Misplaced Pages

Hippocrates: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 10:42, 18 September 2006 edit212.135.1.185 (talk) →Hippocratic theory← Previous edit Latest revision as of 15:57, 28 November 2024 edit undoMonkbot (talk | contribs)Bots3,695,952 editsm Task 20: replace {lang-??} templates with {langx|??} ‹See Tfd› (Replaced 1);Tag: AWB 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Ancient Greek physician (c. 460 – c. 370 BC)}}
:''For other uses of the name '''Hippocrates''', see ].''
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Hippocrates of Kos
| image = Hippocrates.jpg
| caption = A conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th-century engraving)
| birth_date = {{circa|460}} BC
| birth_place = ], ]
| death_date = {{circa|370}} BC<br/>(aged approximately 90)
| death_place = ], ancient Greece
| occupation = ]
| era = ]
}}


'''Hippocrates of Kos''' ({{IPAc-en|h|ɪ|ˈ|p|ɒ|k|r|ə|t|iː|z}}, {{langx|grc|Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος|Hippokrátēs ho Kôios}}; {{c.|460|370 BC}}), also known as '''Hippocrates II''', was a Greek ] and ] of the ] who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the ]. He is traditionally referred to as the "Father of Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field, such as the use of ] and clinical observation, the systematic categorization of diseases, and the (however misguided) formulation of ]. The Hippocratic school of medicine revolutionized ], establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated (] and ]), thus establishing medicine as a profession.<ref name="garrison9293">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|pp=92–93}}</ref><ref name="nuland5">{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=5}}</ref>
]
'''Hippocrates of Kos II.''' (c. ]&ndash;c. ]) was an ] ] who lived in the ] and is commonly regarded as one of the most outstanding figures in the history of ]. For his lasting contributions to this field, he is often referred to as "]". The Hippocratic school defined the field of medicine as separate from the other disciplines (notably ] and ]) and made a profession of practicing medicine. It summed up the medical knowledge of previous schools and defined ]s and practices for ]s by which to work and live.<ref> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92-93}} </ref><ref name=nuland5> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=5}} </ref>


However, the achievements of the writers of the ], the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often conflated; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the ] of the ancient physician and credited with coining the ], which is still relevant and in use today. He is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of ], summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works.<ref name="garrison9293"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=96}}</ref>
The '''Hippocratic Corpus''', the collection of works commonly associated with Hippocrates, was the medium through which Hippocratic philosophy proffered the above and is largely responsible for his renown today; its achievements are inseparable from his individual ones. It also represented extraordinary skills of clinical observation in clear, concise, objective writing.<ref name=marti86> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=86-87}}</ref> The great detail and depth of the descriptions in these historic works are still respected, as is the ], which is sometimes taken today in modified form.<ref name=gar94> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=94}} </ref><ref> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=96}} </ref>


==Biography== ==Biography==
] Emperor ], who was asking for his services. Painted by ], 1792.<ref>{{harvnb|Pinault|1992|p=79}}</ref>]]
]]]
Only Hippocrates' birth date, birth place and profession are known for certain. Historians accept that he actually existed, was born near the year 460 BC on the island of ] and that he was a famous physician and teacher of medicine. All other biographical information is shrouded by myth. Over the years, many legends arose concerning miraculous healing that Hippocrates supposedly did. It is now difficult to separate these from the fact of what actually happened. As no real biography was available for centuries after his death, those that we have today must be based on many years of oral tradition and are thus unreliable.<ref name=nuland4> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=4}} </ref> Historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of ]; other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=4}}</ref>


], a 2nd-century Greek ],<ref name="BCE">{{Harvnb|Britannica Concise Encyclopedia|2006}}</ref> was Hippocrates's first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him. Later biographies are in the '']'' of the 10th century AD, and in the works of ], which date from the 12th century AD.<ref name="garrison9293"/><ref name="nuland7">{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=7}}</ref> Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries: in ]'s dialogues '']'' and '']'',<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|1868|p=28}}</ref> and in ]'s '']'', all of which date from the 4th century BC.<ref>Aristotle, </ref>
], about whom little is known, was his first biographer and is the source of most of our assumed knowledge of Hippocrates' person. Soranus stated <!--in his work ''The Life of Hippocrates''-->that his father, a ], was Heraclides, and his mother, daughter of ], was named Praxitela. He had two sons, Thessalus and Draco, and a son-in-law, Polybus. All three were his students, but ] says that Polybus was Hippocrates’ true successor. Galen also states that each of Hippocrates II.’s sons, Thessalus and Draco, had a son named Hippocrates.<ref name=adams19> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=19}} </ref><ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref>


Soranus wrote that Hippocrates's father was ], a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates, ] and ], and his son-in-law, ], were his students. According to ], a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates's true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son named ] (Hippocrates III and IV).<ref name="adams19">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=19}}</ref><ref name="margotta66">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}}</ref>
Soranus says also that Hippocrates was taught medicine by his father and grandfather and other subjects by ] and ].
He could have been trained at the ] of ], and may have been a pupil of ]: ], Hippocrates' only contemporary to mention him, describes him as an ]. <ref name=marti86> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=86-87}} </ref> Other ancient biographers of his were ], ], and ].<ref> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92}} </ref><ref name=nuland7> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=7}} </ref>
<!--
Ancient Greeks held that Hippocrates was descended from Aesclipius adams7?-->


Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather (]), and studied other subjects with ] and ]. Hippocrates was probably trained at the ] of Kos, and took lessons from the ] physician ]. Plato mentions Hippocrates in two of his dialogues: in '']'', Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the ]";<ref name="marti86">{{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|pp=86–87}}</ref><ref>]</ref> while in '']'', Plato suggests that "Hippocrates the Asclepiad" thought that a complete knowledge of the nature of the body was necessary for medicine.<ref>]</ref> Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as ], ], and the ]. Several different accounts of his death exist. He died, probably in ], at the age of 83, 85 or 90, though some say he lived to be well over 100.<ref name="margotta66"/>
It is fairly certain that Hippocrates traveled significantly, at least as far as ], ] and the ].<ref name=mar66 /> He may have died in ] at the age of 83 or 90, though his death date is speculated with very little certainty; some sources state that he lived to be over 100 years old. <ref name=mar66 />


==Hippocratic theory== ==Hippocratic theory==
{{rquote|right|It is thus with regard to ]: it appears to me to be nowise more divine nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause from the originates like other affections. Men regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance and wonder...|Hippocrates, '']'' (epilepsy)}}
===Cause of illness===
Hippocrates is often hailed as the first physician to reject superstitious beliefs and practice medicine based only on scientific theory. While in some respects he did just this, Hippocrates also had a few pseudo-scientific convictions about the human body and the cause of illnesses.


Hippocrates is credited as the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods.<ref name="philosophy">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=4}}</ref><ref name="jones11"/><ref name="nuland8"/><ref name="garrison9394"/> He was acknowledged by the disciples of ] for allying philosophy and medicine.<ref name="philosophy"/> He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the ] but rather the product of ], diet, and living habits. There is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did hold many convictions that were based on incorrect ] and ], such as ].<ref name="jones11">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=11}}</ref><ref name="nuland8">{{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|pp=8–9}}</ref><ref name="garrison9394">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|pp=93–94}}</ref>
Indeed, Greek medicine of the time knew almost nothing of human ] and ], largely because of the Greek taboo prohibiting the dissection of animals. The ] school, focused towards diagnosis, was dependent upon faulty assumptions about the human body; it failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms. <ref name=adams15> {{Harvnb|Adam|1891|p=15}} </ref> The Hippocratic school of Kos, however, was more successful because it was more general in its diagnoses and more passive in its treatment. So, the focus of Hippocratic medicine was on patient care, prognosis and not diagnostics, and could not effectively treat many diseases, yet it also allowed for a great development in clinical practice.<ref name=margotta67> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=67}} </ref><ref> {{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=51}} </ref>


Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split into the ] and ] on how to deal with disease. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis. Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek ] forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.<ref name="adams15">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=15}}</ref> The Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general ] and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and ], not diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.<ref name="margotta67">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=67}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=51}}</ref>
Scientific Hippocrates did deny the divine origin of all sickness. He hypothesized that disease was not punishment of the ] but due to environmental factors, diet and living habits. Indeed, there is not a single mention of mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. <ref name=jones11> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=11}}</ref><ref name=nuland8> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=8-9}} </ref>


Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from modern medicine, in which the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates's day has generated serious criticism of their denunciations;<!--It seems to me that something is missing here. Hippocrates used methods that succeeded at his time, when medical knowledge was insufficiently advanced to allow for diagnoses or specialized treatments; at that time, attending to the general wellness of the patient was often the best way to allow their own immune system to fight off a disease. I'm almost certain I've seen this opinion in writing somewhere, and if it can be found it should be included.--> for example, the ] doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death".<ref name="jones1213">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|pp=12–13}}</ref>
====Humorism====
{{rquote|right|If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kids.niehs.nih.gov/topics/environment-health | title=Environment & Health - Kids Environment Kids Health |publisher=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/geoscience-topics/environmental-health/Pages/default.aspx | title= Environmental Health |publisher=Geological Survey Ireland}}</ref>|Hippocrates, 5th century BC}}
{{mainarticle|Humorism}}
Hippocrates held that illness was due to an imbalance of the ] in the body, fluids which were naturally equal in amount. When the four humours, ], ], ] and ] were unbalanced (]), a person became sick and would remain that way until the balance was restored.


Analogies have been drawn between Thucydides' historical method and the Hippocratic method, in particular the notion of "human nature" as a way of explaining foreseeable repetitions for future usefulness, for other times or for other cases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/34779296|title=L'influence de la médecine hippocratique sur la Guerre du Péloponnèse de Thucydide |first=Marie |last=Durnerin|website=www.academia.edu|language=fr|access-date=2019-04-18}}</ref>{{bsn|reason=inaccessible, ]|date=November 2024}}
===Diagnosis===<!--expand!!!-->
He classified illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic. Other medical terms that he introduced were, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence."<ref name=gar97> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=97}}</ref><ref name=mart90> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=90}} </ref>

===Prognosis and therapy===
Another important precept of Hippocratic doctrine was based on, "the healing power of nature" or in ], ''vis medicatrix naturae''; the body will heal itself if not influenced otherwise. Hippocratic therapy was focused on simply easing this natural process ; often the patient was made to relax and recuperate on his own: "rest and immobilization are of capital importance".<ref name=margotta73> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=73}} </ref> By these beliefs, Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that could be wrong; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.<ref name=gar98> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=98}} </ref><ref name=sing35> {{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=35}} </ref>


===Crisis=== ===Crisis===
] on ]]]
An important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a ''crisis'', a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin triumph and the patient would move to die, or the opposite, and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. Crises occur on ''critical days'', usually a fixed time after the contraction of the disease.<ref name=jones46> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=46}} </ref>
An important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a ''crisis'', a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on ''critical days'', which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from a ''critical day'', a relapse might be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.<ref name="jones464859">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|pp=46,48,59}}</ref>


], date unknown]]
He also liked pies'''Bold text'''''Italic text'']


Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power of nature" ({{langx|la|]}}). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the ] and heal itself ({{lang|grc-Latn|physis}}).<ref name="garrison99">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=99}}</ref> Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization of capital importance".<ref name="margotta73">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=73}}</ref> In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing ] were sometimes employed.<ref name="garrison98">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=98}}</ref>
==Hippocratic practice==
===Professionalism===<!-- expand-->
] injury. Use of a complex bandage can be seen.]]
For all of his advancements in medical theory, it was truly in discipline, practice, and strict professionalism that Hippocratic medicine excelled. In the Hippocratic work ''On the physician'', it is recommended that physicians must always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding and serious.<ref name=margotta64> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=64}} </ref>


Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.<ref name="garrison98"/><ref name="sing35">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=35}}</ref> Some of the generalized treatments he prescribed are fasting and the consumption of a mix of honey and vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness". However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions.<ref name="britannica">{{Harvnb|Tuke|1911}}</ref> This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones, which required ] to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The ] and other devices were used to this end.<ref>{{cite book
The Hippocratic School is famous for its clinical doctrines. These recommend that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.<ref name=margotta66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref> He also extended clinical observations into family history and environment in accordance with his theory.<ref name=margotta68> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=68}} </ref> "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation"<ref name=gar94 /> For this reason, he may termed only the "Father of ''Clinical'' Medicine". <ref> {{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=45}} </ref>
| last1 = Kazantzidis
| first1 = George
| last2 = Gerolemou
| first2 = Maria
| editor-last = Kazantzidis
| editor-first = George
| editor2-last = Gerolemou
| editor2-first = Maria
| title = Body and Machine in Classical Antiquity
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 2023
| isbn = 9781316514665
| page = 120
| format = hardcover|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvnAEAAAQBAJ&dq=hippocratic+bench&pg=PA120}}</ref>


In Hippocrates's time it was thought that ] was a disease in and of itself.<ref name="LaFrance">{{cite magazine |last1=LaFrance |first1=Adrienne |title=A Cultural History of the Fever |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/09/running-hot-a-cultural-history-of-the-fever/405643/ |access-date=2 March 2023 |magazine=The Atlantic |date=16 September 2015}}</ref> Hippocrates treated patients with fever by ] them out,<ref name="Currie">{{cite book |last1=Currie |first1=Margaret |title=Fever hospitals and fever nurses: a British social history of fever nursing: a national service |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1134265268 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XkbgnoSEexsC&q=starve%20a%20fever |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref> believing that 'starving' the fever was a way to neutralize the disease.<ref name="Paulian">{{cite book |last1=Paulian |first1=Gunther B. |title=Divine Prescription: and science of health and healing |date=2017 |publisher=Teach Services |location=<!-- not identified --> |isbn=978-1479608294 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hj0yDwAAQBAJ&dq=hippocrates+starve+a+disease&pg=PT166 |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref> He may therefore have been the originator of the idea "]".<ref name="Horne">{{cite book |last1=Horne |first1=Steven |title=Strategies For Health A Comprehensive Guide to Healing Yourself Naturally |date=2022 |publisher=Fulton Books |location=La Vergne |isbn=978-1637102541 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xypaEAAAQBAJ&dq=hippocrates+starve+a+fever&pg=PT184 |access-date=2 March 2023}}</ref>
Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions. <ref name=gar97 /> He might have even measured a patient's pulse when taking a ] in order to know if the patient lied. <ref name=marti88> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=88}} </ref>


One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on ]. At Hippocrates's time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.<ref name="garrison9394"/><ref name="garrison97">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=97}}</ref>
===Methods of treatment===
]; on the right, a set of ]s. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools. <ref name=adams17> {{Harvnb|Adam|1891|p=17}} </ref>]]
In accordance with the focus on patient care, Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient, sterile and gentle whenever possible. For example, only clean water or wine was used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Specifications for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient ] are described in detail.<ref name=gar98> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=98}} </ref><ref name=rutkow24> {{Harvnb|Rutkow|p=24-5}} </ref>
<!--Soothing balms were often used, for instance. Also, the Hippocratic writings introduced the policy of patient ], a practice still in use today. {{fact}}-->


===Professionalism===
One of Hippocrates' great contributions is his description of the ], physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of ], i.e. ] of the lining of the chest cavity. Much of what he said is very useful to students of pulmonary medicine and surgery today. He was the first documented ] and his findings are still valid.<ref name=major> {{Harvnb|Major|1965}} </ref><!--gymnastics adams9-->
]; on the right, a set of ]s. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools.<ref name="adams17">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=17}}</ref>]]


Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice.<ref name="garrison">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966}}</ref> The Hippocratic work ''On the Physician'' recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient ].<ref name="margotta64">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=64}}</ref> He even kept his ]s to a precise length.<ref name="rutkow24">{{Harvnb|Rutkow|1993|pp=24–25}}</ref>
==The Hippocratic Corpus==
{{mainarticle|List of works in the Hippocratic Corpus}}
The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: ''Corpus Hippocratum'') is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with Hippocrates and his teachings. Of the seventy-or-so volumes in the Corpus, none is proven to be of Hippocrates' hand itself, though some sources say otherwise.<ref name=singer27> {{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=27}} </ref>Instead, the works were probably produced by students and followers of his, maybe centuries after he died. But the corpus carries Hippocrates' name as it was attributed to him in antiquity and its teaching generally follow principles of his. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, scholars believe it could not have been written by one person and may be the remains of a library of Kos, or a collection compiled in the third century B.C. in ].<ref name=margotta64 /><ref name=marti86> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=86-87}}</ref>


The Hippocratic school gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.<ref name="margotta66"/> Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.<ref name="garrison97"/> He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying.<ref name="marti88">{{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=88}}</ref> Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment.<ref name="margotta68">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=68}}</ref> "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation."<ref name="garrison9394"/>
===Content===
The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and even philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine in no particular order.<ref name=singer27 /><ref name=rutkow23> {{Harvnb|Rutkow|p=23}} </ref> These works were also written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen. They were also sometimes written from opposing view points, and significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus.<ref name=sing28> {{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=28}} </ref>


==Direct contributions to medicine==
There are a number of case-histories in the Hippocratic Corpus, 42 to be exact. Of these, 60% (25) ended in the patient's death. <ref name=gar95> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=95}} </ref> Nearly all of the diseases described in the Corpus are ]s: colds, consumption, pneumonia, etc.<ref name=jones51> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=51}} </ref>
]; first described by Hippocrates, clubbing is also known as "Hippocratic fingers".]]
] of the reduction of a ] shoulder with a Hippocratic device]]


Hippocrates and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Starr|2017}}</ref> He is given credit for the first description of ] of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease, ] and ]. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".<ref name="schwartz">{{Harvnb|Schwartz|Richards|Goyal|2006}}</ref> Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe ] in ''Prognosis''. ] famously alludes to this description when writing of ]'s death in Act II, Scene iii. of '']''.<ref name="sing40">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=40}}</ref><ref name="margotta70">{{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=70}}</ref>
===Style===
{{Quote_box|
width=30%
|align=right
|quote="Life is short, art long, opportunity fleeting, experiment treacherous, judgment difficult."
|source= ''Aphorisms'' i.1.
}}
The concise and objective writing style of the Corpus has been remarked upon for centuries, being described by some as, "clear, precise, and simple"<ref name=gar99> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=99}} </ref> and, "grave and austere" by others.<ref name=jones10> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=10}} </ref> Adams goes one step further and calls it sometimes “obscure”. Not all of the Hippocratic corpus is of this “laconic” style, but most is. His style has been compared to that of ], who also is concise, sometimes too much.<ref name=adams18> {{Harvnb|Adam|1891|p=18}} </ref>


Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as ], ], ] and ], and use terms such as, "exacerbation, ], resolution, crisis, ], peak, and ]."<ref name="garrison97"/><ref name="mart90">{{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=90}}</ref> Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of ], i.e. ] of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of ] and surgery.<ref name="major">{{Harvnb|Major|1965}}</ref> Hippocrates was the first documented ] and his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.<ref name="major" />
The whole corpus is written in ], though the island of Kos was in a region that spoke ]. The use of Ionic instead of the native Doric dialect is analogous to the practice of ] scientists, using ] instead of the vernacular for their treatises. <ref name=jones23> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=23}} </ref>


The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human ] and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. ], for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways.<ref name="johann11">{{Harvnb|Jóhannsson|2005|p=11}}</ref><ref name="jani">{{Harvnb|Jani|2005|pp=24–25}}</ref> ] and ] are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods: ] the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well.<ref name="johann12">{{Harvnb|Jóhannsson|2005|p=12}}</ref><ref name="book">{{Harvnb|Mann|2002|pp=1, 173}}</ref> Today, "treatment still includes burning, strangling, and excising."<ref name="johann11"/> Also, some of the fundamental concepts of ] outlined in the Corpus are still in use.<ref name="johann11"/><ref name="jani"/> For example, the uses of the rectal ], a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus.<ref name="jani"/> This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Shah|2002|p=645}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|NCEPOD|2004|p=4}}</ref> Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such as ] and ] to treat diseases such as ], what is today called ].
===Printed editions===
The entire Hippocratic Corpus was first printed as a unit in 1525 in ] edited by ] in ]. The first complete ] edition followed the next year in ], and the ] version was published about 300 years later.<ref name=rutkow23> {{Harvnb|Rutkow|p=23}} </ref>


Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are "Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine".<ref>{{harvnb|Chishti|1988|p=11}}</ref> Both appear to be misquotations, and their exact origins remain unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Cardenas|2013}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|King|2020|pp=105–110}}</ref>
A significant edition was that of ] who spent twenty-two years (1839-1861) working diligently on the Hippocratic Corpus. This was scholarly, yet sometimes inaccurate and awkward. Another edition of note was that of ], whose notes were, "a pleasure to read", according to ].<ref name=jones6263> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=62-3}} </ref>


In 2017, researchers claimed that, while conducting restorations on the ] in ], they found a manuscript which contains a medical recipe of Hippocrates. The manuscript also contains three recipes with pictures of herbs that were created by an anonymous scribe.<ref>{{harvnb|Gibbens|2017}}</ref>
===The Oath===
{{mainarticle|Hippocratic Oath}}
The most famous work in it is the ], a landmark declaration of doctoral ethics historically taken at the beginning of a doctor's career. While the oath is rarely used in its original form, derivatives of it are taken today and it serves as a foundation for other, similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals. <ref name=jones217> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=217}} </ref>
<!--
It, while probably w Hippocrates the man, it possibly predates him; it might have been the ].{{specify}}-->


==Hippocratic Corpus==
==Legacy==
{{main|Hippocratic Corpus}}
], under which Hippocrates is said to have worked.]]
] manuscript of the Oath in the form of a ]]]
Hippocrates was the first great physician, and for a long time, the last. He was the most important influence on medicine for over a thousand years, and after him there was a dearth of medical advancement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=100}}</ref> According to ]'s testimony, he was known as "the Great Hippocrates"<ref name=jones38> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=38}} </ref>. Medical practitioners who followed him sometimes moved backwards. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out..."<ref name=gar95> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=95}}</ref>


The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: ''Corpus Hippocraticum'') is a collection of around seventy early medical works collected in ].<ref name="Iniesta2011">{{harvnb|Iniesta|2011|p=d688}}</ref> It is written in ]. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of any of the treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered,<ref name="singer27">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=27}}</ref> but modern debate revolves around only a few of the treatises seen as potentially authored by him. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen).<ref name="britannica"/> The corpus came to be known by his name because of his fame; possibly all medical works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in ].<ref name="marti86"/><ref name="margotta64"/><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002}}</ref> The volumes were probably produced by his students and followers.<ref name="hanson">{{Harvnb|Hanson|2006}}</ref>
After Hippocrates, the next significant physician was ], a ] who lived from 129 -200 AD. Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine, though controversially. In the ], ]s, too, adopted Hippocratic methods.<ref> {{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=102}} </ref> After the ], Hippocratic methods were revived in Europe and even further expanded upon in the 1800s. Others that employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques were ], ], ] and ].It has been said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine".<ref name=gar94 />


The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order.<ref name="singer27"/><ref name="rutkow23">{{Harvnb|Rutkow|1993|p=23}}</ref> These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus.<ref name="sing28">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=28}}</ref> Among the treatises of the Corpus are '']''; ''The Book of Prognostics''; ''On Regimen in Acute Diseases''; '']''; ''On Airs, Waters and Places''; ''Instruments of Reduction''; ''On The Sacred Disease''; etc.<ref name="britannica"/>
And yet, Hippocratic medicine is far removed from modern medicine. Today, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment. So Hippocratic methods have seen some serious criticism in the past two millenia. ] in 1836 called Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death." He said the purpose of the doctor was to cure the patient, not simply predict how he will die.<ref name=jones1213> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=12-3}} </ref>
<!--
setting fire to the Asclepieion of Knidos or Kos.<ref name=margotta66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}}<ref name=jones24> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=24}} </ref>


