}} | |||
| |year_representative1= 1362–1389 | |||
| | year_representative2 = 1922–1924 (last) | |||
| |representative1 = ] <small>(first)</small><ref name="Lambton">{{cite book |last1=Lambton |first1=Ann |author-link1=Ann Lambton |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |author-link2=Bernard Lewis |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian submarine sandwich, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |page=320 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2|access-date= }}</ref> | |||
| | representative2 = ] | |||
| |year_representative2= 1922–1924 | |||
| | title_deputy = ] | |||
| |representative2 = ] <small>(last)</small> | |||
| | |
| deputy1 = ] | ||
| | |
| year_deputy1 = 1320–1331 (first) | ||
| | |
| deputy2 = ] | ||
| | |
| year_deputy2 = 1920–1922 (last) | ||
| | legislature = {{nowrap|]<br />(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}} | |||
| |year_deputy2 = 1920–1922 | |||
| | |
| house1 = {{nowrap|]<br />(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}} | ||
| | |
| type_house1 = Upper house (unelected) | ||
| | house2 = {{nowrap|]<br />(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}} | |||
| |type_house1 = | |||
| | type_house2 = Lower house (elected) | |||
| |house2 = ] | |||
| | event_start = ] | |||
| |type_house2 = | |||
| | year_start = {{circa|1299}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pamuk|first=Şevket|title=A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-521-44197-8|pages=30–31|quote=The Ottomans began to strike coins in the name of ] Bey in 1326. These earliest coins carried inscriptions such as "the great Sultan, Orhan son of Osman" Ottoman historiography has adopted 1299 as the date for the foundation of the state. 1299 might represent the date at which the Ottomans finally obtained their independence from the ] sultan at ]. Probably, they were forced at the same time, or very soon thereafter, to accept the overlordship of the ] Numismatic evidence thus suggest that independence did not really occur until 1326.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30|access-date=21 October 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| |status = ] | |||
| | |
| date_start = | ||
| | event_end = ] established | |||
| |year_start = 1299 | |||
| | year_end = 1923{{efn|The ] (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the ] (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Constantinople<!--As it's still not 1923 yet--> were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the ] under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the ] was achieved through the signing of the ] on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923.}} | |||
| |date_start = | |||
| | date_end = 29 October | |||
| |event_end = ] established<ref group=dn>The ] (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the ] (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Istanbul were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the ] under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the ] was achieved through the signing of the ] on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the "]" on 29 October 1923, which ended the Ottoman Empire in history.</ref> | |||
| | |
| event1 = ] | ||
| | |
| date_event1 = 1402–1413 | ||
| | |
| event2 = ] | ||
| | |
| date_event2 = 29 May 1453 | ||
| | |
| event4 = ] | ||
| | |
| date_event4 = 1876–1878 | ||
| | |
| event5 = ] | ||
| | |
| date_event5 = 1908–1920 | ||
| | |
| event6 = ] | ||
| | |
| date_event6 = 23 January 1913 | ||
| | |
| event7 = ] | ||
| | date_event7 = 1 November 1922{{efn|1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922.}} | |||
| |date_event5 = 1 November 1922 | |||
| |event_post = ] | | event_post = ] | ||
| |date_post = 3 March 1924 | | date_post = 3 March 1924 | ||
| |stat_year1 = |
| stat_year1 = 1481 | ||
| | stat_area1 = 1,220,000 | |||
| |ref_area1 = <ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States |date=December 2006 |work=Journal of World-Systems Research |issn=1076-156X |volume=XII |issue=II |pages=219–229 |url=http://www.jwsr.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=11 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
| | ref_area1 = <ref name="Taagepera-1997">{{Cite journal |last=Rein Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |journal=] |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=498 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |access-date=8 July 2019 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |url-status=live | issn = 0020-8833}}</ref> | |||
| |stat_area1 = 5200000 | |||
| |stat_year2 = |
| stat_year2 = 1521 | ||
| |stat_area2 = |
| stat_area2 = 3,400,000 | ||
| | ref_area2 = <ref name="Taagepera-1997" /> | |||
| |ref_area2 = <ref>Dündar, Orhan; Dündar, Erhan, 1.Dünya Savaşı, Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1999, ISBN 975-11-1643-0</ref> | |||
| |stat_year3 = |
| stat_year3 = 1683 | ||
| | |
| stat_area3 = 5,200,000 | ||
| | ref_area3 = <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=223 |issn=1076-156X |access-date=12 September 2016 |archive-date=20 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| |stat_year4 = 1906 | |||
| | |
| stat_year4 = 1913 | ||
| | |
| stat_area4 = 2,550,000 | ||
| | |
| ref_area4 = <ref name="Taagepera-1997"/> | ||
| | stat_year5 = 1912 | |||
| |ref_pop5 = <ref name="Erickson2003">{{cite book |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |title=Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fYuy5iUi_sC |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-97888-4 |page=59}}</ref> | |||
| | |
| stat_pop5 = 24,000,000 | ||
| | ref_pop5 = <ref name="Erickson2003">{{Cite book |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |title=Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913 |date=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-97888-4 |page=59}}</ref> | |||
| |stat_pop6 = 18520000 | |||
| | |
| demonym = ] | ||
| | |
| GDP_PPP = | ||
| | GDP_PPP_year = | |||
| |currency = ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| | currency = ], ], ], ] (]), ] | |||
| |p1 = Sultanate of Rum{{!}}'''Sultanate of Rum''' | |||
| {{collapsed infobox section begin|td=yes|Predecessor states and successor states}} | |||
| |flag_p1 = Seljuqs Eagle.svg | |||
| | |
| p1 = Sultanate of Rum | ||
| | |
| p2 = Anatolian beyliks | ||
| |p3 = Byzantine Empire | | p3 = Byzantine Empire | ||
| | |
| p4 = Despotate of the Morea{{!}}Despotate of the Morea | ||
| | |
| p5 = Empire of Trebizond | ||
| | |
| p6 = Principality of Theodoro | ||
| | |
| p7 = Second Bulgarian Empire | ||
| | |
| p8 = Tsardom of Vidin | ||
| | |
| p9 = Despotate of Dobruja | ||
| | |
| p10 = Despotate of Lovech | ||
| | |
| p11 = Serbian Despotate | ||
| | |
| p12 = Kingdom of Bosnia | ||
| | |
| p13 = Zeta under the Crnojevići{{!}}Zeta | ||
| | |
| p14 = Kingdom of Hungary | ||
| | |
| p15 = Croatia in union with Hungary{{!}}Kingdom of Croatia | ||
| | |
| p16 = League of Lezhë | ||
| | |
| p17 = Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo){{!}}Mamluk Sultanate | ||
| | |
| p18 = Hafsid dynasty{{!}}Hafsid Kingdom | ||
| | |
| p19 = Aq Qoyunlu | ||
| | |
| p20 = Hospitaller Tripoli | ||
| | |
| p21 = Kingdom of Tlemcen | ||
| | |
| s1 = Government of the Grand National Assembly{{!}}State of Turkey | ||
| | |
| s2 = First Hellenic Republic{{!}}Hellenic Republic | ||
| | s3 = Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917){{!}}Caucasus Viceroyalty | |||
| |flag_p13 = Dz tlem2.gif | |||
| | |
| s4 = Principality of Bulgaria | ||
| | |
| s5 = Eastern Rumelia | ||
| | |
| s6 = Independent Albania{{!}}Albania | ||
| | |
| s7 = Kingdom of Romania | ||
| | |
| s8 = Revolutionary Serbia | ||
| | |
| s9 = Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina{{!}}Bosnia and Herzegovina | ||
| | |
| s10 = Principality of Montenegro | ||
| | |
| s11 = Idrisid Emirate of Asir{{!}}Emirate of Asir | ||
| | |
| s12 = Kingdom of Hejaz | ||
| | |
| s13 = Occupied Enemy Territory Administration{{!}}OETA | ||
| | |
| s14 = Mandatory Iraq | ||
| | |
| s15 = French Algeria | ||
| | |
| s16 = British Cyprus | ||
| | |
| s17 = French protectorate of Tunisia{{!}}French Tunisia | ||
| | |
| s18 = Italian Tripolitania | ||
| | |
| s19 = Italian Cyrenaica | ||
| | |
| s20 = Sheikhdom of Kuwait | ||
| | |
| s21 = Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen{{!}}Kingdom of Yemen | ||
| | |
| s22 = Sultanate of Egypt | ||
| | |
| footnotes = | ||
| }} | |||
| |s8 = Principality of Bulgaria{{!}}Bulgaria | |||
| {{collapsed infobox section end}} | |||
| |flag_s8 = Flag of Bulgaria.svg | |||
| <!-- This infobox intentionally does not contain a "today part of" section. Please do not add one without establishing consensus on the talk page. --> | |||
| |s9 = Occupied Enemy Territory Administration{{!}}OETA | |||
| |flag_s9 = Flags of France and the UK.png | |||
| |s10 = Mandatory Iraq | |||
| |flag_s10 = Flag of Iraq (1924–1959).svg | |||
| |s11 = Kingdom of Hejaz{{!}}Hejaz | |||
| |flag_s11 = Flag of Hejaz 1920.svg | |||
| |s12 = French Algeria | |||
| |flag_s12 = Flag of France.svg | |||
| |s13 = British Cyprus (1914–1960){{!}}British Cyprus | |||
| |flag_s13 = Flag of Cyprus (1922-1960).svg | |||
| |s14 = French protectorate of Tunisia{{!}}French Tunisia | |||
| |flag_s14 = Pre-1999 Flag of Tunisia.svg | |||
| |s16 = Italian North Africa | |||
| |flag_s16 = Flag of Italy (1861-1946).svg | |||
| |s17 = Sheikhdom of Kuwait{{!}}Kuwait | |||
| |flag_s17 = Flag of Kuwait (1915-1956).svg | |||
| |s18 = Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen{{!}}Kingdom of Yemen | |||
| |flag_s18 = Flag of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.svg | |||
| The '''Ottoman Empire'''{{Efn|{{langx|ota|دولت علیهٔ عثمانیه|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye|lit=Sublime Ottoman State}}; {{langx|tr|Osmanlı İmparatorluğu}} or {{lang|tr|Osmanlı Devleti}}; {{langx|fr|Empire ottoman}}<ref name="Strauss-2010"/><!--French has affinity with the late Ottoman Empire from Tanzimat until 1923, see ]-->}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɒ|t|ə|m|ə|n|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-ottoman.wav}}), also called the '''Turkish Empire''',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=P. |first=E. A. |date=1916 |title=Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=470–472 |doi=10.2307/1779249 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1779249 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710152110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baykara |first= Prof. Tuncer |date=2017 |title=A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026 |journal=Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic|volume=1 |pages= 179–190 |access-date=26 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126030712/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026 |url-status=live }}</ref> was an ]{{efn|The ] also held the title "]" from the Ottoman victory over the ] in the ] in 1517 to the ] by the Turkish Republic in 1924.}} that controlled much of ], ], and ] from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern ], between the early 16th and early 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |title=The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718 |date=2011-08-12 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=978-1-61249-179-0 |editor-last=Ingrao |editor-first=Charles |doi=10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12 |jstor=j.ctt6wq7kw |editor-last2=Samardžić |editor-first2=Nikola |editor-last3=Pešalj |editor-first3=Jovan |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=20 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220040810/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Szabó |first=János B. |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=263–275 |access-date=2023-12-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_013 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moačanin |first=Nenad |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=277–286 |access-date=2023-12-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_014 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4 |doi-access=free |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115185458/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| |today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title= |{{plainlist| | |||
| * ''{{flag|Abkhazia}}'' | |||
| * {{flag|Albania}} | |||
| * {{flag|Algeria}} | |||
| * {{flag|Armenia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Austria}} | |||
| * {{flag|Azerbaijan}} | |||
| * {{flag|Bahrain}} | |||
| * {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} | |||
| * {{flag|Bulgaria}} | |||
| * {{flag|Croatia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Cyprus}} | |||
| * {{flag|Djibouti}} | |||
| * {{flag|Egypt}} | |||
| * {{flag|Eritrea}} | |||
| * {{flag|Georgia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Greece}} | |||
| * {{flag|Hungary}} | |||
| * {{flag|Iran}} | |||
| * {{flag|Iraq}} | |||
| * {{flag|Israel}} | |||
| * {{flag|Jordan}} | |||
| * ''{{flag|Kosovo}}'' | |||
| * {{flag|Kuwait}} | |||
| * {{flag|Lebanon}} | |||
| * {{flag|Libya}} | |||
| * {{flag|Macedonia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Moldova}} | |||
| * {{flag|Montenegro}} | |||
| * {{flag|Morocco}} | |||
| * ''{{flag|Northern Cyprus}}'' | |||
| * {{flag|Oman}} | |||
| * {{flag|Palestine}} | |||
| * {{flag|Qatar}} | |||
| * {{flag|Romania}} | |||
| * {{flag|Russia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Serbia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Slovakia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Somalia}} | |||
| * ''{{flag|South Ossetia}}'' | |||
| * {{flag|Sudan}} | |||
| * {{flag|Syria}} | |||
| * {{flag|Tunisia}} | |||
| * {{flag|Turkey}} | |||
| * {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} | |||
| * {{flag|Ukraine}} | |||
| * {{flag|Yemen}}}}}}}} | |||
| The '''Ottoman Empire''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɒ|t|ə|m|ə|n}}; {{lang-ota|دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه}} ''Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osmâniyye'', ]: {{lang|tr|''Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'' or ''Osmanlı Devleti''}}) which is also known as the '''Turkish Empire''', '''Ottoman Turkey'''<ref name="Lewis1988">{{cite book|author=Raphaela Lewis|title=Everyday Life in Ottoman Turkey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aUJNAAAAYAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Dorset Press|isbn=978-0-88029-175-0}}</ref><ref name="Goodwin1977">{{cite book|author=Godfrey Goodwin|title=Ottoman Turkey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WBvcheAv62wC|year=1977|publisher=Scorpion Publications}}</ref> or ''']''', was an empire founded in 1299 by ] under ] in northwestern ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia|accessdate=11 February 2013}}</ref> With ] by ] between 1362 and 1389, the Ottoman sultanate was transformed into a transcontinental empire and claimant to the ]. The Ottomans overthrew the ] with the 1453 ] (part of present-day ]) by ].<ref name="Somel2010">{{cite book |last=Somel |first=Selcuk Aksin |title=The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBoyoNNKh78C |year=2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8108-7579-1 |page=179}}</ref><ref name="Quataert2005">{{cite book|last=Quataert|first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OX3lsOrXJGcC|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83910-5|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan M. |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Delhi to Mosque |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-195-30991-1 |page=82}}</ref> | |||
| The empire emerged from a ], or ], founded in northwestern ] in {{circa|1299}} by the ] tribal leader ]. His successors ] much of Anatolia and expanded into the ] by the mid-14th century, transforming their ] into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the ] with the ] in 1453 by ], which marked the Ottomans' emergence as a major regional power in the ] and in ] in the second half of the 15th century. Under ] (1520–1566), the empire reached the zenith of its power, prosperity, and political development expanding its influence further into Middle East and Central Europe. With its capital at ] (modern-day ]) and control over a significant portion of the ], the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the ] and Europe for six centuries. Ruling over so many peoples, the empire granted varying levels autonomy to its many confessional communities, or '']''s, to manage their own affairs per ]. | |||
| During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of ], the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling much of ], ], the ], ], and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |title=Ottoman Empire |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |date=6 May 2008 |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref> At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained ] and numerous ]. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.<ref group="dn">The empire also temporarily gained authority over distant overseas lands through declarations of allegiance to the ], such as the ] in 1565, or through temporary acquisitions of islands such as ] in the Atlantic Ocean in 1585, </ref> | |||
| While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a ] after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military and bureaucratic system fell behind those of its chief European rivals, the ] and ] empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of both territory and ]. This prompted a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the {{Transliteration|ota|]}}; over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged. | |||
| With ] as its capital and control of lands around the ], the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the ] and ] worlds for six centuries. Following a long period of ] against European powers, the Ottoman Empire gradually ] into the late nineteenth century. The empire allied with ] in the early 20th century, with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories, joining in ] to achieve this ambition on the side of Germany and the Central Powers. While the Empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, ]. The Empire collapsed following the war and was ] by the Allied Powers in the ]. This resulted in the emergence of the new state of ] in the Ottoman Anatolian heartland following the young nation's ], as well as the founding of modern ] and ]ern states.<ref name="Mikhail">{{cite book|last=Mikhail|first=Alan|title=Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dsVnMFYCQUC&pg=PA7|accessdate=11 June 2013|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49955-2|page=7}}</ref> | |||
| Over the course of the late 19th century, ] sought to further liberalize and rationalize society and politics along Western lines, culminating in the ] of 1908 led by the ] (CUP), which established ]. However, following the disastrous ], the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, ] that established a one-party regime. The CUP allied with the ] hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had contributed to its recent territorial losses; it thus joined ] on the side of the ]. While the empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it struggled with internal dissent, especially the ]. During this period, the Ottoman government engaged in ] against ], ], and ]. | |||
| In the ], the victorious ] occupied and ] the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the ]. The successful ], led by ] against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the ] in the Anatolian heartland and the ] in 1922, formally ending the Ottoman Empire. | |||
| == Name == | == Name == | ||
| {{See also|Osman I#Name}} | |||
| {{Main|Names of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| The word |
The word ''Ottoman'' is a historical ] of the name of ], the founder of the Empire and of the ruling ] (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name {{transliteration|ota|]}} ({{Lang|ota|عثمان}}). In ], the empire was referred to as {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}} ({{Lang|ota|دولت عليه عثمانیه}}), {{lit|'''Sublime Ottoman State'''}}, or simply {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿO<u>s</u>mānīye}} ({{Lang|ota|دولت عثمانيه}}), {{lit|'''Ottoman State'''}}. | ||
| The Turkish word for "Ottoman" ({{Lang|tr|Osmanlı}}) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" ({{Lang|tr|Türk}}) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}</ref>{{rp|26}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |edition=2 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |place=New York |date=2009 |page=3 |quote=By the seventeenth century, literate circles in Istanbul would not call themselves Turks, and often, in phrases such as 'senseless Turks', used the word as a term of abuse.}}</ref> In the ], an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to themselves neither as an {{Lang|tr|Osmanlı}} nor as a {{Lang|tr|Türk}}, but rather as a {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} ({{Lang|ota|رومى}}), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former ] in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |date=2007 |title=A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum |journal=Muqarnas |volume=24}}</ref>{{rp|11}} As applied to Ottoman Turkish speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greene |first=Molly |title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768 |date=2015}}</ref>{{rp|51}} | |||
| In |
In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established ]-based ] chose Turkey as the sole official name. At present, most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.<ref name="Soucek-2015">{{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700 |date=2015 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-554-3 |location=Istanbul |page=8 |quote=The scholarly community specializing in Ottoman studies has of late virtually banned the use of "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" from acceptable vocabulary, declaring "Ottoman" and its expanded use mandatory and permitting its "Turkish" rival only in linguistic and philological contexts.}}</ref> | ||
| == History == | == History == | ||
| {{Main|History of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|History of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| {{See also|Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{See also|Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| {{History of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| === Rise (1299–1453) === | === Rise (c. 1299–1453) === | ||
| {{Main|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] of ] by Yahya Bustanzâde (18th Century)|left|upright]] | |||
| {{Further2|]|]}} | |||
| As the ] declined in the 13th century, ] was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the ]. One of these, in the region of ] on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish<ref>{{Cite book |last1=A'goston |first1=Ga'bor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Masters |first2=Bruce Alan |date=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing, NY |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |page=444}} "Osman was simply one among a number ''Turkoman'' tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region."; {{Cite web |title=Osman I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |archive-date=24 April 2018 |access-date=1 July 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}} Osman I, also called Osman Gazi, (born {{circa|1258|lk=no}}—died 1324 or 1326), ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state.</ref> tribal leader ] ({{abbr|d.|died}} 1323/4),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=2006-02-13 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7 |pages=2, 7}}</ref> a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kermeli |first=Eugenia |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Osman I |editor-last2=Masters |editor-first2=Bruce |orig-date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|444}} Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |date=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_the_Early_Ottoman_State/fAppWuoFv3QC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|59}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |date=1995}}</ref>{{rp|127}} Osman extended control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the ]. A Byzantine defeat at the ] in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbors, due to the lack of sources surviving. The ] popular during the 20th century credited their success to rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of ], but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00850-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|5, 10}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi Paul |title=The Cambridge History of Turkey |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |volume=1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 |location=Cambridge |chapter=Anatolia, 1300–1451}}</ref>{{rp|104}} | |||
| ], the father of ] (founder of the Ottoman Empire), arrived in ] from ] (Turkmenistan) with 400 horsemen to aid the ] of ] against the ].<ref name="Shaw1976">{{cite book|last=Shaw|first=Stanford J. |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9-YfgVZDBkC|date=29 October 1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29163-7|page=13}}</ref> After the demise of the Turkish Seljuk ] in the 14th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent, mostly Turkish states, the so-called ]. One of the emirates was led by Osman I (1258–1326), from whom the name Ottoman is derived.<ref name="Osmanli700">{{cite web |title=The Sultans: Osman Gazi |url=http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/osman.asp |publisher=TheOttomans.org |accessdate=13 December 2010}}</ref> Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire. It is not well understood how the Osmanli came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.<ref name="Finkel2007">{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Caroline|title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5|accessdate=6 June 2013|year=2007 |publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-00850-6|page=5}}</ref> | |||
| In the century after Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the ]. The earliest conflicts began during the ], waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the ] and the ] in the mid-14th century. Much of this period was characterised by ]. Osman's son, ], captured the northwestern Anatolian city of ] in 1326, making it the new capital and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port of ] was captured from the ] in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in ] effectively marked the ] in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elsie |first=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|95–96}} The ] for the ] ] in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale ] of the ], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade |date=1999 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-85532-918-8}}</ref> | |||
| ] in 1396. Painting from 1523.]] | |||
| ] in 1396, as depicted in an ] from 1523|right|upright=.8]] | |||
| In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the ]. Osman's son, ], captured the city of ] in 1324 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of ] was captured from the ] in 1387. The Ottoman victory at ] effectively marked ] in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert Elsie|title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95|year=2004|publisher=Scarecrow Press|pages=95–96|isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6}}</ref> The ] in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale ] of the ], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Nicolle|title=Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hUst0z-oEQC|year=1999|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-85532-918-8}}</ref> | |||
| As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the ] became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defense of Constantinople's strategic position on the ] Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the ] leader ], founder of the ], invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the ] in 1402, Timur defeated Ottoman forces and took Sultan ] as prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ] lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when ] emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ágoston |first1=Gábor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |orig-date=2008 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|363}} | |||
| The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by ] between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the ] by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and ]n armies under ] and ] at the ], although Albanians under ] continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the ] in 1448.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Edward J. Erickson |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|29}} | |||
| According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the rapid Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the ] from the mid-fourteenth century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague, which facilitated Ottoman expansion. In addition, slave hunting was the main economic driving force behind Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodize conquest of the Balkans into the ''akıncı phase'', which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterized by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by administrative integration into the Empire.<ref name="Schmitt-Kiprovska">{{cite journal |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/4/article-p497_1.xml |last1=Schmitt |first1=O. J. |last2=Kiprovska |first2=M. |date=2022 |title=Ottoman Raiders (Akıncıs) as a Driving Force of Early Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans and the Slavery-Based Economy |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |publisher=Brill |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=497–582 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341575 |s2cid=249355977 |access-date=12 November 2022 |archive-date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106181200/https://brill.com/view/journals/jesh/65/4/article-p497_1.xml |url-status=live|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Nükhet_Varlik">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|title=Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World, The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600|author=Nükhet Varlik|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139004046|isbn=978-1-139-00404-6|s2cid=197967256|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202092936/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ayalon-2014">{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|title=Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes|author=Yaron Ayalon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139680943|isbn=978-1-139-68094-3|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202093507/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|title=The origin and early spread of the Black Death in Italy: first evidence of plague victims from 14th-century Liguria (northern Italy)|author1=D. Cesana |author2=O.J. Benedictow |author3=R. Bianucci |publisher=Anthropological Science |date=11 October 2016 |access-date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008073522/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| === Expansion and apogee (1453–1566) === | |||
| {{Main|Growth of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| === Expansion and peak (1453–1566) === | |||
| The son of Murad II, ], reorganized the state and the military, and conquered ] on 29 May 1453. Mehmed allowed the ] to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.<ref name="books.google">{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Norman|editor=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson|title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2005|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn=978-0-297-84913-1|page=94|chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror}}</ref> Because of bad relations between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.<ref name="books.google" /> Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.<ref>Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240</ref> | |||
| {{Main|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| ]'s entry into ]; painting by ] (1854–1929)|upright=.8|left]] | |||
| The son of Murad II, ], reorganized both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered ], ending the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="Quataert2005">{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83910-5 |edition=2 |page=4}}</ref> Mehmed allowed the ] to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=94 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, most of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule, as preferable to Venetian rule.<ref name="books.google"/> Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.<ref>Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240</ref> | |||
| ] in 1526<ref>{{cite web|last=Lokman |url=http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |title=Battle of Mohács (1526) |year=1588}}</ref>]] | |||
| In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a ]. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective ]. It |
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a ]. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective ]. It flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karpat, Kemal H. |title=The Ottoman state and its place in world history |publisher=Brill |date=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03945-2 |location=Leiden}}</ref>{{rp|111}}{{efn|A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for ] to fund ]'s westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, ''Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama'' (1998), 9; I. Stavans, ''Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage'' (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, ''Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877'' (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", ''English Historical Review'', 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, ''The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127)'' (1978), 335).}} | ||
