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			{{short description\|Democratization process in Czechoslovakia in 1989}}
	]
			{{about\|the event in Czechoslovakia}}
	{{CzechSlovak History}}
			{{Infobox civil conflict
	The "'''Velvet Revolution'''" (]: ''sametová revoluce'', ]: ''nežná revolúcia'') (] – ] ]) refers to a bloodless ] in ] that saw the overthrow of the ] government there.
			\| title = Velvet Revolution
			\| partof = the ]
			\| image = Praha 1989-11-25, Letná, dav (01).jpg
			\| caption = Demonstration of 25 November 1989 in Prague.
			\| causes = * ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* Other anti-] ]
			* ] death hoax
			\| goals = * Resignation of the ]
			* ] and ]
			* ]
			* ]
			\| methods = * ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]s
			\| place = ]
			\| date = 17 November – 29 December 1989{{-}}'''Main phase:''' 17 – 28 November 1989 <br/>
			\| result = Collapse of the ]
			* Resignation of the ] of the ] (24 November 1989)
			* Dissident leader ] becomes the ] (29 December 1989)
			* Restoration of ] with free elections ]
			* Start of ] which eventually led to ] (] of ])
			* Dismantling of the ] and ] of ]
			\| side1 = {{flagd\|CZ}} ''']'''
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			\| side2 = {{flagd\|CZ}} '''Opposition'''
			* ]
			* {{nowrap\|]}}
			* ]
			* ]
			* ] ]
			* Other ]
			'''Supported by:''' <br>
			{{flag\|United States}}
			* ]<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.brookings.edu/podcast-episode/how-the-us-embassy-in-prague-aided-czechoslovakias-velvet-revolution/ \|title=How the US embassy in Prague aided Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution \|date=24 April 2020 \|publisher=brookings.edu \|access-date=18 November 2022 }}</ref>
			\| leadfigures1 = '''Hardliners:'''
			*]
			*]
			*{{ill\|Jan Fojtík\|cs}}
			*]
			*]
			*]
			*]
			----
			'''Moderates:'''
			*]
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			*]
			*]
			*]
			*]
			\| leadfigures2 = '''Dissident leaders:'''
			*]

			*]
	On ], ], a peaceful student demonstration in ] was severely beaten back by the riot police. That event sparked a set of popular demonstrations from ] to late December. By ] the number of peaceful protesters assembled in Prague had swelled from 200,000 the day before to an estimated half-million. A general two-hour strike, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was held on ].
			*]
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			*]
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			*]
			\| casualties2 = 568 injured<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Bellum \|first1=Post \|title=Živé vzpomínky na revoluci: Pendrekem přes obličej, u černobílého monitoru VB \|url=https://www.denik.cz/jak-vidi-cesi-listopad-89/sametova-revoluce-listopad-89-stripky-vzpominky-20191120.html \|website=Deník.cz \|access-date=10 July 2023 \|language=cs \|date=25 November 2019}}</ref>
			}}
			{{History of Czechoslovakia}}
			{{Revolution sidebar}}

			The '''Velvet Revolution''' ({{langx\|cs\|Sametová revoluce}}) or '''Gentle Revolution''' ({{langx\|sk\|Nežná revolúcia}}) was a non-violent transition of power in what was then ], occurring from 17 November to 28 November 1989. Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the ] included students and older dissidents. The result was the end of ], and the subsequent dismantling of the ] and conversion to a ].<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history15.html \|title=RP's History Online – Velvet Revolution \|publisher=Archiv.radio.cz \|access-date=19 January 2013 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110717234926/http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history15.html \|archive-date=17 July 2011 }}</ref>
	With other communist regimes falling all around it, and with growing street protests, the ] announced on ] they would give up their ] on political power. ] was removed from the border with ] and ] in early December. On ], the Communist President ] appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. ] was elected speaker of the federal parliament on ] and ] the President of Czechoslovakia on ] 1989.

			On 17 November 1989 (]), ] suppressed a ] in ].<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.prague-life.com/prague/velvet-revolution \|title=Velvet Revolution in Prague Czechoslovakia \|publisher=Prague-life.com \|access-date=24 November 2013 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126072914/http://www.prague-life.com/prague/velvet-revolution \|archive-date=26 November 2013 \|url-status=live }}</ref> The event marked the 50th anniversary of a violently suppressed demonstration against the Nazi storming of Prague University in 1939 where 1,200 students were arrested and 9 killed (see ]). The 1989 event sparked a series of demonstrations from 17 November to late December and turned into an ] demonstration. On 20 November, the number of ]ers assembled in Prague grew from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated 500,000. The entire top leadership of the Communist Party, including General Secretary ], resigned on 24 November. On 27 November, a two-hour ] involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia was held.
	As one of the results of the Velvet Revolution, the first ] ] since ] were held in June, ], and brought the first completely non-communist government to ] in over forty years.

			In response to the collapse of other ] governments and the increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November that it would relinquish power and end the ]. Two days later, the ] formally deleted the sections of the ] giving the Communist Party a monopoly of power. ] and other obstructions were removed from the ] in early December. On 10 December, President ] appointed the first largely non-] in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. ] was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and ] the ] on 29 December 1989.
	==Political situation prior to the revolution==
	Czechoslovakia was ruled by the Communist Party from February 25, 1948. During this period of rule, there were no official opposition parties operating within the government. Dissidents (notably ]) published home-made periodicals (]), but they faced persecution from the secret police, and the general public was afraid to support them. A person could be dismissed from his job or school, or have his books or movies banned for having a "negative attitude to socialist regime." This included: being a child of a former entrepreneur or non-Communist politician, having family members in exile, supporting ], opposing Soviet military occupation, promoting religion, boycotting rigged parliamentary elections, signing ] or associating with those who did. These rules were easy to enforce as all schools, media and businesses belonged to the state and were under direct supervision.

			In June 1990, Czechoslovakia held its ]s<ref>{{Cite book\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywjHDgAAQBAJ&q=Czechoslovakia+first+election+in+1990&pg=PA29\|title=The Czech and Slovak Republics: Twenty Years of Independence, 1993–2013\|last=Stolarik\|first=M. Mark\|date=2017\|publisher=Central European University Press\|isbn=978-9633861530\|language=en}}</ref> since ]. On 31 December 1992, ], the ] and the ].
	This changed gradually after the introduction of ]'s ] in ]. The Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported Perestroika, but did little to institute real changes, and speaking of the ] of ] was still a taboo. 1988 (see e.g. the ]) and 1989 saw the first anti-government demonstrations, which were repressed by the police.

			The dissolution of Czechoslovakia occurred mainly due to national governance issues between the ] and ] (the two major ethnicities comprising the former Czechoslovakia).
	The actual impetus for the revolution came from the developments in neighboring countries — by November 16, all neighboring countries of Czechoslovakia, except the Soviet Union, had gotten rid of Communist rule, the ] fell on November 9, and the citizens of Czechoslovakia could see all these events every day on TV (both foreign and domestic). The Soviet Union also supported a change in the ruling elite of Czechoslovakia, although it did not anticipate the overthrow of the communist regime.

	==~~Chronology~~ of the ~~first week~~==		==Prior to the revolution==
			The ] ] on 25 February 1948. No official opposition parties operated thereafter. ]s (notably ] and ]) created Music Clubs (on a limited basis as only allowed NGOs) and published home-made periodicals (]). Charter 77 was quashed by the government and its signed members were persecuted until the fall of the regime in Czechoslovakia. Later, with the advent of the Civic Forum, independence could truly be seen on the horizon. Until Independence Day on 17 November 1989, the populace faced persecution by the authorities from the secret police. Thus, the general public did not openly support the dissidents for fear of dismissal from work or school. Writers or filmmakers could have their books or films banned for a "negative attitude towards the socialist regime". They also did not allow Czechs and Slovaks to travel to other non-communist countries. Following this they banned music from foreign countries. This ] included children of former entrepreneurs or non-Communist politicians, having family members living in the West, having supported ] during the ], opposing ] ], promoting religion, boycotting (rigged) parliamentary elections or signing Charter 77 or associating with those who did. These rules were easy to enforce, as all schools, media and businesses belonged to the state. They were under direct supervision and often were used as accusatory weapons against rivals.
	* '''Thursday ], 1989 ''' – On the eve of ] (the 50th anniversary of death of ], a Czech student murdered by the ] occupiers during ]), Slovak high school and university students organized a peaceful demonstration in the center of ]. Since the ] had expected troubles and since the mere fact that there was a demonstration was a problem in Communist countries, armed forces were at alert since before the demonstration. In the end, however, the students peacefully moved through the city and finally sent a delegation to the Slovak Ministry of Education to discuss their demands.

			The nature of blacklisting changed gradually after the introduction of ]'s policies of ] (openness) and ] (restructuring) in 1985. The Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported Perestroika, but made few changes. Speaking about the ] of 1968 was taboo. The first anti-government demonstrations occurred in 1988 (the ], for example) and 1989, but these were dispersed and participants were repressed by the police.
	* '''Friday ], 1989''' – The Socialist Union of Youth (SSM/SZM, proxy of ]) organized a mass demonstration to commemorate ]. Most members of SSM had privately been in opposition to the Communist leadership, but had been afraid of speaking up for fear of persecution. This demonstration gave average students an opportunity to join others and express their opinions without fear. By 16:00, about 15 000 people had joined the demonstration. They walked to Opletal's grave and - after the official end - continued to downtown Prague (), carrying anti-Communist slogans. At about 19:30, the demonstrators were stopped by a cordon of riot police at Národní Street. They had blocked all escape routes and brutally beat the students. Once all were dispersed, one of the participants - ] agent Ludvík Zifčák - kept lying on the street, posing as dead, and was later taken away. It is not clear why he did it, but the rumor of the "dead student" was perhaps critical for the shape of further events. Still in the evening, students and theater actors agreed on going on a strike.

			By the late 1980s, discontent with living standards and economic inadequacy gave way to popular support for economic reform. Citizens began to challenge the system more openly. By 1989, citizens who had been complacent were willing to openly express their discontent with the regime. Numerous important figures as well as ordinary workers signed petitions in support of ] during his imprisonment in 1989.
	* '''Saturday ]''' :
	**Two students visited Prime Minister ] in his private house and described to him what (really) happened at Národní Street.
	**At the initiative of students from the ], the students in Prague began a strike. Gradually, this strike was joined by university students throughout Czechoslovakia.
	**The students were supported by theaters in Prague, which had also gone on strike. Instead of playing, actors read a proclamation of students and artists to the audience. Home-made posters and proclamations were being posted in public places. As all media (radio, TV, newspapers) were strictly controlled by the Communist Party (see ]), it was the only way to spread the message. In the evening, ] reported that a student (named as Martin Šmíd) was killed by the police during the previous day's demonstration. This persuaded some hesitating citizens to disregard fear and join the protests.

			Already in early 1989, the first signs of thawing relations began to appear between ] and ], with meetings held on shared issues, including Jewish religious freedom, the memory of the Holocaust and ties of remaining Czechoslovak Jews with the ], including the strong Jewish community in the United States.<ref> Wein, Martin J.. A History of Czechs and Jews: A Slavic Jerusalem. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Limited, 2019, pp. 185-190 </ref>
	* '''Sunday ]''':
	**Theaters in ], ], ] and other towns went also on strike, following the example of their colleagues from Prague. Members of artistic and literary associations as well as organizations and institutions in some other areas of the society joined the strikes.
	**Members of a civic initiative met with the Prime Minister who told them that he had been prohibited to resign from his post twice, and that if they wanted to achieve changes, there would have to be mass demonstrations like in East Germany (some 250,000 students). He also asked them to reduce the number of "casualties" during the expected changes to a minimum.
	** About 500 Slovak artists , scientists and other opinion leaders met at the Art Forum (Umelecká beseda) in Bratislava at 17:00, denounced the attack against the students in Prague on November 17 and formed the ], which would become the leading force behind the opposition movement in Slovakia. Its founding members included ], ] and others.
	**Actors and audience in a Prague theater, together with ] and other prominent members of ] and other dissident organizations, established the ] (the equivalent of the Public Against Violence for the territory of the Czech Republic) as a mass popular movement for reforms at 22:00. They called for the dismissal of top officials responsible for the violence, an independent investigation of the incident and the release of all ]s. College students announced a strike. On TV, government officials called for peace and wanted to restore usual business. The television aired an interview with Martin Šmíd to persuade the public that nobody had been killed; the quality of the recording was nevertheless low and rumors went on. It would take several more days to confirm that nobody had been killed - and by then, the revolution would have already gained momentum.

			Reform-minded attitudes were also reflected by the many individuals who signed a petition that circulated in the summer of 1989 calling for the end of ] and the beginning of fundamental political reform.<ref>Wolchik, Sharon L. 1990. Current History. 89:413–16, 435–37. Retrieved 11 March 2009</ref>
	* '''Monday ]''' -
	**Students and theaters were on permanent strike.
	**Civic Forum representatives negotiated with Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec without Václav Havel and more or less unofficially. Adamec was sympathetic to the students' demands. However, he was outvoted in a special cabinet meeting the same day and the government, in an official statement, refused to make any concessions. Civic Forum added another demand - the abolition of the "ruling position" of the Communist Party from the Constitution.
	**Non-Communist newspapers started publishing information, which contradicted the Communist interpretation.
	**First mass demonstration in Prague (100,000 people), first demonstrations in Bratislava.

			The immediate impetus for the revolution came from developments in neighbouring countries and in the Czechoslovak capital. From August, ] citizens had occupied the ] ] in Prague and demanded exile to ]. In the days following 3 November, thousands of East Germans left Prague by train to West Germany. On 9 November, the ] fell, removing the need for the detour.
	* '''Tuesday ]''' -
	**First official meeting of the Civic Forum with the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister said he would personally guarantee that no violence would be used against the people.
	**An organized mass demonstration took place in Wenceslas Square in downtown Prague (demonstrations were held there throughout the following days). Actors and students traveled to factories in and outside Prague to gain support for their colleagues in other cities.
	**A mass demonstration took places on Hviezdoslav Square in downtown Bratislava (for the next days, it moved to the Square of the Slovak National Uprising). The students presented various demands and asked the people to participate in the planned general strike for Monday, November 27. A separate demonstration demanding the release of the political prisoner ] (the later Prime Minister of Slovakia) took place in front of the Palace of Justice. Alexander Dubček delivered an address at this demonstration – his first appearance during the Velvet Revolution. As a result, Čarnogurský was released on November 23.
	**Demonstrations in all major cities of Czechoslovakia
	**] ], the ] primate of the Czech lands, declared his support of the students, and issued a declaration in which he criticized the situation in all social spheres of Czechoslovakia.
	**For the first time during the Velvet Revolution, the "radical" demand to abolish the article of the Constitution establishing the "leading role" of the Communist Party was expressed by ] at a meeting of Public Against Violence. It was spontaneously supported by the popular demonstration on November 25 and finally accepted by the Communist Party of Slovakia on November 26.
	**In the evening, Miloš Jakeš, the chairman of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, held a special address on Federal Television. He said that order had to be preserved, that socialism was the only alternative for Czechoslovakia and criticized "groups" that stood behind the development in Czechoslovakia.
	** Governmental officials, especially the Head of the Communist Party ], kept their hard-line position and seemed increasingly out of touch. In the night, they had called 4,000 members of the "People's Militia" (''Lidové milice'', a paramilitary organization subordinated directly to the Communist Party) to Prague to crush the protests, but they were called off in the last moment.

			By 16 November, many of Czechoslovakia's neighbours were beginning to shed ] rule. The citizens of Czechoslovakia watched these events on TV through both foreign and domestic channels. The Soviet Union also supported a change in the ruling elite of Czechoslovakia,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Wolchik \|first=Sharon L. \|date=1999 \|title=Czechoslovakia on the eve of 1989 \|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48609377 \|journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies \|volume=32 \|issue=4 \|pages=437–451 \|doi=10.1016/S0967-067X(99)00021-5 \|jstor=48609377 \|issn=0967-067X}}</ref> although it did not anticipate the overthrow of the Communist regime.
	*'''Wednesday ]''' –
	**Civic Forum announced a two-hour general strike for Monday November 27.
	**First live reports from the demonstration in Wenceslas Square appeared on Federal Television (they were quickly cut off, once one of the participants denounced the present government in favor of Alexander Dubček).
	**Striking students force the representatives of the Slovak government and of the Communist Party of Slovakia to participate in a dialogue, in which the official representatives were immediately put on the defensive.
	**Employees of the Slovak section of the Federal Television required the leaders of the Federal Television to provide true information on the events in the country, otherwise they would initiate a strike of TV employees. Uncensored live reports from demonstrations in Bratislava followed.

			==Chronology==
	* '''Thursday ]''' -
	** Evening news showed how factory workers booed ], Prague Communist Secretary and the most loathed politician. The military informed the Communist leadership of its readiness to act (luckily, it was never used against demonstrators).
	**The military and the Ministry of Defense were preparing for actions against the opposition. Immediately after the meeting, however, the Minister of Defense delivered a TV address, in which he said the army would never undertake action against the Czechoslovak people and called to an end of the demonstrations.

	* ~~'''Friday ]''' -~~		===16 November===
			On the eve of ] (the 50th anniversary of ''Sonderaktion Prag'', the 1939 storming of Prague universities by the Nazis), Slovak high school and university students organised a peaceful demonstration in the centre of ]. The ] had expected trouble, and the mere fact that the demonstration was organised was viewed as a problem by the Party. Armed forces were put on alert before the demonstration. In the end, however, the students moved through the city peacefully and sent a delegation to the Slovak Ministry of Education to discuss their demands.
	**] was replaced by puppet politician ] as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia.
	**Federal Television showed pictures from November 17 for the fist time and the first television address of Václav Havel, dealing mostly with the planned general strike. Czechoslovak TV and Radio announce that they would join the general strike.
	**A discussion with representatives of the opposition was broadcast by the Slovak section of the Federal Television. It was the first free discussion on Czechoslovak television since its beginnings. As a result, the editorial staff of Slovak newspapers started to join the opposition.

	* ~~'''Saturday ]''' -~~		===17 November===
			]
	** The new Communist leadership held a press conference. It had immediately lost credibility by keeping Miroslav Štěpán, leaving Ladislav Adamec out and not addressing any of the demands. Later that day, Štěpán resigned from his position as the Prague Secretary.
	** The number of participants in the regular anti-governmental demonstration in Prague reached 800,000 people. Demonstrations in Bratislava had the highest number of participants at around 100,000.

			New movements led by Václav Havel surfaced, invoking the idea of a united society where the state would politically restructure.<ref name="Glenn"/> The ] (SSM/SZM, proxy of the ]) organised a mass demonstration on 17 November to commemorate ] and the fiftieth anniversary of the murder of student ]<ref name="Opletal">Kurtz, Lester. {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107005129/https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/czechoslovakias-velvet-revolution-1989/ \|date=7 November 2017 }}. March 2008. Retrieved 1 November 2017.</ref> by the Nazi government.<ref name="Glenn">Glenn, John K. . September 1999. Social Forces. 78:187–211. Retrieved 11 March 2009.</ref>
	* '''Sunday ]''' -
	**Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec met with Václav Havel for the first time.
	**The editorial staff of Slovakia's ], the central newspaper of the Communist Party of Slovakia, joined the opposition.

			Most members of SSM were privately opposed to the Communist leadership, but were afraid of speaking up for fear of persecution. This demonstration gave average students an opportunity to join others and express their opinions. By 16:00 (4:00 pm), about 15,000 people joined the demonstration. They walked (per the ] of founders of ] movement, ] and ]) to ]'s grave at ] and – after the official end of the march – continued into the centre of Prague,<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.totalita.cz/1989/1989_1117_dem_04.php \|title=Sametová revoluce – trasa demonstrace: TOTALITA \|publisher=Totalita.cz \|access-date=24 November 2013 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105160931/http://www.totalita.cz/1989/1989_1117_dem_04.php \|archive-date=5 November 2013 \|url-status=live }}</ref> carrying banners and chanting anti-Communist slogans.
	* '''Monday ]''' -
	**A two-hour general strike takes place throughout the country between 12:00 and 14:00, supported by 75 % of population. The Ministry of Culture released anti-Communist literature for public checkouts in libraries, which effectively ended ]. This concluded the "popular" phase of the revolution, with many public demonstrations. The following victories, though supported by the strike students and actors lasting until December 29, were be achieved mainly through negotiations between the governments, the Civic Forum and Public Against Violence.

			At about 19:30 (7:30pm), the demonstrators were stopped by a cordon of riot police at Národní Street. They blocked all escape routes and attacked the students. Once all the protesters dispersed, one of the participants, ] agent Ludvík Zifčák,{{citation needed\|date=November 2017}} was lying on the street. Zifčák was not physically hurt or pretending to be dead; he simply fainted{{Citation needed\|date=October 2022}}. Policemen carried his motionless body to an ambulance.
	== Key events of the following weeks ==
	* ''']''' - Parliament, still dominated by the Communists, removed the article guaranteeing a leadership role to the Communist Party and ] as a state ideology from the Constitution. The speaker of the federal Parliament resigned.

			The atmosphere of fear and hopelessness gave birth to a ] about a dead student named ]. The story was made up by ] as she awaited treatment after she was hurt during the riot. Dražská worked at the college and shared her hoax with several people the next day, including the wife of journalist ], a correspondent for ]. This incident mobilised the people and triggered the revolution.{{citation needed\|date=February 2019}} That same evening, students and theatre actors agreed to go on strike.
	* ''']''' –
	**Education in ] and the history of international workers' movement officially cancelled for universities and colleges.
	**The Presidium of the Slovak parliament (]) resigned. It was gradually replaced by non-Communists.
	**The federal government decided that barbed wire should be removed at the border with Austria (later also at the border with West Germany), and that Czechoslovak citizens do not need "exit visa permits" anymore when travelling abroad. Barbed wire at the border with Austria was removed from December 1.

			===18 November===
	* ''']''' - President Gustáv Husák nominated a new federal cabinet, headed by Ladislav Adamec. It had 15 Communist and only 5 non-Communist ministers (so called "15:5 government") and was rejected by the Civic Forum and public demonstrations..
			Two students visited Prime Minister ] at his private residence and described to him what happened on Národní Street. The strike at the Realistic Theatre was declared and other theatres quickly followed. The theaters opened their stages only for public discussions.

			At the initiative of students from the ], the students in Prague went on strike. This strike was joined by university students throughout Czechoslovakia. Theatre employees and actors in Prague supported the strike. Instead of going on stage, actors read a proclamation by the students and artists to the audience, calling for a general strike on 27 November.
	* ''']''' - Government announced freedom to travel to Austria (later to all countries). It was no longer necessary to apply for any documents before traveling to ]. In the following weekend, 250,000 people would visit this country. A permanent queue of cars reaching from the city center of Bratislava to the border crossing with Austria will arise.

			Home-made posters and proclamations were posted. As all media (radio, TV, newspapers) were strictly controlled by the Communist Party (see ]), this was the only way to spread the message.
	* '''] ''' – Most members of the government of Czechia were replaced by non-Communists. ] remains Prime Minister of the Czech government.

			In the evening, ] reported that a student (named as ]) was killed by the police during the previous day's demonstration. Although the report was false, it heightened the feeling of crisis, and persuaded some hesitant citizens to overcome their fear and join the protests.<ref name="Glenn" />
	* '''] ''' – President Gustáv Husák declared amnesty on political crimes.

			===19 November===
	* ''']''' :
			] (Námestie SNP), ]:<br /> {{"'}}Only those who struggle for their freedom are worthy of it.' <br /> At this place in November 1989 we decided to take our responsibility for the future into our own hands. We decided to put an end to communism and to establish freedom and democracy."]]
	**President Gustáv Husák nominated a federal cabinet, headed by ], based on an agreement between Civic Forum and the Communists, and resigns. It was the first federal government since 1948 in which the Communists had no majority.
	**Strike of theaters was called off, but students stayed on. Secret police burned their files (incomplete files, insufficient to convincingly prove or disprove collaboration, caused embarrassment to many public figures in the following decade).
	**100,000 people participated in a protest walk from Bratislava, Czechoslovakia to Hainburg, Austria.

			Theatres in ], ], ] and other towns went on strike. Members of artistic and literary associations as well as organisations and institutions joined the strike.
	* ''']'''- Barbed wire removed from borders with West Germany.

			Members of a civic initiative met with the Prime Minister, who told them he was twice prohibited from resigning his post and that change requires mass demonstrations like those in East Germany (some 250,000 students). He asked them to keep the number of "casualties" during the expected change to a minimum.
	* ''']''' - Slovakia received a new government headed by ]. It was the first government of Slovakia since 1969, in which the Communists had no majority.

			About 500 Slovak artists, scientists and leaders met at the Art Forum (Umelecká beseda) in Bratislava at 17:00. They denounced the attack against the students in Prague on 17 November and formed ], which would become the leading force behind the opposition movement in Slovakia. Its founding members included ], ] and others.
	* ''']''' - ], son of a famous Czech entrepreneur ] and a president of ], arrived in Czechoslovakia to a warm welcome by the population as a symbol of old Czech industrial traditions and entrepreneurship, which were suppressed by the Communists and now were to return.

			Actors and members of the audience in a Prague theatre, together with ] and other prominent members of ] and other dissident organisations, established the ] (Občanské fórum, an equivalent of the Slovak Public Against Violence for the territory of the Czech Republic) as a mass popular movement for reforms. They called for the dismissal of top officials responsible for the violence, and an independent investigation of the incident and the release of all ]s.
	* ''']''' - People's Militia was abolished, and their weapons confiscated by the army. Later on it was established that the militia had operated against the law throughout the whole Communist era from 1948.

			College students went on strike. On television, government officials called for peace and a return to the city's normal business. An interview with Martin Šmíd was broadcast to persuade the public that nobody had been killed, but the quality of the recording was low and rumours continued. It would take several more days to confirm that nobody was killed, and by then the revolution had gained further momentum.
	* ''']''' – The Civic Forum, Public Against Violence, Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and representatives of students and other political entities agreed that Alexander Dubček would be made speaker of the federal parliament, while Václav Havel would be made President of the republic.

			The leaders of the Democratic Initiative presented several demands, including the resignation of the government, effective 25 November, and the formation of a temporary government composed of non-compromised members of the current government.<ref name="Shepherd, Robin H 2000">Shepherd, Robin H. E. (2000). ''Czechoslovakia' The Velvet Revolution and Beyond''. New York: ].</ref>
	* ''']''' - Federal Parliament, still consisting of Communist deputies coming from rigged one-candidate elections of ], passed a law allowing for co-optation of new personalities. Several non-Communists became deputies this way. This reform of the Parliament "from inside" was orchestrated by Prime Minister Marián Čalfa and helped re-establish legitimacy of the Parliament immediately without the need to call elections (which took place in June 1990). Alexander Dubček was elected Chairman (speaker) the same day.

			===20 November===
	* ''']''' - Federal Parliament elected Václav Havel as President. Irony of the situation was that Havel-dissident was "freely" elected President by the Communist deputies, who would just days before agreed to his imprisonment again. Students ended their strike. The Velvet Revolution ended.
			] Monument]]

			Students and theatres went on "permanent" strike. Police stopped a demonstration from continuing toward Prague Castle, which would have entered the striking theatres.<ref name="Glenn"/>
	In December and the following months, Communist Party lost much of its membership (especially those who joined it only as a vehicle for promoting their business, academic or political career). The federal parliament introduced key laws for promoting civic rights, civic liberties and economic freedom. The first free elections were scheduled for June 1990. Problematic events included the first parliamentary deadlock, caused by Czechs and Slovaks disagreeing over the name of the state (see ], the first step towards a ]), nasty accusations of collaboration with Communist secret police (relying on incomplete documents, as some files were burned in December 1989) and an increase in crime (due to a low esteem for the police and an extensive general pardon by the new president Havel, who in effect released all petty criminals from jails). In general, the population was content, and considered such problems the price of their democracy.