===Hippocratic Oath===
''facies Hippocratica'' ] <ref name=gar97 />-->
{{main|Hippocratic Oath}}
The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the ] of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently, the authenticity of the document's author has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar ]s and laws that define good medical practice and morals.<ref name="wma.net">{{harvnb|WMA}}</ref> Such derivatives are regularly taken by modern medical graduates about to enter medical practice.<ref name="marti86"/><ref name="jones217">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=217}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rahman|1966|pp=56–62}}</ref>


===Image=== ==Legacy==
] and Hippocrates. 12th century; ], Italy <!-- <ref>
So revered was Hippocrates at the time of his death that ] (from a ]) on his grave was believed to have healing powers. But so revered was he, that, after him, no significant advancements were made for a long time. His teachings were taken as too great to be improved upon. <ref name=marti86> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=86-87}}</ref><ref> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=73}} </ref>
{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715015531/http://www.humanehealthcare.com/Article.asp?art_id=638 |date=2014-07-15 }}</ref>-->]]


Although Hippocrates neither founded the school of medicine named after him, nor wrote most of the treatises attributed to him, he is traditionally regarded as the "Father of Medicine".<ref>{{Harvnb|Jouanna|1999|p=42}}: "Hippocrates was neither the Father of Medicine nor the founder of the Coan school, but he did manage to confer an exceptionally lustrous reputation upon this school through his teaching". Though antiquated, the traditional title remains in wide use among scholars: see, e.g., {{Harvnb|Jouanna|1999|loc=pp. xi, xii, 4, 229, 348}}; {{Harvnb|King|2008|p=322}}; {{Harvnb|Smith|1998}}.</ref> His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled.<ref name="garrison100">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=100}}</ref> So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time.<ref name="marti86"/><ref name="margotta73"/> The centuries after Hippocrates's death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out," according to ].<ref name="garrison95">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=95}}</ref>
Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a, "kind, dignified, old 'country doctor'" and later as, "stern and forbidding".<ref name=marti86 /> He is certainly considered wise and of very great intellect. He is seen as very ‘’practical’’, and Adams describes him as “strictly the physician of experience and common sense”. <ref name=adams15> {{Harvnb|Adam|1891|p=15}} </ref>


After Hippocrates, another significant physician was ], a ] who lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated the tradition of Hippocratic medicine, making some advancements, but also some regressions.<ref name="jones35">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=35}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|West|2014|pp=L121–L128}}</ref> In the ], the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leff|Leff|1956|p=102}}</ref> After the ], Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates's rigorous clinical techniques were ], ], ] and ]. ], a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine."<ref name="garrison934"/>
His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by our busts of him, which all wear large beards<!--lined faces-->. The image is probably close, though: the physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of ] and ]. But, the busts of Hippocrates that we have today are probably only altered versions of portraits of these deities.<ref name=gar100> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=100}} </ref>
<!-- best bust uffizi gallery-->


===Image===
He, and the beliefs that he embodied, are considered medical ideals. "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit."<ref name=gar94 /> "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician”, inspiring the medical profession since his death.<ref name=sing29> {{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=29}} </ref>
] after ], 1638]]


According to ]'s testimony, Hippocrates was known as "The Great Hippocrates".<ref name="jones38">{{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=38}}</ref> Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor" and later as "stern and forbidding".<ref name="marti86"/> He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical. ] describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense."<ref name="adams15"/>
===Legends===
Some events that, said to have taken place are unlikely to have actually occurred. For example, Hippocrates was supposed to have aided in the healing of Athenians during the ] by lighting great fires as "disinfectants". This account, is not corraborated by any historians.<ref name=jones37> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=37}} </ref><ref name=adams11> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=11}} </ref>


His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of ] and ]. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities.<ref name="garrison100"/> Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. ], an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit."<ref name="garrison934">{{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=94}}</ref> "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician," according to ''A Short History of Medicine'', inspiring the medical profession since his death.<ref name="sing29">{{Harvnb|Singer|Underwood|1962|p=29}}</ref>
There is a story of Hippocrates curing ], a ] king of "]". While the story itself probably did not occur, Hippocrates likely attended Perdiccas' court.<ref name=adams10> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=10}} </ref>


===Legends===
Another legend, this one negative, was that Hippocrates did his traveling only after he set fire to a ] in Greece. Soranus, the source of this story, names the temple as the one of ]. Tzetzes writes, however, that it was his own Temple of Cos that was burned, that he would maintain a monopoly of medical knowledge.<ref name=adams10> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=10}} </ref>
'']'' reports (incorrectly) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of "Kos and Lango" , and recounts a legend about Hippocrates's daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot long ] by the goddess ], and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is a version of the legend of ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bale|2012|p=15}}</ref>


==Namesakes==
One more probable legend concerns how Hippocrates rejected a formal request to visit the court of the ]. The validity of this is accepted by ancient sources, denied by some modern ones and is thus under contention.<ref name=adams1213> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=12-3}} </ref>
] in ]]]
Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe them. ] is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like. ], a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. ] is the internal splashing noise of ] or ]. ] (a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and ] are two devices named after Hippocrates.<ref name="Fishchenko">{{Harvnb|Fishchenko|Khimich|1986}}</ref> ] and ] are also his namesakes. ], a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile. The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.<ref>{{cite news |title=The dilemma of balding solve by father of medicine Hippocrates|publisher=Healthy Hair Highlights News|date=15 August 2011}} <!-- https://web.archive.org/web/20111006150551/http://www.healthyhairhighlights.com/hair_loss_and_hair_growth_in_bible.html --></ref>


In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named ]. The ], a ] on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him. ] is a program of the ] Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology. ] (an acronym of "High Performance Computing for Robot-Assisted Surgery") is an effort of the ] and ], "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots."<ref name="project">{{Harvnb|Project Hippocrates|1995}}</ref> Both the and ] are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times.
====Genealogy====
With this legendary figure, comes a legendary genealogy, which traces Hippocrates’ heritage directly to Asclepius. The ] of Hippocrates II. is, according to ]’s '']'':


==Genealogy==
1. '''Hippocrates II. “The Father of Medicine”'''<br>
Hippocrates's legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to ].<ref name="britannica"/> According to Tzetzes's '']'', the ] of Hippocrates II is:<ref name="adams">{{Harvnb|Adams|1891}}</ref>
2. Heraclides<br>
] of Hippocrates on the floor of the ] of Kos, with ] in the middle, 2nd–3rd century]]
4. Hippocrates I.<br>
1. '''Hippocrates II.'''<br />
8. Gnosidicus<br>
16. Nebrus<br> 2. Heraclides<br />
32. Sostratus III.<br> 4. Hippocrates I.<br />
64. Theodorus II.<br> 8. Gnosidicus<br />
16. {{Not typo|Nebrus}}<br />
128. Sostratus, II.<br>
256. Thedorus<br> 32. Sostratus III.<br />
512. Cleomyttades<br> 64. Theodorus II.<br />
1024. Crisamis<br> 128. Sostratus, II.<br />
2048. Dardanus<br> 256. Thedorus<br />
4096. Sostatus<br> 512. Cleomyttades<br />
8192. Hippolochus<br> 1024. Crisamis<br />
16384. Podalirius<br> 2048. Dardanus<br />
4096. Sostratus<br />
32768. ]
8192. Hippolochus<br />
16384. ]<br />
32768. ]


==See also== ==See also==
* ]
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikisource|el:Ιπποκράτης|Hippocrates (in Greek)}}
*]
*]
*]
*] (clubbing)
*]
*]