| Sultan ] (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the |
Sultan ] (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers by defeating ] of ], in the ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Savory |first=R. M. |date=1960 |title=The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907–930/1501–1524) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00149006 |jstor=609888|s2cid=154467531}}</ref>{{rp|91–105}} Selim I established ] by defeating and annexing the ] and created a naval presence on the ]. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the ] and the Ottomans to become the dominant power in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Andrew C. |date=January 1973 |title=The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800027276 |jstor=162225|s2cid=162219690 }}</ref>{{rp|55–76}} | ||
| {{Multiple image | |||
| ] (1520–1566) captured ] in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the ] as part of the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary/214181/History#ref=ref411152 |title=Origins of the Magyars |work=Hungary |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cache-media.britannica.com/eb-media/47/20547-004-D655EA04.gif |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=February 2013}} and, after his historical victory in the ] in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other Central European territories. He then laid ] in 1529, but failed to take the city.<ref>{{cite book|last=Imber|first=Colin|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power|year=2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-333-61386-4|page=50}}</ref> In 1532, he made another ] on Vienna, but was repulsed in the ].<ref name="Wheatcroft59">{{cite book | last=Wheatcroft | first=Andrew | title=The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans, and the Battle for Europe | publisher=Basic Books | location= | year=2009 |page=59 | isbn= 978-0-465-01374-6}}</ref><ref name="Thompson442">{{cite book | last=Thompson | first=Bard | title=Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing | location= | page=442 | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-8028-6348-5}}</ref><ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583">{{cite book | last=Ágoston and Alan Masters | first=Gábor and Bruce | title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=Infobase Publishing | page=583 | location= | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7}}</ref> ], ] and, intermittently, ], became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks ] ] from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of ] and naval access to the ]. In 1555, the ] became officially partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a '']'' that would remain like that until the course of the 18th century. By this partitioning of the Caucasus as signed in the ], ], and ] fell in Ottoman hands,<ref>''The Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520-1566'', V.J. Parry, '''A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730''', ed. M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94.</ref> while ], ], ], and ] remained Iranian.<ref>''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.</ref> | |||
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| ] (1520–1566)<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref> captured ] in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the ] as part of the ], and, after his historic victory in the ] in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. He then laid ] in 1529, but failed to take the city.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3}}</ref>{{rp|50}} In 1532, he made another ] on Vienna, but was repulsed in the ].<ref name="Thompson442">{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Bard |title=Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-6348-5 |page=442}}</ref><ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583">{{Cite book |last=Ágoston and Alan Masters |first=Gábor and Bruce |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=583}}</ref> ], Wallachia and, intermittently, ], became tributary principalities of the Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks ] ] from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of ] and naval access to the ]. In 1555, the ] became partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a '']'' that remained until the end of the ]. By this partitioning as signed in the ], ], western ], and ] fell into Ottoman hands,<ref>''The Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'', V.J. Parry, ''A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730'', ed. M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94.</ref> while southern ], ], ], and ] remained Persian.<ref>''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.</ref> | |||
| ] defeats the ] of ] under the command of ] at the ] in 1538.]] | |||
| ] in 1526<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lokman |date=1588 |title=Battle of Mohács (1526) |url=http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529094441/http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref>|upright|left]] | |||
| ] and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to ] rule, became strong allies. The French conquests of ] and ] occurred as a joint venture between the forces of the French king ] and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Imber|first=Colin|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power|year=2002|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-333-61386-4|page=53}}</ref> A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman ] in 1543. After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler ] officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. | |||
| In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the ] garrison of ] on the ]; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revival: A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937) |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> but ] agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the ] and the ]. ] and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to ] rule,<ref name="AksanOW">{{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7 |pages=130–135}}</ref> became allies. The French conquests of ] (1543) and ] (1553) occurred as a joint venture between French king ] and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3 |page=53}}</ref> France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman ] in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler ] officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman died of natural causes during the ] in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars.<ref name="decline">{{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8 |page=8 |quote=historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation}}; {{Cite book |last=Tezcan |first=Baki |title=The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-41144-9 |page=9 |quote=Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded.}}; {{Cite book |last=Woodhead |first=Christine |title=The Ottoman World |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-44492-7 |editor=Christine Woodhead |page=5 |chapter=Introduction |quote=Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'}}</ref> By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately {{Cvt|877888|mi2}}, extending over three continents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Masters |editor-first=Bruce |chapter=Süleyman I}}</ref>{{rp|545}} | |||
| In 1559, after the ] the Ottoman Empire would later absorb the weakened ] into its domain. This expansion furthered Ottoman rule in ] and the ]. This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with the ] with its close ally the ].<ref name="Clifford">E. H. M. Clifford, , 87 (1936), p. 289</ref> | |||
| ] defeated the ] of ] under the command of ] at the ] in 1538.]] | |||
| By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people extending over three continents. {{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 206}} In addition, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Mansel|first=Philip|title=Constantinople : city of the world's desire 1453–1924|year=1997|publisher=Penguin|location=London|isbn=0-14-026246-6|page=61}}</ref> By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a major part of the European political sphere. The success of its political and military establishment has been compared to the Roman Empire, by the likes of Italian scholar ] and the French political philosopher ].<ref name="deringil709">{{cite journal|last=Deringil|first=Selim|title=The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History|journal=Middle Eastern Studies,|date=September 2007|volume=43|issue=5|pages=709–723|doi=10.1080/00263200701422600|ref=harv}}</ref> | |||
| The Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=] |publisher=] |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-14-026246-9 |location=London |author-link=Philip Mansel}}</ref>{{rp|61}} The Empire was now a major part of European politics. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the ]. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two fought in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean<ref>Crowley, Roger {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141246/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Empires_of_the_Sea/Y7RuHr4wP3AC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}, Random House, 2008</ref> and ],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective |url=https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729152826/https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |archive-date=29 July 2019 |access-date=11 September 2019 |website=historycooperative.org}}</ref> where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianized ] and ] that traversed the Pacific to Christianize the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to attack the Muslims in the ].<ref>Charles A. Truxillo (2012), Jain Publishing Company, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141253/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crusaders_in_the_Far_East/prA99TUDgKQC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> In this case, the Ottomans sent armies to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the ] in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Palabiyik |first=Hamit |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |publisher=Ankara |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|84}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=İsmail Hakkı Göksoy |url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |title=''Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources'' |access-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135247/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
| === Stagnation and reform (1566–1827) === | |||
| {{Main|Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| The stagnation and decline, Stephen Lee argues, was relentless after 1566, interrupted by a few short revivals or reform and recovery. The decline gathered speed so that the Empire in 1699 was, "a mere shadow of that which intimidated East and West alike in 1566."<ref>Lee, Stephen J. ''Aspects of European History: 1494–1789'' (2nd ed., 1984) p. 77</ref> Although there are dissenting scholars, most historians point to "degenerate ], incompetent ], debilitated and ill-equipped armies, corrupt officials, avaricious speculators, grasping enemies, and treacherous friends."<ref>Joel Shinder, "Career Line Formation in the Ottoman Bureaucracy, 1648–1750: A New Perspective," ''Journal of the Economic & Social History of the Orient'' (1973) 16#2 pp. 217–237; Shindler is a dissenter.</ref> The main cause was a failure of leadership, as Lee argues the first 10 sultans from 1292 to 1566, with one exception, had done quite well. The next 13 sultans from 1566 to 1703, with two exceptions, were lackadaisical or incompetent rulers, says Lee.<ref>Lee, Stephen J. ''Aspects of European History: 1494–1789'' (1984) pp. 77–84</ref> In a highly centralized system, the failure at the center proved fatal. A direct result was the strengthening of provincial elites who increasingly ignored Constantinople. Secondly the military strength of European enemies grew stronger and stronger, while the Ottoman armies and arms scarcely improved.<ref>David Nicolle, ''Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774'' (Osprey, 1983)</ref><ref>Jonathan Grant, "Rethinking The Ottoman "Decline": Military Technology Diffusion in the Ottoman Empire, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries," ''Journal of World History'' (1999) 10#1 pp. 179–201.</ref> Finally the Ottoman economic system grew distorted and impoverished, as war caused inflation, world trade moved in other directions, and the deterioration of law and order made economic progress difficult.<ref>On the economic troubles see Hakan Berument and Asli Gunay 1. "Inflation Dynamics and its Sources in the Ottoman Empire: 1586–1913." ''International Review of Applied Economics'' (2007) 21#2 pp: 207–245. </ref> | |||
| During the 1600s, the world conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since ], technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the ], despite the difference in size, by the likes of contemporary Italian scholar ] and French political philosopher ].<ref name="deringil709">{{Cite journal |last=Deringil |first=Selim |date=September 2007 |title=The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=709–723 |doi=10.1080/00263200701422600 |s2cid=144606323}}</ref> | |||
| === Stagnation and reform (1566–1827) === | |||
| ==== Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683) ==== | ==== Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683) ==== | ||
| {{Main|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| ] showing Ottoman troops and ] as avantgarde.]] | |||
| {{Further|Ottoman decline thesis}} | |||
| ] ] known as '']'' at the ], built in the period between the reigns of Sultan ] (1574–1595) and Sultan ] (1648–1687)<ref name="kadirga1">{{Cite web |date=2021-11-24 |title=The Historical Galley |url=https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008120739/https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |website=denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr}}</ref><ref name="kadirga2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623376|title=Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Rgion II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39–48. Cambridge.}}</ref>]] | |||
| In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |page=xxxii |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}; {{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=553 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |quote=In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century. |editor2=Donald Quataert}}</ref> These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref>{{rp|413–414}} The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.<ref name=decline/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Şahin |first=Kaya |title=Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03442-6}}</ref>{{rp|10}} Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.<ref name=decline/> | |||
| The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The ] discovery of the ] in 1488 initiated ] in the ] throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Quataert |editor-first2=Donald}}</ref>{{rp|507–508}} | |||
| Under ] (1533–1584), the ] expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan ], commanded by the Ottomans, ].<ref name="Davies2007">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-23986-8 |page=16 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the ]. The Ottoman Empire continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of ],<ref name="Subtelny2000">{{Cite book |last=Orest Subtelny |url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |title=Ukraine |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |page= |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matsuki |first=Eizo |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves |url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170654/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University }}</ref> | |||
| ], with an allegory of the three powers of the ] in the foreground, fresco by ]]] | |||
| The Ottomans decided to conquer ] and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 10 Ottoman and Safavid Empires (1600–1700) |publisher=BRILL}}</ref>{{rp|67}} On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The ] claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection |date=2019}}</ref>{{rp|328}} Meanwhile, the ] consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the ] (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanlon |first=Gregory |title=The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|24}} It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=272}} blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 ] had recently set about eroding.<ref>{{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand Braudel |title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II |volume=II |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date=1995}}</ref> The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kunt |first1=Metin |title=Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World |last2=Woodhead |first2=Christine |publisher=Longman |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-582-03827-1}}</ref>{{rp|53}} The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=67}} | |||
| By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defenses.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=71}} The ] against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=90–92}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} Irregular sharpshooters (]) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to ] in the ] (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in ] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Halil İnalcık |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |title=An Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol. 1 1300–1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|24}} With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=281}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the ] of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This ] eventually resulted in the ], which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of ].<ref>Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 |date=1 November 2022 }} pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 {{ISBN|1-4381-1025-1}}</ref> The treaty ending the ] cost Venice much of ], its Aegean island possessions, and ]. (Losses from the war totalled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |date=2008}}</ref>{{rp|33}} | |||
| The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. The Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation that fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=96}} But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the ] in 1683, which marked the end of ]. | |||
| During his brief majority reign, ] (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured ] (1639) from the Safavids.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=73}} The resulting ] of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |date=2004-11-10 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79837-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubenstein |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death |date=2000 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-2828-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The ] discovery of the ] in 1488 initiated ] in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. The ] allied with the Ottomans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the ] by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.<ref>COINS FROM MOGADISHU, c. 1300 to c. 1700 by G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville p. 36</ref> | |||
| The ] (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were ] and her daughter-in-law ], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=74–75}} During the ] (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of ]s from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of ] completed in 1669, and expansion into ], with the strongholds of ], and ] and the territory of ] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=80–81}} | |||
| Under ] (1533–1584), the ] expanded into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan ], supported by the Ottomans, ].<ref name="Davies2007">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Brian L.|title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-23986-8|page=16}}</ref> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the ]. The ] continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of ],<ref name="Subtelny2000">{{cite book|author=Orest Subtelny|title=Ukraine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HNIs9O3EmtQC&pg=PA106|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2000|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6|page=106}}</ref> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves |first=Eizo |last=Matsuki |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University |format=PDF |accessdate=11 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20130115170654/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |archivedate=15 January 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| ] in 1683, by ] (1624–1694)]] | |||
| In southern Europe, a Catholic coalition led by ] won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the ] (1571). It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p=272}} blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta against the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 ] had recently set in motion eroding.<ref>Fernand Braudel, ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'', vol. II ( University of California Press: Berkeley, 1995).{{page}}</ref> The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kunt|first1=Metin|last2=Woodhead|first2=Christine|title=Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World|year=1995|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-0-582-03827-1|page=53}}</ref> The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=67}} | |||
| This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier ] led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of ] in the ] of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king ] at the ]. The alliance of the ] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the ] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=357}} The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=84}} ] (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at ] (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=83–84}} | |||
| ] in 1571.]] | |||
| ==== Military defeats ==== | |||
| By contrast, the ] frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=71}} The ] against ] Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=90–92}} Irregular sharpshooters (]) were also recruited, and on demobilization turned to ] in the ] (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in ] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Halil İnalcık|title=An Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol. 1 1300–1600|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24|accessdate=12 February 2013|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57456-3|page=24}}</ref> With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government .{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p=281}} In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exception were campaigns against the ] dynasty of ] where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This ] war eventually resulted with the ], which granted for the cession of the entire Caucasus, save for westernmost Georgia, back into Iranian Safavid possession.<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston,Bruce Alan Masters pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 ISBN 1438110251</ref> Campaigns during this era became increasingly inconclusive, even against weaker states with much smaller forces such as Poland or Austria. | |||
| Aside from the loss of the ] and the temporary loss of ] (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the ] and ] remained stable during the eighteenth century. ], however, presented a large and growing threat.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Accordingly, King ] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the ] of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the ] of 1700–1721).{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan ] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the ] of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=372}} | |||
| ] capture ] in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the ]. With the 1739 ], the Ottoman Empire regained northern ], ] (including Belgrade), ] and the southern parts of the ].]] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] in 1683]] | |||
| After the ], the ] confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and ] to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=376}} The ] (1735–1739), which was ended by the ] in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern ], ] (including Belgrade), ] and the southern parts of the ]; but the Empire lost the port of ], north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of ].{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=392}} | |||
| During his brief majority reign, ] (1612–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured ] (1639) from the ].{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=73}} The resulting ] of that same year decisely parted the Caucasus and adjecent regions as they were defined in the 1555 ] between the two neighbouring empires.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> The ] (1648–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were ] and her daughter-in-law ], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=74–75}} During the ] (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of ]s from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in ], the conquest of ] completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern ], with the strongholds of ] and ] and the territory of ] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=80–81}} | |||
| ] came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Technical University}}</ref> In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of ].<ref name="books.google_a">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=97 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.<ref name="books.google_a"/> In 1726, ] convinced the Grand Vizier ], the ], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some ] and religious leaders).<ref name="katip celebi">{{Cite web |date=5 May 2009 |title=Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi |url=http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212030334/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Utrecht University Library}}</ref> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.<ref name="katip celebi"/><ref name="watson">{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=William J. |date=1968 |title=Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=435–441 |doi=10.2307/596868 |jstor=596868}}</ref> | |||
| This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in May 1683 when Grand Vizier ] led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of ] in the ] of 1683–1687. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king ] at the ]. The alliance of the ] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the ] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p=357}} The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=84}} ] (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at ] (11 September 1697).{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=83–84}} | |||
| In North Africa, Spain ] from the autonomous ]. The ] received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture ]; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=559}}</ref> In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers. | |||
| ==== Russian threat grows ==== | |||
| During this period ] presented a large and growing threat.{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 371}} Accordingly, King ] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the ] in 1709 (part of the ] of 1700–1721.){{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 371}} Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan ] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the ] of 1710–1711.{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 372}} | |||
| ] |
] in 1788]] | ||
| In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian ]s, pursuing Polish confederates, entered ], an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the ]. The ] of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=405}} By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of ] had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<ref name="books.google_a"/> | |||
| After the ] the ] confirmed the loss of the ], Serbia and ] to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 376}} The ], which was ended by the ] in 1739, resulted in the recovery of Serbia and Oltenia, but the Empire lost the port of Azov to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of ].{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 392}} | |||
| ] |
] receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, ]. Painting by ]]] | ||
| ] (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to ], but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the ] corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary ]. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic ], who ] in 1826. | |||
| ] were made, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |title=History |publisher=Istanbul Technical University |accessdate=6 November 2011}}</ref> In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of ].<ref name="books.google_a">{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Norman|editor=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson|title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2005|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|isbn=978-0-297-84913-1|page=97|chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror}}</ref> In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.<ref name="books.google_a" /> In 1726, ] convinced the ] ], the ], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some ] and religious leaders).<ref name="katip celebi">{{cite web|url=http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |title=Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi |publisher=Utrecht University Library |date=5 May 2009 |accessdate=11 February 2013}}</ref> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.<ref name="katip celebi" /><ref name="watson">{{cite journal|last=Watson|first=William J.|title=Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1968|volume=88|issue=3|page=435|doi=10.2307/596868|jstor=596868}}</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian ], pursuing Polish confederates, entered ], an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia, and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the ]. The ] of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 405}} By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of ] had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<ref name="books.google_a" /> | |||
| The ] (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of ] in the ] during the ]. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had ] of ], the '']'' (governor) of the ], tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the ] in 1818. The ] of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own ] was acknowledged '']'' in 1830.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro |url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Serb Land of Montenegro |archive-date=5 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010205052700/http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Berend2003">{{Cite book |last=Berend |first=Tibor Iván |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century |publisher=University of California Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93209-8 |page=127 |author-link=Iván T. Berend |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1821, the ] ] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the ], which, along with the northern part of the ], became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the ]. ] that took 21 days, resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831">De Quatrebarbes, Théodore (1831). ''Souvenirs de la campagne d'Afrique''. Dentu. p. 35.</ref> and about 2,600 French ones.<ref name="De Quatrebarbes-1831" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |title=Conquête d'Alger ou pièces sur la conquête d'Alger et sur l'Algérie |date=1831 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kateb |first=Kamel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11 |title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations |date=2001 |publisher=INED |isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9 |language=fr}}</ref> By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guyot |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |title=Lettres sur la politique coloniale |date=1885 |publisher=C. Reinwald |isbn=9798862369458 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151115/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1831, ] revolted against Sultan ] due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of ] and ], which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the ] (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal ] in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the ] in 1827. Thus began the first ], during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son ], defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into ], reaching the city of ] within {{cvt|200|mi|km|order=flip}} of the capital, Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim">{{cite book |last=Karsh |first=Effraim |title=Islamic Imperialism A History |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2006}}</ref>{{rp|95}} In desperation, Sultan ] appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor ] to send an expeditionary force to assist him.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} In return for signing the ], the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Under the terms of the ], signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the '']'' (governor) of the '']s'' (provinces) of ], ], ], ] and ] (the latter four comprising modern ] and ]), and given the right to collect taxes in ].<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|96}} Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan ] could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.<ref name="Effraim" />{{rp|95–96}} | |||
| ] receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, ].]] | |||
| In 1839, the ] attempted to take back what it lost to the '']'' autonomous, but '']'' still Ottoman ], but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the ]. Muhammad Ali had close relations with ], and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire ] into the French sphere of influence.<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}} As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Konya {{!}} Summary |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019135832/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |archive-date=19 October 2023 |access-date=2023-10-17 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |title=All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt |date=2002 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-696-8 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024034304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> the ] and ] provided military assistance, and the second ] ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over ] and the ].<ref name=Effraim/>{{rp|96}} | |||
| ] (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to ], but reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the ] corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary created a ]. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic ], who ] in 1826. | |||
| By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "]". Three suzerain states – the ], ] and ] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s. | |||
| The ] (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of ] in the ] during the ]. ] of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own ] was acknowledged ''de jure'' in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |title=Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro |publisher=Serb Land of Montenegro |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="Berend2003">{{cite book|last=Berend|first=Tibor Iván|authorlink=Iván T. Berend|title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93209-8|page=127}}</ref> In 1821, the ] ] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the ], which, along with the northern part of the ], became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the ] by Europeans. The ] – the ], Wallachia, ] and ] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s. | |||
| === Decline and |
=== Decline and modernisation (1828–1908) === | ||
| {{Main|Decline of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Decline of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] at the ] in 1876. The ] lasted only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were ] with the ] in 1908.]] | |||
| During the ] period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern ], banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law<ref>{{cite web|last=Ishtiaq|first=Hussain|title=The Tanzimat: Secular reforms in the Ottoman Empire|url=http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf|publisher=Faith Matters}}</ref> and ]s with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.<ref name="PTT">{{cite web|url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080913233443/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html |archivedate=13 September 2008 |title=PTT Chronology |publisher=PTT Genel Müdürlüğü|language=Turkish|date=13 September 2008 |accessdate=11 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="PTT2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1 |title=History of the Turkish Postal Service |publisher=Ptt.gov.tr |accessdate=6 November 2011}}</ref> | |||
| ] |
During the ] period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern ], banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ishtiaq |first=Hussain |title=The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |publisher=Faith Matters |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-date=17 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017061131/http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor ] received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan ], who personally tested the invention.<ref>Yakup Bektas, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909033749/https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas,%20Ott%20Telegraphy,%201847-1880%20(2000).pdf |date=9 September 2021 }} ''Technology and Culture'' 41.4 (2000): 669–696.</ref> The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the '']''. The empire's ] was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. | ||
| The Christian population |
The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.<ref name="books.google_b">{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=95 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<ref name="books.google_b"/> Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written ], was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children.<ref name="books.google_b"/> In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the ] indicative of this.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sursock House |url=https://sursockhouse.com/ |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-date=25 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525062827/https://sursockhouse.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="books.google_b"/> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<ref name="books.google_b"/> In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=93}} | ||
| ] during the ] of 1853–1856|thumb]] | |||
| The ] (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the ]. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue ] amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.<ref>{{cite book|author=V. Necla Geyikdagi|title=Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32|accessdate=12 February 2013|date=15 March 2011|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-461-1|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Douglas Arthur Howard|title=The History of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay-IkMqrTp4C&pg=PA71|accessdate=11 February 2013|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30708-9|page=71|year=2001}}</ref> The war caused an exodus of the ], about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Bryan Glynn|title=Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire|journal=Cahiers du Monde russe|year=2000|volume=41|issue=1|pages=79–108|url=http://monderusse.revues.org/39|doi=10.4000/monderusse.39}}</ref> Toward the end of the ], 90% of the ] were ]<ref>Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. <u>The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future</u>. Routledge. 2008.</ref> and exiled from their homelands in the ] and fled to the Ottoman Empire,<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter|last=Richmond|title=The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79|accessdate=11 February 2013|date=29 July 2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|isbn=978-0-415-77615-8|page=79|quote=the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse the mountain zone of its indigenous population}}</ref> resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.<ref name="Jaimoukha2001">{{cite book|author=Amjad M. Jaimoukha|title=The Circassians: A Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jVmQgAACAAJ|accessdate=4 May 2013|year=2001|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-23994-7}}</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2013}}<ref name="Hille2010">{{cite book|author=Charlotte Mathilde Louise Hille|title=State building and conflict resolution in the Caucasus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxFP6K8iZzQC&pg=PA50|accessdate=4 May 2013|year=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-17901-1|page=50}}</ref><ref name="ChirotMcCauley2010">{{cite book|author1=Daniel Chirot|author2=Clark McCauley|title=Why Not Kill Them All?: The Logic and Prevention of Mass Political Murder (New in Paper)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9sPJnd0cwV0C&pg=PA23|accessdate=4 May 2013|date=1 July 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3485-3|page=23}}</ref> Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totaling 1–1.5 million deported or killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS104971+22-May-2009+PRN20090522|title=145th Anniversary of the Circassian Genocide and the Sochi Olympics Issue|date=22 May 2009|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=28 November 2009}}</ref> | |||
| The ] (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue ] amounting to 5{{nbsp}}million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854.<ref>{{Cite book |last=V. Necla Geyikdagi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |title=Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-84885-461-1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|32}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Douglas Arthur Howard |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug |title=The History of Turkey |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-30708-9 |page= |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|71}} The war caused an exodus of the ], about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Bryan Glynn |date=2000 |title=Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=79–108 |doi=10.4000/monderusse.39 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|79–108}} Toward the end of the ], 90% of the ] were ]<ref>Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. ''The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future''. Routledge. 2008.</ref> and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |title=The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future |publisher=Taylor & Francis US |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77615-8 |page=79 |quote=the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse the mountain zone of its indigenous population |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}</ref> resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=49}} Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both ] and a sense of Turkish nationalism.<ref name="ReferenceA">Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 p. 95.</ref> | |||
| The Ottoman ]s brutally suppressed the ] of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920 |first1=Charles |last1=Jelavich |first2=Barbara |last2=Jelavich |year=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&pg=PA139&dq=massacre+bulgarians++1876#v=onepage&q&f=false |page=139|isbn=978-0-295-80360-9 }}.</ref> The ] ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; ] was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, ] achieved full independence. ] and ] finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, ] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of ] and ]. Although the Ottoman government contested this move, its troops were defeated within three weeks. | |||
| ] (] is at the centre, Sultan ] is second from right) for the opening of the ]|left|upright=1.3]] | |||
| In return for ] ]'s advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the ], Britain assumed the administration of ] in 1878,<ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=A.J.P.|authorlink=A. J. P. Taylor|title=The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918|year=1955|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-822101-2|pages=228–54}}</ref> and later sent troops to ] in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the ], effectively gaining control in both territories. | |||
| In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref>{{rp|50}} As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=105}} The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}} By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the ], a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}} | |||
| From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Akçam|first=Taner|title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility|year=2006|publisher=Metropolitan Books|location=New York|isbn=0-8050-7932-7|page=42|authorlink=Taner Akçam}}</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, some 7–9 million Turkish-Muslims from its former territories in the ], ], ], and the ] islands migrated to ] and ].<ref name="Karpat2004">{{cite book|author=Kemal H Karpat|title=Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC|accessdate=24 May 2013|year=2004|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-13322-8}}</ref> After the Empire lost the ] (1912–13), it lost all its ] territories except ]. This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many tying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and with some 400,000 non-Muslims fleeing territory still under Ottoman rule.<ref>{{cite journal | place = NL | format = PDF | url = http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf | archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf | archivedate = 16 July 2007 | title = Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924 | page = 1 | publisher = ] | ref = harv}}</ref> ], estimates that during the period 1821 to 1922 several million Muslims died in the Balkans, with the expulsion of a similar number..<ref name="McCarthy1995">{{cite book|author=Justin McCarthy|title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=1 May 2013|year=1995|publisher=Darwin Press|isbn=978-0-87850-094-9}}</ref><ref name="Carmichael2012">{{cite book|last = Carmichael|first = Cathie|title = Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC|accessdate = 1 May 2013|date = 12 November 2012|publisher = Routledge|isbn = 978-1-134-47953-5|quote = During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number.|page = 21}}</ref><ref name="Buturovic2010">{{cite book|last=Buturovic|first=Amila|title=Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC|accessdate=1 May 2013|date=1 May 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-980381-1|page=9}}</ref> | |||
| The Ottoman ]s suppressed the ] of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jelavich |first1=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |title=The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920 |last2=Jelavich |first2=Barbara |date=1986 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80360-9 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151039/https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|139}} The ] ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: ] was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; ] achieved full independence; and ] and ] finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, ] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of ] and ]. | |||
| <gallery mode=packed heights=130px> | |||
| File:Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahce Palace in 1876.jpg|Opening ceremony of the First ] at the ] in 1876. The ] lasted for only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were ] with the ] in 1908. | |||
| British Prime Minister ] advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the ], and in return, Britain assumed the administration of ] in 1878.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A.J.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt/page/228 |title=The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1955 |isbn=978-0-19-822101-2 |location=Oxford |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor}}</ref>{{rp|228–254}} Britain later sent troops to ] in 1882 to put down the ] (Sultan ] was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron ] arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Akmeșe |first=Handan Nezir |title=The Birth of Modern Turkey The Ottoman Military and the March to World I |location=London |publisher=I.B Tauris}}</ref>{{rp|24}} | |||
| File:Turkish troops storming Fort Shefketil (cropped).jpg|Turkish troops storming ] during the ] of 1853–1856. | |||
| File:The ruined gateway of Prince Eugene, Belgrade.jpg|], c. 1865. In 1867, ] and ] forced the Ottoman military to retreat from northern ], securing its ''de facto'' independence (formalized after the ] and the ] in 1878.) | |||
| From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/42 |author-link=Taner Akçam}}</ref>{{rp|42}} | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| In 1897 the population was 19{{nbsp}}million, of whom 14{{nbsp}}million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20{{nbsp}}million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.<ref>Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire'' 2:236.</ref> | |||
| As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9{{nbsp}}million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, ], Balkans, and the ] islands migrated to Anatolia and ].<ref name="Karpat2004">{{Cite book |last=Kemal H Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC |title=Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays |publisher=Brill |date=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13322-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=762 |chapter=The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shams El-Din |first=Osama |title=A Military History of Modern Egypt from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106154526/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trevor N. Dupuy |title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=978-0062700568 |pages=851}}</ref> After the Empire lost the ] (1912–1913), it lost all its ] territories except ] (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from ] brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Zürcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924 |url=http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |url-status=dead |website=Turkology Update Leiden Project Working Papers Archive |publisher=] |date=January 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2007 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |access-date=21 June 2009 }}</ref> ] estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5{{nbsp}}million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5{{nbsp}}million.<ref name="McCarthy1995">{{Cite book |last=Justin McCarthy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Carmichael2012">{{Cite book |last=Carmichael |first=Cathie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition |publisher=Routledge |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-134-47953-5 |page=21 |quote=During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Buturovic2010">{{Cite book |last=Buturovic |first=Amila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |title=Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-980381-1 |page=9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| === Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) === | === Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) === | ||
| {{Main| |
{{Main|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire in World War I}} | ||
| ] by the leaders of the Ottoman ] in 1908.]] | |||
| ==== Young Turk movement ==== | |||
| ] by the leaders of the Ottoman ] in 1908]] | |||
| The defeat and ] (1908{{mdash}}1922) began with the ], a moment of hope and promise established with the ]. It restored the ] and brought in ] with a ] (]) under the ]. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Michael A.|title=Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918 |date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521149167|pages=1, 324}}</ref> Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. | |||
| Members of ] movement who had once gone underground now established their parties.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Erickson |title=Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1137362209 | page=32 }}</ref> Among them "]", and "]" were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included ], ], and ] organised under ]. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed ] in 1908. The last of the ] was performed in ]. Despite ] which reconstituted the ], the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the ] (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the ] (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to ], including the ] and two further coups in ] and ]. | |||
| ==== World War I ==== | |||
| {{Main|Ottoman entry into World War I|Ottoman Empire in World War I}} | |||
| ], who commanded the ] on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms]] | |||
| The Ottoman Empire entered ] on the side of the ] and was ultimately defeated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007 |date=2010 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |location=New Haven |page=200}}</ref> The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined ] on the ] coast of the ] on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline">{{Cite book |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |title=Timeline: Ottoman Empire (c. 1285 – 1923) |date=2012 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-173764-0 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514171439/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |url-status=live }}</ref> and its allies ] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> and the ] (5 November 1914)<ref name="oxfordreference-timeline"/> declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the ] and ], which were ] Ottoman territories prior to the war, to ]s. | |||
| The Ottomans successfully defended the ] strait during the ] (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the ], such as the ] (1915–1916); but the ] (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the ], however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the ] (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern ] and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the ] following the ] in 1917. | |||
| ===== Genocides ===== | |||
| {{Main|Late Ottoman genocides|Armenian genocide|Greek genocide|Seyfo}} | |||
| ] was the result of the Ottoman government's ] and ] policies regarding its ] citizens after the ] (1914–1915) and the collapse of the ] against the ] and ] during ]. An estimated 600,000<ref name="britannica-ag">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}</ref> to more than 1 million,<ref name="britannica-ag"/> or up to 1.5 million<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|0-313-34642-9}}.</ref> people were killed.]] | |||
| In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5{{nbsp}}million Armenians in the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bijak |first1=Jakub |title=The Armenian Genocide Legacy |last2=Lubman |first2=Sarah |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-56163-3 |page=39 |language=en |chapter=The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Peter Balakian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |title=The Burning Tigris |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-06-186017-1 |page=xvii |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) |page=186}}; {{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |s2cid=71515470}}</ref> The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on ]es leading to the ]. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, ], and systematic massacre.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Christopher J. |title=Armenia: The Survival of A Nation |pages=200–203 |date=1980 |place=London |publisher=Croom Helm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bryce |first1=Viscount James |title=The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden |pages=635–649 |date=2000 |editor-last=Sarafian |editor-first=Ara |edition=uncensored |place=Princeton |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-9535191-5-6 |last2=Toynbee |first2=Arnold |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce}}</ref> Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's ] and ] minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |url=http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172211/http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-03 |quote=The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious |s2cid=71515470 |accessdate=6 June 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| ===== Arab Revolt ===== | |||
| {{Main|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Arab Revolt}} | |||
| The ] began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the ], an agreement between the British government and ], the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.{{efn|Though the revolt was officially initiated on the 10 June, bin Ali's sons ] and ] had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.<ref>Eliezer Tauber, ''The Arab Movements in World War I,'' Routledge, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-135-19978-4}} p. 80-81</ref>}} The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent ] stretching from ], Syria, to ], Yemen, which the British promised to recognise. | |||
| The ], led by Hussein and the ], with military backing from the British ], successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the ] and ]. The rebellion eventually took ] and set up a short-lived monarchy led by ], a son of Hussein. | |||
| Following the terms of the 1916 ], the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into ]. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sykes-Picot Agreement {{!}} Map, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522080149/https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ===== Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence ===== | |||
| ], the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922]] | |||
| Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the ] on 30 October 1918. ] by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also ] (now İzmir). | |||
| The ] was finalized under the terms of the 1920 ]. This treaty, as designed in the ], allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces. | |||
| A nationalist opposition arose in the ]. It won the ] (1919–1923) under the leadership of ] (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, ] (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The ] was ] in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of ]. The ] was abolished on 3 March 1924.<ref name="Ozoglu">{{Cite book |last=Hakan Özoğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |title=From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-37957-4 |page=8 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-10747-1 |page=}}</ref> | |||
| == Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state == | |||
| {{See also|Ghaza thesis}}{{History of Turkey}} | |||
| Several historians, such as British historian ] and the Greek historian ], have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a ] ] guise.<ref>Norman Stone, "Turkey in the Russian Mirror", pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 pp. 92–93</ref> The American historian ] writes that the Ottoman state centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion".<ref name="Stone, pp. 86-100">Stone, pp. 86–100</ref> Kitsikis and the American historian ] posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath W. |title=The nature of the early Ottoman state |publisher=SUNY Press |date=2003}}</ref><ref>Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan" in Peter Fibiger Bang, and Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, eds. ''Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012) pp. 175–193.</ref><ref>Sinan Ed Kuneralp, ed. ''A Bridge Between Cultures'' (2006) p. 9.</ref> Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian ], who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "] state" dedicated to expanding the ].<ref name="Stone, pp. 86-100"/> Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian ] championed the ], according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic ] who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from ].<ref>Ronald C. Jennings, "Some thoughts on the Gazi-thesis." ''Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes'' 76 (1986): 151–161 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328042350/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782 |date=28 March 2020 }}.</ref> | |||
| The British historian ] suggests many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires, such as that the ''zeugarion'' tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman '']'' tax, that the '']'' land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman '']'' system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the '']'' was the same as the Byzantine '']''. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the ], which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the ''timar'' system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged '']s'' from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.<ref>Stone, pp. 94–95.</ref> | |||
| The ] (1908–1922) began with the ], a moment of hope and promise established with the ]. It restored the ] and brought in ] with a ] (]) under the ]. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s citizens to modernize the state’s institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|2011|p= 1}}</ref> Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. ] movement members once underground (named committee, group, etc.) established (declared) their parties.<ref>{{Harvard citation|Erickson|2013|p=32}}</ref> Among them “],” and “]” were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties which included; ], ], and ] organized under ]. Profiting from the civil strife, ] officially annexed ] in 1908. The last of ] performed with the ]. ] resulted with the ] which engaged with ] (1911), ] (1912–1913), and continuous unrest (] followed by ] and ] followed by ]) in the Empire up to ]. | |||
| ], the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the ], 17 November 1922.]] | |||
| The ] began with the ] in the ]. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the ] and the ]. The ] which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. The ], signed on 30 October 1918, and set the ] under the terms of the ]. This treaty, as designed in the ], allowed the Sultan to retain a ] and permitted the title ] (a situation comparable to the ]; an ]-] state ruled by the ]), an attempt to create a polity that could pose no further threat, but would be just powerful enough to protect Britain from the ]. The ] and ] led to the establishment of a ], which won the ] (1919–22) under the leadership of ] (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The ] on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, ] (reigned 1918–22), left the country on 17 November 1922. The ] was abolished on 3 March 1924.<ref name="Ozoglu">{{cite book|author=Hakan Ozoglu|title=From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8|accessdate=8 June 2013|date=24 June 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-37957-4|page=8}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1915, as the ] continued to advance into eastern Anatolia,<ref name="ArmenianMassacresBritannica">{{cite web|author=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35323/Armenian-massacres |title=Armenian massacres (Turkish-Armenian history) |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref> the Ottoman government started the ] of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the death of approximately 1.5 million Armenians in what became known as the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Balakian|title=The Burning Tigris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17|accessdate=8 June 2013|date=13 October 2009|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-186017-1|page=xvii}}</ref> The genocide was carried out during and after ] and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on ]es leading to the ]. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre.<ref>{{Citation|first1=Hans-Lukas|last1=Kieser|first2=Dominik J.|last2=Schaller|language=German|title=Der Völkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah|trans_title=The Armenian genocide and the Shoah|publisher=Chronos|year=2002|isbn=3-0340-0561-X|page=114}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title = Armenia: The Survival of A Nation | first = Christopher J. | last = Walker | publisher = Croom Helm | place = London | year = 1980 | pages = 200–3}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title = The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden | first1 = Viscount James | last1 = Bryce | authorlink= James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce | first2 = Arnold | last2 = Toynbee | edition = uncensored | editor-first = Ara | editor-last = Sarafian | place = Princeton, ] | publisher = Gomidas | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-9535191-5-5 | pages = 635–49}}</ref> Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's ] and ] minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14623520801950820|last1=Schaller|first1=Dominik J|last2=Zimmerer|first2=Jürgen|year=2008|title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research|volume=10|issue=1|pages=7–14|url=http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf|quote=The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> | |||
| == Government == | == Government == | ||
| {{Main|State organisation of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|State organisation of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| {{Multiple image | |||
| ]]] | |||
| | width = 220px | |||
| | align = right | |||
| | direction = vertical | |||
| | image1 = Topkapı - 01.jpg | |||
| | image2 = Dolmabahçe_Palace,_Istanbul_cropped.jpg | |||
| | caption2 = ] and ] were the primary residences of the ] in ] between 1465 and 1856<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|title=Center of Ottoman Power|work=]|last=Simons|first=Marlise|access-date=4 June 2009|date=22 August 1993|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and 1856 to 1922,<ref name=dolmabahcepalace>{{cite web|title=Dolmabahce Palace|url=http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|website=dolmabahcepalace.com|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|url-status=live}}</ref> respectively. | |||