			Civic Forum representatives negotiated unofficially with Adamec without Havel, and Adamec was sympathetic to the students' demands. However, he was outvoted in a special cabinet meeting the same day. The government, in an official statement, made no concessions.
	== Open questions ==
	Not all events of the Velvet revolution have been satisfactorily explained. For over decade ] tried to portray it as a result of plot by ], ], reformists among party members or ]. By these theories the communist party only transformed its power into other, less visible forms and still controls the society. Later, demand for such theories has decreased.

			Civic Forum added a demand: the abolition of the "ruling position" of the Communist Party from the Constitution. Non-Communist newspapers published information that contradicted the Communist interpretation. The first mass demonstration in Prague (100,000 people) and the first demonstrations in Bratislava occurred.
	The most contentious points were:
	* It is not clear to what extent it was spontaneous vs. orchestrated by the secret police. For example, the incident with the "dead student" was staged by secret police provocateur Ludvík Zifčák, assisted with other secret agents (those who took him to hospital and initially disseminated the rumor). Zifčák is currently a chairman of "Communist Party of Czechoslovakia", a non-parliamentary group willing to re-establish a Communist regime, with popular support below 1%, and rejects all inquiries relating to his role in the revolution.
	* Army and People's Militia were ready to attack the demonstrators, but did not get the order.
	* Secret police carried out surveillance on all the leaders of the revolution and had the ability to arrest them. However, they did not do so and let the revolution progress.
	* A Soviet military advisor was present in the control center of the police force, which beat the demonstrators on November 17. Supposedly, he did not intervene, but his role is not clear either.

			===21 November===
	Generally, it is assumed that there was a split between different factions of the Communist leadership (namely, reform Communists anxious to replace those afraid of any change) and some of them tried to use the popular unrest to promote their agendas – ultimately ending the Communist rule.
			]
			] with a streamer and banners]]

			The first official meeting of the Civic Forum with the Prime Minister took place. The Prime Minister agreed to personally guarantee that no violence would be used against the people; however he would "protect socialism, about which no discussion is possible".<ref name="Glenn"/> An organised mass demonstration took place in ] in central Prague (demonstrations recurred there throughout the following days). Actors and students travelled to factories inside and outside Prague to gain support for their colleagues in other cities.
	==The term==
	The term ''Velvet Revolution'' was coined by a journalist after the first events and it caught on in world media and eventually in Czechoslovakia. The media, riding on an ] wave, saw this success and started the tradition of inventing and assigning a poetic name to similar events – see ].

			A mass demonstration erupted in ] in downtown Bratislava (in the following days, it moved to the Square of the Slovak National Uprising). The students presented demands and asked the people to participate in the general strike planned for Monday, 27 November. A separate demonstration demanded the release of the political prisoner ] (later Prime Minister of Slovakia) in front of the Palace of Justice. Alexander Dubček addressed this demonstration – his first appearance during the Velvet Revolution. As a result, Čarnogurský was released on 23 November. Further demonstrations followed in all major cities of Czechoslovakia.
	In Slovakia, however, the revolution's name from the beginning of the events has been the '''Gentle Revolution''' (''Nežná revolúcia'').

			] ], the ] primate of the Bohemian lands, declared his support for the students and issued a declaration criticising the current government's policies. For the first time during the Velvet Revolution, the "radical" demand to abolish the article of the Constitution establishing the "leading role" of the Communist Party was expressed by ] at a meeting of Public Against Violence.
	The Indian novelist ] writes in '']'' of speaking with ] at playwright ]'s home in England about rock music. Havel said to Rushdie, 'Why do you think we called it the Velvet Revolution?', a reference to ] and the ] .

			In the evening, ], the chairman of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, gave a special address on Federal Television. He said that order must be preserved, that socialism was the only alternative for Czechoslovakia, and criticised protest groups. Government officials, especially the Head of the Communist Party Miloš Jakeš, kept their hard-line position. During the night, they had summoned 4,000 members of the "]" (''Lidové milice'', a paramilitary organisation subordinated directly to the Communist Party) to Prague to crush the protests, but called them off.

			===22 November===
			Civic Forum announced a two-hour general strike for Monday, 27 November. The first live reports from the demonstration in Wenceslas Square appeared on Federal Television (and were quickly cut off, after one of the participants denounced the present government in favour of Alexander Dubček).

			Striking students forced the representatives of the Slovak government and of the Communist Party of Slovakia to participate in a dialogue, in which the official representatives were immediately put on the defensive. Employees of the Slovak section of the Federal Television required the leaders of the Federal Television to provide true information on the events in the country; otherwise they would initiate a strike of TV employees. Uncensored live reports from demonstrations in Bratislava began.

			===23 November===
			The evening news showed factory workers heckling ], the Prague Communist Secretary. The military informed the Communist leadership of its readiness to act (ultimately, it was never used against demonstrators). The military and the Ministry of Defense were preparing for actions against the opposition. Immediately after the meeting, however, the Minister of Defence delivered a TV address announcing that the army would never undertake action against the people and called for an end to demonstrations.

			===24 November===
			The entire Presidium, including General Secretary ], resigned, and ], a more moderate Communist, was named General Secretary. Federal Television showed pictures from 17 November for the first time and presented the first television address of Václav Havel, dealing mostly with the planned general strike.<ref name="video">{{YouTube\|id=v6FeW7__f6U\|title=Prvé vysielanie záberov zo 17. novembra 1989}} Federal Television showed pictures from 17 November for the first time transmitted one week later on 24 Nov.</ref> Czechoslovak TV and Radio announced that they would join the general strike. A discussion with representatives of the opposition was broadcast by the Slovak section of Federal Television.<ref>Stanislav Háber: Ako vzniklo prvé Štúdio dialóg {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105160619/http://translate.google.sk/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&js=n&prev=_t&hl=sk&ie=UTF-8&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.exil.sk%2F%3Fid%3D312%26tree_id%3D99600&act=url \|date=5 November 2013 }}, Slovak v exile, 17 November 2004</ref> The opposition was represented by Ján Budaj, Fedor Gál and Vladimír Ondruš, while the Communists were represented by Štefan Chudoba (director of Bratislava automotive company), Peter Weiss (secretary of the Institute of Marx-Leninism of the Communist party of Slovakia) and the director of ]. It was the first free discussion on Czechoslovak television since its inception. As a result, the editorial staff of Slovak newspapers started to join the opposition.

			===25 November===
			]) and from the metro station Hradčanská to Letná Plain.]]

			The new Communist leadership held a press conference, including Miroslav Štěpán while excluding Ladislav Adamec, but did not address the demands of the demonstrators. Later that day, Štěpán resigned as Prague Secretary. The number of participants in the regular anti-government demonstration in Prague-Letná reached an estimated 800,000 people. Demonstrations in Bratislava peaked at around 100,000 participants.

			===26 November===
			Prime Minister Adamec met with Havel for the first time. The editorial staff of Slovakia's ], the central newspaper of the Communist Party of Slovakia, joined the opposition.

			===27 November===
			], who resigned on 24 November]]

			A successful two-hour general strike led by the civic movements strengthened what were at first a set of moderate demands into cries for a new government.<ref name="Shepherd, Robin H 2000" /> The strike took place throughout the country between 12:00 and 14:00, supported by a reported 75% of the population. The Ministry of Culture released anti-Communist literature for public checkouts in libraries, effectively ending decades of ]. Civic Forum demonstrated its capacity to disrupt the political order and thereby establish itself as the legitimate voice of the nation in negotiations with the state.<ref name="Glenn" /> The civic movements mobilised support for the general strike.<ref name="Shepherd, Robin H 2000" />

			===28 November===
			The Federal Assembly deleted the provision in the constitution referring to the "]" of the Communist Party, officially ending Communist rule in Czechoslovakia.

			===10 December===
			President ] swore in the first government in 41 years that was not dominated by the Communist Party. He resigned shortly afterward.

			== Aftermath ==
			]

			The victory of the revolution was topped off by the election of rebel playwright and ] activist ] as ] on 29 December 1989. The event was highly choreographed and symbolically significant, including on account of with religious elements, as historian Martin Wein has analyzed in detail.<ref> Wein, Martin J. A History of Czechs and Jews: A Slavic Jerusalem. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Limited, 2019, pp. 185-188 </ref>

			Within weeks, Havel negotiated the removal of all ] (approx. 73,500<ref>{{cite web\|last1=Tomek\|first1=Prokop\|title=Dvacet tři podivných let pobytu sovětských vojáků v Československu\|date=6 July 2016 \|url=http://www.vhu.cz/dvacet-tri-podivnych-let-pobytu-sovetskych-vojaku-v-ceskoslovensku/\|publisher=Military History Institute Prague\|language=cs\|access-date=13 January 2018\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114183825/http://www.vhu.cz/dvacet-tri-podivnych-let-pobytu-sovetskych-vojaku-v-ceskoslovensku/\|archive-date=14 January 2018\|url-status=live}}</ref>) from Czechoslovakia. As per the agreement, the Soviet troops departed within months. Free elections held in June 1990 legitimised this government and set the stage for addressing the remnants of the Communist party's power and the legacy of the Communist period.

			The main threat to political stability and the success of Czechoslovakia's shift to ] appeared likely to come from ethnic conflicts between the ] and the ], which resurfaced in the post-Communist period.<ref>Holy, Ladislav (1996). ''The Little Czech and The Great Czech Nation: National identity and the post-communist transformation of society''. Cambridge, Great Britain: Cambridge University Press.</ref> However, there was a general consensus to move toward a market economy, so in early 1990, the President and his top economic advisers decided to liberalise prices, push de-monopolisation and privatise the economy. The end of Communism meant the end of life-long employment, and a subsequent increase in unemployment.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.oecd.org/czech/1908234.pdf \|title=Thematic Review of the Transition from Initial Education to Working Life, Czech Republic \|publisher=OECD \|date=1997 \|access-date=31 October 2017 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107023925/https://www.oecd.org/czech/1908234.pdf \|archive-date=7 November 2017 \|url-status=live }}</ref> To combat this, the government implemented unemployment benefits and a minimum wage.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://sreview.soc.cas.cz/uploads/5d0804f46a8b02da4a8b31e37950bf485aa3416e_155_6vecernik30.pdf\|title=Who is Poor in the Czech Republic? The Changing Structure and Faces of Poverty after 1989\|publisher=sreview.soc.cas.cz\|date=2004\|access-date=13 October 2017\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107023306/http://sreview.soc.cas.cz/uploads/5d0804f46a8b02da4a8b31e37950bf485aa3416e_155_6vecernik30.pdf\|archive-date=7 November 2017\|url-status=live}}</ref> The outcome of the transition to democracy and a market economy would depend on the extent to which developments outside the country facilitated or hindered the process of change.<ref name="proquest"/>
			A notable development was an increase in freedom of religion, and renewed ties to the Vatican and Israel.<ref> Wein, Martin J.. A History of Czechs and Jews: A Slavic Jerusalem. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Limited, 2019, pp. 185-214 </ref>

			==Naming and categorisation==
			] honouring the deaths of those who took part in the 1939 Prague protest.<!--photo by Marc Doug -->]]

			The term ''Velvet Revolution'' was coined by ], the dissidents' English translator<ref name=Revolution1989>{{cite book\|last=Sebetsyen\|first=Victor\|title=Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire\|publisher=]\|location=New York City\|year=2009\|isbn=978-0-375-42532-5\|url-access=registration\|url=https://archive.org/details/revolution1989fa00sebe\|access-date=7 September 2019\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217015839/https://archive.org/details/revolution1989fa00sebe\|archive-date=17 December 2019\|url-status=live}}</ref> who later became the ambassador to the United States.<ref>]. . ], 21 February 1990.</ref> The term was used internationally to describe the revolution, although the Czechs also used the term internally. After the ] in 1993, ] used the term ''Gentle Revolution'', the term that Slovaks used for the revolution from the beginning. The ] continues to refer to the event as the ''Velvet Revolution''.

			Theorists of revolutions, such as ], have argued that the "Velvet Revolution" was not, in fact, a true revolution because a revolution by definition accomplishes change by means of illegitimate violence. Contending theories of revolution argue that the Velvet Revolution is a legitimate revolution because it is a "]" of contested sovereignty that led to a transfer of power ("revolutionary outcome").<ref name=RevolutionHumanFace>{{cite book\|last=Krapfl\|first=Jame\|title=Revolution with a Human Face: Politics, Culture, and Community in Czechoslovakia, 1989–1992\|publisher=]\|year=2013\|isbn=9780801469428}}</ref>

			The Velvet Revolution is an early example of "]s" around the world.

			== Ideals of the revolution ==
			]

			In the months leading up to and during the revolution, citizens dispersed ideas using flyers distributed en masse. Hundreds of discrete flyers with varying messages were printed, but most shared the same ideals. In the summer of 1989, one of the most widely circulated documents was "The Eight Rules of Dialogue", which advocated for truth, understanding and empathy, informed and respectful discussion, abstaining from ad hominem attacks, and an open mind. Other documents focused less on communication techniques and more on ideals. Democracy, freedom, nonviolence, fairness, and humanness were prevalent themes, as well as self-organisation, political representation, and improved working conditions.<ref name=RevolutionHumanFace/>

			== External factors ==
			The events of November 1989 confirmed that outside factors were significant catalysts for the downfall of Communism in Czechoslovakia. Therefore, the transformations in Poland and Hungary and the collapse of the regime in East Germany, both of which could be traced to the new attitude of the Soviets toward East Europe, encouraged Czechs and Slovaks to take to the streets to win their freedom. However, national factors, including the economic and political crisis and the actions of groups and individuals working towards a transformation, destabilised support for the system.<ref name="proquest">Wolchik, Sharon L. 1990. Current History. 89:413–16, 435–37. Retrieved 11 March 2009.</ref>

			Relations with the US and ] began to change in early 1989, with ties warming up, and meetings and negotiations being held on various open issues. All sides involved had a strategic interest in an improvement of ties, and the treatment of Jews and the Jewish heritage and Holocaust memory was one of the litmus tests for the success of the overall rapprochement.<ref> Wein, Martin J.. A History of Czechs and Jews: A Slavic Jerusalem. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Limited, 2019, pp. 185-193 </ref>

			==Pace of change==
			The State's reaction to the strikes demonstrated that while global isolation produced pressures for political, social, and economic change, the events that followed could not be predetermined. Hardly anyone thought that the Communist State could collapse so quickly. Striking students and theatres did not seem likely to intimidate a state that was able to suppress any sort of demonstration. This "popular" phase of the revolution, was followed by victories made possible by the Civic Forum's successful mobilisation for the general strike on 27 November, which established its legitimacy to speak for the nation in negotiations with the state.<ref name="Glenn"/> The mass demonstrations that followed 17 November led to the resignation of the Party leadership of Miloš Jakeš, the removal of the Party from its leading role and the creation of the non-Communist government. Supporters of the revolution had to take instant responsibility for running the government, in addition to establishing essential reforms in political organisation and values, economic structure and policies and foreign policy.<ref>Wolchik, Sharon L. "Czechoslovakia's 'Velvet Revolution.'" 1990. Current History. 89:413–16, 435–37. Retrieved 11 March 2009 (h)</ref>

			== Jingled keys ==
			One element of the demonstrations of the Velvet Revolution was the jingling of keys to signify support. The practice had a double meaning – it symbolized the unlocking of doors<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://havel.columbia.edu/the_velvet_revolution.html \|title=Havel at Columbia: The Velvet Revolution \|publisher=Havel.columbia.edu \|access-date=19 January 2013 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105160849/http://havel.columbia.edu/the_velvet_revolution.html \|archive-date=5 November 2013 \|url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"Today, at exactly noon in ], people flooded into the streets around ], the central shopping thoroughfare, rattling key chains and tinkling tiny bells. The jingling of keys, acts symbolizing the opening of hitherto locked doors, has become a common gesture in the wave of demonstrations.... On Jungmanova Square, ] himself stood beaming broadly on the balcony of a building.... He lustily jingled a bunch of keys." John Tagliabue, "Upheaval in the East; From All Czechoslovakia, a Joyful Noise," {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008073957/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/12/world/upheaval-in-the-east-from-all-czechoslovakia-a-joyful-noise.html?scp=5&sq= \|date=8 October 2016 }}</ref> and was the demonstrators' way of telling the Communists, "Goodbye, it's time to go home."<ref name=Revolution1989/>

			A commemorative ] was issued by Slovakia on 17 November 2009 to mark the 20th anniversary. The coin depicts a bell with a key adjoining the clapper.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/theeuro/InformationWebsite.htm?http://www.ibiblio.org/theeuro/forum/viewtopic.php?f=81&t=535&p=1977 \|title=Slovakia 2009 2 Euro Comm. New image \|publisher=Ibiblio.org \|access-date=19 January 2013 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025134826/http://www.ibiblio.org/theeuro/InformationWebsite.htm?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Ftheeuro%2Fforum%2Fviewtopic.php%3Ff=81&t=535&p=1977 \|archive-date=25 October 2012 \|url-status=live }}</ref> ] wrote a short story, ], in which the jingling of keys played a central role in the liberation of a fictional country called ].

	==See also==		==See also==
	* ] and ] (political movements that played major role in the revolution)		*] and ] (political movements that played major role in the revolution)
			*] (peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia a few years later in 1993)
	* ]
			*]
	* ] (peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia few years later)
			*]
			*]
			*]
			*]
			*]
			*]
			* ]

			==References==
			{{reflist\|2}}
			;Notes
			{{refbegin}}
			* {{Cite book \|last=Kukral \|first=Michael Andrew \|title=Prague 1989: theater of revolution - a study in humanistic political geography \|date=1997 \|publisher=East European Monographs \|isbn=978-0-88033-369-6 \|series=East European monographs \|location=New York}}
			* {{Cite journal \|last=Glenn \|first=J. K. \|date=September 1999 \|title=Competing Challengers and Contested Outcomes to State Breakdown: The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia \|journal=Social Forces \|language=en \|volume=78 \|issue=1 \|pages=187–211 \|doi=10.1093/sf/78.1.187 \|issn=0037-7732}}
			* {{Cite book \|last=Holý \|first=Ladislav \|title=The little Czech and the Great Czech Nation: national identity and the post-communist transformation of society \|date=1996 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|isbn=978-0-521-55469-5 \|edition=1 \|series=Cambridge studies in social and cultural anthropology \|location=Cambridge ; New York}}
			* {{Cite book \|last=Shepherd \|first=Robin H. E. \|title=Czechoslovakia: the velvet revolution and beyond \|date=2001 \|publisher=Palgrave \|isbn=978-0-312-23068-5 \|edition=Nachdr \|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire}}
			* {{Cite journal \|last=Wolchik \|first=Sharon L. \|date=December 1990 \|title=Czechoslovakia's "Velvet Revolution" \|journal=Current History \|language=en \|volume=89 \|issue=551 \|pages=413–416 \|doi=10.1525/curh.1990.89.551.413 \|issn=0011-3530}}
			{{refend}}

			==Further reading==
			* {{Cite book \|last=Garton Ash \|first=Timothy \|author-link=Timothy Garton Ash \|url=https://archive.org/details/wepeoplerevoluti0000gart \|title=We the people: the revolution of '89 witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin & Prague \|date=1990 \|publisher=Granta Books : Penguin Books \|isbn=978-0-14-014023-1 \|location=Cambridge : London, England ; New York, NY, USA}}
			* {{Cite book \|last1=Benda \|first1=Marek \|title=Studenti psali revoluci \|last2=Benda \|first2=Martin \|last3=Klíma \|first3=Martin \|last4=Dobrovský \|first4=Pavel \|last5=Pajerová \|first5=Monika \|last6=Pánek \|first6=Šimon \|author-link6=Šimon Pánek \|date=1990 \|publisher=Univerzum \|isbn=978-80-85207-02-6 \|location=Praha \|language=cs \|trans-title=Students wrote the revolution}}
			* {{Cite book \|last1=Schelle \|first1=Karel \|title=The process of democratization of law in the Czech Republic, 1989-2009 \|last2=Lamka \|first2=Roman \|last3=Tauchen \|first3=Jaromír \|publisher=AICELS \|year=2009 \|isbn=978-0-615-31580-5 \|location=Ricon, GA}}
			* {{Cite book \|last=Wein \|first=Martin \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bugBgAAQBAJ \|title=A History of Czechs and Jews: A Slavic Jerusalem \|date=2015 \|publisher=Routledge \|isbn=978-1-317-60821-9 \|language=en}}
			* {{Cite book \|last1=Roberts \|first1=Adam \|author-link1=Adam Roberts (scholar) \|title=Civil resistance and power politics: the experience of non-violent action from Gandhi to the present \|last2=Ash \|first2=Timothy Garton \|author-link2=Timothy Garton Ash \|date=2009 \|publisher=Oxford University press \|isbn=978-0-19-955201-6 \|location=London}}

	==External links==		==External links==
			{{commons category\|Velvet Revolution}}
	* Detailed day-to-day history with key documents quoted (in Czech language only). Shortened version was used as a source for Chronology above.
			* Detailed documentation, textual and visual, of the Velvet Revolution partly in English.
	{{Cold War}}
			*
	]
			* Detailed day-to-day history with key documents quoted (in Czech only). Shortened version was used as a source for Chronology above.
	]
			* A shortened version of the Velvet Revolution.
	]
			*
	]
			* dialogue between Václav Havel and Adam Michnik, English, salon.eu.sk, November 2008
	]
			* An oratorio based on the events of the Velvet Revolution
			*{{Webarchive \|title=Velvet Revolution Diary \|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109215845/http://www.unisona.com/VelvetRevolutionDiary/index.html \|date=9 November 2020}} English translation of an authentic diary of a student participating in the revolution plus scans of US articles from that time

			{{Cold War}}
	]
			{{Fall of Communism}}
	]
			{{Authority control}}
	]
	]		]
			]
	]
			]
	]
			]
	]
			]
	]
			]
	]
			]
	]
			]
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	]

Latest revision as of 14:49, 24 December 2024

Democratization process in Czechoslovakia in 1989 This article is about the event in Czechoslovakia. For other uses, see Velvet Revolution (disambiguation).

Velvet Revolution

Part of the Revolutions of 1989

Demonstration of 25 November 1989 in Prague.

Date

17 November – 29 December 1989Main phase: 17 – 28 November 1989

Location

Czechoslovakia

Caused by

Political repression
Totalitarianism
Economic stagnation
Other anti-Marxist-Leninist revolutions of 1989
Martin Šmíd death hoax

Goals

Methods

Resulted in

Collapse of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia

Resignation of the Politburo of the Communist Party (24 November 1989)
Dissident leader Václav Havel becomes the President of Czechoslovakia (29 December 1989)
Restoration of parliamentary democracy with free elections in June 1990
Start of Hyphen War which eventually led to Velvet Divorce (breakup of Czechoslovakia)
Dismantling of the command economy and privatization of state-owned industry

Parties

Government

Opposition

Supported by:
United States

Embassy of the United States, Prague

Lead figures

Hardliners:

Moderates:

Dissident leaders:

Václav Havel

Casualties and losses

568 injured

Part of a series on the

History of Czechoslovakia

Origins of Czechoslovakia	1918
Washington Declaration	1918
First Czechoslovak Republic	1918–1938
Munich Agreement	1938
Second Czechoslovak Republic	1938–1939
German occupation	1938–1945
Bohemia and Moravia	1939–1945
Slovak Republic	1939–1945
Czechoslovak government-in-exile	1939–1945
Third Czechoslovak Republic	1945–1948
Coup d'état	1948
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic	1948–1989
Prague Spring/Invasion	1968
Velvet Revolution	1989
Post-revolution	1989–1992
Federative Republic	1990–1992
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia	1992

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The Velvet Revolution (Czech: Sametová revoluce) or Gentle Revolution (Slovak: Nežná revolúcia) was a non-violent transition of power in what was then Czechoslovakia, occurring from 17 November to 28 November 1989. Popular demonstrations against the one-party government of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia included students and older dissidents. The result was the end of 41 years of one-party rule in Czechoslovakia, and the subsequent dismantling of the command economy and conversion to a parliamentary republic.

On 17 November 1989 (International Students' Day), riot police suppressed a student demonstration in Prague. The event marked the 50th anniversary of a violently suppressed demonstration against the Nazi storming of Prague University in 1939 where 1,200 students were arrested and 9 killed (see Origin of International Students' Day). The 1989 event sparked a series of demonstrations from 17 November to late December and turned into an anti-communist demonstration. On 20 November, the number of protesters assembled in Prague grew from 200,000 the previous day to an estimated 500,000. The entire top leadership of the Communist Party, including General Secretary Miloš Jakeš, resigned on 24 November. On 27 November, a two-hour general strike involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia was held.

In response to the collapse of other Warsaw Pact governments and the increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on 28 November that it would relinquish power and end the one-party state. Two days later, the federal parliament formally deleted the sections of the Constitution giving the Communist Party a monopoly of power. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany and Austria in early December. On 10 December, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on 28 December and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989.

In June 1990, Czechoslovakia held its first democratic elections since 1946. On 31 December 1992, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

The dissolution of Czechoslovakia occurred mainly due to national governance issues between the Slovaks and Czechs (the two major ethnicities comprising the former Czechoslovakia).

Prior to the revolution

The Communist Party seized power on 25 February 1948. No official opposition parties operated thereafter. Dissidents (notably Charter 77 and Civic Forum) created Music Clubs (on a limited basis as only allowed NGOs) and published home-made periodicals (samizdat). Charter 77 was quashed by the government and its signed members were persecuted until the fall of the regime in Czechoslovakia. Later, with the advent of the Civic Forum, independence could truly be seen on the horizon. Until Independence Day on 17 November 1989, the populace faced persecution by the authorities from the secret police. Thus, the general public did not openly support the dissidents for fear of dismissal from work or school. Writers or filmmakers could have their books or films banned for a "negative attitude towards the socialist regime". They also did not allow Czechs and Slovaks to travel to other non-communist countries. Following this they banned music from foreign countries. This blacklisting included children of former entrepreneurs or non-Communist politicians, having family members living in the West, having supported Alexander Dubček during the Prague Spring, opposing Soviet military occupation, promoting religion, boycotting (rigged) parliamentary elections or signing Charter 77 or associating with those who did. These rules were easy to enforce, as all schools, media and businesses belonged to the state. They were under direct supervision and often were used as accusatory weapons against rivals.

The nature of blacklisting changed gradually after the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) in 1985. The Czechoslovak Communist leadership verbally supported Perestroika, but made few changes. Speaking about the Prague Spring of 1968 was taboo. The first anti-government demonstrations occurred in 1988 (the Candle Demonstration, for example) and 1989, but these were dispersed and participants were repressed by the police.

By the late 1980s, discontent with living standards and economic inadequacy gave way to popular support for economic reform. Citizens began to challenge the system more openly. By 1989, citizens who had been complacent were willing to openly express their discontent with the regime. Numerous important figures as well as ordinary workers signed petitions in support of Václav Havel during his imprisonment in 1989.

Already in early 1989, the first signs of thawing relations began to appear between Communist Czechoslovakia and Israel, with meetings held on shared issues, including Jewish religious freedom, the memory of the Holocaust and ties of remaining Czechoslovak Jews with the Diaspora, including the strong Jewish community in the United States.

Reform-minded attitudes were also reflected by the many individuals who signed a petition that circulated in the summer of 1989 calling for the end of censorship and the beginning of fundamental political reform.

The immediate impetus for the revolution came from developments in neighbouring countries and in the Czechoslovak capital. From August, East German citizens had occupied the West German Embassy in Prague and demanded exile to West Germany. In the days following 3 November, thousands of East Germans left Prague by train to West Germany. On 9 November, the Berlin Wall fell, removing the need for the detour.

By 16 November, many of Czechoslovakia's neighbours were beginning to shed authoritarian rule. The citizens of Czechoslovakia watched these events on TV through both foreign and domestic channels. The Soviet Union also supported a change in the ruling elite of Czechoslovakia, although it did not anticipate the overthrow of the Communist regime.

Chronology

16 November

On the eve of International Students Day (the 50th anniversary of Sonderaktion Prag, the 1939 storming of Prague universities by the Nazis), Slovak high school and university students organised a peaceful demonstration in the centre of Bratislava. The Communist Party of Slovakia had expected trouble, and the mere fact that the demonstration was organised was viewed as a problem by the Party. Armed forces were put on alert before the demonstration. In the end, however, the students moved through the city peacefully and sent a delegation to the Slovak Ministry of Education to discuss their demands.

17 November

New movements led by Václav Havel surfaced, invoking the idea of a united society where the state would politically restructure. The Socialist Youth Union (SSM/SZM, proxy of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia) organised a mass demonstration on 17 November to commemorate International Students Day and the fiftieth anniversary of the murder of student Jan Opletal by the Nazi government.

Most members of SSM were privately opposed to the Communist leadership, but were afraid of speaking up for fear of persecution. This demonstration gave average students an opportunity to join others and express their opinions. By 16:00 (4:00 pm), about 15,000 people joined the demonstration. They walked (per the strategy of founders of Stuha movement, Jiří Dienstbier and Šimon Pánek) to Karel Hynek Mácha's grave at Vyšehrad Cemetery and – after the official end of the march – continued into the centre of Prague, carrying banners and chanting anti-Communist slogans.

At about 19:30 (7:30pm), the demonstrators were stopped by a cordon of riot police at Národní Street. They blocked all escape routes and attacked the students. Once all the protesters dispersed, one of the participants, secret police agent Ludvík Zifčák, was lying on the street. Zifčák was not physically hurt or pretending to be dead; he simply fainted. Policemen carried his motionless body to an ambulance.

The atmosphere of fear and hopelessness gave birth to a hoax about a dead student named Martin Šmíd. The story was made up by Drahomíra Dražská as she awaited treatment after she was hurt during the riot. Dražská worked at the college and shared her hoax with several people the next day, including the wife of journalist Petr Uhl, a correspondent for Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. This incident mobilised the people and triggered the revolution. That same evening, students and theatre actors agreed to go on strike.

18 November

Two students visited Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec at his private residence and described to him what happened on Národní Street. The strike at the Realistic Theatre was declared and other theatres quickly followed. The theaters opened their stages only for public discussions.

At the initiative of students from the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, the students in Prague went on strike. This strike was joined by university students throughout Czechoslovakia. Theatre employees and actors in Prague supported the strike. Instead of going on stage, actors read a proclamation by the students and artists to the audience, calling for a general strike on 27 November.

Home-made posters and proclamations were posted. As all media (radio, TV, newspapers) were strictly controlled by the Communist Party (see Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia), this was the only way to spread the message.

In the evening, Radio Free Europe reported that a student (named as Martin Šmíd) was killed by the police during the previous day's demonstration. Although the report was false, it heightened the feeling of crisis, and persuaded some hesitant citizens to overcome their fear and join the protests.

19 November

Theatres in Bratislava, Brno, Ostrava and other towns went on strike. Members of artistic and literary associations as well as organisations and institutions joined the strike.

Members of a civic initiative met with the Prime Minister, who told them he was twice prohibited from resigning his post and that change requires mass demonstrations like those in East Germany (some 250,000 students). He asked them to keep the number of "casualties" during the expected change to a minimum.

About 500 Slovak artists, scientists and leaders met at the Art Forum (Umelecká beseda) in Bratislava at 17:00. They denounced the attack against the students in Prague on 17 November and formed Public Against Violence, which would become the leading force behind the opposition movement in Slovakia. Its founding members included Milan Kňažko, Ján Budaj and others.

Actors and members of the audience in a Prague theatre, together with Václav Havel and other prominent members of Charter 77 and other dissident organisations, established the Civic Forum (Občanské fórum, an equivalent of the Slovak Public Against Violence for the territory of the Czech Republic) as a mass popular movement for reforms. They called for the dismissal of top officials responsible for the violence, and an independent investigation of the incident and the release of all political prisoners.

College students went on strike. On television, government officials called for peace and a return to the city's normal business. An interview with Martin Šmíd was broadcast to persuade the public that nobody had been killed, but the quality of the recording was low and rumours continued. It would take several more days to confirm that nobody was killed, and by then the revolution had gained further momentum.

The leaders of the Democratic Initiative presented several demands, including the resignation of the government, effective 25 November, and the formation of a temporary government composed of non-compromised members of the current government.

20 November

Students and theatres went on "permanent" strike. Police stopped a demonstration from continuing toward Prague Castle, which would have entered the striking theatres.

Civic Forum representatives negotiated unofficially with Adamec without Havel, and Adamec was sympathetic to the students' demands. However, he was outvoted in a special cabinet meeting the same day. The government, in an official statement, made no concessions.

Civic Forum added a demand: the abolition of the "ruling position" of the Communist Party from the Constitution. Non-Communist newspapers published information that contradicted the Communist interpretation. The first mass demonstration in Prague (100,000 people) and the first demonstrations in Bratislava occurred.

21 November

The first official meeting of the Civic Forum with the Prime Minister took place. The Prime Minister agreed to personally guarantee that no violence would be used against the people; however he would "protect socialism, about which no discussion is possible". An organised mass demonstration took place in Wenceslas Square in central Prague (demonstrations recurred there throughout the following days). Actors and students travelled to factories inside and outside Prague to gain support for their colleagues in other cities.

A mass demonstration erupted in Hviezdoslav Square in downtown Bratislava (in the following days, it moved to the Square of the Slovak National Uprising). The students presented demands and asked the people to participate in the general strike planned for Monday, 27 November. A separate demonstration demanded the release of the political prisoner Ján Čarnogurský (later Prime Minister of Slovakia) in front of the Palace of Justice. Alexander Dubček addressed this demonstration – his first appearance during the Velvet Revolution. As a result, Čarnogurský was released on 23 November. Further demonstrations followed in all major cities of Czechoslovakia.

Cardinal František Tomášek, the Roman Catholic primate of the Bohemian lands, declared his support for the students and issued a declaration criticising the current government's policies. For the first time during the Velvet Revolution, the "radical" demand to abolish the article of the Constitution establishing the "leading role" of the Communist Party was expressed by Ľubomír Feldek at a meeting of Public Against Violence.

In the evening, Miloš Jakeš, the chairman of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, gave a special address on Federal Television. He said that order must be preserved, that socialism was the only alternative for Czechoslovakia, and criticised protest groups. Government officials, especially the Head of the Communist Party Miloš Jakeš, kept their hard-line position. During the night, they had summoned 4,000 members of the "People's Militias" (Lidové milice, a paramilitary organisation subordinated directly to the Communist Party) to Prague to crush the protests, but called them off.

22 November

Civic Forum announced a two-hour general strike for Monday, 27 November. The first live reports from the demonstration in Wenceslas Square appeared on Federal Television (and were quickly cut off, after one of the participants denounced the present government in favour of Alexander Dubček).

Striking students forced the representatives of the Slovak government and of the Communist Party of Slovakia to participate in a dialogue, in which the official representatives were immediately put on the defensive. Employees of the Slovak section of the Federal Television required the leaders of the Federal Television to provide true information on the events in the country; otherwise they would initiate a strike of TV employees. Uncensored live reports from demonstrations in Bratislava began.

23 November

The evening news showed factory workers heckling Miroslav Štěpán, the Prague Communist Secretary. The military informed the Communist leadership of its readiness to act (ultimately, it was never used against demonstrators). The military and the Ministry of Defense were preparing for actions against the opposition. Immediately after the meeting, however, the Minister of Defence delivered a TV address announcing that the army would never undertake action against the people and called for an end to demonstrations.

24 November

The entire Presidium, including General Secretary Miloš Jakeš, resigned, and Karel Urbánek, a more moderate Communist, was named General Secretary. Federal Television showed pictures from 17 November for the first time and presented the first television address of Václav Havel, dealing mostly with the planned general strike. Czechoslovak TV and Radio announced that they would join the general strike. A discussion with representatives of the opposition was broadcast by the Slovak section of Federal Television. The opposition was represented by Ján Budaj, Fedor Gál and Vladimír Ondruš, while the Communists were represented by Štefan Chudoba (director of Bratislava automotive company), Peter Weiss (secretary of the Institute of Marx-Leninism of the Communist party of Slovakia) and the director of Steelworks Košice. It was the first free discussion on Czechoslovak television since its inception. As a result, the editorial staff of Slovak newspapers started to join the opposition.

25 November

The new Communist leadership held a press conference, including Miroslav Štěpán while excluding Ladislav Adamec, but did not address the demands of the demonstrators. Later that day, Štěpán resigned as Prague Secretary. The number of participants in the regular anti-government demonstration in Prague-Letná reached an estimated 800,000 people. Demonstrations in Bratislava peaked at around 100,000 participants.

26 November

Prime Minister Adamec met with Havel for the first time. The editorial staff of Slovakia's Pravda, the central newspaper of the Communist Party of Slovakia, joined the opposition.

27 November

A successful two-hour general strike led by the civic movements strengthened what were at first a set of moderate demands into cries for a new government. The strike took place throughout the country between 12:00 and 14:00, supported by a reported 75% of the population. The Ministry of Culture released anti-Communist literature for public checkouts in libraries, effectively ending decades of censorship. Civic Forum demonstrated its capacity to disrupt the political order and thereby establish itself as the legitimate voice of the nation in negotiations with the state. The civic movements mobilised support for the general strike.

28 November

The Federal Assembly deleted the provision in the constitution referring to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, officially ending Communist rule in Czechoslovakia.

10 December

President Gustáv Husák swore in the first government in 41 years that was not dominated by the Communist Party. He resigned shortly afterward.

Aftermath

The victory of the revolution was topped off by the election of rebel playwright and human rights activist Václav Havel as President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December 1989. The event was highly choreographed and symbolically significant, including on account of with religious elements, as historian Martin Wein has analyzed in detail.

Within weeks, Havel negotiated the removal of all Soviet troops (approx. 73,500) from Czechoslovakia. As per the agreement, the Soviet troops departed within months. Free elections held in June 1990 legitimised this government and set the stage for addressing the remnants of the Communist party's power and the legacy of the Communist period.

The main threat to political stability and the success of Czechoslovakia's shift to democracy appeared likely to come from ethnic conflicts between the Czechs and the Slovaks, which resurfaced in the post-Communist period. However, there was a general consensus to move toward a market economy, so in early 1990, the President and his top economic advisers decided to liberalise prices, push de-monopolisation and privatise the economy. The end of Communism meant the end of life-long employment, and a subsequent increase in unemployment. To combat this, the government implemented unemployment benefits and a minimum wage. The outcome of the transition to democracy and a market economy would depend on the extent to which developments outside the country facilitated or hindered the process of change. A notable development was an increase in freedom of religion, and renewed ties to the Vatican and Israel.

Naming and categorisation

The term Velvet Revolution was coined by Rita Klímová, the dissidents' English translator who later became the ambassador to the United States. The term was used internationally to describe the revolution, although the Czechs also used the term internally. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Slovakia used the term Gentle Revolution, the term that Slovaks used for the revolution from the beginning. The Czech Republic continues to refer to the event as the Velvet Revolution.

Theorists of revolutions, such as Jaroslav Krejčí, have argued that the "Velvet Revolution" was not, in fact, a true revolution because a revolution by definition accomplishes change by means of illegitimate violence. Contending theories of revolution argue that the Velvet Revolution is a legitimate revolution because it is a "revolutionary situation" of contested sovereignty that led to a transfer of power ("revolutionary outcome").

The Velvet Revolution is an early example of "colour revolutions" around the world.

Ideals of the revolution

In the months leading up to and during the revolution, citizens dispersed ideas using flyers distributed en masse. Hundreds of discrete flyers with varying messages were printed, but most shared the same ideals. In the summer of 1989, one of the most widely circulated documents was "The Eight Rules of Dialogue", which advocated for truth, understanding and empathy, informed and respectful discussion, abstaining from ad hominem attacks, and an open mind. Other documents focused less on communication techniques and more on ideals. Democracy, freedom, nonviolence, fairness, and humanness were prevalent themes, as well as self-organisation, political representation, and improved working conditions.

External factors

The events of November 1989 confirmed that outside factors were significant catalysts for the downfall of Communism in Czechoslovakia. Therefore, the transformations in Poland and Hungary and the collapse of the regime in East Germany, both of which could be traced to the new attitude of the Soviets toward East Europe, encouraged Czechs and Slovaks to take to the streets to win their freedom. However, national factors, including the economic and political crisis and the actions of groups and individuals working towards a transformation, destabilised support for the system.

Relations with the US and Israel began to change in early 1989, with ties warming up, and meetings and negotiations being held on various open issues. All sides involved had a strategic interest in an improvement of ties, and the treatment of Jews and the Jewish heritage and Holocaust memory was one of the litmus tests for the success of the overall rapprochement.

Pace of change

The State's reaction to the strikes demonstrated that while global isolation produced pressures for political, social, and economic change, the events that followed could not be predetermined. Hardly anyone thought that the Communist State could collapse so quickly. Striking students and theatres did not seem likely to intimidate a state that was able to suppress any sort of demonstration. This "popular" phase of the revolution, was followed by victories made possible by the Civic Forum's successful mobilisation for the general strike on 27 November, which established its legitimacy to speak for the nation in negotiations with the state. The mass demonstrations that followed 17 November led to the resignation of the Party leadership of Miloš Jakeš, the removal of the Party from its leading role and the creation of the non-Communist government. Supporters of the revolution had to take instant responsibility for running the government, in addition to establishing essential reforms in political organisation and values, economic structure and policies and foreign policy.

Jingled keys

One element of the demonstrations of the Velvet Revolution was the jingling of keys to signify support. The practice had a double meaning – it symbolized the unlocking of doors and was the demonstrators' way of telling the Communists, "Goodbye, it's time to go home."

A commemorative 2 Euro coin was issued by Slovakia on 17 November 2009 to mark the 20th anniversary. The coin depicts a bell with a key adjoining the clapper. Ursula K. Le Guin wrote a short story, "Unlocking the Air", in which the jingling of keys played a central role in the liberation of a fictional country called Orsinia.

References

"How the US embassy in Prague aided Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution". brookings.edu. 24 April 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
Bellum, Post (25 November 2019). "Živé vzpomínky na revoluci: Pendrekem přes obličej, u černobílého monitoru VB". Deník.cz (in Czech). Retrieved 10 July 2023.
"RP's History Online – Velvet Revolution". Archiv.radio.cz. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
"Velvet Revolution in Prague Czechoslovakia". Prague-life.com. Archived from the original on 26 November 2013. Retrieved 24 November 2013.
Stolarik, M. Mark (2017). The Czech and Slovak Republics: Twenty Years of Independence, 1993–2013. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-9633861530.
Wein, Martin J.. A History of Czechs and Jews: A Slavic Jerusalem. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Limited, 2019, pp. 185-190
Wolchik, Sharon L. “Czechoslovakia's ‘Velvet Revolution.’” 1990. Current History. 89:413–16, 435–37. Retrieved 11 March 2009
Wolchik, Sharon L. (1999). "Czechoslovakia on the eve of 1989". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 32 (4): 437–451. doi:10.1016/S0967-067X(99)00021-5. ISSN 0967-067X. JSTOR 48609377.
^ Glenn, John K. “Competing Challengers and Contested Outcomes to State Breakdown: The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia”. September 1999. Social Forces. 78:187–211. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
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"Sametová revoluce – trasa demonstrace: TOTALITA". Totalita.cz. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 24 November 2013.
^ Shepherd, Robin H. E. (2000). Czechoslovakia' The Velvet Revolution and Beyond. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Prvé vysielanie záberov zo 17. novembra 1989 on YouTube Federal Television showed pictures from 17 November for the first time transmitted one week later on 24 Nov.
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^ Wolchik, Sharon L. “Czechoslovakia's ‘Velvet Revolution.’” 1990. Current History. 89:413–16, 435–37. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
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"Today, at exactly noon in Prague, people flooded into the streets around Wenceslas Square, the central shopping thoroughfare, rattling key chains and tinkling tiny bells. The jingling of keys, acts symbolizing the opening of hitherto locked doors, has become a common gesture in the wave of demonstrations.... On Jungmanova Square, Mr. Havel himself stood beaming broadly on the balcony of a building.... He lustily jingled a bunch of keys." John Tagliabue, "Upheaval in the East; From All Czechoslovakia, a Joyful Noise," The New York Times, Dec. 12, 1989. Archived 8 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
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Notes

Kukral, Michael Andrew (1997). Prague 1989: theater of revolution - a study in humanistic political geography. East European monographs. New York: East European Monographs. ISBN 978-0-88033-369-6.
Glenn, J. K. (September 1999). "Competing Challengers and Contested Outcomes to State Breakdown: The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia". Social Forces. 78 (1): 187–211. doi:10.1093/sf/78.1.187. ISSN 0037-7732.
Holý, Ladislav (1996). The little Czech and the Great Czech Nation: national identity and the post-communist transformation of society. Cambridge studies in social and cultural anthropology (1 ed.). Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55469-5.
Shepherd, Robin H. E. (2001). Czechoslovakia: the velvet revolution and beyond (Nachdr ed.). Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-312-23068-5.
Wolchik, Sharon L. (December 1990). "Czechoslovakia's "Velvet Revolution"". Current History. 89 (551): 413–416. doi:10.1525/curh.1990.89.551.413. ISSN 0011-3530.

External links

Velvet Revolution on web project of Institute of Contemporary History, Prague Detailed documentation, textual and visual, of the Velvet Revolution partly in English.
The Velvet Philosophical Revolution, City Journal, Winter 2010
Velvet Revolution on totalita.cz Detailed day-to-day history with key documents quoted (in Czech only). Shortened version was used as a source for Chronology above.
Velvet Revolution on Prague-life A shortened version of the Velvet Revolution.
In the footsteps of November 17 – Czech.cz
After the Velvet, the Existential Revolution? dialogue between Václav Havel and Adam Michnik, English, salon.eu.sk, November 2008
The Velvet Oratorio An oratorio based on the events of the Velvet Revolution
Velvet Revolution Diary at the Wayback Machine (archived 9 November 2020) English translation of an authentic diary of a student participating in the revolution plus scans of US articles from that time

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