==References== ==Notes==
{{Reflist|22em}}
<references/>


==Bibliography== ==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Harvard reference
* {{Citation
| Surname1 = Adams
| last=Adams | first=Francis | year = 1891
| Given1 = Francis
| title = The Genuine Works of Hippocrates
| Year = 1891
| publisher = William Wood and Company
| Title = The Genuine Works of Hippocrates
| place = New York
| Publisher = William Wood and Company
}}
| Place = ]
* {{Citation
|last = Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
|title = Soranus of Ephesus
|year = 2006
|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
|url = http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9379121/Soranus-of-Ephesus
|access-date = December 17, 2006
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012184531/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9379121/Soranus-of-Ephesus
|archive-date = October 12, 2007
}}. }}.
* {{citation
* {{Harvard reference
|last=Cardenas
| Surname1 = Garrison
|first=Diana
| Given1 = Fielding H.
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258099432
| Year = 1966
|title=Let not thy food be confused with thy medicine: The Hippocratic misquotation
| Title = History of Medicine
|year=2013
| Publisher = W.B. Saunders Company
|publisher=e-SPEN Journal
| Place = ]
}}.
* {{citation
|last=Chishti
|first=Hakim
|title=The Traditional Healer's Handbook
|year=1988
|publisher=Healing Arts Press
|location=Vermont
|isbn=978-0-89281-438-1
}}. }}.
* {{Citation
* {{Harvard reference
| last1=Fishchenko | first1=AIa | last2=Khimich | first2=SD
| Surname1 = Jones
| title = Modification of the Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage
| Given1 = W. H. S.
| journal = Klin Khir | year = 1986 | volume = 1 | issue=1 | page = 72
| Year = 1868
| pmid = 3959439
| Title = Hippocrates Collected Works I
| Publisher = Cambridge Harvard University Press
| URL = http://daedalus.umkc.edu/hippocrates/HippocratesLoeb1/page.ix.php
}}. }}.
* {{Citation
* {{Harvard reference
| last=Garrison | first=Fielding H. | year = 1966
| Surname1 = Leff
| title = History of Medicine
| Given1 = Samuel
| publisher = W.B. Saunders Company
| Surname2 = Leff
| place = Philadelphia
| Given2 = Vera.
| Year = 1956
| Title = From Witchcraft to World Health
| Publisher = Camelot Press Ltd.
| Place = ] and ]
}}. }}.
* {{cite news|last=Gibbens|first=Sarah|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/hippocrates-manuscript-sinai-palimpsests-st-catherines-monastery-spd|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427204838/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/hippocrates-manuscript-sinai-palimpsests-st-catherines-monastery-spd|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 27, 2021|title=Text by 'Father of Medicine' Found in Remote Egyptian Monastery|year=2017|publisher=National Geographic}}
* {{Harvard reference
* {{Citation
| Surname1 = Major
| last = Hanson
| Given1 = Ralph H.
| first = Ann Ellis
| Year = 1965
| year = 2006
| Title = Classic Descrptions of Disease
| url = http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgajpd/medicina%20antiqua/Medant/hippint.htm
| Place = ]
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111119100937/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgajpd/medicina%20antiqua/Medant/hippint.htm
| archive-date = 2011-11-19
| title = Hippocrates: The "Greek Miracle" in Medicine
| access-date = September 9, 2018
}}
* {{Citation
|last = Hippocrates
|title = On the Sacred Disease
|year = 2006
|orig-year = 400 BC
|publisher = Internet Classics Archive: The ]
|url = http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html
|access-date = December 17, 2006
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926213032/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html
|archive-date = September 26, 2007
|ref = Hippocrates
}}. }}.
* {{Citation |title=Hippocratic Corpus |first=Ivan |last=Iniesta |date=20 April 2011 |doi=10.1136/bmj.d688 |journal=BMJ |volume=342 |pages=d688 |s2cid=220115185 }}
* {{Harvard reference
* {{Citation
| Surname1 = Margotta
| Given1 = Roberto | last=Jani | first=P.G. | year = 2005
| title = Management of Haemorrhoids: A Personal Experience
| Year = 1968
| journal = ]
| Title = The Story of Medicine
| volume = 10
| Publisher = Golden Press
| Place = ] | issue = 2
| pages = 24–28
}}. }}.
* {{Citation
* {{Harvard reference
| last=Jóhannsson | first=Helgi Örn | year = 2005
| Surname1 = Martí-Ibáñez
| title = Haemorrhoids: Aspects of Symptoms and Results after Surgery
| Given1 = Félix
| publisher = ]
| Year = 1961
| isbn = 978-91-554-6399-1
| Title = A Prelude to Medical History
| Publisher = MD Publications, Inc.
| Place = ]
| ID = Library of Congress ID: 61-11617
}}. }}.
* {{Citation
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Nuland | last = Jones
| Given1 = Sherwin B. | first = W.H.S.
| Year = 1988 | year = 1868
| title = Hippocrates Collected Works I
| Title = Doctors
| location = Cambrodge
| Publisher = Knopf
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| ISBN = 0394551303
| url = http://daedalus.umkc.edu/hippocrates/HippocratesLoeb1/page.ix.php
| access-date = September 28, 2006
| archive-date = July 20, 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110720091731/http://daedalus.umkc.edu/hippocrates/HippocratesLoeb1/page.ix.php
| url-status = dead
}}. }}.
* {{Citation|last=Jouanna|first=Jacques|title=Hippocrates|year=1999|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-5907-6|others=M.B. DeBevoise, trans}}
* {{Harvard reference
* {{Citation
| Surname1 = Rutkow
| last1=Leff | first1=Samuel | last2=Leff | first2=Vera.
| Given1 = Ira M.
| Year = 1993 | year = 1956
| title = From Witchcraft to World Health
| Title = Surgery: An Illustrated History
| publisher = ] | place = London and Southampton
| Publisher = Elsevier Science Health Science div
}}
| Place = ] and ]
* {{cite book|translator-first=Anthony|translator-last=Bale|title=The Book of Marvels and Travels|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-960060-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KqonpxzxlFoC|ref=CITEREFBale2012|last1=Mandeville|first1=John|publisher=OUP Oxford}}
| ISBN = 0-801-6-6078-5
* {{citation |last1=King|first1=Helen|author-link=Helen King (classicist)|year=2008|chapter=Hippocrates of Cos|editor1-last=Koertge|editor1-first=Noretta|title=New Dictionary of Scientific Biography|location=Detroit|publisher=Thomson Gale|volume=3|pages=322–326|isbn=978-0684313207}}
* {{citation | last = King | first = Helen | title = Hippocrates now : the "father of medicine" in the internet age | publisher = Bloomsbury Academic | location = London & New York| year = 2020 | pages = 105–109 | isbn = 978-1-350-00591-4 }}
* {{Citation
| last=Mann | first=Charles V. | year = 2002
| title = Surgical Treatment of Haemorrhoids
| publisher = Springer
| isbn = 978-1-85233-496-3
}}. }}.
* {{Citation
* {{Harvard reference
| last=Major | first=Ralph H. | year = 1965
| Surname1 = Singer
| title = Classic Descriptions of Disease
| Given1 = Charles
| Surname2 = Underwood
| Given2 = E. Ashworth
| Year = 1962
| Title = Short History of Medicine
| Publisher = Oxford University Press
| Place = ] and ]
| ID = Library of Congress ID: 62-21080
}}. }}.
* {{Citation
| last=Margotta | first=Roberto | year = 1968
| title = The Story of Medicine
| publisher = ]
| place = New York
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Martí-Ibáñez | first=Félix | year = 1961
| title = A Prelude to Medical History
| publisher = MD Publications, Inc. | place = New York
|lccn=61-11617
}}
* {{Citation
|last = NCEPOD
|title = Scoping our practice
|year = 2004
|publisher = National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death
|place = London
|url = http://www.ncepod.org.uk/pdf/2004/04sum.pdf
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041016040753/https://www.ncepod.org.uk/pdf/2004/04sum.pdf
|archive-date = 2004-10-16
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Nuland | first=Sherwin B. | year = 1988
| title = Doctors | publisher = Knopf
| isbn =978-0-9539240-3-5
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Pinault | first=Jody Robin | year = 1992
| title = Hippocratic Lives and Legends