| }} | |||
| Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the ] was a |
Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the ] was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic ] remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|page=38}} According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of ] Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.<ref name="Kapucu-2008">{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page= |access-date=11 February 2013}}</ref> | ||
| The Ottoman Empire or |
The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199 |title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present |publisher=Psychology Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-93243-1 |page=199 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Europe, only the ] had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.<ref name="Kapucu-2008"/> As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI ({{reign|1918|1922}}) was a ] of the first Ottoman sultan ] ({{abbr|d.|died}} 1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the ] was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations. | ||
| ] | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The highest position in Islam, |
The highest position in Islam, ], was claimed by the sultans starting with ],<ref name="Lambton-1995">{{Cite book |last1=Lambton |first1=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2 |volume=2 |page=320 |author-link=Ann Lambton |author-link2=Bernard Lewis |access-date=25 July 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |url-status=live }}</ref> which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, '']'' or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the ]. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "]". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan.{{Dubious|reason=this is demonstrably not true, just look at any list of sultans |date=September 2016}} The strong educational system of the ] was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the ] ({{Lang|ota|Medrese}}) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by '']''s, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern |title=Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |date=1963 |isbn=978-0-8061-1060-8 |page= |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The second track was a free ] for the Christians, the '']'',<ref>{{Cite journal |date=March 2010 |title=The Ottoman Palace School Enderun and the Man with Multiple Talents, Matrakçı Nasuh |url=https://tamu.academia.edu/SencerCorlu/Papers/471488/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh |journal=Journal of the Korea Society of Mathematical Education, Series D |series=Research in Mathematical Education |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=11 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111105849/http://www.academia.edu/480968/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh |url-status=live }}</ref> which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in ] or the Balkans, a process known as ] ({{Lang|ota|Devşirme}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Karpat |first=Kemal H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204 |title=Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis |publisher=Brill |date=1973 |isbn=978-90-04-03817-2 |page=204 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as ] |
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as ]. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a '']lik'', was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the ''de facto'' head of state.<ref name="Black-2001"/> | ||
| ] |
], Ottoman ambassador to the United States, in ], 1913]] | ||
| Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the ]. | Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the ]. | ||
| This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the ] to the west.<ref>{{ |
This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the ] to the west.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page= |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref> | ||
| The ] were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious |
The ] were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized ''Tughra'' spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish ]. | ||
| === Law === | === Law === | ||
| {{Main|Ottoman |
{{Main|Law of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] about her husband's ], as depicted in an Ottoman miniature. ] is ] in ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage&divorce/divorce.html|title=Islamic Perspective on Divorce|website=Mwlusa.org|access-date=2019-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304141319/http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage%26divorce/divorce.html|archive-date=2019-03-04|url-status=dead}}</ref>|upright=.75]] | |||
| The Ottoman legal system accepted the ] over its subjects. At the same time the '']'' (or ''Kanun''), a secular legal system, co-existed with religious law or ].<ref name=otmkanun>{{cite web|title=Balancing Sharia: The Ottoman Kanun|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067|publisher=BBC|accessdate=5 October 2013}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local ]. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.<ref name="Benton 109-110">{{cite book|last=Benton|first=Lauren|title=Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109|accessdate=11 February 2013|date=3 December 2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00926-3|pages=109–110}}</ref> Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority develop the needs of the local ].<ref name="Benton 109-110" /> The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.<ref name="Benton 109-110" /> The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative ''Qanun'', i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic '']'' and '']'', which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} | |||
| The Ottoman legal system accepted the ] over its subjects. At the same time the '']'' (or ''Kanun''), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or ].<ref name="otmkanun">{{Cite web |title=Balancing Sharia: The Ottoman Kanun |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009012204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067 |archive-date=9 October 2013 |access-date=5 October 2013 |publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>Washbrook, D. and Cohn, H., Law in the Ottoman Empire: Shari'a Law, Dynastic Law, Legal Institutions.</ref> The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local ]. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.<ref name="Benton-2001">{{Cite book |last=Benton |first=Lauren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109 |title=Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 |date=3 December 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00926-3 |pages=109–110 |access-date=11 February 2013 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151659/https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local ].<ref name="Benton-2001"/> The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.<ref name="Benton-2001"/> The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative ''Qanun'', i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic '']'' and '']'', which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Streusand |first=Douglas E. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1202464532 |title=Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-96813-6 |location=Milton |oclc=1202464532 |access-date=9 August 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1202464532 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1082195426 |title=The Ashgate research companion to Islamic law |author1=P. J. Bearman |author2=Rudolph Peters |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-315-61309-3 |location=London |pages=109 |oclc=1082195426}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive |
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic ''Sharia'' law system had been developed from a combination of the ]; the ], or words of ]; '']'', or consensus of the members of the ]; ], a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in ] and ]. | ||
| ] about her husband's impotence, ]]] | |||
| The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. |
The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a ''Qadi'', or judge. Since the closing of the '']'', or 'Gate of Interpretation', ''Qadi''s throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.<ref name="Benton-2001"/> However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour. | ||
| ] | |||
| In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernization began with the ] of 1839.<ref name="review-niza">{{cite web|title=Review of "Ottoman Nizamiye Courts. Law and Modernity"|url=http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf|publisher=Sabancı Üniversitesi|author=Selçuk Akşin Somel|page=2}}</ref> These reforms included the "fair and public trial of all accused regardless of religion," the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil," and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.<ref name="int-handbook" /> Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.<ref name="int-handbook">{{cite web |title=Middle East |url=http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |work=Legal Traditions and Systems: an International Handbook |publisher=Greenwood Press |last1=Epstein |first1=Lee |last2=O'Connor |first2=Karen |last3=Grub |first3=Diana |pages=223–224}}</ref> | |||
| In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the ] of 1839.<ref name="review-niza">{{Cite web |last=Selçuk Akşin Somel |title=Review of "Ottoman Nizamiye Courts. Law and Modernity" |url=http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf |publisher=Sabancı Üniversitesi |page=2 |access-date=15 February 2013 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012013518/http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> These reforms included the "fair and public trial of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.<ref name="int-handbook"/> Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.<ref name="int-handbook">{{Cite web |last1=Epstein |first1=Lee |last2=O'Connor |first2=Karen |last3=Grub |first3=Diana |title=Middle East |url=http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525015655/http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |website=Legal Traditions and Systems: an International Handbook |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=223–224 |access-date=15 February 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as ], this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the ], a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.<ref name="int-handbook" /> In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.<ref name="int-handbook" /> | |||
| These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as ], this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the ], a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.<ref name="int-handbook"/> In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.<ref name="int-handbook"/> | |||
| === Military === | === Military === | ||
| {{Main|Military of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Military of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] |
]s in battle, holding the crescent banner, by ]]] | ||
| The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by |
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the ] included Janissary, ], ] and ]. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using '']'', which were short but wide cannons, during the ]. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fast ] and ] horses (progenitors of the ] racing horse),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Mordaunt |title=The Godolphin Arabian: The Story of the Matchem Line |publisher=Robert Hale Limited |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-85131-476-1 |pages=3–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wall |first=John F |title=Famous Running Horses: Their Forebears and Descendants |isbn=978-1-163-19167-5 |page=8}}</ref> and often applied tactics similar to those of the ], such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murphey |first=Rhoads |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700 |date=1999 |publisher=UCL Press |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005 |pages= 200–02}}</ref> falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.<ref name=AksanOW/> | ||
| ] crossing the ] in 1901|left]] | |||
| ] 1788.]] | |||
| The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan |
The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the ] (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education. | ||
| ] in the ] near ]]] | |||
| The ] vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of ] and ] to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of ] in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan ] (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first ] in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="first submarine at shipyard">{{cite web|url=http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20080423225019/http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |archivedate=23 April 2008 |title=Petition created for submarine name |publisher=Ellesmere Port Standard |accessdate=11 February 2013}}{{dead link|date=April 2014}}</ref> | |||
| The ] vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of ] and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan ] (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first ] in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="first submarine at shipyard">{{Cite web |title=Petition created for submarine name |url=http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423225019/http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |archive-date=23 April 2008 |access-date=11 February 2013 |website=Ellesmere Port Standard }}</ref> | |||
| ] at the ] in the early stages of ]. At top left is a portrait of Sultan ].]] | |||
| However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for |
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan ] distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist ] and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the ], where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The ''Ottoman Navy Foundation'' was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations. | ||
| ] in early 1912]] | ] in early 1912]] | ||
| The establishment of ] dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.<ref>{{ |
The establishment of ] dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Story of Turkish Aviation |url=http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512225046/http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm |archive-date=12 May 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Turkey in the First World War }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Founding |url=http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007104345/http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19 |archive-date=7 October 2011 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Turkish Air Force}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (''Tayyare Mektebi'') in ] on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (''Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi'') was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The ] fought on many fronts during World War I, from ] in the west to the Caucasus in the east and ] in the south. | ||
| == Administrative divisions == | == Administrative divisions == | ||
| {{Main|Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ]s in |
] | ||
| The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.<ref name="Imber">{{ |
The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.<ref name="Imber">{{Cite web |last=Imber |first=Colin |date=2002 |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |url=http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~ayasar/HIST236/Colin%20_Imber.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726115700/http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~ayasar/HIST236/Colin%20_Imber.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2014 |pages=177–200}}</ref> | ||
| The ] (also ''Pashalik'' or ''Beylerbeylik'') was the territory of office of a ], and was further subdivided |
The ] (also ''Pashalik'' or ''Beylerbeylik'') was the territory of office of a ] ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Raymond Detrez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167 |title=Europe and the historical legacies in the Balkans |last2=Barbara Segaert |publisher=Peter Lang |date=2008 |isbn=978-90-5201-374-9 |page=167 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| The ] were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" ({{ |
The ] were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" ({{Lang|tr|Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi}})<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page= |access-date=1 June 2013}}</ref> in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms.<ref name="trt">{{Cite book |last=Maḥmūd Yazbak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC&pg=PA28 |title=Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period 1864–1914: A Muslim Town in Transition |publisher=BRILL |date=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-11051-9 |page=28 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Haifa_in_the_Late_Ottoman_Period_1864_19/DPseCvbPsKsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA28&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, ]/]/], ] and ], to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the ].<ref name="jpn">{{Cite book |last1=Mundy |first1=Martha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50 |title=Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria |last2=Smith |first2=Richard Saumarez |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-291-2 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| == Economy == | == Economy == | ||
| {{Main|Economic history of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Economic history of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ]|upright=.75]] | |||
| Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.<ref name="Inalcik1970209">{{cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |authorlink=Halil İnalcık |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |page=209}}</ref> To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants. | |||
| Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.<ref name="Inalcik1970209">{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=209 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}</ref> To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the ]. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants. | |||
| ], 1481.]] | ], 1481|upright=.75]] | ||
| The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.<ref name="Inalcik1970217">{{ |
The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.<ref name="Inalcik1970217">{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=217 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}</ref> The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Darling |first=Linda |title=Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660. |publisher=E.J. Brill |date=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10289-7 |pages=238–239}}</ref> | ||
| The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.<ref name="Black |
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.<ref name="Black-2001">{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197 |title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present |publisher=Psychology Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-93243-1 |page=197 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197 |url-status=live }}</ref> This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.<ref name="Black-2001"/> The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=İnalcık |first1=Halil |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |last2=Quataert |first2=Donald |date=1971 |page=120}}</ref> | ||
| ] was founded in 1856 in |
] was founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank was ] by members of the ].|upright=.75]] | ||
| ] | |||
| Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.<ref>Donald Quataert, ''The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922'' (2005) p 24</ref>{{Failed verification|date=September 2016}} The ], also known as the ] that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development. | |||
| The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that ] once used. When ] bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and ] first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith. | |||
| By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.<ref name="Inalcik1970218">{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=218 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}</ref> | |||
| Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The ], also known as the ] that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development. | |||
| Economic historian ] argues that ] contributed to ] in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the ] of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a ] policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in ], dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with ] in 1673 and 1740, which lowered ] to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as ] in his ''Dictionary of Commerce'' (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 ] debate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paul Bairoch |title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes |publisher=] |date=1995 |pages=31–32 |author-link=Paul Bairoch}}</ref> | |||
| By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.<ref name="Inalcik1970218">{{cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |authorlink=Halil İnalcık |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |page=218}}</ref> | |||
| == Demographics == | == Demographics == | ||
| {{Main|Demographics of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Demographics of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] under Ottoman rule in 1900]] | |||
| A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.<ref name="Kabadayı" /> For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Population Rise and Fall in Anatolia 1550–1620|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=October 1979|volume=15|issue=3|pages=322–345|author=Leila Erder and Suraiya Faroqhi|doi=10.1080/00263207908700415}}</ref> An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.<ref name="Kabadayı" /> | |||
| A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.<ref name="Kabadayı"/> For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leila Erder and Suraiya Faroqhi |date=October 1979 |title=Population Rise and Fall in Anatolia 1550–1620 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=322–345 |doi=10.1080/00263207908700415}}</ref> An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.<ref name="Kabadayı"/> | |||
| Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=281}}<ref name="Kabadayı">{{Cite web |last=Kabadayı |first=M. Erdem |date=28 October 2011 |title=Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic |url=http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028114335/http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Bilgi University}}</ref> For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shaw |first=S. J. |title=The Ottoman Census System and Population, 1831–1914 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1978 |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=325 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800033602 |s2cid=161326705 |quote=The Ottomans developed an efficient system for counting the empire's population in 1826, a quarter of a century after such methods were introduced in Britain, France and America.}}</ref> | |||
| ] (]) and the ] on the ], ca. 1880–1893.]] | |||
| ] (]) and the ] on the ], {{circa|1880–1893}}]] | |||
| However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and ] and five times the population density of Arabia.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|pages=110–111}} | |||
| Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.{{sfn|Kinross|1979|p = 281}}<ref name="Kabadayı">{{cite web|last=Kabadayı|first=M. Erdem|title=Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic|url=http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf|publisher=Istanbul Bilgi University|archivedate=28 October 2011|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20111028114335/http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf|date=28 October 2011}}</ref> For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shaw|first=S. J.|title=The Ottoman Census System and Population, 1831–1914|year=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=325|work=International Journal of Middle East Studies|quote=The Ottomans developed an efficient system for counting the empire's population in 1826, a quarter of a century after such methods were introduced in Britain, France and America.}}</ref> | |||
| Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=112}} Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=113}} | |||
| However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily the ]), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and ] and five times the population density of Arabia.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|pp = 110–111}} | |||
| The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=114}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pamuk |first=S |date=August 1991 |title=The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=23 |issue=3}}</ref> Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=114}} | |||
| Towards the end of the empire's existence ] was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p = 112}} Epidemic diseases and ] caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one sixth of the Egyptian population died from plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p = 113}} | |||
| ] is one of the best preserved Ottoman villages.]] | |||
| Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the ] and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|p=115}} Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=49}} Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|p=116}} Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called '']''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |page={{Page needed|date=February 2013}}}}</ref> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<ref name="books.google_b"/> | |||
| The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and Izmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p = 114}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pamuk|first=S|title=The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|date=August 1991|volume=23|issue=3|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Some regions conversely had population falls – Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p = 114}} | |||
| Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the ] and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees – 200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p = 115}} Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8 million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g. Turkey and Bulgaria) whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted with the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers and agriculturists.{{sfn|Quataert|2000|p = 116}} Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called '']''.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCarthy|first=Justin|title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922|year=1995|publisher=Darwin Press|isbn=978-0-87850-094-9|page={{page needed|date=February 2013}} }}</ref> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<ref name="books.google_b" /> | |||
| === Language === | === Language === | ||
| {{Main|Languages of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Languages of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] | |||
| Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an ] ] highly influenced by ] and ]. The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in ] and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in ] and ]; Persian, only spoken by the educated;<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69">{{cite book|author=Bertold Spuler|title=Persian Historiography And Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2003|publisher=Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd|isbn=978-9971-77-488-2|page=69}}</ref> Arabic, spoken mainly in ], North Africa, ], ], the ] and parts of the ]; and ] throughout the ]. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69" /> while ] was used for religious rites. | |||
| ], in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.<ref>{{ |
] was the official language of the Empire.<ref>{{Cite constitution|article=18|polity=the Ottoman Empire|date=1876}}</ref> It was an ] ] highly influenced by ] and ], though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davison |first=Roderic H. |date=1964-12-31 |title=Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400878765 |doi=10.1515/9781400878765 |isbn=978-1-4008-7876-5 |quote=There was the ruling Ottoman group, now largely concentrated in the bureaucracy centered on the Sublime Porte, and the mass of the people, mostly peasants. The efendi looked down on "the Turk," which was a term of opprobrium indicating boorishness, and preferred to think of himself as an Osmanli. His country was not Turkey, but the Ottoman State. His language was also "Ottoman"; though he might also call it "Turkish," in such a case he distinguished it from ''kaba türkçe'', or coarse Turkish, the common speech. His writing included a minimum of Turkish words, except for particles and auxiliary verbs. |access-date=22 July 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400878765/html |url-status=live }}</ref> Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1908 |title=The Ottoman Constitution, promulgated the seventh Zilbridge, 1293 (11/23 December 1876) |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=2 |issue=4 |page=376 |doi=10.2307/2212668 |jstor=2212668|s2cid=246006581 }}</ref> | ||
| The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as ], ]<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69">{{Cite book |last=Bertold Spuler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69 |title=Persian Historiography And Geography |publisher=Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd |date=2003 |isbn=978-9971-77-488-2 |page=69 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the ]-inhabited ];<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kahl |first=Thede |author-link=Thede Kahl |date=2006 |title=The Islamisation of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey |volume=34 |pages=71–90 |journal=] |issue=1 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384 |doi=10.1080/00905990500504871 |s2cid=161615853 |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415153900/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384 |url-status=live }}</ref> Persian, only spoken by the educated;<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69"/> Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, the ], ], Iraq, North Africa, ] and parts of the ] and ] in North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,<ref name="Bertold Spuler page 69"/> while ] was used for Islamic prayers. In the post-] period French became the common Western language among the educated.<ref name="Strauss-2010"/> | |||
| Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century),{{citation needed|date=October 2012}} ordinary people had to hire ] as "special request-writers" (''arzuhâlci''s) to be able to communicate with the government.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kemal H. Karpat|title=Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266|accessdate=11 February 2013|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-12101-0|page=266}}</ref> The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (]s) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic ] spoke Turkish as a second language. | |||
| Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire ]s as "special request-writers" (''arzuhâlci''s) to be able to communicate with the government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kemal H. Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266 |title=Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays |publisher=Brill |date=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12101-0 |page=266 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (]s) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish.{{Sfn|Davison|1964|p=62|ps=It was true also that there was a partial linguistic amalgam of the peoples in the empire. Many Greeks and Armenians did not know their national languages and spoke Turkish alone, though they wrote it in Greek and Armenian characters.}} In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic ] spoke Turkish as a second language.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| === Religion === | === Religion === | ||
| {{See also|Millet (Ottoman Empire)}} | |||
| {{Unbalanced section|reason = very little attention given to Islam even though it was the primary religion|date = November 2010}} | |||
| ] was the last ] of Islam and a member of the ].]] | |||
| ] was the last ] of Islam and a member of the ].]] | |||
| ] was the prevailing '']'' (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official '']'' (school of Islamic ]) was ''].''<ref name="Gunduz">Gunduz, Sinasi {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v |date=1 November 2022 }} Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, pp. 104–05</ref> From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the ], or politico-religious leader, of the ]. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to ] and followed ], and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yılmaz |first=Hüseyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ |title=Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought |date=2018-01-08 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8804-7 |language=en |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ |archive-date=14 January 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.<ref name="emigrnonm" /> | |||
