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{{short description|Polish and Soviet army general}}
]
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
⚫ ] mountains]]
{{Infobox military person

| name = Karol Świerczewski
'''Karol Wacław Świerczewski''' ({{IPA-pl|ˈkarɔl ɕfjɛrˈt͡ʂɛfskʲi}}; callsign '''''Walter'''''; 22 February 1897 – 28 March 1947) was an ethnic ] and Soviet military officer and army general. He served as a ] in the wars fought by the ], ], and the Polish ] following ].
| image = Karol Świerczewski.jpg
| caption = Karol Świerczewski in 1946.
| order = Deputy Defense Minister of Poland
| term_start1 = February 1946
| term_end1 = March 1947
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1897|02|22}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1947|03|28|1897|02|10}}
| birth_place = ], ], ]
| death_place = ], ]
| rank = ]
| serviceyears = 1918–1947
| nickname = General Walter
| allegiance = {{flag|Soviet Union|1936}}<br>{{flagicon|Spanish Republic}} ]<br>{{flag|Polish People's Republic}}
| commands = ]<br>]<br>]<br>]
| battles = ]<br>]<br>]<br>]
| laterwork = Politician
| awards = ]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]
| alma_mater = ]
}}
'''Karol Wacław Świerczewski''' ({{IPA|pl|ˈkarɔl ɕfjɛrˈt͡ʂɛfskʲi|pron}}; callsign '''''Walter'''''; 22 February 1897 &ndash; 28 March 1947) was a ] and Soviet ] ] and statesman. He was a ] member and served in the ] ] during the ] and participated in the wars against the ]. He also participated alongside the ] during the ]. At the start of ] In 1939, he participated in the ]. At the end of the war he was installed as one of leaders of the Soviet-sponsored Polish ]. Soon later, Świerczewski died in a country-road ambush shot by the militants from ]. He was an icon of communist propaganda for the following several decades.<ref name="IPN"/>


==Life== ==Life==
Born in ] in ], Karol Świerczewski grew up in a poor family and began working at age 12 in a local Warsaw factory. In 1915, at the age of 18 he was evacuated to ] by the Tsarist army during the ]. In 1918 he joined the ], and fought in the ] as a soldier of the ]. During the ] he fought on the Soviet side against the ] and was wounded. In 1928 on the occasion of the 10th anniversary of establishment of the Red Army he was awarded the ] no. 146, his first military award. Born in ] in ], Karol Świerczewski grew up in a poor working-class family and began working at age 12 in a local Warsaw factory. During the ], at the age of 18 he was evacuated in 1915 to ] by the ]. According to his official biography in the ] he was a member of the ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Karol Świerczewski Walter. Collections of the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw|publisher=Nasza Księgarnia Publishing House|year=1971|location=Warsaw}}</ref>

In 1918 he joined the ], and fought in the ] as a soldier of the Red Army. In 1919 during the ] he fought on the Soviet side against the ] and was wounded. He remained in Russia and in 1928 on the occasion of the 10th anniversary of establishment of the Red Army he was awarded the ] (no. 146), his first military award. From 1921, Świerczewski taught in the Soviet School for the Red ]s. In 1927 he graduated from ] in Moscow and worked in the Red Army ].{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}


===Spain===
From 1921, Świerczewski taught in the Soviet School for the Red ]s. In 1927 he graduated from ] in Moscow and worked in the Red Army ].


In 1931-1933 and maybe later Świerczewski was heavily involved in armed insurrection trainings, delivered by Comintern to Spanish communists in Moscow. His direct role is inclear, though he later produced highly detailed reports on the classes given; he suggested a number of measures to improve their quality. Already at the time he used the nick-name ''Walter''.<ref>Gustavo Martín Asensio, ''‘Mobilizing all our forces’: Comintern Operations in Spain 1923-1936'', ''Aportes'' 109 (2022), pp. 52-54</ref> In late 1935, when officer ranks were introduced in the Soviet Army, Świerczewski was classified as colonel.<ref>Jakub Wojtkowiak, ''Polacy i Litwini, oficerowie Armii Czerwonej w latach 1922-1941 : słownik biograficzny'', Warszawa 2015, ISBN 9788364486302, p. 544</ref>
⚫ In 1936, under the name '''General Walter''', he went to ], during the ], where he led the ] in the ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=196-197}} and later the 35th International Division in the ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=275-277}} and the battles of ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=278-280 and 282-283}} ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=297}} ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=320-321}} the ].{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=326}} and the ].<ref>]]</ref>
⚫ In 1936, under the name ''General Walter'', he was sent to Spain during the ], where he initially led the ] in the ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=196-197}} and later the ] in the ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=275-277}} and the battles of ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=278-280 and 282-283}} ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=297}} ],{{sfn|Beevor|2006|pp=320-321}} and the ].{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=326}} By April 1938 Spanish communist leaders wanted the replacement of many International Brigade commanders due to poor performance, and although ] disagreed, he had to compromise and General Walter and ] were replaced.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beevor |first1=Antony |title=The Spanish Civil War |date=2001 |publisher=Cassell Military Paperbacks |location=London |isbn=0-304-35840-1 |page=327}}</ref>