| publisher = Brill
| place = ]
| isbn = 978-90-04-09574-8
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Plato
| title=Phaedrus
| year=2012
| orig-year=360 BC
| publisher=Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library
| url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/phaedrus.html
| access-date=November 1, 2012
| ref=Plato360
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Plato
| title=Protagoras
| year=2006
| orig-year=380 BC
| publisher=Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library
| url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/protagoras.html
| access-date=December 17, 2006
| ref=Plato380
}}.
* {{Citation
| last = Project Hippocrates
| title = Project Hippocrates
| year = 1995
| publisher = Center for Medical Robotics and Computer Assisted Surgery, ]
| url = https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/mrcas/www/hippocrates.html
| access-date = December 30, 2006
}}.
* {{citation|title=Buqrat Aur Uski Tasaneef|first=Hakim Syed Zillur|last=Rahman|author-link=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|journal=Tibbia College Magazine|year=1966}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Rutkow | first=Ira M. | year = 1993
| title = Surgery: An Illustrated History
| publisher = Elsevier Science Health Science div
| place = London and Southampton
| isbn = 978-0-8016-6078-8
}}.
* {{Citation
| last1 = Schwartz
| first1 = Robert A.
| last2 = Richards
| first2 = Gregory M.
| last3 = Goyal
| first3 = Supriya
| year = 2006
| title = Clubbing of the Nails
| publisher = WebMD
| url = http://www.emedicine.com/derm/topic780.htm
| access-date = September 28, 2006
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Shah | first=J. | year = 2002
| title = Endoscopy through the ages
| journal = BJU International
| place = London | volume = 89 | issue = 7 | pages = 645–652
| doi = 10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02726.x
| pmid = 11966619
| s2cid=34806013 }}.
* {{Citation
| last1=Singer | first1=Charles | last2=Underwood | first2=E. Ashworth
| year = 1962
| title = A Short History of Medicine
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| place =New York and Oxford
|lccn= 62-21080
}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Smith|first1=Wesley D.|year=1998|title=Hippocrates|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hippocrates}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/ressources/pdf/medicina-hippo2.pdf|title=The Hippocratic Tradition|last=Smith|first=Wesley D.|date=2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018190846/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/ressources/pdf/medicina-hippo2.pdf|archive-date=2017-10-18|url-status=dead|access-date=18 October 2017}}
* {{citation
|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/hippocrates-worms-confirmed-ancient-greek-faeces
|title=Ancient Poo Is The First-Ever Confirmation Hippocrates Was Right About Parasites
|last=Starr
|first=Michelle
|date=18 December 2017
|website=Science Alert
|access-date=18 February 2018
}}.
* {{Cite EB1911
| wstitle = Hippocrates
| volume = 13
| pages = 517–519
| first = John Batty |last = Tuke
}}.
* {{Cite journal|last=West|first=John B.|date=Spring 2014|title=Galen and the beginnings of Western physiology|journal=Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol|volume=307|issue=2|pages=L121–L128 |doi=10.1152/ajplung.00123.2014|pmid=24879053}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-international-code-of-medical-ethics/ |publisher=World Medical Association |title=International Code of Medical Ethics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920142540/https://www.wma.net/news-post/modern-physicians-pledge-approved-by-world-medical-association/ |archive-date=2008-09-20 |ref=CITEREFWMA }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Citation
| translator-last=Adams | translator-first=Francis
| year = 1994 |orig-year=1891
| title = Works by Hippocrates
| publisher = Daniel C. Stevenson, Web Atomics © 1994–2000
| place = The Internet Classics Archive
| url = http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Hippocrates.html
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Coulter | first=Harris L
| title=Divided Legacy: A History of the Schism in Medical Thought: The Patterns Emerge: Hippocrates to Paracelsus
| year=1975 | publisher=Weehawken Book | location=Washington, DC | volume=1}}
* Craik, Elizabeth M. (ed., trans., comm.), ''The Hippocratic Treatise'' On glands (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009) (Studies in ancient medicine, 36).
* {{Citation|last=Di Benedetto|first=Vincenzo|title=Il medico e la malattia. La scienza di Ippocrate|year=1986|publisher=Einaudi|location=Turin}}
* {{Citation|last=Edelstein|first=Ludwig|title=The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation|year=1943|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore}}
* Enache, Cătălin (2019), ''Ontology and Meteorology in Hippocrates''' On Regimen, ''Mnemosyne'' 72 (2), .
* {{Citation|last=Goldberg|first=Herbert S.|title=Hippocrates, Father of Medicine|year=1963|publisher=Franklin Watts|location=New York}}
* {{Citation|last=Heidel|first=William Arthur|title=Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method|journal=Nature|volume=149|issue=3781|pages=422–423|year=1941|bibcode=1942Natur.149..422J|doi=10.1038/149422a0|s2cid=4136630}}
* {{Citation|last=Hippocrates|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Wesley D|title=Pseudepigraphic writings: letters, embassy, speech from the altar, decree|year=1990|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-09290-7}}
* {{Citation
| last=Jori, Alberto
| author-link=Alberto Jori
| year = 1996
| title = Medicina e medici nell'antica Grecia. Saggio sul 'Perì téchnes' ippocratico
| publisher = il Mulino
| place = Bologna (Italy)
}}.
* {{Citation
| last=Kalopothakes | first=M.D.
| year = 1857
| title = An essay on Hippocrates
| publisher = King and Baird Printers
| place = Philadelphia
| url = http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&idno=akk6471.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=3
}}.
* {{Citation|last=Langholf|first=Volker|title=Medical theories in Hippocrates: early texts and the "Epidemics"|year=1990|publisher=de Gruyter|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-11-011956-5}}
* {{Citation|last=Levine|first=Edwin Burton|title=Hippocrates|year=1971|publisher=Twayne|location=New York}}
* {{Citation
| last=Lopez | first=Francesco | year = 2004
| title = Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate. Percorsi di ragionamento e testimonianze. Vol. I
| publisher = Edizioni Pubblisfera
| isbn = 978-88-88358-35-2
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A4fGB7Fzj_UC
| place = Cosenza (Italy)
}}.
* {{Citation|last=Moon|first=Robert Oswald|title=Hippocrates and His Successors in Relation to the Philosophy of Their Time|year=1923|publisher=Longmans, Green and Co|location=New York}}
* {{Citation|last=Petersen|first=William F.|title=Hippocratic Wisdom for Him Who Wishes to Pursue Properly the Science of Medicine: A Modern Appreciation of Ancient Scientific Achievement|year=1946|publisher=Charles C Thomas|location=Springfield, IL}}
* {{Citation|last=Phillips|first=E.D.|title=Aspects of Greek Medicine|year=1973|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York}}
* ], '']: Book XXIX.'', translated by ]. See original text in .
* {{Citation|last=Sargent |first=Frederick II |title=Hippocratic heritage: a history of ideas about weather and human health|year=1982|publisher=Pergamon Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-08-028790-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/hippocraticherit0000sarg}}
* {{Citation
| last=Smith
| first=Wesley D.
| title = Hippocratic Tradition
| publisher = Cornell University Press
| year = 1979
| isbn = 978-0-8014-1209-7
}}<!-- this should have some new info!!! -->
* {{Citation|last=Temkin|first=Owsei|title=Hippocrates in a world of pagans and Christians|year=1991|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-4090-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/hippocratesinwor00owse}}
{{refend}}