| In the Ottoman imperial system, even though there existed an hegemonic power of Muslim control over the non-Muslim populations, non-Muslim communities had been granted state recognition and protection in the Islamic tradition.<ref name="emigrnonm" /> The officially accepted state ] ''(])'' of the ] was ] ''(]).''<ref name=Gunduz/> | |||
| Until the second half of the 15th century the |
Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian.<ref name="Benton-2001" /> Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and ].<ref name="emigrnonm" /> The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s.<ref name="emigrnonm" /> By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.<ref name="emigrnonm">{{Cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Ali Soner |first3=B. |date=1 February 2008 |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937 |hdl=11729/308 |s2cid=143541451}}</ref> | ||
| ==== Islam ==== | ==== Islam ==== | ||
| {{Main|Islam in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman persecution of Alevis}} | {{Main|Islam in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman persecution of Alevis}} | ||
| {{See also|Islam in Turkey}}] practiced a form of ] before adopting Islam. The ] under the ] facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the ], who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the ] ], which emphasized ], ], the pursuit of science and ] (''falsafa'').<ref>Alpyağıl, Recep (28 November 2016). "". ''Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies''. ]: ]. {{doi|10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0232}}. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412 |website=The National Interest |title=Turkey's 200-Year War against 'ISIS' |first1=Selim |last1=Koru |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131711/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412 |archive-date=6 February 2018 |date= 24 July 2015 }}</ref> The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the ] school of Islamic jurisprudence,<ref>{{cite book |first=John L. |last=Esposito |date=1999 |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |pages=112–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112 |access-date=16 November 2023 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121145710/https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112 |url-status=live }}</ref> which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v |date=1 November 2022 }} Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, p.104-105</ref><ref>, 22 July 2015. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807091143/http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse |date=7 August 2018 }}.</ref> | |||
| ] writing on a ] tile, depicting the names of God, ] and the first ]. c. 1727, Islamic Middle East Gallery, ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O106609/tile/ |title=Tile |publisher=Victoria & Albert Museum |date=25 August 2009 |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref>]] | |||
| ] in ], Turkey]] | |||
| The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Why there is more to Syria conflict than sectarianism |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219 |date=4 June 2013 |first1= Mark |last1=Urban |access-date=5 June 2013 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606173420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219 |url-status=live }}</ref> ], a diverse body of Islamic ], found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders ('']''), such as the ] and ], were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sufism in the Ottoman Empire Research Papers |url=https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=Academia.edu |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323021442/https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire |url-status=live }}</ref> However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution,<ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-4408-5353-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364 |pages=364–366 |access-date=13 February 2024 |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423220418/https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364 |url-status=live }}</ref> with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of ], a member of the conservative ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=S. Swayd |first=Samy |title=The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography |publisher=University of Michigan Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-9662932-0-3 |page=25}}</ref> In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis ('']''), whom he considered a ] for the rival ]. | |||
| During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the ] on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an ], although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).<ref name="Lambton-1995" /> The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the ] by the ] (and the exile of the last caliph, ], to France). | |||
| Turkic peoples practiced a variety of ] before adopting Islam. Abbasid influence in Central Asia was ensured through a process that was greatly facilitated by the ]. Many of the various Turkic tribes—including the ], who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century. | |||
| Muslim sects regarded as heretical, such as the ], ], ]s, and ], ranked below Jews and Christians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why there is more to Syria conflict than sectarianism|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref> In 1514, Sultan ], nicknamed "the Grim" because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian ]s ('']''), whom he considered heretics,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=George C.|title=Dictionary of Wars|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=0-8160-6577-2|page=385}}</ref> reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Alevi had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."<ref>{{cite book|author=Jalāl Āl Aḥmad|title=Plagued by the West|year=1982|publisher=Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University|isbn=978-0-88206-047-7|others=Translated by Paul Sprachman}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his ], which included much of the region. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic ], although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with ] (reigned 1362 to 1389).<ref name="Lambton" /> The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the ] and the exile of the last caliph, ], to France. | |||
| ==== Christianity and Judaism ==== | ==== Christianity and Judaism ==== | ||
| {{Main|Christianity in the Ottoman Empire|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Christianity in the Ottoman Empire|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| ] and Patriarch ]]] | ] and Patriarch ]]] | ||
| In |
In accordance with the Muslim '']'' system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "]", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (]) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or {{Lang|ota|dhimmi}}) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the ''],'' which was a key source of state revenue.<ref>Peri, Oded (1990). "The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). ''Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history''. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. {{ISBN|978-90-04-07785-0}}. <q>the ''jizya'' was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole.</q></ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility |title-link=A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |page= |author-link=Taner Akçam}}</ref> Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction. | ||
| The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the ], which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning ''dhimmi.'' A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of ], which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=2022-10-21 |title=Greek monastery manuscripts tell new story of Ottoman rule |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule |access-date=2022-10-24 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024010806/https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| In the system commonly known as ], a certain number of Christian boys, mainly from the Balkans and Anatolia, were periodically conscripted before they reached adolescence and were brought up as Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |author=Shaw and Shaw |title=History of the Ottoman Empire |pages=112–129}}</ref> | |||
| The ], which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era {{Lang|la|]}} (Code of Justinian), with the ] designated the highest religious and political authority (''millet-bashi'', or ]). Likewise, ] came under the authority of the ''],'' or Ottoman ], while ] were under the authority of the ] of the ].<ref name="Syed-2011">{{Cite book |last=Syed |first=Muzaffar Husain |title=A Concise History of Islam |date=2011 |publisher=Vij Books India |isbn=978-93-81411-09-4 |location=New Delhi |page=97}}</ref> As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krummerich |first=Sean |date=1998–1999 |title=The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula |url=http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm |url-status=dead |journal=The Student Historical Journal |publisher=Loyola University New Orleans |volume=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610014150/http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm |archive-date=10 June 2009 |access-date=11 February 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish Toleration |url=http://www.globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010320091629/http://globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html |archive-date=20 March 2001 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=The American Forum for Global Education}}</ref> | |||
| Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of ], as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz Abdulhussein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172/page/96 |title=The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism |date=2001 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-513991-4 |pages= |quote=The millet system in the Muslim world provided the pre-modern paradigm of a religiously pluralistic society by granting each religious community an official status and a substantial measure of self-government.}}</ref> | |||
| Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the '']'' or Ottoman ]; the ] community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well. The millet system of ] has been called an early example of pre-modern ].<ref name=Sachedina>{{cite book |title=The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism |first=Abdulaziz Abdulhussein | last =Sachedina |year=2001 |publisher=] |isbn=0-19-513991-7}}</ref> | |||
| === Social-political-religious structure === | |||
| {{See also|Rayah}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.<ref>Philip D. Curtin, ''The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire'' (2002), pp. 173–192.</ref><ref>Fatma Muge Gocek, ''Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change'' (1996) pp 138–42</ref> In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan ]. His successor Sultan ] (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.<ref>Kemal H. Karpat, "The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 3#3 (1972): 243–281. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417032011/http://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Karpat,%20Transformation%20of%20the%20Ott%20State,%201789-1908%20(1972).pdf |date=17 April 2018 }}</ref> The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amit Bein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141 |title=Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7311-9 |page=141 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151702/https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| ] was built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.]] | |||
| The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.<ref>Peter Mansfield, ''A History of the Middle East'' (1991) p. 31.</ref><ref>Oleg Benesch, "Comparing Warrior Traditions: How the Janissaries and Samurai Maintained Their Status and Privileges During Centuries of Peace." ''Comparative Civilizations Review'' 55.55 (2006): 6:37–55 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109153441/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1669&context=ccr |date=9 November 2019 }}.</ref> The political system was transformed by the destruction of the ], a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the ] of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology. | |||
| The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.<ref>Karen Barkey, and George Gavrilis, "The Ottoman millet system: non-territorial autonomy and its contemporary legacy." ''Ethnopolitics'' 15.1 (2016): 24–42.</ref> They were primarily ], ], or ]. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups. | |||
| Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.{{Sfn|Quataert|1983}} In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.<ref>Youssef M. Choueiri, ''Arab Nationalism: A History: Nation and State in the Arab World'' (2001), pp. 56–100.</ref> | |||
| ] of ]]] | |||
| At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the ] or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA64 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=64 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151704/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/QjzYdCxumFcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.<ref>Naci Yorulmaz, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141247/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arming_the_Sultan/2-eKDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }} (IB Tauris, 2014).</ref> | |||
| == Culture == | == Culture == | ||
| {{Main|Culture of the Ottoman Empire}} | {{Main|Culture of the Ottoman Empire}} | ||
| {{Culture of the Ottoman Empire sidebar}} | |||
| ] and ] bazaar, Constantinople, circa 1895]] | |||
| ] shop in ]]] | |||
| The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered |
The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE |encyclopedia=Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |access-date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117192349/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |url-status=live }}</ref> | ||
| ] was |
] was part of Ottoman society,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Halil Inalcik |title=Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |archive-date=11 September 2009 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref> with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems of ], slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, and the children of female slaves were born legally free. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521234122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the ] but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.<ref name="Syed-2011"/> | ||
| ] remained a major |
] remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul<!--Exact quote, so keep naming here-->, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |date=1998 |title=Migration into Eighteenth-century 'Greater Istanbul' as Reflected in the Kadi Registers of Eyüp |url=https://secure.peeters-leuven.be/POJ/purchaseform.php?id=2004296&sid= |journal=Turcica |location=Louvain |publisher=Éditions Klincksieck |volume=30 |page=165 |doi=10.2143/TURC.30.0.2004296}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | ||
| Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.<ref>''], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726055101/https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k_-_Has_Ba%C4%9F%C3%A7ede_Ay%C5%9F_u_Tarab.pdf |date=26 July 2019 }}, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011)''</ref> | |||
| Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, ] and ] of ].<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023">{{cite book |last1=Comstock-Skipp |first1=Jaimee |editor1-last=Paskaleva |editor1-first=Elena |editor2-last=van den Berg |editor2-first=Gabrielle |title=Memory and Commemoration across Central Asia |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-54099-6 |page=54 |chapter=Turk amongst Tajiks: The Turkic ''Shāhnāma'' Translation Located in Tajikistan and Manuscript Production during the Abuʾl-Khayrid Annexation of Khurasan (1588–1598)}}</ref> Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023"/> But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.<ref name="Comstock-Skipp-2023"/> | |||
| === Education === | |||
| {{Main|Education in the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In the Ottoman Empire, each ] established a schooling system serving its members.<ref name="Strauss-2016">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the Late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 |date=1 November 2022 }}- {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.<ref name="StraussPT195">Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.</ref> | |||
| Several "foreign schools" (''Frerler mektebleri'') operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.<ref name="Strauss-2016"/> Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".<ref>]. ''Turkish Life in Town and Country''. ], 1904. p. .</ref> | |||
| === Literature === | === Literature === | ||
| {{Main|Ottoman literature |
{{Main|Ottoman literature}} | ||
| ], 17th century adventurer and travel writer]] | |||
| The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and ]. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the ], was composed by the poet ] (1334–1413).<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Kastritsis |first=Dimitris J. |title=The sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402-1413 |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15836-8 |series=The Ottoman empire and its heritage |location=Leiden ; Boston |pages=33–37}}</ref> Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European ], short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both ] and in ]. | |||
| Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the ] that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude ({{lang|ota|مراعات نظير}} {{transliteration|ota|mura'ât-i nazîr}} / {{lang|ota|تناسب}} {{transliteration|ota|tenâsüb}}) and opposition ({{lang|ota|تضاد}} {{transliteration|ota|tezâd}}) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was ] in nature: either ]s (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of ] and thus a variety of ]; the two most notable examples of this form are the ] of ] and the ] of ]. The ] of ] (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature. | |||
| The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and ]. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European ], short story, or novel. Analogue genres did exist, though, in both ] and in ]. | |||
| ], one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets|upright]] | |||
| Ottoman ] was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was ] in nature: either ]s (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of ] and thus a variety of ]; the two most notable examples of this form are the ] of ] and the ] of ]. | |||
| Until the 19th century, ] did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of {{transliteration|ota|sec}} ({{lang|ota|سجع}}, also transliterated as {{transliteration|ota|seci}}), or ],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murat Belge |title=Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür |publisher=İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |date=2005 |isbn=978-975-8998-03-6 |page=389}}</ref> a type of writing descended from the Arabic ] that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was ] (''Fancies'') by ], a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was ]'s 1851 ''The Story of Akabi'' (Turkish: ''Akabi Hikyayesi''). It was written in Turkish but with ] script.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mignon |first=Laurent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |title=Neither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literature |date=2005 |publisher=ISIS |isbn=978-975-428-303-7 |location=Istanbul |page=20 |quote=Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as ]'s novel. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Masters |first1=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Ágoston |first2=Gábor |date=2009 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |location=New York |page=440 |quote=Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pultar |first=Gönül |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |title=Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism |date=2013 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3342-6 |edition=First |location= |page=329 |quote=In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gürçaglar |first1=Şehnaz |title=Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey |last2=Paker |first2=Saliha |last3=Milton |first3=John |date=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-6847-1 |page=5 |quote=It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist.}}</ref> | |||
| ], one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets]] | |||
| Due to historically close ties with France, ] constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of ] can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the ] and ] movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the ] and ] movements was paramount. | |||
| Until the 19th century, ] did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or ],<ref>{{cite book |author=Murat Belge |title=Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür |year=2005 |publisher=İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |isbn=978-975-8998-03-6 |page=389}}</ref> a type of writing descended from the Arabic ] and which prescribed that between each adjective and ] in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a ]. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though exclusively non-fictional in nature. One apparent exception was ] ("Fancies") by ], a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. | |||
| Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously; for instance, the poet ] also wrote the important 1876 novel ''İntibâh'' (''Awakening''), while the journalist ] is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the ] comedy {{transliteration|ota|Şair Evlenmesi}} (''The Poet's Marriage''). An earlier play, a ] titled {{transliteration|ota|Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed}} (''The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed''), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there is doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist ] wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (''Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr'', 1873; ''Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery''), Realism ({{transliteration|ota|Henüz on Yedi Yaşında}}, 1881; ''Just Seventeen Years Old''), and Naturalism ({{transliteration|ota|Müşâhedât}}, 1891; ''Observations''). This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman ]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Berna |title=Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1 |date=1997 |isbn=978-975-470-054-1 |page=19|publisher=İletişim Yayınları }}</ref> | |||
| Due to historically close ties with France, ] came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their Ottoman equivalents: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of ] can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the ] and ] movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the ] and ] movements that became paramount. | |||
| === Media === | |||
| Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet ] also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh ("Awakening"), while the journalist ] is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the ] comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet's Marriage"). An earlier play, a ] entitled "Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed" ("The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed"), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there remains some doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist ] wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery"), Realism (Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old"), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations"). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman ]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moran|first=Berna|title=Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1|isbn=975-470-054-0|page=19}}</ref> | |||
| {{Main|Media of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including ],<ref name=BaruhMusnik>{{cite web|author=Baruh, Lorans Tanatar|author2=Sara Yontan Musnik|url=https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|title=Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire|publisher=]|access-date=13 July 2019|archive-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416115120/https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref name=StraussConstp32>Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)</ref> and ].<ref name="Syed-2011"/> Many of these publications were centered in ],<ref name=Kendallp339>Kendall, p. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 |date=14 January 2023 }}.</ref> but there were also French-language newspapers produced in ], ], and ].<ref name=StraussLanguagep122>Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule''. Routledge, 7 July 2016. ({{ISBN|978-1-317-11845-9}}), p. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151548/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |date=14 January 2023 }}.</ref> Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a ] and used French-language publications,<ref name=BaruhMusnik/> while some provincial newspapers were published in ].<ref name=StraussConstp25>Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)</ref> The use of French in the media persisted until the ] in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the ].<ref name=BaruhMusnik/> | |||
| === Architecture === | === Architecture === | ||
| {{Main|Ottoman architecture}} | {{Main|Ottoman architecture}} | ||
| ] |
] in Istanbul, designed by ] in the 16th century and a major example of the ]]] | ||
| ] in Istanbul, an example of the ] of Ottoman architecture, showing ] influence.]] | |||
| The architecture of the empire developed from earlier ], with influences from ] and ] architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.<ref>"Seljuk architecture", ''Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture'', ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.</ref><ref name="Bloom-2009">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Ottoman |quote=Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression. |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref><ref name="Freely-2011">{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=35}} "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."</ref> ] experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the ] of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the ].<ref name="Freely-2011" /><ref name="Goodwin">{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |title=Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86356-172-6 |location=London}}</ref> The most important architect of the Classical period is ], whose major works include the ], ], and ].<ref name="AgostonMasters20102">{{cite book |author1=Gábor Ágoston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |author2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=21 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last1=M. Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan |chapter=Ottoman |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditional ] with elements of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eli Shah |title=The Ottoman Artistic Legacy |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213131926/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy |archive-date=13 February 2009 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carswell |first=John |title=Iznik Pottery |publisher=British Museum Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7141-2441-4 |edition=Second |pages=75}}</ref> | |||
| ] was influenced by ], ] and ] architectures. During the ] the early or first Ottoman architecture period, Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The ] of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the ], Ottoman architecture moved away from this style, however. | |||
| Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the ] in Western Europe, resulting in the ] style.<ref name="Freely-2011a">{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=355}}</ref> ] is one of the most important examples from this period.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=355}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the ].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} ] and ] motifs were introduced and a trend towards ] was evident in many types of buildings, such as the ].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605–606}} The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the ],<ref name="Bloom-2009a">{{cite book |author1=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |author2=Blair |author3=Sheila S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |pages=379 |chapter=Kemalettin |access-date=9 March 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151707/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Grove_Encyclopedia_of_Islamic_Art_Archit/un4WcfEASZwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=RA1-PA379&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> by architects such as ] and ].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} | |||
| During the ], it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; ], ], ] and other styles intermingled. Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle the ]. The mosque was integral to society, ] and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in ]s, theological schools, hospitals, ]s and tombs. | |||
| Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as ] and ]. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a '']'', that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a ], a ], an ], a ], a market, a ], a ], or others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a ''vakıf'' agreement (Arabic ''waqf'').{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older ] styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}} | |||
| Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and ], can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional ] with elements of ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Eli Shah|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy |title=The Ottoman Artistic Legacy |publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs |accessdate=26 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
| === Decorative arts === | === Decorative arts === | ||
| {{further|Ottoman illumination|Ottoman miniature}} | |||
| ], early 18th century]] | |||
| ] lost its function with the Westernization of Ottoman culture.|upright]] | |||
| The tradition of ]s, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the ] art form, though it also included elements of the ] tradition of ] and painting.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} A Greek academy of painters, the ''Nakkashane-i-Rum'' was established in the ] in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the ''Nakkashane-i-Irani'', was added. | |||
| The tradition of ]s, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the ] art form, though it also included elements of the ] tradition of ] and painting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atil |first=Esin |date=1973 |title=Ottoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed II |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=9 |pages=103–120 |jstor=4629273 |issn=0571-1371 |access-date=12 August 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101140443/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |url-status=live }}</ref> A Greek academy of painters, the ''Nakkashane-i-Rum'', was established in the ] in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the ''Nakkashane-i-Irani'', was added. ] (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail. | |||
| ] covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in '']'' or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the ]. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (''taswir''), calligraphy (''hat''), ], bookbinding (''cilt'') and ] (''ebru''). In the Ottoman Empire, ] were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In ], these manuscripts were created by the artists working in ''Nakkashane'', the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also sheets for albums ''levha'' consisted of illuminated calligraphy (''hat'') of '']'', religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings. | |||
| ] covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in '']'' or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the ]. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (''taswir''), calligraphy (''hat''), ], bookbinding (''cilt'') and ] (''ebru''). In the Ottoman Empire, ] were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in ''Nakkashane'', the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums ''levha'' consisted of illuminated calligraphy (''hat'') of '']'', religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings. | |||
| The art of carpet ] was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.<ref name="foroqhi">{{cite book|last=Faroqhi|first=Suraiya|title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire|year=2005|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|isbn=1-85043-760-2|page=152|edition=New}}</ref> The weaving of such carpets originated in the ]ic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and was eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs and ]s not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to ], which often amassed large collections of them.<ref name="foroqhip153">{{cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |edition=New |year=2005 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |location=London |isbn=1-85043-760-2 |page=153}}</ref> | |||