===General in the Red Army=== ===General in the Red Army===
Following the outbreak of the ] and the ], Świerczewski served as general in the Soviet Army. His Russian commanders, seeing Świerczewski's apparent incompetence and worsening ], moved him to a reserve command away from the front lines— the decision was made by General ] himself.<ref name="Lipinski">Piotr Lipiński: Towarzysze Niejasnego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Prószyński i Spółka, 2003, s. 48. ISBN 83-7337-310-1.</ref> The fact that Świerczewski gave most of his orders under influence of alcohol, had tragic consequences for his soldiers, described in ]'s book ''Wspomnienia'' (Memories). In 1943 he became one of the generals charged with the creation of the Soviet-controlled ], the ]. His alcoholism and disregard for the life and health of his soldiers stirred conflict with Zygmunt Berling, and led to his removal from the command on several occasions. Świerczewski's alcoholism-related orders gained criticism from other Polish generals as well, including General ].<ref name="IPN"> at the ]</ref> In June 1940 Świerczewski was promoted from colonel to the lowest general rank, general major. Following the outbreak of the ] and the ], Świerczewski served as general in the Soviet Army. On June 27, 1941 he was given command of the ] as it began forming at ]. He led the division until it was largely encircled and destroyed during ] in the first weeks of October, although he remained in nominal command until late December.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://generals.dk/general/Sverchevskii/Karol_Karlovich/Soviet_Union.html | title=Biography of Colonel-General Karol Karlovich Sverchevskii - (Кароль Карлович Сверчевский) - (Karol Swierczewski) (1897 – 1947), Soviet Union }}</ref> His Russian commanders, seeing Świerczewski's apparent incompetence and worsening ], moved him to a reserve command away from the front lines—the decision was made by General ] himself.<ref name="Lipinski">Piotr Lipiński: Towarzysze Niejasnego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Prószyński i Spółka, 2003, s. 48. {{ISBN|83-7337-310-1}}.</ref> The fact that Świerczewski gave most of his orders under influence of alcohol had tragic consequences for his soldiers, described in General ]'s book ''Wspomnienia'' (Memories).<ref name="IPN"/>


⚫ ], ] and Karol Świerczewski (from left to right)]]
⚫ In 1944 he became one of the leaders of the ] and the government of ].<ref name="Tychmanowicz">{{cite web| author=Marta Tychmanowicz|date=2014 |title=Karol Świerczewski: człowiek, który się kulom nie kłaniał |publisher=Wiadomości, wp.pl |quote=Śmierć Świerczewskiego wyniosła generała do panteonu polskich męczenników rewolucji socjalistycznej. „Walter” stał się ikoną bohaterstwa, służby i poświęcenia dla Polski Ludowej. Jego imieniem nazywano szkoły, ulice i osiedla. Działania te były jednak życzeniowym zaklinaniem rzeczywistości, zakłamywaniem faktów historycznych – biografia Karola Świerczewskiego, która mogła wybrzmieć dopiero w pełni po 1989 roku, negatywnie zweryfikowała jego członkostwo w klubie niezłomnych bohaterów, którzy się kulom nie kłaniali.|url=http://wiadomosci.wp.pl/kat,1329,title,Karol-Swierczewski-czlowiek-ktory-sie-kulom-nie-klanial,wid,14368281,wiadomosc.html?ticaid=114279}}</ref> In the winter of 1944 and the spring of 1945 he led the ] during the fighting for western Poland and the ]. His leadership in the ] (Budziszyn) has been severely criticized by modern historians, and he is held responsible for the Second Army's very heavy casualties in that engagement.<ref name=zw>{{cite web|last=Wawer|first=Zbigniew|title=Zapomniana bitwa|url=http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9205:zapomniana-bitwa&catid=116:historia&Itemid=145|publisher=polska-zbrojna.pl|accessdate=10 May 2011|date=26 August 2010}}</ref> While commanding, he might have been drunk, and was temporarily relieved of his command.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Piecuch1997">{{cite book|author=Henryk Piecuch|title=Imperium służb specjalnych: od Gomułki do Kani|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vpq1AAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1997|publisher=Agencja Wydawn. CB|isbn=978-83-86245-16-1|page=35}}</ref> However, due to important backing in the Soviet political apparatus (] or ]), not only did he retain his command, but his mistakes were hushed up, and after the war he was gloried as a hero.<ref name=zw/>
In 1943 he became one of the generals charged with the creation of the Soviet-controlled ], the ]. His alcoholism and disregard for the life and health of his soldiers stirred conflict with Zygmunt Berling, and led to his removal from command on several occasions. Świerczewski's alcoholism-related orders gained criticism from other Polish generals as well, including General ].<ref name="IPN">{{cite journal|url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal.php?serwis=pl&dzial=398&id=4918&search=81880 |title=Karol Świerczewski "Walter" (1897–1947) |publisher=] |year=2011 |via=Internet Archive |author=Informacja historyczna |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402141720/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal.php?serwis=pl&dzial=398&id=4918&search=81880 |archive-date= 2 April 2012 }}</ref>