==External links== ==External links==
{{Sister project links|s=author:Hippocrates}}
*
* {{Wikisourcelang-inline|el|Ιπποκράτης|Hippocrates}}
*
* at the
* offers Littré's edition of Hippocrates (Greek text and French translation), complete in scanned page images (, , , , , , , , , )
*
* : text, concordances and frequency lists
* , full works in English, at
* {{librivox author|id=8284}}
* entry in the ]
* at the Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de Médecine of Paris (BIUM) studies and digitized texts by the see its digital library .
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029163405/http://cmg.bbaw.de/epubl/online/hipges.html |date=2021-10-29 }}, with digitized editions, manuscripts and translations.


{{ancient anaesthesia-footer}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Hippocrates}}
]
] ]
] ]
] ]
]
]
]
]
] ]
] ]
] ]
] ]
]

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 15:57, 28 November 2024

Ancient Greek physician (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) For other uses, see Hippocrates (disambiguation).
Hippocrates of Kos
A conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th-century engraving)
Bornc. 460 BC
Kos, ancient Greece
Diedc. 370 BC
(aged approximately 90)
Larissa, ancient Greece
OccupationPhysician
EraClassical Greece

Hippocrates of Kos (/hɪˈpɒkrətiːz/, Ancient Greek: Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, romanized: Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; c. 460 – c. 370 BC), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician and philosopher of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is traditionally referred to as the "Father of Medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field, such as the use of prognosis and clinical observation, the systematic categorization of diseases, and the (however misguided) formulation of humoral theory. The Hippocratic school of medicine revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields with which it had traditionally been associated (theurgy and philosophy), thus establishing medicine as a profession.

However, the achievements of the writers of the Hippocratic Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself were often conflated; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician and credited with coining the Hippocratic Oath, which is still relevant and in use today. He is also credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Corpus and other works.

Biography

Illustration of the story of Hippocrates refusing the presents of the Achaemenid Emperor Artaxerxes, who was asking for his services. Painted by Girodet, 1792.

Historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos; other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue.

Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek physician, was Hippocrates's first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him. Later biographies are in the Suda of the 10th century AD, and in the works of John Tzetzes, which date from the 12th century AD. Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries: in Plato's dialogues Protagoras and Phaedrus, and in Aristotle's Politics, all of which date from the 4th century BC.

Soranus wrote that Hippocrates's father was Heraclides, a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to Galen, a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates's true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son named Hippocrates (Hippocrates III and IV).

Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather (Hippocrates I), and studied other subjects with Democritus and Gorgias. Hippocrates was probably trained at the asklepieion of Kos, and took lessons from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria. Plato mentions Hippocrates in two of his dialogues: in Protagoras, Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiad"; while in Phaedrus, Plato suggests that "Hippocrates the Asclepiad" thought that a complete knowledge of the nature of the body was necessary for medicine. Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara. Several different accounts of his death exist. He died, probably in Larissa, at the age of 83, 85 or 90, though some say he lived to be well over 100.

Hippocratic theory

It is thus with regard to the disease called Sacred: it appears to me to be nowise more divine nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause from the originates like other affections. Men regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance and wonder...

— Hippocrates, On the Sacred Disease (epilepsy)

Hippocrates is credited as the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods. He was acknowledged by the disciples of Pythagoras for allying philosophy and medicine. He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits. There is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did hold many convictions that were based on incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.

Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split into the Knidian and Koan on how to deal with disease. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis. Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms. The Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, not diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.

Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from modern medicine, in which the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates's day has generated serious criticism of their denunciations; for example, the French doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death".

If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.

— Hippocrates, 5th century BC

Analogies have been drawn between Thucydides' historical method and the Hippocratic method, in particular the notion of "human nature" as a way of explaining foreseeable repetitions for future usefulness, for other times or for other cases.

Crisis

Asklepieion on Kos

An important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a crisis, a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on critical days, which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from a critical day, a relapse might be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.

Illustration of a Hippocratic bench, date unknown

Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power of nature" (Latin: vis medicatrix naturae). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (physis). Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization of capital importance". In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing balms were sometimes employed.

Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis. Some of the generalized treatments he prescribed are fasting and the consumption of a mix of honey and vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness". However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions. This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones, which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The Hippocratic bench and other devices were used to this end.

In Hippocrates's time it was thought that fever was a disease in and of itself. Hippocrates treated patients with fever by starving them out, believing that 'starving' the fever was a way to neutralize the disease. He may therefore have been the originator of the idea "Feed a cold, starve a fever".

One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on prognosis. At Hippocrates's time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and predict its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories.

Professionalism

A number of ancient Greek surgical tools. On the left is a trephine; on the right, a set of scalpels. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools.

Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline, and rigorous practice. The Hippocratic work On the Physician recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient operating room. He even kept his fingernails to a precise length.

The Hippocratic school gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians. Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions. He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to discover whether the patient was lying. Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment. "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation."

Direct contributions to medicine

Clubbing of fingers in a patient with Eisenmenger's syndrome; first described by Hippocrates, clubbing is also known as "Hippocratic fingers".
A woodcut of the reduction of a dislocated shoulder with a Hippocratic device

Hippocrates and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. of Henry V.

Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence." Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery. Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings and techniques, while crude, such as the use of lead pipes to drain chest wall abscess, are still valid.

The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human rectum and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways. Cautery and excision are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods: ligating the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well. Today, "treatment still includes burning, strangling, and excising." Also, some of the fundamental concepts of proctoscopy outlined in the Corpus are still in use. For example, the uses of the rectal speculum, a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus. This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to endoscopy. Hippocrates often used lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise to treat diseases such as diabetes, what is today called lifestyle medicine.

Two popular but likely misquoted attributions to Hippocrates are "Let food be your medicine, and medicine be your food" and "Walking is man's best medicine". Both appear to be misquotations, and their exact origins remain unknown.

In 2017, researchers claimed that, while conducting restorations on the Saint Catherine's Monastery in South Sinai, they found a manuscript which contains a medical recipe of Hippocrates. The manuscript also contains three recipes with pictures of herbs that were created by an anonymous scribe.

Hippocratic Corpus

Main article: Hippocratic Corpus
A 12th-century Byzantine manuscript of the Oath in the form of a cross

The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: Corpus Hippocraticum) is a collection of around seventy early medical works collected in Alexandrian Greece. It is written in Ionic Greek. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of any of the treatises in the corpus has not been conclusively answered, but modern debate revolves around only a few of the treatises seen as potentially authored by him. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, the Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen). The corpus came to be known by his name because of his fame; possibly all medical works were classified under 'Hippocrates' by a librarian in Alexandria. The volumes were probably produced by his students and followers.

The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order. These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing viewpoints; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus. Among the treatises of the Corpus are The Hippocratic Oath; The Book of Prognostics; On Regimen in Acute Diseases; Aphorisms; On Airs, Waters and Places; Instruments of Reduction; On The Sacred Disease; etc.

Hippocratic Oath

Main article: Hippocratic Oath

The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the ethics of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity although new information shows it may have been written after his death. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently, the authenticity of the document's author has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals. Such derivatives are regularly taken by modern medical graduates about to enter medical practice.

Legacy

Mural painting showing Galen and Hippocrates. 12th century; Anagni, Italy

Although Hippocrates neither founded the school of medicine named after him, nor wrote most of the treatises attributed to him, he is traditionally regarded as the "Father of Medicine". His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled. So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time. The centuries after Hippocrates's death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out," according to Fielding Garrison.

After Hippocrates, another significant physician was Galen, a Greek who lived from AD 129 to AD 200. Galen perpetuated the tradition of Hippocratic medicine, making some advancements, but also some regressions. In the Middle Ages, the Islamic world adopted Hippocratic methods and developed new medical technologies. After the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in western Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates's rigorous clinical techniques were Thomas Sydenham, William Heberden, Jean-Martin Charcot and William Osler. Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine."

Image

Engraving: bust of Hippocrates by Paulus Pontius after Peter Paul Rubens, 1638

According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "The Great Hippocrates". Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor" and later as "stern and forbidding". He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical. Francis Adams describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense."

His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that have been found could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities. Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. Fielding Garrison, an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit." "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician," according to A Short History of Medicine, inspiring the medical profession since his death.

Legends

The Travels of Sir John Mandeville reports (incorrectly) that Hippocrates was the ruler of the islands of "Kos and Lango" , and recounts a legend about Hippocrates's daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot long dragon by the goddess Diana, and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This is a version of the legend of Melusine.

Namesakes

Statue of Hippocrates in front of the Mayne Medical School in Brisbane

Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe them. Hippocratic face is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like. Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic succussion is the internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax. Hippocratic bench (a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two devices named after Hippocrates. Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are also his namesakes. Risus sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile. The most severe form of hair loss and baldness is called the Hippocratic form.