| The art of carpet ] was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.<ref name="foroqhi">{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=152}}</ref> The weaving of such carpets originated in the ]ic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and ]s not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.<ref name="foroqhip153">{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=153}}</ref> | |||
| === Performing arts === | |||
| ]"'' showing the ], the music band of the Janissaries.]] | |||
| === Music and performing arts === | |||
| ] was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as ], whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of ], ], ], and ]. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called ], which are somewhat similar to ] in Western music, and ] units called ], which bear some resemblance to Western ]s. | |||
| {{further|Ottoman Music}} | |||
| ], 1720|upright=.75]] | |||
| ] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire]] | |||
| ] was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as ], whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of ], ], ], and ]. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called ], which are somewhat similar to ] in Western music, and ] units called ], which bear some resemblance to Western ]. | |||
| The ] used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the ], the ], the ]), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ], the ], the ], the ]), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of ] were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (]) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: ], ], ], ]. | |||
| The ] used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the ], the ], the ]), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ], the ], the ], the ]), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of ] were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (]) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: ], ], ], ]. | |||
| The traditional shadow play called ] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.<ref>{{cite web |title=Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play |publisher=All About Turkey |date=20 November 2006 |url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |accessdate=20 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Emin Şenyer |title=Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre |publisher=Karagoz.net |url=http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |accessdate=11 February 2013}}</ref> It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine (''def''). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source. | |||
| The traditional ] called ] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2006 |title=Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play |url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |access-date=20 August 2012 |publisher=All About Turkey |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824133707/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Emin Şenyer |title=Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre |url=http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131082003/http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Karagoz.net}}</ref> It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by ] (''def''). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source. | |||
| <gallery widths="190" heights="200"> | |||
| File:Surname 171b.jpg|Miniature from '']'' showing the ], the music band of the ] | |||
| File:Karagoz figures.jpg|The shadow play ] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire. | |||
| File:A Musical Gathering - Ottoman, 18th century.jpg|A musical gathering in the 18th century | |||
| File:Surname-ı Hümayun acrobacy.png|Acrobacy in ] | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| === Cuisine === | === Cuisine === | ||
| {{Main|Ottoman cuisine}} | {{Main|Ottoman cuisine}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] |
] is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (]), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through ] events, and through the cooking at the ]s of the ]s, and from there on spread to the rest of the population. | ||
| Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially ], and including ], ], ], and ].<ref name="Fragner">Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, ''A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East'', London, ] and New York, p. 52</ref> Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include ], ]/]/], ]/tzatziki, ], ] bread, ] cheese, ], ], ], ], ]/keftés/kofta, ]/boureki, ]/]/]/], ], ], ], rice ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and more. | Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially ], and including ], ], ], and ] cuisines.<ref name="Fragner">Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, ''A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East'', London, ] and New York, p. 52</ref> Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include ], ]/]/], ]/tzatziki, ], ] bread, ] cheese, ], ], ], ], ]/keftés/kofta, ]/boureki, ]/]/]/], ], ], ], rice ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and more. | ||
| === Sports === | |||
| == Science and technology == | |||
| {{Main|Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.<ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583" /> A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. ] ordered ], a Greek scholar from ], to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of ]. Another example is ] -an ], ] and ] originally from ]- who became a professor in two madrasas, and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years before his death in Istanbul.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ragep |first1=F. J. |year=2005 |title=Ali Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican Revolutions |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=36 |issue=125 |pages=359–371 |publisher=Science History Publications Ltd. |doi= |bibcode=2005JHA....36..359R}}</ref> | |||
| ] in |
] in 1903]] | ||
| The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were ], hunting, ], horseback riding, ], arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of ] matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were ] (1903), ] (1905), ] (1907), ] (1910) in Constantinople<!--Istanbul is the modern name for the whole city-->. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as ] (1912), ] (1914) and ] (later ]) (1914) of ]. | |||
| ] built the ] in 1577, where he carried out astronomical observations until 1580. He calculated the ] of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the ].<ref name="Tekeli">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Sevim Tekeli|title=Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures|entry=Taqi al-Din|year=1997|publisher=Kluwer|isbn=0-7923-4066-3|bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S|journal=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science}}</ref> His observatory was destroyed in 1580<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=John Morris |author-link=John Roberts (historian) |title=The History of the World |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521043-9 |pages=264–74}}</ref> due to the rise of a clerical faction which opposed or at least was indifferent to science.<ref name="al-HassanHill1992">{{cite book |last1=al-Hassan |first1=Ahmad Y. |last2=Hill |first2=Donald R. |title=Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hV2OQgAACAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42239-0 |page=282}}</ref> | |||
| == Science and technology == | |||
| In 1660 the Ottoman scholar ] translated ]'s French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ben-Zaken |first=Avner |year=2004 |url=http://www.academia.edu/1607448/The_heavens_of_the_sky_and_the_heavens_of_the_heart_the_Ottoman_cultural_context_for_the_introduction_of_post-Copernican_astronomy_I_would_like_to_thank_Theodore_Porter_Hossein_Ziai_Carlo_Ginzburg_Robert_Westman_Mary_Terrall_Benjamin_Elman_Norton_Wise_Herbert_Davidson_and_Ahmad_Alwisha_for_the_notes_and_the_encouragement._Thanks_to_Howard_Goodman_for_the_notes_and_the_stylish_English._Special_thanks_to_the_anonymous_referees_for_the_illuminating_notes._The_paper_was_first_presented_at_the_History_of_Science_Colloquium_at_UCLA |title=The Heavens of the Sky and the Heavens of the Heart: the Ottoman Cultural Context for the Introduction of Post-Copernican Astronomy |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |publisher=] |volume=37 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1017/S0007087403005302 |ref=harv}}</ref> | |||
| {{Main|Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire}}] in 1577]] | |||
| Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.<ref name="Ágoston and Alan Masters583" /> A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. ] ordered ], a Greek scholar from ], to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of ]. Another example is ] – an ], ] and ] originally from ] – who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople<!--Here, use that instead of Istanbul--> before his death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ragep |first=F. J. |date=2005 |title=Ali Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican Revolutions |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |publisher=Science History Publications Ltd. |volume=36 |issue=125 |pages=359–371 |bibcode=2005JHA....36..359R |doi=10.1177/002182860503600401 |s2cid=119066552}}</ref> | |||
| ] was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major ]. Though his work was largely based on ]'s '']'', Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bademci |first=G. |title=First illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu |journal=Neurocirugía |year=2006 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=162–5 |doi=10.4321/S1130-14732006000200012}}</ref> | |||
| ] built the ]<!--Use Constantinople instead of Istanbul--> in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the ] of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the ].<ref name="Tekeli">{{Cite encyclopedia |date=1997 |title=Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures |publisher=Kluwer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-0-7923-4066-9 |author=Sevim Tekeli |entry=Taqi al-Din }}</ref> However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly ] rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 |pages=18–19}}</ref> He also experimented with ] in ] in 1551, when he described a ] driven by a rudimentary ].<ref>] (1976), ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, ]</ref>], whose works often showed women engaged in educational activities<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2017 |title=Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey? |url=http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey |access-date=13 June 2018 |website=How To Talk About Art History |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084633/http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]] | |||
| An example of a watch which measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, ], in 1702.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Horton |first=Paul |title=Topkapi's Turkish Timepieces |date=July–August 1977 |journal=] |pages=10–13 |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm |accessdate=12 July 2008 |ref=harv}}</ref> | |||
| In 1660 the Ottoman scholar ] translated ]'s French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ben-Zaken |first=Avner |date=2004 |title=The Heavens of the Sky and the Heavens of the Heart: the Ottoman Cultural Context for the Introduction of Post-Copernican Astronomy |url=https://www.academia.edu/1607448 |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |publisher=] |volume=37 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1017/S0007087403005302 |s2cid=171015647 |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024850/https://www.academia.edu/1607448/Avner_Ben-Zaken_The_Heavens_of_the_Sky_and_the_Heavens_of_the_Heart_the_Ottoman_Cultural_Context_for_the_Introduction_of_Post-Copernican_Astronomy_British_Journal_of_History_of_Science_37_1_March_2004_ |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| In the 19th century, ] is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works. | |||
| ] was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major ]. Though his work was largely based on ]'s '']'', Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bademci |first=G. |date=2006 |title=First illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu |journal=Neurocirugía |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=162–165 |doi=10.4321/S1130-14732006000200012 |pmid=16721484 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Since, the Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as ], ]s, ] as well as ].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ottoman Empire |url=https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire |quote=Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=] |date=November 3, 2017 |archive-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125011425/https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2022}} | |||
| == Sports == | |||
| ], 19th century, ], ], ]]] | |||
| An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, ], in 1702.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Horton |first=Paul |date=July–August 1977 |title=Topkapi's Turkish Timepieces |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm |url-status=dead |journal=] |pages=10–13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122021637/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197704/topkapi.s.turkish.timepieces.htm |archive-date=22 November 2008 |access-date=12 July 2008 }}</ref> | |||
| The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of ] matches in 19th century ]. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were ] (1903), ] (1905) and ] (1907) in ]. In addition to these, more football clubs were being formed those years including clubs from other provinces than Istanbul, like ] (1912), ] (1914) and ] (later ]) (1914) of ]. | |||
| In the early 19th century, ] began using ]s for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as ], ], ]s and ] mills moving towards steam power.<ref name="batou193">{{Cite book |last=Jean Batou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjD4SCOE6IgC&pg=PA193 |title=Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870 |publisher=Librairie Droz |date=1991 |isbn=978-2-600-04293-2 |pages=193–196}}</ref> Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of ] as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.<ref name="batou193"/> | |||
| In the 19th century, ] is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works. | |||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
| {{Portal|Turkey}} | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | * '']'' | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | * ] | ||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Portal bar|Ottoman Empire|Mediterranean|Turkey|Military history of the Ottoman Empire|image=Topcu arma.jpg}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{reflist|30em|group=dn}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == References == | == References == | ||
| === Footnotes === | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| {{Notelist}} | |||
| == |
=== Citations === | ||
| {{Reflist}} | |||
| {{Main|Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| === Sources === | |||
| {{refbegin}} | {{refbegin}} | ||
| * {{Cite book |last1=Atasoy |first1=Nurhan |first2=Julian |last2=Raby |title= Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey |editor-first=Yanni |editor-last=Petsopoulos |date=1989 |publisher=Alexandria Press |isbn=978-0-500-97374-5}} | |||
| {{History of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Sheila S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800|last2=Bloom|first2=Jonathan M.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-300-06465-0|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151708/https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|url-status=live}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Freely|first=John|title=A History of Ottoman Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC|year=2011|publisher=WIT Press|isbn=978-1-84564-506-9|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151710/https://books.google.com/books?id=vgp46TUFK7wC|url-status=live}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Itzkowitz |first=Norman |title=Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition |date=1980 |isbn=978-0-226-38806-9}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Kinross |first=Lord |title=The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire |date=1979 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-688-08093-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/ottomancenturies00kinr/page/n4 }} popular history espouses old "decline" thesis | |||
| * {{Cite book|last=Kuban|first=Doğan|title=Ottoman Architecture|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=2010|isbn=978-1-85149-604-4|translator-last=Mill|translator-first=Adair}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908 |date=1983 |author-link=Donald Quataert}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last1=Quataert |first1=Donald |author1-link=Donald Quataert |last2=Spivey |first2=Diane M. |title=Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922 |date=2000 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4431-3}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Rogan |first=Eugene |title=The Arabs: A History |publisher=Penguin |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-465-03248-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16U0mEbf4nAC |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151601/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Arabs/16U0mEbf4nAC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }} | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| {{Main list|Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire}} | |||
| {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}} | |||
| === General surveys === | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105213313/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-turkey/EC9B3B62272E26DA30A7090DEE934DC9 |date=5 November 2020 }} | |||
| ** Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009. | |||
| ** Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012. | |||
| ** Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006. | |||
| ** Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008. | |||
| * Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire'' (2008) | |||
| * ]. ''The Ottoman Empire: A Short History'' (2009) 196pp | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-521-72730-3 |location=Cambridge}} | |||
| * {{Cite Q|Q19097235}}<!-- The promises of Turkey --> | |||
| * Koller, Markus (2012), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611160640/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe?set_language=en&-C= |date=11 June 2021 }}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ |date=8 February 2013 }}, Mainz: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php |date=19 February 2016 }}, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (). | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-57451-9 |edition=2 |location=New York}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |editor-last2=]}} Two volumes. | |||
| * Kia, Mehrdad, ed. ''The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (2 vol 2017) | |||
| * McCarthy, Justin. ''The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923.'' (1997) online | |||
| * Mikaberidze, Alexander. ''Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (2 vol 2011) | |||
| * Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922'' (2nd ed 1927) , strong on foreign policy | |||
| * ]. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922.'' 2005. {{ISBN|0-521-54782-2}}. | |||
| * Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." ''Renaissance Quarterly'' (2017) 70#1: 220–234 {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} | |||
| * Somel, Selcuk Aksin. ''Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire'' (2003). pp. 399 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063618/https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Ottoman-Dictionaries-Civilizations/dp/0810843323 |date=14 May 2022 }} | |||
| * ] ''The Balkans since 1453'' (1968; new preface 1999) | |||
| * Tabak, Faruk. ''The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach'' (2008) | |||
| === Early Ottomans === | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |publisher=U California Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-520-20600-7}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi P. |title=Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia |publisher=Indiana UP|date=1983 |isbn=978-0-933070-12-7 |location=Bloomington}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |publisher=SUNY Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |location=Albany}} | |||
| === Diplomatic and military === | |||
| * {{Cite journal |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |date=2014 |title=Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800 |journal=Journal of World History |volume=25 |pages=85–124 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2014.0005 |s2cid=143042353}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7}} | |||
| * Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." ''Journal of Early Modern History'' 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} | |||
| * Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in ''Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000'' ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014){{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. | |||
| * Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." ''International History Review'' 24.2 (2002): 253–277 {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. | |||
| * Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." '']'' 27.2 (2007): 259–272 {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. | |||
| * Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." ''War in History'' 5.1 (1998): 23–36 . | |||
| * Albrecht-Carrié, René. ''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 | |||
| * Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." ''International Review of Turkish Studies'' 1.3 (2011): 8–30. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024900/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nihat_Celik2/publication/263369634_Muslims_Non-Muslims_and_Foreign_Relations_Ottoman_Diplomacy/links/0f31753aad5432da58000000.pdf |date=28 July 2020 }} | |||
| * Fahmy, Khaled. '' All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt'' (Cambridge University Press. 1997) | |||
| * Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611160637/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire?set_language=en&-C= |date=11 June 2021 }}, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208042444/http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ |date=8 February 2013 }}, Mainz: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php |date=19 February 2016 }}, retrieved: March 25, 2021 ( {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505202644/https://d-nb.info/1020549114/34 |date=5 May 2021 }}). | |||
| * Hall, Richard C. ed. ''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014) | |||
| * ] "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." ''Middle East Journal'' 15.2 (1961): 141–152. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726195811/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4323345 |date=26 July 2020 }} | |||
| * ]. ''Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'' (Harvard University Press, 1944) | |||
| * Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922'' (2nd ed 1927) , strong on foreign policy | |||
| * Minawi, Mustafa. ''The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz'' (2016) | |||
| * Nicolle, David. ''Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774'' (Osprey Publishing, 1983) | |||
| * Palmer, Alan. ''The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire'' (1994). | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Rhoads |first=Murphey |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700 |date=1999 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-1-85728-389-1}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Soucek |first=Svat |title=Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700 |date=2015 |publisher=The Isis Press |isbn=978-975-428-554-3 |location=Istanbul}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Erickson |first2=Edward |date=2009 |publisher=Abc-Clio |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0}} | |||
| === Specialty studies === | |||
| * Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. ''A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground'' (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000) | * Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. ''A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground'' (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000) | ||
| * Barkey, Karen. ''Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective.'' (2008) |
* Barkey, Karen. ''Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective.'' (2008) {{ISBN|978-0-521-71533-1}} | ||
| * Davison, Roderic H. ''Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876'' (New York: Gordian Press, 1973) | * Davison, Roderic H. ''Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876'' (New York: Gordian Press, 1973) | ||
| * Deringil, Selim. ''The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909'' (London: IB Tauris, 1998) | * Deringil, Selim. ''The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909'' (London: IB Tauris, 1998) | ||
| * Findley, Carter V. ''Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922'' (Princeton University Press, 1980) | * Findley, Carter V. ''Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922'' (Princeton University Press, 1980) | ||
| * {{Cite book |last=Hamed-Troyansky |first=Vladimir |title=Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2024 |location=Stanford, CA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-5036-3696-5 |access-date=20 May 2024 |archive-date=21 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521081112/https://books.google.com/books?id=c0vpEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} | |||
| * Faroqhi, Suraiya N. ''The Cambridge History of Turkey'' (Volume 3, 2006) , essays by scholars | |||
| * Faroqhi, Suraiya N. and Kate Fleet, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Turkey'' (Volume 2 2012) essays by scholars | |||
| *Finkel, Caroline. ''Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923''. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2. , excerpt and text search | |||
| * Fleet, Kate, ed. '' The Cambridge History of Turkey'' (Volume 1, 2009) , essays by scholars | |||
| *Goodwin, Jason. ''Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire'' (2003) | |||
| *Imber, Colin. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power''. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4. | |||
| *] and Quataert, Donald, ed. ''An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914.'' 1995. pp. 1026 | |||
| *Inalcik, Halil. ''The Ottoman Empire: 1300–1600'' (Hachette UK, 2013) | |||
| * Itzkowitz, Norman. ''Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition'', University of Chicago Press, (1980) ISBN 0-226-38806-9 | |||
| * Kasaba, Reşat, ed. ''The Cambridge History of Turkey'' (vol 4 2008) comprehensive coverage by scholars of 20th century | |||
| * Kinross, Patrick Balfour Baron, and John Patrick Douglas Balfour Kinross. ''The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire'' (Morrow, 1977) | |||
| *McCarthy, Justin. ''The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923'' 1997 , online edition | |||
| * McMeekin, Sean. ''The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power'' (2010) | * McMeekin, Sean. ''The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power'' (2010) | ||
| * Mikhail, Alan. ''God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World'' (2020) {{ISBN|978-1-63149-239-6}} on ] (1470–1529) | |||
| * Nicolle, David. ''Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774'' (Osprey Publishing, 1983) | |||
| * |
* Pamuk, Sevket. ''A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire'' (1999). pp. 276 | ||
| * Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 {{ISBN|0-297-84913-1}}. | |||
| *Pamuk, Sevket. ''A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire'' (1999). pp. 276 | |||
| * Yaycioglu, Ali. ''Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions'' (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: {{doi|10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716}} {{Cite journal |url=https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/ |title=Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" | Middle East – Topics & Arguments |year=2018 |doi=10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 |access-date=1 November 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141747/https://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/ep/0003/2018/192/7716/ |url-status=live |last1=Cakir |first1=Burcin |journal=Middle East – Topics & Arguments |volume=10 |pages=109–112 }}. | |||
| *Quataert, Donald. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922'' (2005), standard scholarly survey ISBN 0-521-54782-2. | |||
| *Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1,'' 1977. | |||
| * Sicker, Martin. ''The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna'' (Praeger Publishers, 2000) | |||
| * Sicker, Martin. ''The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire'' (Praeger, 2001) | |||
| *Somel, Selcuk Aksin. ''Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire'' (2003). pp. 399 | |||
| *Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 ISBN 0-297-84913-1. | |||
| *{{cite book | last1=Uyar | first1=Mesut | last2=Erickson | first2=Edward | title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-275-98876-0 }} | |||
| ===Historiography=== | === Historiography === | ||
| * Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809081242/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.3 |date=9 August 2020 }} | |||
| * Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," ''Comparative Studies in Society & History'' (2012) 54#4 pp 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodization, and political transformation | |||
| ** {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809052829/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.2.1.215 |date=9 August 2020 }} and {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225081133/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/745216/summary |date=25 February 2021 }} | |||
| * Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 25.1 (1993): 53–69 {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. | |||
| *{{EB1911}} | |||
| * Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." ''International Journal of Turkish Studies'' 14.1/2 (2008). | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| * Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024929/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&u=wikipedia&id=GALE%7CA551496598&v=2.1&it=r&sid=GPS&asid=04b4884e |date=28 July 2020 }} | |||
| * Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514063633/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2013/hartmann_daniel.pdf |date=14 May 2022 }}. | |||
| * Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35 {{doi|10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23}} {{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |doi=10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |jstor=10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809062102/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 |url-status=live |title=Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies |year=2014 |last1=Eissenstat |journal=Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=23–35 |s2cid=158272381 }} | |||
| * {{Cite journal |last=Kayalı |first=Hasan |date=December 2017 |title=The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends |journal=The Journal of Modern History |language=en |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=875–907 |doi=10.1086/694391 |issn=0022-2801 |s2cid=148953435}} | |||
| * Lieven, Dominic. ''Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals'' (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019121200/https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Russian-Its-Rivals/dp/0300097263 |date=19 October 2016 }} | |||
| * Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," ''Comparative Studies in Society & History'' (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation | |||
| * Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892 |title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1999 |isbn=978-1-884964-33-6 |editor-last=Kelly Boyd |pages=892–896 |access-date=5 October 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151710/https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA892 |url-status=live }} | |||
| * ]. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" ''History Compass'' 1 (2003): 1–9. | |||
| * Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." ''Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association'' 7.1 (2020): 70–73 {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. | |||
| * Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' 48 (2017): 173–190. {{dead link|date=May 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| == External links == | == External links == | ||
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| {{Spoken Misplaced Pages |
{{Spoken Misplaced Pages|date=2008-03-29|Misplaced Pages - Ottoman Empire - Main History.ogg|Misplaced Pages - Ottoman Empire - Part 2.ogg}} | ||
| * {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519071606/http://otap.bilkent.edu.tr/ |date=19 May 2024 }} | |||
| {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}} | |||
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Latest revision as of 17:03, 24 December 2024
Turkish empire (ca. 1299–1922) This article is about the empire. For the associated caliphate, see Ottoman Caliphate.
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The Ottoman Empire (/ˈɒtəmən/ ), also called the Turkish Empire, was an imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe, between the early 16th and early 18th centuries.
The empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in c. 1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, which marked the Ottomans' emergence as a major regional power in the Balkans and in Anatolia in the second half of the 15th century. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), the empire reached the zenith of its power, prosperity, and political development expanding its influence further into Middle East and Central Europe. With its capital at Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and control over a significant portion of the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six centuries. Ruling over so many peoples, the empire granted varying levels autonomy to its many confessional communities, or millets, to manage their own affairs per Islamic law.
While the Ottoman Empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus posits that the empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th century. However, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military and bureaucratic system fell behind those of its chief European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian empires. The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in the loss of both territory and global prestige. This prompted a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the Tanzimat; over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became vastly more powerful and organized internally, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new states emerged.
Over the course of the late 19th century, various Ottoman intellectuals sought to further liberalize and rationalize society and politics along Western lines, culminating in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which established a constitutional monarchy. However, following the disastrous Balkan Wars, the CUP became increasingly radicalized and nationalistic, leading a coup d'état in 1913 that established a one-party regime. The CUP allied with the German Empire hoping to escape from the diplomatic isolation that had contributed to its recent territorial losses; it thus joined World War I on the side of the Central Powers. While the empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it struggled with internal dissent, especially the Arab Revolt. During this period, the Ottoman government engaged in genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks.
In the aftermath of World War I, the victorious Allied Powers occupied and partitioned the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the occupying Allies, led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy in 1922, formally ending the Ottoman Empire.
Name
See also: Osman I § NameThe word Ottoman is a historical anglicisation of the name of Osman I, the founder of the Empire and of the ruling House of Osman (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān (عثمان). In Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye (دولت عليه عثمانیه), lit. 'Sublime Ottoman State', or simply Devlet-i ʿOsmānīye (دولت عثمانيه), lit. 'Ottoman State'.
The Turkish word for "Ottoman" (Osmanlı) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term "Turk" (Türk) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals. In the early modern period, an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to themselves neither as an Osmanlı nor as a Türk, but rather as a Rūmī (رومى), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former Byzantine Empire in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. As applied to Ottoman Turkish speakers, this term began to fall out of use at the end of the seventeenth century, and instead the word increasingly became associated with the Greek population of the empire, a meaning that it still bears in Turkey today.
In Western Europe, the names Ottoman Empire, Turkish Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. At present, most scholarly historians avoid the terms "Turkey", "Turks", and "Turkish" when referring to the Ottomans, due to the empire's multinational character.
History
Main article: History of the Ottoman Empire See also: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire| Part of a series on the |
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| History of the Ottoman Empire |
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| Timeline |
Rise (1299–1453)
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Classical Age (1453–1566)
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Transformation (1566–1703)
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Old Regime (1703–1789)
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Decline & Modernization (1789–1908)
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Dissolution (1908–1922)
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| Historiography (Ghaza, Decline) |
Rise (c. 1299–1453)
Main article: Rise of the Ottoman Empire
As the Rum Sultanate declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman I (d. 1323/4), a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived. Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River. A Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbors, due to the lack of sources surviving. The Ghaza thesis popular during the 20th century credited their success to rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.
In the century after Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the Bulgarian–Ottoman wars and the Serbian–Ottoman wars in the mid-14th century. Much of this period was characterised by Ottoman expansion into the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326, making it the new capital and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis for the Bulgarian Tsardom of Vidin in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans.
As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defense of Constantinople's strategic position on the Bosporus Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the Turco-Mongol leader Timur, founder of the Timurid Empire, invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the Battle of Ankara in 1402, Timur defeated Ottoman forces and took Sultan Bayezid I as prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The ensuing civil war lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.
The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the Crusade of Varna by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland and John Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, although Albanians under Skanderbeg continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.
According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the rapid Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the Black Death from the mid-fourteenth century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague, which facilitated Ottoman expansion. In addition, slave hunting was the main economic driving force behind Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodize conquest of the Balkans into the akıncı phase, which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterized by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by administrative integration into the Empire.
Expansion and peak (1453–1566)
Main article: Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire
The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. Mehmed allowed the Eastern Orthodox Church to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority. Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, most of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule, as preferable to Venetian rule. Albanian resistance was a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion on the Italian peninsula.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. It flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.
Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Iran, in the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt by defeating and annexing the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottomans to become the dominant power in the region.
Suleiman the Magnificent and his wife Hürrem Sultan, by 16th century Venetian painter Titian
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) captured Belgrade in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary as part of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, and, after his historic victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city. In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the siege of Güns. Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. In 1555, the Caucasus became partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a status quo that remained until the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). By this partitioning as signed in the Peace of Amasya, Western Armenia, western Kurdistan, and Western Georgia fell into Ottoman hands, while southern Dagestan, Eastern Armenia, Eastern Georgia, and Azerbaijan remained Persian.
In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the Spanish garrison of Castelnuovo on the Adriatic coast; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties, but Venice agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the Aegean and the Morea. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule, became allies. The French conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred as a joint venture between French king Francis I and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Hayreddin Barbarossa and Dragut. France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman died of natural causes during the siege of Szigetvár in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately 877,888 sq mi (2,273,720 km), extending over three continents.
The Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. The Empire was now a major part of European politics. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the Iberian Union. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two fought in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean, where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianized Latin America and had sent expeditions that traversed the Pacific to Christianize the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to attack the Muslims in the Far East. In this case, the Ottomans sent armies to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the Sultanate of Aceh in Southeast Asia.
During the 1600s, the world conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since both were at similar population, technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the Roman Empire, despite the difference in size, by the likes of contemporary Italian scholar Francesco Sansovino and French political philosopher Jean Bodin.
Stagnation and reform (1566–1827)
Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683)
Main article: Transformation of the Ottoman Empire Further information: Ottoman decline thesis
In the second half of the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East. These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government. The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the seventeenth century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically. Historians of the mid-twentieth century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.
The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major center for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the eighteenth century.
Under Ivan IV (1533–1584), the Tsardom of Russia expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the Tatar khanates. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, commanded by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Ottoman Empire continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids, and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.
The Ottomans decided to conquer Venetian Cyprus and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved. On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The Siege of Famagusta claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties. Meanwhile, the Holy League consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships. It was a startling, if mostly symbolic, blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 siege of Malta had recently set about eroding. The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced. The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.
By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defenses. The Long Turkish War against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to brigandage in the Celali rebellions (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government. In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603–1618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of Safavid Iran. The treaty ending the Cretan War cost Venice much of Dalmatia, its Aegean island possessions, and Crete. (Losses from the war totalled 30,985 Venetian soldiers and 118,754 Turkish soldiers.)
During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.
The Sultanate of Women (1533–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651. During the Köprülü era (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of grand viziers from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn, and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.
This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king John III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently. Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.
Military defeats
Aside from the loss of the Banat and the temporary loss of Belgrade (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the Danube and Sava remained stable during the eighteenth century. Russian expansion, however, presented a large and growing threat. Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721). Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.
After the Austro-Turkish War, the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and "Little Walachia" (Oltenia) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe. The Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739), which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern Bosnia, Habsburg Serbia (including Belgrade), Oltenia and the southern parts of the Banat of Temeswar; but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia.
Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders). Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.
In North Africa, Spain conquered Oran from the autonomous Deylik of Algiers. The Bey of Oran received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture Oran; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers. In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers.
In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian Haidamakas, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.
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Selim III (1789–1807) made the first major attempts to modernise the army, but his reforms were hampered by the religious leadership and the Janissary corps. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, the Janissary revolted. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.
The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. In 1811, the fundamentalist Wahhabis of Arabia, led by the al-Saud family, revolted against the Ottomans. Unable to defeat the Wahhabi rebels, the Sublime Porte had Muhammad Ali Pasha of Kavala, the vali (governor) of the Eyalet of Egypt, tasked with retaking Arabia, which ended with the destruction of the Emirate of Diriyah in 1818. The suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the Deylik of Algiers. The campaign that took 21 days, resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties, and about 2,600 French ones. Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000. By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000. In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt revolted against Sultan Mahmud II due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of Greater Syria and Crete, which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the Greek revolt (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal independence of Greece in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the Battle of Navarino in 1827. Thus began the first Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833), during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into Anatolia, reaching the city of Kütahya within 320 km (200 mi) of the capital, Constantinople. In desperation, Sultan Mahmud II appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor Nicholas I to send an expeditionary force to assist him. In return for signing the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, the Russians sent the expeditionary force which deterred Ibrahim Pasha from marching any further towards Constantinople. Under the terms of the Convention of Kütahya, signed on 5 May 1833, Muhammad Ali agreed to abandon his campaign against the Sultan, in exchange for which he was made the vali (governor) of the vilayets (provinces) of Crete, Aleppo, Tripoli, Damascus and Sidon (the latter four comprising modern Syria and Lebanon), and given the right to collect taxes in Adana. Had it not been for the Russian intervention, Sultan Mahmud II could have faced the risk of being overthrown and Muhammad Ali could have even become the new Sultan. These events marked the beginning of a recurring pattern where the Sublime Porte needed the help of foreign powers to protect itself.
In 1839, the Sublime Porte attempted to take back what it lost to the de facto autonomous, but de jure still Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt, but its forces were initially defeated, which led to the Oriental Crisis of 1840. Muhammad Ali had close relations with France, and the prospect of him becoming the Sultan of Egypt was widely viewed as putting the entire Levant into the French sphere of influence. As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali, the British Empire and Austrian Empire provided military assistance, and the second Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841) ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over Egypt Eyalet and the Levant.
By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man of Europe". Three suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.
Decline and modernisation (1828–1908)
Main article: Decline of the Ottoman Empire
During the Tanzimat period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law, and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor Samuel Morse received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan Abdülmecid, who personally tested the invention. The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî. The empire's First Constitutional era was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.
The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. Author Norman Stone suggests that the Arabic alphabet, in which Turkish was written until 1928, was ill-suited to reflect the sounds of Turkish (which is a Turkic as opposed to Semitic language), which imposed further difficulty on Turkish children. In turn, Christians' higher educational levels allowed them to play a larger role in the economy, with the rise in prominence of groups such as the Sursock family indicative of this. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. In many cases, Christians and Jews gained protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim counterparts.
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The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in the Ottoman Empire. Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both Pan-Turkism and a sense of Turkish nationalism.
In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education. As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks". The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.
The Ottoman bashi-bazouks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process. The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; Romania achieved full independence; and Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.
British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, and in return, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878. Britain later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 to put down the Urabi Revolt (Sultan Abdul Hamid II was too paranoid to mobilize his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilization. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron Colmar von der Goltz arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.
From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.
In 1897 the population was 19 million, of whom 14 million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20 million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.
As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9 million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. After the Empire lost the First Balkan War (1912–1913), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule. Justin McCarthy estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5 million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5 million.
Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)
Main articles: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Ottoman Empire in World War IYoung Turk movement
The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908—1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire.
Members of Young Turks movement who had once gone underground now established their parties. Among them "Committee of Union and Progress", and "Freedom and Accord Party" were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organised under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military reforms which reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to World War I, including the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913.
World War I
Main articles: Ottoman entry into World War I and Ottoman Empire in World War I
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined German-Ottoman surprise attack on the Black Sea coast of the Russian Empire on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914) and its allies France (5 November 1914) and the British Empire (5 November 1914) declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Also on 5 November 1914, the British government changed the status of the Khedivate of Egypt and Cyprus, which were de jure Ottoman territories prior to the war, to British protectorates.
The Ottomans successfully defended the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian Revolution in 1917.
Genocides
Main articles: Late Ottoman genocides, Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Seyfo
In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5 million Armenians in the Armenian genocide. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre. Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.
Arab Revolt
Main articles: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I and Arab RevoltThe Arab Revolt began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, an agreement between the British government and Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916. The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent Arab state stretching from Aleppo, Syria, to Aden, Yemen, which the British promised to recognise.
The Sharifian Army, led by Hussein and the Hashemites, with military backing from the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the Hejaz and Transjordan. The rebellion eventually took Damascus and set up a short-lived monarchy led by Faisal, a son of Hussein.
Following the terms of the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into mandate territories. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.
Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence
Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. Istanbul was occupied by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also took control of the area around Smyrna (now İzmir).
The partition of the Ottoman Empire was finalized under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the Conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.
A nationalist opposition arose in the Turkish national movement. It won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The Republic of Turkey was established in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of Ankara. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.
Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state
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Several historians, such as British historian Edward Gibbon and the Greek historian Dimitri Kitsikis, have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire under a Turkish Muslim guise. The American historian Speros Vryonis writes that the Ottoman state centered on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion". Kitsikis and the American historian Heath Lowry posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic. Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian Paul Wittek, who emphasizes the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "jihad state" dedicated to expanding the Muslim world. Many historians led in 1937 by the Turkish historian Mehmet Fuat Köprülü championed the Ghaza thesis, according to which the early Ottoman state was a continuation of the way of life of the nomadic Turkic tribes who had come from East Asia to Anatolia via Central Asia and the Middle East on a much larger scale. They argued that the most important cultural influences on the Ottoman state came from Persia.
The British historian Norman Stone suggests many continuities between the Eastern Roman and Ottoman empires, such as that the zeugarion tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman Resm-i çift tax, that the pronoia land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman timar system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the dönüm was the same as the Byzantine stremma. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the Eastern Orthodox Church, which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the timar system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged Timariots from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.
Government
Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856 and 1856 to 1922, respectively.
Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.
The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (d. 1323/4), which was unparalleled in both Europe (e.g., the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) power of the Ottoman sultans in the future generations.
The highest position in Islam, caliph, was claimed by the sultans starting with Selim I, which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the valide sultan. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Devşirme).
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.
Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.
This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.
Law
Main article: Law of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or Sharia. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority. Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet. The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e., laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.
The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or 'Gate of Interpretation', Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered. However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favour.
In the late 19th century, the Ottoman legal system saw substantial reform. This process of legal modernisation began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839. These reforms included the "fair and public trial of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims. Specific land codes (1858), civil codes (1869–1876), and a code of civil procedure also were enacted.
These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status. In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.
Military
Main article: Military of the Ottoman Empire
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse), and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.
The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.
The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.
The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established. In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.
The Eyalet (also Pashalik or Beylerbeylik) was the territory of office of a Beylerbey ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into Sanjaks.
The Vilayets were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" (Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi) in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms. Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, liva/sanjak/mutasarrifate, kaza and village council, to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the nahiye.
Economy
Main article: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire.JPG)
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centers, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.
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The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the eighteenth century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.
Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development.
By developing commercial centers and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.
Economic historian Paul Bairoch argues that free trade contributed to deindustrialisation in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the protectionism of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a liberal trade policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with capitulations in 1673 and 1740, which lowered duties to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as John Ramsay McCulloch in his Dictionary of Commerce (1834), but later criticized by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 Corn Laws debate.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the Ottoman Empire
A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5. For unclear reasons, the population in the 18th century was lower than that in the 16th century. An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.
Censuses of Ottoman territories only began in the early 19th century. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire. For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.
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However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and Syria and five times the population density of Arabia.
Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century. Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.
The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.
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Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja. Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists. Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.
Language
Main article: Languages of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic, though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities. Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.
The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as Albania, Bosnia and the Megleno-Romanian-inhabited Nânti; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Egypt, the Levant, Arabia, Iraq, North Africa, Kuwait and parts of the Horn of Africa and Berber in North Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for Islamic prayers. In the post-Tanzimat period French became the common Western language among the educated.
Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of the 19th century), ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish. In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.
Religion
See also: Millet (Ottoman Empire)
Sunni Islam was the prevailing Dīn (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official Madh'hab (school of Islamic jurisprudence) was Hanafi. From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the caliph, or politico-religious leader, of the Muslim world. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to Sufism and followed Sufi orders, and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.
Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.
Until the second half of the 15th century, the majority of Ottoman subjects were Christian. Non-Muslims remained a significant and economically influential minority, albeit declining significantly by the 19th century, due largely to migration and secession. The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and 76% in the 1890s. By 1914, less than a fifth of the empire's population (19.1%) was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Jews and Christian Greeks, Assyrians, and Armenians.
Islam
Main articles: Islam in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Caliphate, and Ottoman persecution of Alevis See also: Islam in TurkeyTurkic peoples practiced a form of shamanism before adopting Islam. The Muslim conquest of Transoxiana under the Abbasids facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the Maturidi school of Islamic theology, which emphasized human reason, rationality, the pursuit of science and philosophy (falsafa). The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.
The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites. Sufism, a diverse body of Islamic mysticism, found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (tariqa), such as the Bektashi and Mevlevi, were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history. However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution, with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of Ibn Taymiyya, a member of the conservative Hanbali school. In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered a fifth column for the rival Safavid Empire.
During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389). The caliphate was officially transferred from the Mamluks to the Ottoman sultanate in 1517, whose members were recognized as caliphs until the office's abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Republic of Turkey (and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France).
Christianity and Judaism
Main articles: Christianity in the Ottoman Empire and History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire
In accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, the Ottoman Empire guaranteed limited freedoms to Christians, Jews, and other "people of the book", such as the right to worship, own property, and be exempt from the obligatory alms (zakat) required of Muslims. However, non-Muslims (or dhimmi) were subject to various legal restrictions, including being forbidden to carry weapons, ride on horseback, or have their homes overlook those of Muslims; likewise, they were required to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects, including the jizya, which was a key source of state revenue. Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.
The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the millet, which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning dhimmi. A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of Mount Athos, which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.
The Rum Millet, which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era Corpus Juris Civilis (Code of Justinian), with the Ecumenical Patriarch designated the highest religious and political authority (millet-bashi, or ethnarch). Likewise, Ottoman Jews came under the authority of the Haham Başı, or Ottoman Chief Rabbi, while Armenians were under the authority of the chief bishop of the Armenian Apostolic Church. As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.
Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of religious pluralism, as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.
Social-political-religious structure
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Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922. In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan Selim III. His successor Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms. The secularisation program brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.
The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernized its military organization technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernize them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West. The political system was transformed by the destruction of the Janissaries, a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the Auspicious Incident of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt executed the leaders and disbanded the large organization. That set the stage for a slow process of modernization of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.
The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets. They were primarily Greek, Armenian, or Jewish. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.
Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire. In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.
At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the ayans or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.
After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.
Culture
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The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.
Slavery was part of Ottoman society, with most slaves employed as domestic servants. Agricultural slavery, like that in the Americas, was relatively rare. Unlike systems of chattel slavery, slaves under Islamic law were not regarded as movable property, and the children of female slaves were born legally free. Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908. During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the Ottoman slave trade but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.
Plague remained a major scourge in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. "Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Istanbul, and 31 between 1751 and 1801."
Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. The sultans also made an important contribution in the development of Persian literature.
Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Iran and Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids of Central Asia. Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic. But in the century's final quarter, linguistic adjustments occurred in the Ottoman and Safavid realms defined by a new rigidity that favoured Ottoman Turkish and Persian, respectively.
Education
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In the Ottoman Empire, each millet established a schooling system serving its members. Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.
Several "foreign schools" (Frerler mektebleri) operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended. Garnett described the schools for Christians and Jews as "organised upon European models", with "voluntary contributions" supporting their operation and most of them "well attended" and with "a high standard of education".
Literature
Main article: Ottoman literatureThe two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the İskendernâme, was composed by the poet Taceddin Ahmedi (1334–1413). Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both Turkish folk literature and in Divan poetry.
Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzuli and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib. The Seyahatnâme of Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.
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Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose, a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât (Fancies) by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was Vartan Pasha's 1851 The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi). It was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.
Due to historically close ties with France, French literature constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements was paramount.
Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously; for instance, the poet Namık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy Şair Evlenmesi (The Poet's Marriage). An earlier play, a farce titled Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed (The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there is doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery), Realism (Henüz on Yedi Yaşında, 1881; Just Seventeen Years Old), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; Observations). This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.
Media
Main article: Media of the Ottoman EmpireThe media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including French, Greek, and German. Many of these publications were centered in Constantinople, but there were also French-language newspapers produced in Beirut, Salonika, and Smyrna. Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a lingua franca and used French-language publications, while some provincial newspapers were published in Arabic. The use of French in the media persisted until the end of the empire in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the Republic of Turkey.
Architecture
Main article: Ottoman architecture
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The architecture of the empire developed from earlier Seljuk Turkish architecture, with influences from Byzantine and Iranian architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East. Early Ottoman architecture experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the Classical Ottoman style of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the Hagia Sophia. The most important architect of the Classical period is Mimar Sinan, whose major works include the Şehzade Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, and Selimiye Mosque. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences, such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art. The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain decorative arts, most notably in the use of Iznik tiles.
Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the Baroque architecture in Western Europe, resulting in the Ottoman Baroque style. Nuruosmaniye Mosque is one of the most important examples from this period. The last Ottoman period saw more influences from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the Balyan family. Empire style and Neoclassical motifs were introduced and a trend towards eclecticism was evident in many types of buildings, such as the Dolmabaçe Palace. The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the First National Architectural Movement, by architects such as Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.
Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as Amasya and Manisa. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found. Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a külliye, that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a madrasa, a hammam, an imaret, a sebil, a market, a caravanserai, a primary school, or others. These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a vakıf agreement (Arabic waqf). Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older Islamic architectural styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.
Decorative arts
Further information: Ottoman illumination and Ottoman miniature
The tradition of Ottoman miniatures, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the Persian art form, though it also included elements of the Byzantine tradition of illumination and painting. A Greek academy of painters, the Nakkashane-i-Rum, was established in the Topkapi Palace in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the Nakkashane-i-Irani, was added. Surname-i Hümayun (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.
Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.
The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters. The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and kilims not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.
Music and performing arts
Further information: Ottoman Music
Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.
The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.
The traditional shadow play called Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture. It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by tambourine (def). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.
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Miniature from Surname-i Vehbi showing the Mehteran, the music band of the Janissaries
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The shadow play Karagöz and Hacivat was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire.
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A musical gathering in the 18th century
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Acrobacy in Surname-i Hümayun
Cuisine
Main article: Ottoman cuisine
Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople (Istanbul), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.
Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish, and including Greek, Balkan, Armenian, and Middle Eastern cuisines. Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.
Sports
The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905), Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907), MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü) (1910) in Constantinople. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire
Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji – an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand – who became a professor in two madrasas and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years in Constantinople before his death.
Taqi al-Din built the Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the eccentricity of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the apogee. However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly astrological rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose. He also experimented with steam power in Ottoman Egypt in 1551, when he described a steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine.
In 1660 the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic.
Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major medical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world. Though his work was largely based on Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's Al-Tasrif, Sabuncuoğlu introduced many innovations of his own. Female surgeons were also illustrated for the first time. Since, the Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as forceps, catheters, scalpels and lancets as well as pincers.
An example of a watch that measured time in minutes was created by an Ottoman watchmaker, Meshur Sheyh Dede, in 1702.
In the early 19th century, Egypt under Muhammad Ali began using steam engines for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as ironworks, textile manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills moving towards steam power. Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.
In the 19th century, Ishak Efendi is credited with introducing the then current Western scientific ideas and developments to the Ottoman and wider Muslim world, as well as the invention of a suitable Turkish and Arabic scientific terminology, through his translations of Western works.
See also
- 16 Great Turkic Empires
- Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire
- Empire of the Sultans
- Gunpowder empires
- Historiography of the Ottoman Empire
- Outline of the Ottoman Empire
- List of battles involving the Ottoman Empire
- List of foreigners who were in the service of the Ottoman Empire
- List of Ottoman conquests, sieges and landings
- List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman wars in Europe
- Outline of the Ottoman Empire
- Turkic history
References
Footnotes
- İslâm Ansiklopedisi: "It is disputed when the Ottomans conquered this place; Various dates have been put forward in this regard, such as 1361, 1362, 1367 and 1369. Among these, the opinion that Edirne was captured in 1361 as a result of a systematic conquest policy by Murad and Lala Şahin, while Orhan Gazi was still alive, gains prominence. However, it has also been stated that the date of conquest may have occurred after 1366 (1369), based on an elegy showing that the city metropolitan Polykarpos was in Edirne in this capacity until 1366.
- In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were Ḳosṭanṭīnīye (قسطنطينيه) (replacing the suffix -polis with the Arabic suffix), Istanbul (استنبول) and Islambol (اسلامبول, lit. 'full of Islam'); see Names of Istanbul). Kostantiniyye became obsolete in Turkish after the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928, the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use Istanbul, and that name became widely accepted internationally.
- Liturgical language; among Arabic-speaking citizens
- Court, diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, taught in state schools, and offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas.
- Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans.
- Decrees in the 15th century.
- Foreign language among educated people in the post-Tanzimat/late imperial period.
- The sultan from 1512 to 1520.
- 1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922.
- The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the Grand National Assembly (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Constantinople were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the occupation of Constantinople under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the Government of Ankara was achieved through the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923.
- Ottoman Turkish: دولت علیهٔ عثمانیه, romanized: Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOsmānīye, lit. 'Sublime Ottoman State'; Turkish: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti; French: Empire ottoman
- The Ottoman dynasty also held the title "caliph" from the Ottoman victory over the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo in the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517 to the abolition of the Caliphate by the Turkish Republic in 1924.
- A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for Isabella I of Castile to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama (1998), 9; I. Stavans, Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877 (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", English Historical Review, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127) (1978), 335).
- Though the revolt was officially initiated on the 10 June, bin Ali's sons 'Ali and Faisal had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.
Citations
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- Atasoy & Raby 1989, p. 19–20.
- M. Tayyib Gökbilgin (1988–2016). "Edirne". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam (44+2 vols.) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies.
- Edhem, Eldem (21 May 2010). "Istanbul". In Gábor, Ágoston; Masters, Bruce Alan (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7.
With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, all previous names were abandoned and Istanbul came to designate the entire city.
- Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977b). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511614972. ISBN 9780511614972.
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- Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian Learning in the Ottoman World". In Green, Nile (ed.). The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. pp. 88–89.
As the Ottoman Turks learned Persian, the language and the culture it carried seeped not only into their court and imperial institutions but also into their vernacular language and culture. The appropriation of Persian, both as a second language and as a language to be steeped together with Turkish, was encouraged notably by the sultans, the ruling class, and leading members of the mystical communities.
- Tezcan, Baki (2012). "Ottoman Historical Writing". In Rabasa, José (ed.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 192–211.
Persian served as a 'minority' prestige language of culture at the largely Turcophone Ottoman court.
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Although in the late Ottoman period Persian was taught in the state schools...
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On the whole, the circumstance in Turkey took a similar course: in Anatolia, the Persian language had played a significant role as the carrier of civilization. where it was at time, to some extent, the language of diplomacy However Persian maintained its position also during the early Ottoman period in the composition of histories and even Sultan Salim I, a bitter enemy of Iran and the Shi'ites, wrote poetry in Persian. Besides some poetical adaptations, the most important historiographical works are: Idris Bidlisi's flowery "Hasht Bihist", or Seven Paradises, begun in 1502 by the request of Sultan Bayazid II and covering the first eight Ottoman rulers...
- Fetvacı, Emine (2013). Picturing History at the Ottoman Court. Indiana University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-253-00678-3. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
Persian literature, and belles-lettres in particular, were part of the curriculum: a Persian dictionary, a manual on prose composition; and Sa'dis 'Gulistan', one of the classics of Persian poetry, were borrowed. All these titles would be appropriate in the religious and cultural education of the newly converted young men.
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Persian held a privileged place in Ottoman letters. Persian historical literature was first patronized during the reign of Mehmed II and continued unabated until the end of the 16th century.
- Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World". In Green, Nile (ed.). The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. p. 92 (note 27).
Though Persian, unlike Arabic, was not included in the typical curriculum of an Ottoman madrasa, the language was offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas. For those Ottoman madrasa curricula featuring Persian, see Cevat İzgi, Osmanlı Medreselerinde İlim, 2 vols. (Istanbul: İz, 1997),1: 167–169.
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As a result, we can claim that Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters (bitig) and firmans (yarlığ) sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language.
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The Ottomans began to strike coins in the name of Orhan Bey in 1326. These earliest coins carried inscriptions such as "the great Sultan, Orhan son of Osman" Ottoman historiography has adopted 1299 as the date for the foundation of the state. 1299 might represent the date at which the Ottomans finally obtained their independence from the Seljuk sultan at Konya. Probably, they were forced at the same time, or very soon thereafter, to accept the overlordship of the Ilkhanids Numismatic evidence thus suggest that independence did not really occur until 1326.
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The Ottomans developed an efficient system for counting the empire's population in 1826, a quarter of a century after such methods were introduced in Britain, France and America.
- Quataert & Spivey 2000, pp. 110–111.
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There was the ruling Ottoman group, now largely concentrated in the bureaucracy centered on the Sublime Porte, and the mass of the people, mostly peasants. The efendi looked down on "the Turk," which was a term of opprobrium indicating boorishness, and preferred to think of himself as an Osmanli. His country was not Turkey, but the Ottoman State. His language was also "Ottoman"; though he might also call it "Turkish," in such a case he distinguished it from kaba türkçe, or coarse Turkish, the common speech. His writing included a minimum of Turkish words, except for particles and auxiliary verbs.
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- Davison 1964, p. 62It was true also that there was a partial linguistic amalgam of the peoples in the empire. Many Greeks and Armenians did not know their national languages and spoke Turkish alone, though they wrote it in Greek and Armenian characters.
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the jizya was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole.
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The millet system in the Muslim world provided the pre-modern paradigm of a religiously pluralistic society by granting each religious community an official status and a substantial measure of self-government.
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- Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. ISBN 1-317-11844-8, 9781317118442. Google Books PT195 Archived 1 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
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Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as Hisarian's novel.
- Masters, Bruce; Ágoston, Gábor (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts On File. p. 440. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel.
- Pultar, Gönül (2013). Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism (First ed.). : Syracuse University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-8156-3342-6. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851.
- Gürçaglar, Şehnaz; Paker, Saliha; Milton, John (2015). Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 5. ISBN 978-90-272-6847-1.
It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist.
- Moran, Berna (1997). Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1. İletişim Yayınları. p. 19. ISBN 978-975-470-054-1.
- ^ Baruh, Lorans Tanatar; Sara Yontan Musnik. "Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire". French National Library. Archived from the original on 16 April 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
- Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)
- Kendall, p. 339 Archived 14 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
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- Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)
- "Seljuk architecture", Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.
- M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Ottoman". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression.
- ^ Freely 2011, p. 35 "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."
- Goodwin, Godfrey (1993). Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today. London: Saqi Books. ISBN 978-0-86356-172-6.
- Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Alan Masters (21 May 2010). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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- Eli Shah. "The Ottoman Artistic Legacy". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- Carswell, John (2006). Iznik Pottery (Second ed.). British Museum Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-7141-2441-4.
- Freely 2011, p. 355
- Freely 2011, p. 355.
- Kuban 2010, p. 526.
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- Kuban 2010, pp. 605–606.
- Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair; Sheila S. (2009). "Kemalettin". Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
- Kuban 2010, p. 679.
- ^ Kuban 2010.
- Kuban 2010, pp. 571–596.
- Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 251.
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- Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire (New ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.
- Faroqhi, Suraiya (2005). Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire (New ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4.
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- Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London, Prague and New York, p. 52
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Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets
- Horton, Paul (July–August 1977). "Topkapi's Turkish Timepieces". Saudi Aramco World: 10–13. Archived from the original on 22 November 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
- ^ Jean Batou (1991). Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870. Librairie Droz. pp. 193–196. ISBN 978-2-600-04293-2.
Sources
- Atasoy, Nurhan; Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.). Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey. Alexandria Press. ISBN 978-0-500-97374-5.
- Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06465-0. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
- Freely, John (2011). A History of Ottoman Architecture. WIT Press. ISBN 978-1-84564-506-9. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
- Itzkowitz, Norman (1980). Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. ISBN 978-0-226-38806-9.
- Kinross, Lord (1979). The Ottoman Centuries: the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-688-08093-8. popular history espouses old "decline" thesis
- Kuban, Doğan (2010). Ottoman Architecture. Translated by Mill, Adair. Antique Collectors' Club. ISBN 978-1-85149-604-4.
- Quataert, Donald (1983). Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire 1881–1908.
- Quataert, Donald; Spivey, Diane M. (2000). Consumption Studies and the History of the Ottoman Empire, 1550–1922. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4431-3.
- Rogan, Eugene (2011). The Arabs: A History. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-465-03248-8. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
Further reading
For a more comprehensive list, see Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire. Library resources aboutOttoman Empire
General surveys
- The Cambridge History of Turkey online Archived 5 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
- Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
- Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
- Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
- Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (2008)
- Faroqhi, Suraiya. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (2009) 196pp
- Finkel, Caroline (2005). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02396-7.
- Hathaway, Jane (2008). The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8.
- Howard, Douglas A. (2017). A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-72730-3.
- Arthur Arnold (1877), The promises of Turkey (1st ed.), Westminster: The Eastern Question Association, Wikidata Q19097235
- Koller, Markus (2012), Ottoman History of South-East Europe Archived 11 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, EGO – European History Online Archived 8 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Mainz: Institute of European History Archived 19 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf).
- Imber, Colin (2009). The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-57451-9.
- İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert, eds. (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57456-3. Two volumes.
- Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017)
- McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. (1997) The Ottoman Turks : an introductory history to 1923 online
- Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
- Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
- Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
- Şahin, Kaya. "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century." Renaissance Quarterly (2017) 70#1: 220–234 online
- Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire (2003). pp. 399 excerpt Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- Stavrianos, L. S. The Balkans since 1453 (1968; new preface 1999) online
- Tabak, Faruk. The Waning of the Mediterranean, 1550–1870: A Geohistorical Approach (2008)
Early Ottomans
- Kafadar, Cemal (1995). Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State. U California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20600-7.
- Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia. Bloomington: Indiana UP. ISBN 978-0-933070-12-7.
- Lowry, Heath (2003). The Nature of the Early Ottoman State. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5636-1.
Diplomatic and military
- Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". Journal of World History. 25: 85–124. doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0005. S2CID 143042353.
- Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
- Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman Military Matters." Journal of Early Modern History 6.1 (2002): 52–62, historiography; online
- Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." in Fighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000 ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)online.
- Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830." International History Review 24.2 (2002): 253–277 online.
- Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27.2 (2007): 259–272 online.
- Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War." War in History 5.1 (1998): 23–36 online.
- Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow
- Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy." International Review of Turkish Studies 1.3 (2011): 8–30. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Fahmy, Khaled. All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
- Gürkan, Emrah Safa (2011), Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire Archived 11 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, EHO – European History Online Archived 8 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Mainz: Institute of European History Archived 19 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved: March 25, 2021 (pdf Archived 5 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine).
- Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
- Hurewitz, Jacob C. "Ottoman diplomacy and the European state system." Middle East Journal 15.2 (1961): 141–152. online Archived 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Merriman, Roger Bigelow. Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard University Press, 1944) online
- Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927) online, strong on foreign policy
- Minawi, Mustafa. The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016) online
- Nicolle, David. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774 (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
- Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
- Rhoads, Murphey (1999). Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-389-1.
- Soucek, Svat (2015). Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press. ISBN 978-975-428-554-3.
- Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. Abc-Clio. ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0.
Specialty studies
- Baram, Uzi and Lynda Carroll, editors. A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground (Plenum/Kluwer Academic Press, 2000)
- Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) ISBN 978-0-521-71533-1
- Davison, Roderic H. Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 (New York: Gordian Press, 1973)
- Deringil, Selim. The well-protected domains: ideology and the legitimation of power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909 (London: IB Tauris, 1998)
- Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922 (Princeton University Press, 1980)
- Hamed-Troyansky, Vladimir (2024). Empire of Refugees: North Caucasian Muslims and the Late Ottoman State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3696-5. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
- McMeekin, Sean. The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power (2010)
- Mikhail, Alan. God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World (2020) ISBN 978-1-63149-239-6 on Selim I (1470–1529)
- Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire (1999). pp. 276
- Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 ISBN 0-297-84913-1.
- Yaycioglu, Ali. Partners of the empire: The crisis of the Ottoman order in the age of revolutions (Stanford University Press, 2016), covers 1760–1820 online review: doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716 Cakir, Burcin (2018). "Ali Yacıoğlu: "Partners of the Empire: The Crisis of the Ottoman Order in the Age of Revolutions" | Middle East – Topics & Arguments". Middle East – Topics & Arguments. 10: 109–112. doi:10.17192/meta.2018.10.7716. Archived from the original on 1 November 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2022..
Historiography
- Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21. online Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- comment by Ehud R. Toledano Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine and reply by Aksan Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine
- Aksan, Virginia H. "Ottoman political writing, 1768–1808." International Journal of Middle East Studies 25.1 (1993): 53–69 online.
- Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?." International Journal of Turkish Studies 14.1/2 (2008).
- Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 138#2 (2018), p. 369+. online Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Hartmann, Daniel Andreas. "Neo-Ottomanism: The Emergence and Utility of a New Narrative on Politics, Religion, Society, and History in Turkey" (PhD Dissertation, Central European University, 2013) online Archived 14 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
- Eissenstat, Howard. "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies" Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1#1 (2014), pp. 23–35 doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23 Eissenstat (2014). "Children of Özal: The New Face of Turkish Studies". Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association. 1 (1–2): 23–35. doi:10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. JSTOR 10.2979/jottturstuass.1.1-2.23. S2CID 158272381. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends". The Journal of Modern History. 89 (4): 875–907. doi:10.1086/694391. ISSN 0022-2801. S2CID 148953435.
- Lieven, Dominic. Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires. excerpt Archived 19 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn," Comparative Studies in Society & History (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
- Olson, Robert, "Ottoman Empire" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 892–896. ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
- Quataert, Donald. "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline.'" History Compass 1 (2003): 1–9.
- Yaycıoğlu, Ali. "Ottoman Early Modern." Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 7.1 (2020): 70–73 online.
- Yılmaz, Yasir. "Nebulous Ottomans vs. Good Old Habsburgs: A Historiographical Comparison." Austrian History Yearbook 48 (2017): 173–190. Online
External links
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- Ottoman Text Archive Project Archived 19 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine
- Ottoman and Turkish Studies Resources – University of Michigan
- Historians of the Ottoman Empire – University of Chicago
- Turkey in Asia, 1920
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