⚫ In 1944 he became one of the leaders of the ] and the government of ].<ref name="Tychmanowicz">{{cite web| author=Marta Tychmanowicz|date=2014 |title=Karol Świerczewski: człowiek, który się kulom nie kłaniał |publisher=Wiadomości, wp.pl |quote=Śmierć Świerczewskiego wyniosła generała do panteonu polskich męczenników rewolucji socjalistycznej. "Walter" stał się ikoną bohaterstwa, służby i poświęcenia dla Polski Ludowej. Jego imieniem nazywano szkoły, ulice i osiedla. Działania te były jednak życzeniowym zaklinaniem rzeczywistości, zakłamywaniem faktów historycznych – biografia Karola Świerczewskiego, która mogła wybrzmieć dopiero w pełni po 1989 roku, negatywnie zweryfikowała jego członkostwo w klubie niezłomnych bohaterów, którzy się kulom nie kłaniali.|url=https://wiadomosci.wp.pl/karol-swierczewski-czlowiek-ktory-sie-kulom-nie-klanial-6037271960228993a}}</ref> In the winter of 1944 and the spring of 1945 he led the ] during the fighting for western Poland and the ]. His leadership in the ] (Budziszyn) has been severely criticized by modern historians, and he is held responsible for the Second Army's very heavy casualties in that engagement.<ref name=zw>{{cite web|last=Wawer|first=Zbigniew|title=Zapomniana bitwa|url=http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9205:zapomniana-bitwa&catid=116:historia&Itemid=145|publisher=polska-zbrojna.pl|access-date=10 May 2011|date=26 August 2010}}</ref> While commanding, he might have been drunk, and was temporarily relieved of his command.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Piecuch1997">{{cite book|author=Henryk Piecuch|title=Imperium służb specjalnych: od Gomułki do Kani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpq1AAAAIAAJ|access-date=11 May 2011|year=1997|publisher=Agencja Wydawn. CB|isbn=978-83-86245-16-1|page=35}}</ref> However, due to important backing in the Soviet political apparatus (] or ]), not only did he retain his command, but his mistakes were hushed up, and after the war he was glorified as a hero.<ref name=zw/>
⚫ In February 1946 Świerczewski became the Deputy Defense Minister of Poland. He was involved in the persecution of the anti-communist underground movement in Poland, and signed many death sentences, while establishing the communist regime.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal/pl/368/947/Lipcowe_Swieto__Chelm_21_lipca_2004_r.html |title=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej &#124; "Lipcowe Święto" – Chełm, 21 lipca 2004 r. |publisher=Ipn.gov.pl |accessdate=2013-10-27 |format=Internet Archive |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414212135/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal/pl/368/947/Lipcowe_Swieto__Chelm_21_lipca_2004_r.html |archivedate=April 14, 2012 }}</ref>


⚫ In February 1946 Świerczewski became the Deputy ]. He was involved in the persecution of the anti-communist underground movement in Poland, and signed many death sentences, while establishing the communist regime.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal/pl/368/947/Lipcowe_Swieto__Chelm_21_lipca_2004_r.html |title=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej &#124; "Lipcowe Święto" – Chełm, 21 lipca 2004 r. |publisher=Ipn.gov.pl |access-date=2013-10-27 |format=Internet Archive |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414212135/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal/pl/368/947/Lipcowe_Swieto__Chelm_21_lipca_2004_r.html |archive-date=April 14, 2012 }}</ref>
==Controversial death==
⚫ ], ] and Karol Świerczewski (from left to right)]]
⚫ Świerczewski was heavily wounded in a skirmish near ] in March 1947 while driving in a car without escort for the inspection of Polish troops fighting Ukrainian partisans. He was ambushed by a unit of ], and died from his wounds within hours. There were several conspiracy theories claiming, that the ambush has been arranged by the Soviet intelligence due to his insubordination.<ref name="Tychmanowicz"/> According to one theory, the information about the general's arrival to the area was passed to Ukrainians by the NKVD and his escort prevented from leaving by mechanical problems with both trucks transporting soldiers. Most other hypothesis also suggest Soviet or even direct Stalin's orders.<ref name="Tychmanowicz"/> The general, a Pole by ethnicity but essentially a Soviet officer with a heroic record from the Spanish Civil War and a long Red Army war record, had been previously placed lower in the command structure than prewar Polish officers Berling and ].


==Death==
⚫ For several years after the ] ended, the Ukrainian Nationalist insurgency led mainly by the ] continued fighting in the South-East of ]. This war largely supported by the local Ukrainian part of the population, continued until 1949, with some sporadic fights taking place as late as 1956. Świerczewski's death was used as direct cause for the forcible expulsion of the Ukrainian civilian population in ] from the territories in the South Eastern part of the ] to the "]" (Ziemie Odzyskane, areas of western Poland gained after the war). In the socialist Poland many myths were created around Karol Świerczewski ("The General of Three Armies"), but details of his life and especially his service in the Red Army during ] as well as the details of his ] record were never mentioned.
{{more citations needed|section|date=June 2019}}
⚫ ] mountains. It has since been demolished.]]
⚫ Świerczewski was heavily wounded in a skirmish near ] in March 1947 while driving in a car without escort for the inspection of Polish troops fighting Ukrainian insurgents. He was ambushed by a unit of ], and died from his wounds within hours. There were several conspiracy theories claiming that the ambush was arranged by the Soviet intelligence due to his insubordination.<ref name="Tychmanowicz"/> According to one theory, the information about the general's arrival to the area was passed to Ukrainians by the NKVD and his escort prevented from leaving by mechanical problems with both trucks that transported the escort's soldiers. Most other hypotheses also suggest Soviet or even direct orders from Stalin.<ref name="Tychmanowicz"/> The general, a Pole by ethnicity but essentially a Soviet officer with a military record from the Spanish Civil War and a long Red Army war record, had been previously placed lower in the command structure than prewar Polish officers Berling and ].

⚫ For several years after the ] ended, the Ukrainian Nationalist insurgency, led mainly by the ], continued fighting in the South-East of ]. This war, largely supported by the local Ukrainian part of the population, continued until 1949, with some sporadic fights taking place as late as 1956. Świerczewski's death was used as direct cause for the forcible expulsion of the Ukrainian civilian population in ] from the territories in the South Eastern part of the ] to the ] (Ziemie Odzyskane, areas of western Poland, which before the war had been part of Germany). In the socialist Poland many myths were created around Karol Świerczewski ("The General of Three Armies"), but details of his life and especially his service in the Red Army during ] as well as the details of his ] record were never mentioned.

==Awards==
*{{flag|Polish People's Republic}}:
**] ] (posthumous)
**] ] (Grand Cross) (posthumous)
**] Virtuti Militari (Commander)
**] ] (1st class)
**] ]
**] ]
**] ]
**] ]
**] ]
**] ] (posthumous)
*{{flag|Soviet Union}}:
**] 2&nbsp;] (1937, 1945)
**] ], three times (1928, 1938, 1944)
**] ], 1st class (1945)
**] ] (1945)
**] ] (1945)
**] ] (1945)
**] ] (1938)
*'''Other countries''':
**] ], 2nd class (])
**] Silver Medal of the ] (Czechoslovakia)
**] ] (])
**] ] (Spanish Republic)
**] ] (])
**] ], 1st class (Yugoslavia)


==Legacy== ==Legacy==
] on Karol Wacław Świerczewski in ] in ]]] ] on Karol Wacław Świerczewski in ] in ]]]
In People's Republic of Poland, the Polish ] made him into a hero, and many controversial aspects of his life such as alcohol abuse and his incompetence during the ], as well as postwar ] were hushed up.<ref name=zw/> In 1953, a Polish two-part film depicting the life of Świerczewski, '']'' (''A Soldier of Victory''), was released. Józef Wyszomirski portrayed the General.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmpolski.pl/fp/index.php/122500 |title=Żołnierz Zwycięstwa |publisher=filmpolski.pl |accessdate=2013-10-27}}</ref> In ], the Polish ] made him into a hero, and many controversial aspects of his life such as alcohol abuse and his incompetence during the ], as well as postwar ] were hushed up.<ref name=zw/> In 1953, a Polish two-part film depicting the life of Świerczewski, '']'' (''A Soldier of Victory''), was released. Józef Wyszomirski portrayed the General.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmpolski.pl/fp/index.php/122500 |title=Żołnierz Zwycięstwa |publisher=filmpolski.pl |access-date=2013-10-27}}</ref>

In the years 1945-1991 the present ] in Warsaw was named after him.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cervantes.edu.pl/historia/|title=Historia – XXXIV L.O.|publisher=Miguel de Cervantes Liceum|language=pl}}</ref>


During the years 1975-1996 Karol Świerczewski's picture was on a 50 złoty banknote.<ref></ref> During the years 1975–1996 Karol Świerczewski's picture was on the popular 50 złoty banknote, initially the equivalent of two bottles of cheap ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://facet.wp.pl/gid,16086524,img,16086560,kat,1034179,galeriazdjecie.html?T|title = Walter - kompromitująca historia człowieka, który się kulom nie kłaniał|date = 18 October 2013}}</ref>
After 1989, as Poland regained independence from Soviet rule with the end of the ] and the coming to power of ], many of his monuments were removed and streets renamed because of his role in implementing the communist regime in Poland. After 1989 with the end of the ] and the coming to power of ], many of his monuments were removed and streets renamed because of his role in implementing the communist regime in Poland.


On May 21, 2003, the Polish organization of former veterans and independence fighters applied to the ] (IPN) to investigate crimes against the Polish nation committed by Karol Świerczewski. In a letter, they recall that he was "one of the people who consciously worked towards enslavement of Polish nation, through enforced communist regime that was vassal towards Moscow". Among crimes that are not subject to expiry and should be investigated by the IPN are 29 death sentences on Polish soldiers and officers, which were signed by Świerczewski during his command of the Soviet-controlled 2nd Polish Army.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.republika.pl/antinazi2/maj%203.htm |title=Portal Społeczności Internetowych |publisher=Republika.pl |accessdate=2013-10-27}}</ref> On May 21, 2003, the Polish organization of former veterans and independence fighters applied to the ] (IPN) to investigate 'crimes against the Polish nation' committed by Karol Świerczewski. In a letter, they recall that he was "one of the people who consciously worked towards enslavement of Polish nation, through enforced communist regime that was vassal towards Moscow". Among crimes that are not subject to expiry and should be investigated by the IPN are 29 death sentences on Polish soldiers and officers, which were signed by Świerczewski during his command of the Soviet-controlled 2nd Polish Army.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.republika.pl/antinazi2/maj%203.htm |title=Portal Społeczności Internetowych |publisher=Republika.pl |access-date=2013-10-27}}</ref>


==Photography== ==Photography==
While being an unwilling photography subject himself, General Walter was a keen amateur photographer.<ref> (Internet Archive).</ref> His daughter donated 333 of his photographs to the ''Asociación de Amigos de las Brigadas Internacionales'' in Albacete, Spain, to form a permanent part of their archive.<ref></ref> While generally unwilling to let himself be photographed, General Walter was a keen amateur photographer.<ref> (Internet Archive).</ref> His daughter donated 333 of his photographs to the ''Asociación de Amigos de las Brigadas Internacionales'' in ], Spain, to form a permanent part of their archive.<ref></ref>


==Notes== ==Notes==
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==References== ==References==
* {{cite book | title=The International Brigades and the Soviet Advisers | publisher=Penguin Books. London | work=The battle for Spain. The Spanish civil war, 1936-1939 | date=2006 | accessdate=14 January 2015 | authorlink=Antony Beevor | first=Antony | last=Beevor | isbn=1-4295-1201-6 | ref=harv | url=https://libcom.org/files/The%20Battle%20for%20Spain_%20The%20Spani%20-%20Anthony%20Beevor.pdf | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114141909/https://libcom.org/files/The%20Battle%20for%20Spain_%20The%20Spani%20-%20Anthony%20Beevor.pdf | archivedate=January 14, 2015}} * {{cite book | title=The International Brigades and the Soviet Advisers | publisher=Penguin Books. London | work=The battle for Spain. The Spanish civil war, 1936-1939 | date=2006 | access-date=14 January 2015 | author-link=Antony Beevor | first=Antony | last=Beevor | isbn=1-4295-1201-6 | url=https://libcom.org/files/The%20Battle%20for%20Spain_%20The%20Spani%20-%20Anthony%20Beevor.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114141909/https://libcom.org/files/The%20Battle%20for%20Spain_%20The%20Spani%20-%20Anthony%20Beevor.pdf | archive-date=January 14, 2015}}
* Neugass, James ''War is Beautiful. An American Ambulance Driver in the Spanish Civil War'', The New Press, London-New York, 2008 * Neugass, James ''War is Beautiful. An American Ambulance Driver in the Spanish Civil War'', The New Press, London-New York, 2008
* I. Pidkova, R. M. Shust, K. Bondarenko, "" (A hand-book on the History of Ukraine), 3-Volumes, Article "" (t. 3), Kiev, 1993–1999, ISBN 5-7707-5190-8 (t. 1), ISBN 5-7707-8552-7 (t. 2), ISBN 966-504-237-8 (t. 3). * I. Pidkova, R. M. Shust, K. Bondarenko, " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410032820/http://history.franko.lviv.ua/dovidnyk.htm |date=10 April 2009 }}" (A hand-book on the History of Ukraine), 3-Volumes, Article " {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313145417/http://history.franko.lviv.ua/IIIs_1.htm |date=13 March 2019 }}" (t. 3), Kiev, 1993–1999, {{ISBN|5-7707-5190-8}} (t. 1), {{ISBN|5-7707-8552-7}} (t. 2), {{ISBN|966-504-237-8}} (t. 3).
* {{ru icon}} in "Совершенно секретно" monthly, Russia. * {{in lang|ru}} in "Совершенно секретно" monthly, Russia.


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Latest revision as of 21:39, 17 October 2024

Polish and Soviet army general

Karol Świerczewski
Karol Świerczewski in 1946.
Nickname(s)General Walter
Born(1897-02-22)22 February 1897
Warsaw, Congress Poland, Russian Empire
Died28 March 1947(1947-03-28) (aged 50)
Bieszczady, Polish People’s Republic
Allegiance Soviet Union
Second Spanish Republic Second Spanish Republic
 Polish People's Republic
Years of service1918–1947
RankColonel General
CommandsXIV International Brigade
35th International Division
248th Rifle Division
Second Army (Poland)
Battles / warsRussian Civil War
Polish–Soviet War
Spanish Civil War
World War II
AwardsVirtuti Militari
Order of the Cross of Grunwald
Cross of Merit (Poland)
Medal of Victory and Freedom 1945
Alma materFrunze Military Academy
Other workPolitician

Karol Wacław Świerczewski (pronounced [ˈkarɔl ɕfjɛrˈt͡ʂɛfskʲi]; callsign Walter; 22 February 1897 – 28 March 1947) was a Polish and Soviet Red Army general and statesman. He was a Bolshevik Party member and served in the Soviet Red Army during the Russian Civil War and participated in the wars against the Polish and Ukrainian Republics. He also participated alongside the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War. At the start of World War II In 1939, he participated in the Soviet invasion of Poland. At the end of the war he was installed as one of leaders of the Soviet-sponsored Polish Provisional Government of National Unity. Soon later, Świerczewski died in a country-road ambush shot by the militants from OUN-UPA. He was an icon of communist propaganda for the following several decades.

Life

Born in Warsaw in Congress Poland, Karol Świerczewski grew up in a poor working-class family and began working at age 12 in a local Warsaw factory. During the First World War, at the age of 18 he was evacuated in 1915 to Moscow by the Russian Imperial Army. According to his official biography in the Polish People's Republic he was a member of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania.

In 1918 he joined the Bolshevik Party, and fought in the Russian Civil War as a soldier of the Red Army. In 1919 during the Polish-Soviet War he fought on the Soviet side against the Polish Second Republic and was wounded. He remained in Russia and in 1928 on the occasion of the 10th anniversary of establishment of the Red Army he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner (no. 146), his first military award. From 1921, Świerczewski taught in the Soviet School for the Red Commissars. In 1927 he graduated from Frunze Military Academy in Moscow and worked in the Red Army General Staff.

Spain

In 1931-1933 and maybe later Świerczewski was heavily involved in armed insurrection trainings, delivered by Comintern to Spanish communists in Moscow. His direct role is inclear, though he later produced highly detailed reports on the classes given; he suggested a number of measures to improve their quality. Already at the time he used the nick-name Walter. In late 1935, when officer ranks were introduced in the Soviet Army, Świerczewski was classified as colonel.

In 1936, under the name General Walter, he was sent to Spain during the Spanish Civil War, where he initially led the XIV International Brigade in the Battle of Lopera, and later the 35th International Division in the Segovia offensive, and the battles of Brunete, Belchite, Teruel, and the Aragon Offensive. By April 1938 Spanish communist leaders wanted the replacement of many International Brigade commanders due to poor performance, and although André Marty disagreed, he had to compromise and General Walter and Vladimir Ćopić were replaced.

General in the Red Army

In June 1940 Świerczewski was promoted from colonel to the lowest general rank, general major. Following the outbreak of the Second World War and the Soviet invasion of Poland, Świerczewski served as general in the Soviet Army. On June 27, 1941 he was given command of the 248th Rifle Division as it began forming at Vyazma. He led the division until it was largely encircled and destroyed during Operation Typhoon in the first weeks of October, although he remained in nominal command until late December. His Russian commanders, seeing Świerczewski's apparent incompetence and worsening alcoholism, moved him to a reserve command away from the front lines—the decision was made by General Georgi Zhukov himself. The fact that Świerczewski gave most of his orders under influence of alcohol had tragic consequences for his soldiers, described in General Zygmunt Berling's book Wspomnienia (Memories).

Michał Rola-Żymierski, Marian Spychalski and Karol Świerczewski (from left to right)

In 1943 he became one of the generals charged with the creation of the Soviet-controlled Polish Armed Forces in the East, the 1st Polish Army. His alcoholism and disregard for the life and health of his soldiers stirred conflict with Zygmunt Berling, and led to his removal from command on several occasions. Świerczewski's alcoholism-related orders gained criticism from other Polish generals as well, including General Aleksander Waszkiewicz.

In 1944 he became one of the leaders of the Polish Workers' Party and the government of People's Republic of Poland. In the winter of 1944 and the spring of 1945 he led the Polish Second Army during the fighting for western Poland and the Battle of Berlin. His leadership in the Battle of Bautzen (Budziszyn) has been severely criticized by modern historians, and he is held responsible for the Second Army's very heavy casualties in that engagement. While commanding, he might have been drunk, and was temporarily relieved of his command. However, due to important backing in the Soviet political apparatus (Main Intelligence Directorate or NKVD), not only did he retain his command, but his mistakes were hushed up, and after the war he was glorified as a hero.

In February 1946 Świerczewski became the Deputy Defense Minister of Poland. He was involved in the persecution of the anti-communist underground movement in Poland, and signed many death sentences, while establishing the communist regime.

Death

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Świerczewski's monument near his place of death, in Bieszczady mountains. It has since been demolished.

Świerczewski was heavily wounded in a skirmish near Baligród in March 1947 while driving in a car without escort for the inspection of Polish troops fighting Ukrainian insurgents. He was ambushed by a unit of Ukrainian Insurgent Army, and died from his wounds within hours. There were several conspiracy theories claiming that the ambush was arranged by the Soviet intelligence due to his insubordination. According to one theory, the information about the general's arrival to the area was passed to Ukrainians by the NKVD and his escort prevented from leaving by mechanical problems with both trucks that transported the escort's soldiers. Most other hypotheses also suggest Soviet or even direct orders from Stalin. The general, a Pole by ethnicity but essentially a Soviet officer with a military record from the Spanish Civil War and a long Red Army war record, had been previously placed lower in the command structure than prewar Polish officers Berling and Rola-Żymierski.

For several years after the Second World War ended, the Ukrainian Nationalist insurgency, led mainly by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, continued fighting in the South-East of Poland. This war, largely supported by the local Ukrainian part of the population, continued until 1949, with some sporadic fights taking place as late as 1956. Świerczewski's death was used as direct cause for the forcible expulsion of the Ukrainian civilian population in Operation Vistula from the territories in the South Eastern part of the post-war Poland to the Recovered Territories (Ziemie Odzyskane, areas of western Poland, which before the war had been part of Germany). In the socialist Poland many myths were created around Karol Świerczewski ("The General of Three Armies"), but details of his life and especially his service in the Red Army during Polish-Soviet War as well as the details of his Spanish War record were never mentioned.

Awards

Legacy

Academic conference on Karol Wacław Świerczewski in Stężnica in Gmina Baligród

In People's Republic of Poland, the Polish communist propaganda made him into a hero, and many controversial aspects of his life such as alcohol abuse and his incompetence during the Battle of Bautzen, as well as postwar Stalinist crimes were hushed up. In 1953, a Polish two-part film depicting the life of Świerczewski, Żołnierz zwycięstwa (A Soldier of Victory), was released. Józef Wyszomirski portrayed the General.

In the years 1945-1991 the present Miguel de Cervantes Liceum in Warsaw was named after him.

During the years 1975–1996 Karol Świerczewski's picture was on the popular 50 złoty banknote, initially the equivalent of two bottles of cheap Vodka. After 1989 with the end of the Warsaw Pact and the coming to power of Solidarity, many of his monuments were removed and streets renamed because of his role in implementing the communist regime in Poland.

On May 21, 2003, the Polish organization of former veterans and independence fighters applied to the Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) to investigate 'crimes against the Polish nation' committed by Karol Świerczewski. In a letter, they recall that he was "one of the people who consciously worked towards enslavement of Polish nation, through enforced communist regime that was vassal towards Moscow". Among crimes that are not subject to expiry and should be investigated by the IPN are 29 death sentences on Polish soldiers and officers, which were signed by Świerczewski during his command of the Soviet-controlled 2nd Polish Army.

Photography

While generally unwilling to let himself be photographed, General Walter was a keen amateur photographer. His daughter donated 333 of his photographs to the Asociación de Amigos de las Brigadas Internacionales in Albacete, Spain, to form a permanent part of their archive.

Notes

  1. ^ Informacja historyczna (2011). "Karol Świerczewski "Walter" (1897–1947)". Institute of National Remembrance. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012 – via Internet Archive. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  2. Karol Świerczewski Walter. Collections of the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw. Warsaw: Nasza Księgarnia Publishing House. 1971.
  3. Gustavo Martín Asensio, ‘Mobilizing all our forces’: Comintern Operations in Spain 1923-1936, Aportes 109 (2022), pp. 52-54
  4. Jakub Wojtkowiak, Polacy i Litwini, oficerowie Armii Czerwonej w latach 1922-1941 : słownik biograficzny, Warszawa 2015, ISBN 9788364486302, p. 544
  5. Beevor 2006, pp. 196–197.
  6. Beevor 2006, pp. 275–277.
  7. Beevor 2006, pp. 278-280 and 282-283.
  8. Beevor 2006, p. 297.
  9. Beevor 2006, pp. 320–321.
  10. Beevor 2006, p. 326.
  11. Beevor, Antony (2001). The Spanish Civil War. London: Cassell Military Paperbacks. p. 327. ISBN 0-304-35840-1.
  12. "Biography of Colonel-General Karol Karlovich Sverchevskii - (Кароль Карлович Сверчевский) - (Karol Swierczewski) (1897 – 1947), Soviet Union".
  13. Piotr Lipiński: Towarzysze Niejasnego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Prószyński i Spółka, 2003, s. 48. ISBN 83-7337-310-1.
  14. ^ Marta Tychmanowicz (2014). "Karol Świerczewski: człowiek, który się kulom nie kłaniał". Wiadomości, wp.pl. Śmierć Świerczewskiego wyniosła generała do panteonu polskich męczenników rewolucji socjalistycznej. "Walter" stał się ikoną bohaterstwa, służby i poświęcenia dla Polski Ludowej. Jego imieniem nazywano szkoły, ulice i osiedla. Działania te były jednak życzeniowym zaklinaniem rzeczywistości, zakłamywaniem faktów historycznych – biografia Karola Świerczewskiego, która mogła wybrzmieć dopiero w pełni po 1989 roku, negatywnie zweryfikowała jego członkostwo w klubie niezłomnych bohaterów, którzy się kulom nie kłaniali.
  15. ^ Wawer, Zbigniew (26 August 2010). "Zapomniana bitwa". polska-zbrojna.pl. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
  16. Henryk Piecuch (1997). Imperium służb specjalnych: od Gomułki do Kani. Agencja Wydawn. CB. p. 35. ISBN 978-83-86245-16-1. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
  17. "Instytut Pamięci Narodowej | "Lipcowe Święto" – Chełm, 21 lipca 2004 r." Ipn.gov.pl. Archived from the original (Internet Archive) on 14 April 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
  18. "Żołnierz Zwycięstwa". filmpolski.pl. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
  19. "Historia – XXXIV L.O." (in Polish). Miguel de Cervantes Liceum.
  20. "Walter - kompromitująca historia człowieka, który się kulom nie kłaniał". 18 October 2013.
  21. "Portal Społeczności Internetowych". Republika.pl. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
  22. The Volunteer Journal of the Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade (Internet Archive).
  23. Brigadistas

References

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