In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Museum, a museum on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him. The Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology. Project Hippocrates (an acronym of "High Performance Computing for Robot-Assisted Surgery") is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots." Both the Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times.

Genealogy

Hippocrates's legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles. According to Tzetzes's Chiliades, the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is:

A mosaic of Hippocrates on the floor of the Asclepieion of Kos, with Asklepius in the middle, 2nd–3rd century

1. Hippocrates II.
2. Heraclides
4. Hippocrates I.
8. Gnosidicus
16. Nebrus
32. Sostratus III.
64. Theodorus II.
128. Sostratus, II.
256. Thedorus
512. Cleomyttades
1024. Crisamis
2048. Dardanus
4096. Sostratus
8192. Hippolochus
16384. Podalirius
32768. Asklepius

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Garrison 1966, pp. 92–93
  2. Nuland 1988, p. 5
  3. Garrison 1966, p. 96
  4. Pinault 1992, p. 79
  5. Nuland 1988, p. 4
  6. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 2006
  7. Nuland 1988, p. 7
  8. Jones 1868, p. 28
  9. Aristotle, Politics VII. 1326a.
  10. Adams 1891, p. 19
  11. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 66
  12. ^ Martí-Ibáñez 1961, pp. 86–87
  13. Plato 380 B.C.
  14. Plato 360 B.C. 270c
  15. ^ Adams 1891, p. 4
  16. ^ Jones 1868, p. 11
  17. ^ Nuland 1988, pp. 8–9
  18. ^ Garrison 1966, pp. 93–94
  19. ^ Adams 1891, p. 15
  20. Margotta 1968, p. 67
  21. Leff & Leff 1956, p. 51
  22. Jones 1868, pp. 12–13
  23. "Environment & Health - Kids Environment Kids Health". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
  24. "Environmental Health". Geological Survey Ireland.
  25. Durnerin, Marie. "L'influence de la médecine hippocratique sur la Guerre du Péloponnèse de Thucydide". www.academia.edu (in French). Retrieved 2019-04-18.
  26. Jones 1868, pp. 46, 48, 59
  27. Garrison 1966, p. 99
  28. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 73
  29. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 98
  30. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 35
  31. ^ Tuke 1911
  32. Kazantzidis, George; Gerolemou, Maria (2023). Kazantzidis, George; Gerolemou, Maria (eds.). Body and Machine in Classical Antiquity (hardcover). Cambridge University Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781316514665.
  33. LaFrance, Adrienne (16 September 2015). "A Cultural History of the Fever". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  34. Currie, Margaret (2005). Fever hospitals and fever nurses: a British social history of fever nursing: a national service. London: Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 978-1134265268. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  35. Paulian, Gunther B. (2017). Divine Prescription: and science of health and healing. Teach Services. ISBN 978-1479608294. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  36. Horne, Steven (2022). Strategies For Health A Comprehensive Guide to Healing Yourself Naturally. La Vergne: Fulton Books. ISBN 978-1637102541. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  37. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 97
  38. Adams 1891, p. 17
  39. Garrison 1966
  40. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 64
  41. Rutkow 1993, pp. 24–25
  42. Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 88
  43. Margotta 1968, p. 68
  44. Starr 2017
  45. Schwartz, Richards & Goyal 2006
  46. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 40
  47. Margotta 1968, p. 70
  48. Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 90
  49. ^ Major 1965
  50. ^ Jóhannsson 2005, p. 11
  51. ^ Jani 2005, pp. 24–25
  52. Jóhannsson 2005, p. 12
  53. Mann 2002, pp. 1, 173
  54. Shah 2002, p. 645
  55. NCEPOD 2004, p. 4
  56. Chishti 1988, p. 11
  57. Cardenas 2013
  58. King 2020, pp. 105–110
  59. Gibbens 2017
  60. Iniesta 2011, p. d688
  61. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 27
  62. Smith 2002
  63. Hanson 2006
  64. Rutkow 1993, p. 23
  65. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 28
  66. WMA
  67. Jones 1868, p. 217
  68. Rahman 1966, pp. 56–62
  69. Jouanna 1999, p. 42: "Hippocrates was neither the Father of Medicine nor the founder of the Coan school, but he did manage to confer an exceptionally lustrous reputation upon this school through his teaching". Though antiquated, the traditional title remains in wide use among scholars: see, e.g., Jouanna 1999, pp. xi, xii, 4, 229, 348; King 2008, p. 322; Smith 1998.
  70. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 100
  71. Garrison 1966, p. 95
  72. Jones 1868, p. 35
  73. West 2014, pp. L121–L128
  74. Leff & Leff 1956, p. 102
  75. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 94
  76. Jones 1868, p. 38
  77. Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 29
  78. Bale 2012, p. 15
  79. Fishchenko & Khimich 1986
  80. "The dilemma of balding solve by father of medicine Hippocrates". Healthy Hair Highlights News. 15 August 2011.
  81. Project Hippocrates 1995
  82. Adams 1891

References

Further reading

  • Works by Hippocrates, translated by Adams, Francis, The Internet Classics Archive: Daniel C. Stevenson, Web Atomics © 1994–2000, 1994 .
  • Coulter, Harris L (1975), Divided Legacy: A History of the Schism in Medical Thought: The Patterns Emerge: Hippocrates to Paracelsus, vol. 1, Washington, DC: Weehawken Book
  • Craik, Elizabeth M. (ed., trans., comm.), The Hippocratic Treatise On glands (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009) (Studies in ancient medicine, 36).
  • Di Benedetto, Vincenzo (1986), Il medico e la malattia. La scienza di Ippocrate, Turin: Einaudi
  • Edelstein, Ludwig (1943), The Hippocratic Oath: Text, Translation, and Interpretation, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
  • Enache, Cătălin (2019), Ontology and Meteorology in Hippocrates' On Regimen, Mnemosyne 72 (2), 173–196.
  • Goldberg, Herbert S. (1963), Hippocrates, Father of Medicine, New York: Franklin Watts
  • Heidel, William Arthur (1941), "Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method", Nature, 149 (3781): 422–423, Bibcode:1942Natur.149..422J, doi:10.1038/149422a0, S2CID 4136630
  • Hippocrates (1990), Smith, Wesley D (ed.), Pseudepigraphic writings: letters, embassy, speech from the altar, decree, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-09290-7
  • Jori, Alberto (1996), Medicina e medici nell'antica Grecia. Saggio sul 'Perì téchnes' ippocratico, Bologna (Italy): il Mulino.
  • Kalopothakes, M.D. (1857), An essay on Hippocrates, Philadelphia: King and Baird Printers.
  • Langholf, Volker (1990), Medical theories in Hippocrates: early texts and the "Epidemics", Berlin: de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-011956-5
  • Levine, Edwin Burton (1971), Hippocrates, New York: Twayne
  • Lopez, Francesco (2004), Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate. Percorsi di ragionamento e testimonianze. Vol. I, Cosenza (Italy): Edizioni Pubblisfera, ISBN 978-88-88358-35-2.
  • Moon, Robert Oswald (1923), Hippocrates and His Successors in Relation to the Philosophy of Their Time, New York: Longmans, Green and Co
  • Petersen, William F. (1946), Hippocratic Wisdom for Him Who Wishes to Pursue Properly the Science of Medicine: A Modern Appreciation of Ancient Scientific Achievement, Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas
  • Phillips, E.D. (1973), Aspects of Greek Medicine, New York: St. Martin's Press
  • Pliny the Elder, Natural History: Book XXIX., translated by John Bostock. See original text in Perseus program.
  • Sargent, Frederick II (1982), Hippocratic heritage: a history of ideas about weather and human health, New York: Pergamon Press, ISBN 978-0-08-028790-4
  • Smith, Wesley D. (1979), Hippocratic Tradition, Cornell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8014-1209-7
  • Temkin, Owsei (1991), Hippocrates in a world of pagans and Christians, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-4090-6 online free to borrow

External links

Ancient anaesthesia
Plants / animals
Preparations
Compounds
People
Categories: