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{{Short description|Pseudoscientific approach to psychotherapy}}
{{otheruses4|the personal development model|the neuroscience|neurolinguistics}}
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{{Infobox interventions
| Name = Neuro-linguistic programming
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{{Neuro-linguistic programming}} {{Neuro-linguistic programming}}
'''Neuro-linguistic programming''' ('''NLP''') is a set of techniques, ] and ]s, that adherents use primarily as an approach to ]. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the ] era as well as beliefs in ]. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by ], a student, and ], a professor of ], in association with the social scientist ]. The term "Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes a set of models and principles meant to explore how ] and ] (''neuro''), ] patterns (''linguistic''), and the organization of human ] and cognition into systemic patterns (''programming'') interact to create ] and human ]s.


'''Neuro-linguistic programming''' ('''NLP''') is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development and ], that first appeared in ] and ]'s 1975 book '']''. NLP asserts that there is a connection between neurological processes, language and acquired behavioral patterns, and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tosey |first1=Paul |last2=Mathison |first2=Jane |title=Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming |publisher=Centre for Management Learning & Development, School of Management, University of Surrey. |url=http://www.som.surrey.ac.uk/NLP/Resources/IntroducingNLP.pdf |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103020411/http://www.som.surrey.ac.uk/NLP/Resources/IntroducingNLP.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Dilts|Grinder|Bandler|DeLozier|1980|p=2}} According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP can treat problems such as ]s, depression, ]s, ]es, ],{{efn|name=nscc}} ], the ],{{efn|name=nscc|Note that, in a seminar, {{harvnb|Bandler|Grinder|1982|p=166}}, said that a single session of NLP combined with hypnosis could eliminate certain eyesight problems such as myopia and cure the common cold (op.cit., pp. 169, 174).}} and ]s,<ref>Archived at {{cbignore}} and the {{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media |people=Bandler, Richard |year=2008 |title=What is NLP? |medium=Promotional video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vlcsFJyEXQ |access-date=1 June 2013 |quote=We can reliably get rid of a phobia in ten minutes – every single time. |publisher=NLP Life}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Grinder|Bostic St. Clair|2001|loc=Chapter 4: Personal Antecedents of NLP}}.</ref> often in a single session. They also say that NLP can model the skills of exceptional people, allowing anyone to acquire them.{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1975|pp=5–6}}{{efn|{{harvnb|Bandler|1993|p=vii}}: "In single sessions, they can accelerate learning, neutralize phobias, enhance creativity, improve relationships, eliminate allergies, and lead firewalks without roasting toes. NLP achieves the goal of its inception. We have ways to do what only a genius could have done a decade ago." }}
Based upon language patterns and body language cues derived from the observations of several ]<ref name="frogs">{{cite book | author=Bandler, Richard & John Grinder | title=Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming | location=Moab, UT | publisher=Real People Press | year=1979 | id=- | url=- | pages=p.15,24,30,45,52.
}}</ref>, NLP practitioners believe that our subjective reality drives beliefs, perceptions and behaviors, and that therefore behavior change, transforming ]s, and treatment of ]s is possible.<ref name="frogs" /><ref name="reframing">{{cite book
| author=Bandler, Richard & John Grinder
| title=Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning
| location=Moab, UT | publisher=Real People Press.
| year=1983
| id=- | url=-
| pages=appendix II, p.171}}</ref><ref name="structure1" /> Techniques distilled from these observations were described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic," with NLP itself described as 'the study of the structure of subjective experience".<ref name="sharpley87">{{cite journal
| author=Sharpley C.F.
| title=Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory
| journal=Communication and Cognition
| year=1987
| volume=Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1
| pages=103-107,105
| url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?nfpb=true&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ352101&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&objectId=0900000b8005c1ac}}</ref><ref name="nlpvol1">{{cite book
| author=Dilts, Robert B, Grinder, John, Bandler, Richard & DeLozier, Judith A.
| title=Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience | publisher=Meta Publications, 1980. .
| date=1980
| url=.
| id=.
| pages=pp.3-4,6,14,17}}</ref> They are predicated upon the principle that all ]s (whether excellent or ]al) are not random, but have a structure which can be understood <ref name="structure1">{{cite book
| author=Bandler, Richard & John Grinder
| title=The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy
| location=Palo Alto, CA
| publisher=Science & Behavior Books.
| year=1975a
| id=-
| url=- | pages=-}}</ref><ref name=purenlp>.</ref> NLP has been applied to a number of fields such as sales, psychotherapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, business management, interpersonal relationships, as well as less mainstream areas such as seduction and spirituality. NLP is often considered controversial and is at times criticized as unproven or pseudoscientific by those who watch for fraud, exaggerated claims and unethical practices.


NLP has been adopted by some ]s as well as by companies that run seminars marketed as ] to businesses and government agencies.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dowlen |first=Ashley |title=NLP – help or hype? Investigating the uses of neuro-linguistic programming in management learning |journal=Career Development International |date=1 January 1996 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=27–34 |doi=10.1108/13620439610111408}}</ref><ref name="von Bergen-1997" />
==Overview==
===Foundational assumptions/philosophy===
NLP is sometimes described as an ] ]. That means it is based on personal experience and observation. It is ] and focuses on the question of "what works". Druckman (1988) comments:


There is no ] supporting the claims made by NLP advocates, and it has been called a ].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Science and Pseudoscience in Social Work Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nE9FCQAAQBAJ&q=nlp&pg=PA166 |publisher=Springer Publishing Company |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-8261-7769-8 |first1=Bruce A. |last1=Thyer |first2=Monica G. |last2=Pignotti |pages=56–57, 165–167 |quote=As NLP became more popular, some research was conducted and reviews of such research have concluded that there is no scientific basis for its theories about representational systems and eye movements.}}</ref><ref name="Sharpley-1987" /><ref name="Witkowski-2010">{{cite journal |last=Witkowski |first=Tomasz |title=Thirty-Five Years of Research on Neuro-Linguistic Programming. NLP Research Data Base. State of the Art or Pseudoscientific Decoration? |journal=Polish Psychological Bulletin |date=1 January 2010 |volume=41 |issue=2 |doi=10.2478/v10059-010-0008-0|quote=All of this leaves me with an overwhelming impression that the analyzed base of scientific articles is treated just as theater decoration, being the background for the pseudoscientific farce which NLP appears to be. Using "scientific" attributes, which is so characteristic of pseudoscience, is manifested also in other aspects of NLP activities... My analysis leads undeniably to the statement that NLP represents pseudoscientific rubbish|doi-access=free }}</ref> Scientific reviews have shown that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of the brain's inner workings that are inconsistent with current neurological theory, and that NLP contains numerous factual errors.<ref name="von Bergen-1997">{{cite journal |last=von Bergen |first=C. W. |last2=Gary |first2=Barlow Soper |last3=Rosenthal |first3=T. |last4=Wilkinson |first4=Lamar V. |title=Selected alternative training techniques in HRD |journal=Human Resource Development Quarterly |year=1997 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=281–294 |doi=10.1002/hrdq.3920080403}}</ref><ref name="Druckman-2004">{{cite journal |last=Druckman |first=Daniel |title=Be All That You Can Be: Enhancing Human Performance |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology |date=1 November 2004 |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=2234–2260 |doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb01975.x}}</ref> Reviews also found that research that favored NLP contained significant methodological flaws, and that there were three times as many studies of a much higher quality that failed to reproduce the claims made by Bandler, Grinder, and other NLP practitioners.<ref name="Sharpley-1987">{{cite journal |last=Sharpley |first=Christopher F. |title=Research findings on neurolinguistic programming: Nonsupportive data or an untestable theory? |journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology |date=1 January 1987 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1037/0022-0167.34.1.103}}</ref><ref name="Witkowski-2010" />
{{cquote|The system was developed in answer to particular psychotherapists were so effective with their patients. Rather than explore this question in terms of psychotherapeutic theory and practice, Bandler and Grinder sought to analyze what the therapists were doing at an observational level, categorize it, and apply the categories as a general model of interpersonal influence. NLP seeks to instruct people to observe, make inferences, and respond to others, as did the three original, very effective therapists.<ref>Druckman, ''Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques'' (1988) p.138 </ref>}}


== Early development ==
Its adherents believe that it is closer to a technology than a science, and it is often identified as being similar to ] in that it tries to answer "what works?" rather than "what is true?". They would say that they strive to produce practical models and usable approaches.
According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP consists of a ] termed ''modeling'', plus a set of techniques that they derived from its initial applications.{{sfnm|1a1=Bandler|1a2=Grinder|1y=1975|1p=6|2a1=Grinder|2a2=Bostic St. Clair|2y=2001|2loc=Chapter 2: Terminology}} They derived many of the fundamental techniques from the work of ], ] and ].{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1979|p=8}} Bandler and Grinder also drew upon the ] of ], ] and ] (particularly ]).{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1975|p=6}}<ref name="Stollznow-2010" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Wake |first=Lisa |title=Neurolinguistic psychotherapy: a postmodern perspective |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-42541-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wIy20m_u9kC}}</ref>


Bandler and Grinder say that their methodology can codify the structure inherent to the therapeutic "magic" as performed in therapy by Perls, Satir and Erickson, and indeed inherent to any complex human activity. From that codification, they say, the structure and its activity can be learned by others. Their 1975 book, ''The Structure of Magic I: A Book about Language and Therapy'', is intended to be a codification of the therapeutic techniques of Perls and Satir.{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1975|p=6}}
The original developers claimed not to be interested in theory, and NLP teaches a practitioner to focus on "what works". However, this in no way prevents practitioners from creating and promoting their own theories behind NLP, and some have done this, basing theories upon a synthesis of core observable NLP combined with other personal, ], psychological, and/or neurological concepts. Some trainers teach these theories as part of NLP. NLP training teaches trainees to observe subtle verbal and non-verbal cues, and it is implicit that there is no certainty in any given method and that flexibility is key. Distinct from its formal presuppositions, NLP incorporates a variety of foundational assumptions that precede the presuppositions. These are:


Bandler and Grinder say that they used their own process of modeling to model Virginia Satir so they could produce what they termed the Meta-Model, a model for gathering information and challenging a client's language and underlying thinking.{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder |1975|p=6}}<ref name="Clancy-1989" /> They say that by challenging linguistic distortions, specifying generalizations, and recovering deleted information in the client's statements, the transformational grammar concept of surface structure yields a more complete representation of the underlying deep structure and therefore has therapeutic benefit.<ref>John Grinder, Suzette Elgin (1973). "A Guide to Transformational Grammar: History, Theory, Practice." Holt, Rinehart and Winston. {{ISBN|0-03-080126-5}}. Reviewed by Frank H. Nuessel, Jr. ''The Modern Language Journal'', Vol. 58, No. 5/6 (September–October 1974), pp. 282–283</ref><ref name="Bradley-1985">{{cite journal |first1=E. Jane |last1=Bradley |last2=Biedermann |first2=Heinz-Joachim |title=Bandler and Grinder's neurolinguistic programming: Its historical context and contribution |journal=Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training |date=1 January 1985 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=59–62 |doi=10.1037/h0088527 |issn=0033-3204 |oclc=1588338}}</ref> Also derived from Satir were anchoring, future pacing and representational systems.<ref name="Spitzer-1992">{{cite journal |last=Spitzer |first=Robert |title=Virginia Satir & Origins of NLP |journal=Anchor Point Magazine |issue=July |page=? |year=1992 |url=http://www.social-engineer.org/archives/NLP/NLP-Satir395.pdf |access-date=5 June 2013}}</ref>
#There is a ] connection <ref name="turtles">{{cite book | author=Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier | page=pp.xx,xxi,xix,62,197 | title=Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius | location=Scots Valley, CA | publisher=Grinder & Associates | year=1987 | id=ISBN 1555520227}}</ref> <ref name="whispering">{{cite book | author=Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair | title=Whispering in the Wind | location=CA | publisher=J & C Enterprises | year=2001. | pages=127, 171, 222, ch.3, Appendix | id=-}}</ref>
#The mind is broadly composed of a conscious and a subconscious (or unconscious) component <ref name="structure1" />.
#A person's experience of the world is processed and organized exclusively in terms of the five senses <ref name="structure1" /><ref name="nlpvol1" />
#Physiology, sensory representation ("submodality") and emotion comprise internal ''state'' <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> .
#Behavior is the result of systematically ordered sequences of sensory representations ("strategies") <ref name="frogs" /><ref name="nlpvol1" />
#All behavior occurs in the context of internal state <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> .
#Internal state mediates experience and influences or determines behavior <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> .
#Internal state and strategy — hence behavior — have a discernible and communicable structure <ref name="nlpvol1" /> <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> .
#People exhibit their internal state in their language (verbal and non-verbal) <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> .
#Since behavior and its substrates — internal state and strategy — can be codified, a person's skill can be reproduced in another person <ref name="nlpvol1" />
#Behavior is learned <ref name="nlpvol1" />
#Direct and objective knowledge of the (external) world is not possible (you create your own reality <ref name="alder">Alder H. (1994) The Right Brain Manager: How to Use the Power of Your Mind to Achieve Personal and Professional Success Piatkus Books ISBN 0749913495 p.65))</ref><ref name="structure1" /><ref name="structure1" /><ref name="nlpvol1" />


In contrast, the Milton-Model—a model of the purportedly hypnotic language of Milton Erickson—was described by Bandler and Grinder as "artfully vague" and ]ic.{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1982|p=240}} The Milton-Model is used in combination with the Meta-Model as a softener, to induce "trance" and to deliver indirect therapeutic suggestion.{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1981}}
===Scope of NLP===
Neuro linguistic Programming is a eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects on human potential. However, it should be recognized that while the early focus of NLP was the language patterns of therapists, its techniques have been applied to a variety of fields. While there less empirical or experimental support than comparable approaches, these methods claim to deal with various issues ranging form reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright by reducing simple phobias, and more generally to communications, and motivational products.


Psychologist ] writes that Chomsky's theories "appear to be irrelevant" to NLP.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mercer |first1=Jean |editor1-last=Cautin |editor1-first=Robin L. |editor2-last=Lilienfeld |editor2-first=Scott O. |title=The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology, Volume II |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-4706-7127-6 |page=759 |chapter=Controversial Therapies |doi=10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp515}}</ref> Linguist ] describes Bandler's and Grinder's reference to such experts as ]. Other than Satir, the people they cite as influences did not collaborate with Bandler or Grinder. Chomsky himself has no association with NLP, with his work being theoretical in nature and having no therapeutic element. Stollznow writes, "ther than borrowing ], NLP does not bear authentic resemblance to any of Chomsky's theories or philosophies—linguistic, ] or political."<ref name="Stollznow-2010">{{cite journal |last1=Stollznow |first1=Karen|author-link=Karen Stollznow|year=2010 |title=Not-so Linguistic Programming |journal=] |volume=15 |issue=4 |page=7 |url=http://www.skeptic.com/magazine/archives/vol15n04.html |access-date=1 June 2013}}</ref>
While there has been a limit number of properly recognised industry associations that mediate the application of NLP to ], and ]. This has been one of the more popular applications, in that NLP is often used to assist individuals to deal with emotions, personal issues and set goals.


According to ], a researcher in the field of hypnosis, "the major weakness of Bandler and Grinder's linguistic ] is that so much of it is built upon untested hypotheses and is supported by totally inadequate data."{{sfn|Weitzenhoffer|1989|p=304}} Weitzenhoffer adds that Bandler and Grinder misuse ] and mathematics,{{sfn|Weitzenhoffer|1989|pp=300–301}} redefine or misunderstand terms from the ] ] (e.g., ]),{{efn|{{harvnb|Weitzenhoffer|1989|pp=304–305}}: "I have chosen ] to explain what some of the problems are in Bandler and Grinder's linguistic approach to Ericksonian hypnotism. Almost any other linguistic concept used by these authors could have served equally well for the purpose of showing some of the inherent weaknesses in their treatment."}} create a scientific façade by needlessly complicating Ericksonian concepts with unfounded claims,{{efn|{{harvnb|Weitzenhoffer|1989|p=307}}: "As I have mentioned in the last chapter, any references made to left and right brain functions in relation to hypnotic phenomena must be considered as poorly founded. They do not add to our understanding of nor our ability to utilize hypnotic phenomena in the style of Erickson. Indeed, references such as Bandler and Grinder make to these functions give their subject matter a false appearance of having a more scientific status than it has."}} make factual errors,{{efn|{{harvnb|Weitzenhoffer|1989|p=306}}: "This work , incidentally, contains some glaring misstatements of facts. For example, ] and ] were depicted as contemporaries!"}} and disregard or confuse concepts central to the Ericksonian approach.{{efn|{{harvnb|Weitzenhoffer|1989|p=306}}: One of the most striking features of the Bandler/Grinder interpretation is that it somehow ignores the issue of the existence and function of suggestion, which even in Erickson's own writings and those done with Rossi, is a central idea."}}
The main topics that NLP has been concerned with differs between authors and training providers. The terminology and usage also differs. For example, those who emphasise the therpeutic application often use terminology borrowed from the work of hypnotherapist, ], and describe the way NLP works in terms of '']'', such as, the use of ] communications, post-hypnotic suggestion, pain control, ], and enhanced sensory perception. Some trainers offer techiques in psychotherapy or self-help that promise to reframe negative beliefs, depression, or ], at the same time model those who excel in performing business, sports, ] or even ]. Performance in any of these activities is highly dependant on the organisation of physiology, breathing, and ], and thus states.


More recently, Bandler has stated, "NLP is based on finding out what works and formalizing it. In order to formalize patterns I utilized everything from linguistics to ] ... The models that constitute NLP are all formal models based on mathematical, ]al principles such as ] and the mathematical ]."<ref>{{cite web |last=Bandler |first=Richard |title=NLP Seminars Group – Frequently Asked Questions |website=NLP Seminars Group |url=http://www.purenlp.com/nlpfaqr.html |year=1997 |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622080317/http://www.purenlp.com/nlpfaqr.html |archive-date=22 June 2013}}</ref> There is no mention of the mathematics of holography nor of holography in general in Spitzer's,<ref name="Spitzer-1992" /> or Grinder's<ref>{{harvnb|Grinder|Bostic St. Clair|2001}}.</ref> account of the development of NLP.
NLP as an approach to therapy has been frequently de-emphasized as the primary purpose for NLP. At the same time, others within the NLP community, consider therapy to be a core application, and advocate its importance. NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in ], adult education, and management and sales training, often being mixed with ], as well as other applications outside of mainstream. In any way, the essential questions of NLP seem to be: What is human excellence? and How is possible to model it pragmatically?


On the matter of the development of NLP, Grinder recollects:
==Concepts and methods==


{{blockquote|text=My memories about what we thought at the time of discovery (with respect to the classic code we developed—that is, the years 1973 through 1978) are that we were quite explicit that we were out to overthrow a ] and that, for example, I, for one, found it very useful to plan this campaign using in part as a guide the excellent work of ] ('']'') in which he detailed some of the conditions which historically have obtained in the midst of ]s. For example, I believe it was very useful that neither one of us were qualified in the field we first went after—psychology and in particular, its therapeutic application; this being one of the conditions which Kuhn identified in his historical study of paradigm shifts.<ref>{{cite web |last=Grinder |first=John |others=Interviewed by Chris Collingwood and Jules Collingwood |title=1996 Interview with John Grinder PhD, co-creator of NLP |website=Inspiritive |url=http://www.inspiritive.com.au/grinterv.htm |date=July 1996 |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428225949/http://www.inspiritive.com.au/grinterv.htm |archive-date=28 April 2013}}</ref>}}
Robert Dilts says that "NLP is theoretically rooted in neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics and communication theory".<ref name="dilts83">Robert Dilts. Roots of NLP (1983) p.3</ref> Other NLP proponents say it is not based on theory, it is based on modeling (and Richard Bandler states that he does not "do theory"). Dilts et al. state that NLP is more interested in what works than what is true.<ref name="nlpvol1">(1980 p.40)</ref>


The philosopher ] responded that Grinder has not understood Kuhn's text on the ], ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions''. Carroll replies: (a) individual scientists never have nor are they ever able to create ''paradigm shifts'' volitionally and Kuhn does not suggest otherwise; (b) Kuhn's text does not contain the idea that being unqualified in a field of science is a prerequisite to producing a result that necessitates a ''paradigm shift'' in that field and (c) ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' is foremost a work of ''history'' and not an instructive text on ''creating'' paradigm shifts and such a text is not possible—extraordinary discovery is not a formulaic procedure. Carroll explains that a ''paradigm shift'' is not a planned activity, rather it is an outcome of scientific effort within the dominant paradigm that produces ] that cannot be adequately accounted for within the current paradigm—hence a ''paradigm shift'', i.e. the adoption of a new paradigm. In developing NLP, Bandler and Grinder were not responding to a paradigmatic crisis in psychology nor did they produce any data that caused a paradigmatic crisis in psychology. There is no sense in which Bandler and Grinder caused or participated in a paradigm shift. "What did Grinder and Bandler do that makes it impossible to continue doing psychology ... without accepting their ideas? Nothing," argues Carroll.<ref name="Carroll-2009">{{cite web |last=Carroll |first=R. T. |author-link=Robert Todd Carroll |publisher=] |url=http://skepdic.com/neurolin.html |title=Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) |access-date=25 June 2009 |date=23 February 2009}}</ref>
===Presuppositional beliefs===
The presuppositional beliefs <ref name="Bodenhammer">(Bodenhammer 2001.p63)</ref> or ] of NLP are sometimes described as an ] <ref name="structure1" /><ref name="nlpvol1" /><ref name="turtles" /><ref name="whispering" /><ref name="malloy">{{cite journal
| author=Malloy, T. E., Bostic St Clair, C. & Grinder, J.
| title=Steps to an ecology of emergence
| journal=Cybernetics & Human Knowing
| year=2005
| volume=Vol. 11, no. 3
| pages=102-119. |url=http://www.psych.utah.edu/stat/dynamic_systems/Content/examples/Ecology-of-Emergence_Galley-proofs_Malloy-et-al.pdf
}}</ref>. A ] (linguistic term) is a background belief that is treated by the NLP practitioner "as if"<ref name="asif">{{cite web | author=Vaihinger, H.| title=The Philosophy of "As If." (originally published, 1924) | publisher=Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009756 | accessdate=- | ID=-}}</ref><ref name="structure1" /> it were literally true.


=== Commercialization and evaluation ===
The fundamental presuppositions in NLP include:
By the late 1970s, the ] had developed into an industry and provided a market for some NLP ideas. At the center of this growth was the ] at ]. Perls had led numerous ] seminars at Esalen. Satir was an early leader and Bateson was a guest teacher. Bandler and Grinder have said that in addition to being a therapeutic method, NLP was also a study of communication and began marketing it as a business tool, writing that, "if any human being can do anything, so can you."<ref name="Clancy-1989">{{cite journal |last1=Clancy |first1=Frank |last2=Yorkshire |first2=Heidi |year=1989 |title=The Bandler Method |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA22 |journal=] |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=22–28 |issn=0362-8841 |access-date=26 April 2024 |via=}}</ref> After 150 students paid $1,000 each for a ten-day workshop in ], Bandler and Grinder gave up academic writing and started producing popular books from seminar transcripts, such as ''Frogs into Princes,'' which sold more than 270,000 copies. According to court documents relating to an intellectual property dispute between Bandler and Grinder, Bandler made more than $800,000 in 1980 from workshop and book sales.<ref name="Clancy-1989" />
*''']''' - The process by which we create of perceptions and repond to the word distort, generalise, delete portions of our experience. These filters occur even before we are first aware of them (for example, a typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm).
*''']'''


A community of psychotherapists and students began to form around Bandler and Grinder's initial works, leading to the growth and spread of NLP as a theory and practice.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Engineering |publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc |last1=Hadnagy |first1=Christopher |last2=Wilson |first2=Paul |access-date=24 May 2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LpawpklYogC |date= 2010 |isbn=978-0-470-63953-5}}</ref> For example, ] trained with Grinder and utilized a few ideas from NLP as part of his own ] and motivational speaking programmes.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sham: How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless |year=2006 |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4000-5410-7 |last=Salerno |first=Steve |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmmxX81cEmMC}}</ref> Bandler led several unsuccessful efforts to exclude other parties from using NLP.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Meanwhile, the rising number of practitioners and theorists led NLP to become even less uniform than it was at its foundation.<ref name="Stollznow-2010" /> Prior to the decline of NLP, scientific researchers began testing its theoretical underpinnings ]ly, with research indicating a lack of empirical support for NLP's essential theories.<ref name="Witkowski-2010" /> The 1990s were characterized by fewer scientific studies evaluating the methods of NLP than the previous decade. ] attributes this to a declining interest in the debate as the result of a lack of empirical support for NLP from its proponents.<ref name="Witkowski-2010" />
These presuppositional beliefs are considered groundbreaking by NLP proponents because of a contradiction with the modern scientific ] view that reality can be objectively measured <ref name="frogs" /><ref name="turtles" /><ref name="singer99" />, and the psychoanalyst view is that the presuppositions upon which NLP are founded are not valid <ref name="stream95">Strean, H. (1995) Psychoanalytic Theory. Kegan Page Publishers</ref>. The other commonly related presuppositional beliefs are derived from the these two fundamental presuppositions <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> . Some researchers <ref name="wrycza">Wrycza,P. (1995) NLP World Volume 2 No 1 Maps Beyond the Mind: NLP and spirituality p.62</ref><ref name="wuthnow">Wuthnow (1994 p157)</ref> consider the NLP presuppositional beliefs of unlimited resource and the positive intention behind every behaviour to be ultimately spiritual in nature.


== Main components and core concepts ==
===Representational systems===
NLP can be understood in terms of three broad components: subjectivity, consciousness, and learning.
{{main|Representational systems (NLP)}}


According to Bandler and Grinder, people experience the world subjectively, creating ] of their experiences. These representations involve the five senses and language. In other words, our conscious experiences take the form of sights, sounds, feelings, smells, and tastes. When we imagine something, recall an event, or think about the future, we utilize these same sensory systems within our minds{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1976|pp=3–8}}{{efn|{{harvnb|Dilts|Grinder|Bandler|DeLozier|1980|pp=13–14}}: "There are three characteristics of effective patterning in NLP which sharply distinguish it from behavioural science as it is commonly practiced today. First, for a pattern or generalization regarding human communication to be acceptable or well–formed in NLP, it must include in the description the human agents who are initiating and responding to the pattern being described, their actions, their possible responses. Secondly, the description of the pattern must be represented in sensory grounded terms which are available to the user. This user–oriented constraint on NLP ensures usefulness. We have been continually struck by the tremendous gap between theory and practice in the behavioural sciences—this requirement closes that gap. Notice that since patterns must be represented in sensory grounded terms, available through practice to the user, a pattern will typically have multiple representation—each tailored for the differing sensory capabilities of individual users Thirdly, NLP includes within its descriptive vocabulary terms which are not directly observable ."}} Furthermore it is stated that these subjective representations of experience have a discernible structure, a pattern.{{sfn|Dilts|Grinder|Bandler|DeLozier|1980|p=7}}
The representation systems in NLP comprises of behavioral cues that purport to indicate the type and sequence of internal processes. Futher it is claimed that internal processes can be subjectively described in terms of visual, auditory, kinesthetic (less commonly, olfactory and gustatory) representations. <ref name="nlpvol1" />.


Bandler and Grinder assert that behavior (both our own and others') can be understood through these sensory-based internal representations. Behavior here includes verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as effective or adaptive behaviors and less helpful or "pathological" ones.{{efn|{{harvp|Dilts|Grinder|Bandler|DeLozier|1980|p=36}}: "The basic elements from which the patterns of human behaviour are formed are the perceptual systems through which the members of the species operate on their environment: vision (sight), audition (hearing), kinesthesis (body sensations) and olfaction/gustation (smell/taste). The neurolinguistic programming model presupposes that all of the distinctions we as human beings are able to make concerning our environment (internal and external) and our behaviour can be usefully represented in terms of these systems. These perceptual classes constitute the structural parameters of human knowledge. We postulate that all of our ongoing experience can usefully be coded as consisting of some combination of these sensory classes."}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grinder |first1=John |last2=Bandler |first2=Richard |title=Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson: Volume 2 |edition=1st |year=1977 |publisher=Meta Publications |pages=11–19 |isbn=978-1-55552-053-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_gbkgAACAAJ}}</ref> They also assert that behavior in both the self and other people can be modified by manipulating these sense-based subjective representations.{{sfnm|1a1=Bandler|1a2=Grinder|1y=1979|1pp=5-78|2a1=Bandler|2a2=Grinder|2y=1981|2pp=240-50|3a1=Hall|3a2=Belnap|3y=2000|3pp=39–40|3loc=#2 Pacing Or Matching Another's Model of the World|4a1=Hall|4a2=Belnap|4y=2000|4pp=89–93|4loc=#23 The Change Personal History Pattern|5a1=Hall|5a2=Belnap|5y=2000|5pp=93–95|5loc=#24 The Swish Pattern}}{{efn|{{harvp|Dilts|Grinder|Bandler|DeLozier|1980|p=7}}: "NLP presents specific tools which can be applied effectively in any human interaction. It offers specific techniques by which a practitioner may usefully organize and re–organize his or her subjective experience or the experiences of a client in order to define and subsequently secure any behavioural outcome."}}
Robert Dilts<ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /> has presented this model in mnemonic form (BAGEL):


NLP posits that ] can be divided into conscious and unconscious components. The part of our internal representations operating outside our direct awareness is referred to as the "unconscious mind".{{efn|{{harvnb|Dilts|Grinder|Bandler|DeLozier|1980|pp=77–80}}: "Strategies and representations which typically occur below an individual's level of awareness make up what is often called or referred to as the 'unconscious mind'."}}
#'''B'''ody posture (Head position, and lean)
#'''A'''ccessing cues (Changes in tone and tempo of voice)
#'''G'''estures (Timing, and position of gestures)
#'''E'''ye movements (The direction of and movement of eyes)
#'''L'''anguage patterns (Sensory specific language, for example, Visual: "to ''clearly'' understand" or Kinesthetic: "to ''grasp'' a concept")


Finally, NLP uses a method of learning called "modeling", designed to replicate expertise in any field. According to Bandler and Grinder, by analyzing the sequence of sensory and linguistic representations used by an expert while performing a skill, it's possible to create a mental model that can be learned by others.{{sfnm|1a1=Bandler|1a2=Grinder|1y=1975|1p=6|2a1=Bandler|2a2=Grinder|2y=1979|2pp=7, 9, 10, 36, 123|3a1=Dilts|3a2=Grinder|3a3=Bandler|3a4=DeLozier|3y=1980|3pp=35, 78|4a1=Grinder|4a2=Bostic St. Clair|4y=2001|4pp=1, 10, 28, 34, 189, 227–28}}
Additionally, hemispheric differences (''brain lateralization'') have been used to support representational systems in NLP. For instance, Robert Dilts proposed that eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/] representations and thus to sides of the brain.<ref name="dilts_modeling" />. It is claimed that eye movements to the left correspond with recalled memory, while eye movements to the right indicate construction. Representational systems are then then connected to logic, analysis, and creative, imaginative duality. <ref name="patterns2">{{cite book
| author=Bandler, Richard, John Grinder, Judith Delozier
| title=Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume II
| location=Cupertino, CA | publisher=Meta Publications.
| year=1977
| id=-
| url=-
| pages=p.10,81,87
}}</ref>.


== Techniques or set of practices ==
===Common NLP patterns/rituals===
{{further|Methods of neuro-linguistic programming}}
* '''Meta model:''','''Representational systems:''', '''The milton model'''.
]'' (1979). The six directions represent "visual construct", "visual recall", "auditory construct", "auditory recall", "]" and "auditory internal dialogue".]]
* '''Circle of Excellence''': Standing in an imaginary magic circle, filling it with symbols and archetypes of choice, in order to banish negativity and enhance positive thinking for use in any NLP situation <ref name="dummy">Ready.R. and Burton.K (2004) NLP for Dummies John Wiley & Sons ISBN 0764570285 p.250</ref><ref name="hall2001">''The Spirit of NLP'', Hall, M. Crown House Publishing, 2001. pp.93-95</ref>
According to one study by Steinbach,<ref name="Steinbach-1984">Steinbach, A. (1984). "Neurolinguistic programming: a systematic approach to change". ''Canadian Family Physician'', 30, 147–50. {{PMC|2153995}}</ref> a classic interaction in NLP can be understood in terms of several major stages including establishing rapport, gleaning information about a problem mental state and desired goals, using specific tools and techniques to make interventions, and integrating proposed changes into the client's life. The entire process is guided by the non-verbal responses of the client.<ref name="Steinbach-1984" /> The first is the act of establishing and maintaining rapport between the practitioner and the client which is achieved through pacing and leading the verbal (''e.g.'', sensory predicates{{Explain|date=October 2023}} and keywords) and non-verbal behavior (''e.g.'', matching and mirroring non-verbal behavior, or responding to eye movements) of the client.{{sfn|Bandler|Grinder|1979|pp=8, 15, 24, 30, 45, 52, 149}}
* '''Perceptual positions:''' A situation is considered from different ] of those involved, typically 1.self, 2.other, 3.a neutral observer, 4. a god's eye view <ref name="turtles" /> <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" />.
* '''Dilts' Neurological Levels of Learning:''' Categorisation of information into a hierarchies consisting of environment, behavior, competency, belief/value, identity and or spirituality (purpose) <ref name="diltsdelozier2000" />. Sometimes associated with the ] with spirit linked to the crown chakra.
* '''The Swish Pattern:''' Repetitively pushing away negative mental imagery and pulling forward positive imagery using body language and saying "SWISSSHHH" in order to affect a behavior change <ref name="hall2001" /> <ref name="brain">{{cite book
| author=Bandler, Richard
| title=Using your brain - for a change
| location=Palo Alto, CA | publisher=Science & Behavior Books
| year=1985
| id=-
| url=-
| pages=-
}}</ref><ref name="whispering" />
* '''Visual / Kinesthetic dissociation:''' Imagining floating back and out of the body in order to diss-associate with a negative experience. <ref name="frogs" /><ref name="einspruch" /><ref name="carbonell_figley99"></ref name=cancer></ref>
* ''']:''' Mirroring or copying somebody's body language, and representational language (VAK) in an attempt to gain trust and directly influence their subconscious mind (Bandler et al 1977p10).
* '''Submodality modification:''' Deliberately changing the size, brightness, movement of internal images in an attempt to alter the impact of those images <ref name="brain" /> <ref name=andreas1987>{{cite web | author=Steve & Connirae Andreas | title=. | url=http://www.achievingexcellence.com/p-ch_and4.html | publisher=1987 | accessdate=.}}</ref>


Once rapport is established, the practitioner may gather information about the client's present state as well as help the client define a desired state or goal for the interaction. The practitioner pays attention to the verbal and non-verbal responses as the client defines the present state and desired state and any resources that may be required to bridge the gap.<ref name="Steinbach-1984" /> The client is typically encouraged to consider the consequences of the desired outcome, and how they may affect his or her personal or professional life and relationships, taking into account any positive intentions of any problems that may arise.<ref name="Steinbach-1984" /> The practitioner thereafter assists the client in achieving the desired outcomes by using certain tools and techniques to change internal representations and responses to stimuli in the world.{{sfn|Bandler|1985|pp=134–3}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Masters |first1=B. |last2=Rawlins |first2=M. |last3=Rawlins |first3=L. |last4=Weidner |first4=J. |year=1991 |title=The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique |journal=Journal of Mental Health Counseling |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=79–90 |url=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1991-19473-001}}</ref> Finally, the practitioner helps the client to mentally rehearse and integrate the changes into his or her life.<ref name="Steinbach-1984" /> For example, the client may be asked to envision what it is like having already achieved the outcome.
===Ecology===


According to Stollznow, "NLP also involves fringe discourse analysis and 'practical' guidelines for 'improved' communication. For example, one text asserts 'when you adopt the "but" word, people will remember what you said afterwards. With the "and" word, people remember what you said before and after.'"<ref name="Stollznow-2010" />
''In principle'', NLP is usually described as a "client-oriented" methodology, in that the client's subjective perception is treated with respect, and to a large degree the client's developing perception of a problem or situation which provides the feedback and basis for guidance within NLP intervention. In business or conflict resolution NLP usually advocates a ] philosophy. The term "]" (borrowed in the sense of "how disparate things co-exist in balance") is used to signify the careful checking needed to ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial nature of goals sought, any ]s affected, and so on. <ref>The term "Ecology" in this usage can also be seen in ]'s 1972 collection '']'', published around the same time NLP was being developed.</ref>


== Applications ==
=== Alternative medicine ===
NLP has been promoted as being able to treat a variety of diseases including ], ] and cancer.<ref name="American Cancer Society-2009">{{cite book |publisher=] |title=American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies |edition=2nd |year=2009 |isbn=9780944235713 |editor=Russell J |editor2=Rovere A |pages= |chapter=Neuro-linguistic programming |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse/page/120 }}</ref> Such claims have no supporting ].<ref name="American Cancer Society-2009"/> People who use NLP as a form of treatment risk serious adverse health consequences as it can delay the provision of effective medical care.<ref name="American Cancer Society-2009"/>


===Modeling=== === Psychotherapeutic ===
Early books about NLP had a psychotherapeutic focus given that the early models were psychotherapists. As an approach to psychotherapy, NLP shares similar core assumptions and foundations in common with some contemporary brief and systemic practices,<ref>Rubin Battino (2002) ''Expectation: The Very Brief Therapy Book''. Crown House Publishing. {{ISBN|1-84590-028-6}}</ref><ref>Kerry, S. (2009) Pretreatment expectations of psychotherapy clients, University of Alberta (Canada)<!--, {{AAT|NR55409}}--></ref><ref name="Beyebach-1999" /> such as ].<ref>Bill O'Connell (2005) Solution-focused therapy (Brief therapy series). Sage; Second Edition </ref><ref>Windy Dryden (2007) Dryden's handbook of individual therapy. 5th edition. Sage. {{ISBN|1-4129-2238-0}} </ref> NLP has also been acknowledged as having influenced these practices<ref name="Beyebach-1999">{{cite journal |last1=Beyebach |first1=M. |last2=Rodríguez Morejón |first2=A. |year=1999 |title=Some thoughts on integration in solution-focused therapy |journal=Journal of Systemic Therapies |volume=18 |pages=24–42|doi=10.1521/jsyt.1999.18.1.24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pesut |first=Daniel J. |title=The art, science, and techniques of reframing in psychiatric mental health nursing |journal=Issues in Mental Health Nursing |date=1 January 1991 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=9–18 |doi=10.3109/01612849109058206 |pmid=1988384}}</ref> with its reframing techniques{{sfnm|1a1=Maag|1y=1999|2a1=Maag|2y=2000}} which seeks to achieve behavior change by shifting its ''context'' or ''meaning'',<ref>{{harvnb|Bandler|Grinder|1982}} as cited in {{harvnb|Maag|1999}} and {{harvnb|Maag|2000}}.</ref> for example, by finding the positive connotation of a thought or behavior.


The two main therapeutic uses of NLP are, firstly, as an adjunct by therapists<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Field |first1=E. S. |title=Neurolinguistic programming as an adjunct to other psychotherapeutic/hypnotherapeutic interventions |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=174–82 |year=1990 |pmid=2296919 |doi=10.1080/00029157.1990.10402822}}</ref> practicing in other therapeutic disciplines and, secondly, as a specific therapy called Neurolinguistic Psychotherapy.<ref>Bridoux, D., Weaver, M., (2000) "Neuro-linguistic psychotherapy." In ''Therapeutic perspectives on working with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients.'' Davies, Dominic (Ed); Neal, Charles (Ed). (pp. 73–90). Buckingham, England: Open University Press (2000) xviii, 187 pp. {{ISBN|0-335-20333-7}}</ref>
{{main|Modeling (NLP)}}


According to Stollznow, "Bandler and Grinder's infamous ''Frogs into Princes'' and their other books boast that NLP is a cure-all that treats a broad range of physical and mental conditions and learning difficulties, including epilepsy, myopia and dyslexia. With its promises to cure schizophrenia, depression and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and its dismissal of psychiatric illnesses as psychosomatic, NLP shares similarities with Scientology and the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR)."<ref name="Stollznow-2010" /> A systematic review of experimental studies by Sturt ''et al.'' (2012) concluded that "there is little evidence that NLP interventions improve health-related outcomes."{{sfn|Sturt|2012}} In his review of NLP, ] writes, "NLP is not really a cohesive therapy but a ragbag of different techniques without a particularly clear theoretical basis ... evidence base is virtually non-existent."<ref>{{cite book|last=Briers|first=Stephen|title=Brilliant Cognitive Behavioural Therapy: How to use CBT to improve your mind and your life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6BQ2S3F_eDMC&q=ragbag&pg=PT15|date=27 December 2012|publisher=Pearson UK|isbn=978-0-273-77849-3|page=15}}</ref> Eisner writes, "NLP appears to be a superficial and gimmicky approach to dealing with mental health problems. Unfortunately, NLP appears to be the first in a long line of mass marketing seminars that purport to virtually cure any mental disorder ... it appears that NLP has no empirical or scientific support as to the underlying tenets of its theory or clinical effectiveness. What remains is a mass-marketed serving of psychopablum."<ref>{{cite book|first=Donald A.|last=Eisner|title=The Death of Psychotherapy: From Freud to Alien Abductions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmcDl6l8uXwC&pg=PA158|year=2000|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-96413-9|pages=158–59}}</ref>
The goal of modeling is to capture a behavior of an expert and transfer it to another person. The NLP theory behind modeling does not state that anyone can be Einstein. Rather, it says that know-how can be separated from the person, documented and transferred experientially, and that the ability to perform the skills can be transferred subject to the modeler's own limits, which can change, and improves with practice. This is often interpreted as a view of "unlimited potential" because a person's ability to change is only limited by the change technology available to that person.


André Muller Weitzenhoffer—a friend and peer of Milton Erickson—wrote, "Has NLP really abstracted and explicated the essence of successful therapy and provided everyone with the means to be another Whittaker, Virginia Satir, or Erickson? ... failure to do this is evident because today there is no multitude of their equals, not even another Whittaker, Virginia Satir, or Erickson. Ten years should have been sufficient time for this to happen. In this light, I cannot take NLP seriously ... contributions to our understanding and use of Ericksonian techniques are equally dubious. ''Patterns I'' and ''II'' are poorly written works that were an overambitious, pretentious effort to reduce hypnotism to a magic of words."{{sfn|Weitzenhoffer|1989|p=305}}
Modeling involves observing in depth, discussing, and imitating and practicing many different aspects of the subject's thoughts, feelings, beliefs and behaviors (i.e., acting "as if" the modeler is the expert) until the modeler can replicate these with some consistency and precision.


Clinical psychologist Stephen Briers questions the value of the NLP maxim—a ''presupposition'' in NLP jargon—"there is no failure, only feedback".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dilts |first1=Robert |last2=DeLozier |first2=Judith |title=Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding |edition=1st |year=2000 |publisher=NLP University Press |location=Santa Cruz |isbn=978-0-9701540-0-2 |page=1002 |url=http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html2/PrPu25.html |access-date=16 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060637/http://nlpuniversitypress.com/html2/PrPu25.html |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Briers argues that the denial of the existence of failure diminishes its instructive value. He offers ], ] and ] as three examples of unambiguous acknowledged personal failure that served as an impetus to great success. According to Briers, it was "the crash-and-burn type of failure, not the sanitised NLP Failure Lite, i.e. the failure-that-isn't really-failure sort of failure" that propelled these individuals to success. Briers contends that adherence to the maxim leads to self-deprecation. According to Briers, personal endeavour is a product of invested values and aspirations and the dismissal of personally significant failure as mere feedback effectively denigrates what one values. Briers writes, "Sometimes we need to accept and mourn the death of our dreams, not just casually dismiss them as inconsequential." Briers also contends that the NLP maxim is narcissistic, self-centered and divorced from notions of moral responsibility.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Briers |first1=Stephen |title=Psychobabble: Exploding the myths of the self-help generation |edition=1st |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education Limited |location=Santa Cruz |isbn=978-0-273-77239-2 |chapter=MYTH 16: There is no failure, only feedback |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zsQeth9yRAC}}</ref>
==History and development==
{{main|History of neuro-linguistic programming}}
Neuro-linguistic programming was developed jointly by ] and ] under the tutelage of ], ], ] and ] ], at the ], during the 1960s and 1970s.


=== Other uses ===
Originally a study into how excellent psychotherapists were achieving results they did, it rapidly grew into a field and methodology of its own, based around the skill of ] as used to identify and confirm aspects of others behaviors and ways of thinking that led them to notability in their field. They took a similar approach to change. It did not matter to them if the client had an understanding for the problem, rather they focused on finding people who had successfully overcome, and how they did it.
Although the original core techniques of NLP were therapeutic in orientation their generic nature enabled them to be applied to other fields. These applications include ],<ref>{{cite book | last1=Gass | first1=Robert H | last2=Seiter | first2=John S | title=Persuasion: Social Influence and Compliance Gaining | publisher=Routledge | date=2022-04-06 | isbn=978-1-000-55677-3 | page=}}</ref> sales,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zastrow |first1=C. |title=Social Workers and Salesworkers |doi=10.1300/J283v04n03_02 |journal=Journal of Independent Social Work |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=7–16|year=1990 }}</ref> negotiation,<ref>Tosey P. & Mathison, J., "Fabulous Creatures of HRD: A Critical Natural History of Neuro-Linguistic Programming", University of Surrey Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Human Resource Development Research & Practice across Europe, Oxford Brookes Business School, 26–28 June 2007</ref> management training,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yemm |first=Graham |title=Can NLP help or harm your business? |journal=Industrial and Commercial Training |date=1 January 2006 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=12–17 |doi=10.1108/00197850610645990}}</ref> sports,<ref>Ingalls, Joan S. (1988) "Cognition and athletic behavior: An investigation of the NLP principle of congruence." ''Dissertation Abstracts International.'' Vol 48(7-B), p. 2090. {{OCLC|42614014}}</ref> teaching, coaching, team building, public speaking, and in the process of hiring employees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) explained |url=https://www.ionos.com/startupguide/productivity/neuro-linguistic-programming-nlp/ |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=IONOS Startupguide |language=en}}</ref>


== Scientific criticism ==
The initial three individuals Grinder and Bandler modeled<ref>Source Andreas & Faulkner, 1994.</ref> were ] (]), ] (]) and ] (Ericksonian Hypnosis). These individuals were considered highly competent in their fields, and the consistent patterns and approaches they appeared to be using, became the basis of NLP. Grinder and Bandler analyzed the speaking patterns, voice tones, word selection, gesticulations, postures, and eye movements of these individuals and related this information to the internal thinking process of each participant. These were the first of what came to be called "]" projects. The findings of these projects have been widely used and integrated into many other fields, from health and disability, to law enforcement, to hypnotherapy and coaching.
In the early 1980s, NLP was advertised as an important advance in ] and ], and attracted some interest in counseling research and clinical psychology. However, as controlled trials failed to show any benefit from NLP and its advocates made increasingly dubious claims, scientific interest in NLP faded.<ref name="Devilly-2005">{{cite journal |last=Devilly |first=Grant J. |title=Power Therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry |date=1 June 2005 |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=437–45 |doi=10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01601.x |pmid=15943644|s2cid=208627667 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gelso |first=C. J. |last2=Fassinger |first2=R. E. |title=Counseling Psychology: Theory and Research on Interventions |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |date=1 January 1990 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=355–86 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002035 |quote=Neurolinguistic programming, focused on such variables as sensory mode preference and use (''e.g.'', Graunke & Roberts 1985) and predicate matching (''e.g.'', Elich et al 1985; Mercier & Johnson 1984) had shown promise at the beginning of the decade, but after several years of conflicting and confusing results, Sharpley (1984, 1987) reviewed the research and concluded that there was little support for the assumptions of NLP. This research is now clearly on the decline, underscoring the value of thoughtful reviews and the publication of nonsupportive results in guiding empirical efforts. |pmid=2407174}}</ref>


Numerous literature reviews and ] have failed to show evidence for NLP's assumptions or effectiveness as a therapeutic method.{{efn|See, for instance, the following:
In the 1960s and 1970s, general semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable ] industry and associations with emerging ] thinking. Human potential seminars, such as ] in California began to attract people. Neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first but eventually drew the attention of business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall, 1994). As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, ], ], and David Gordon made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into a book, '']''. This became a popular NLP book; demand for seminars increased, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991).
* Sharpley, 1984<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharpley |first1=Christopher F. |title=Predicate matching in NLP: a review of research on the preferred representational system. |journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology |volume=31 |issue=2 |year=1984 |pages=238–48 |doi=10.1037/0022-0167.31.2.238}}</ref> and 1987<ref name="Sharpley-1987" />
* Druckman and Swets, 1988<ref name="Druckman-1988">{{cite book | editor1-last=Druckman | editor1-first=D. | editor2-last=Swets | editor2-first=J. | title=Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques | publisher=National Academies Press | publication-place=Washington, D.C. | date=1988-01-01 | isbn=978-0-309-03792-1 | doi=10.17226/1025 | pages=138–149 | chapter=8: Social Processes | chapter-url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/1025/chapter/11#138}}
</ref>
* Heap, 1988<ref>{{cite book |last=Heap |first=M. |year=1988 |title=Neurolinguistic programming – an interim verdict |publisher=Croom Helm |location=London |pages=268–280 |chapter=Hypnosis: Current clinical, experimental and forensic practices |url=http://www.mheap.com/nlp1.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615185758/http://www.mheap.com/nlp1.pdf |archivedate=15 June 2007}}</ref>
* von Bergen et al., 1997<ref name="von Bergen-1997" />
* Druckman, 2004<ref name="Druckman-2004" />
* Witkowski, 2010<ref name="Witkowski-2010" />}} While some NLP practitioners have argued that the lack of empirical support is due to insufficient research which tests NLP,{{efn|See the following:
* Einspruch and Forman, 1985<ref>{{cite journal |last=Einspruch |first=Eric L. |author2=Forman, Bruce D. |title=Observations concerning research literature on neuro-linguistic programming. |journal=Journal of Counseling Psychology |date=1 January 1985 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=589–96 |doi=10.1037/0022-0167.32.4.589}}</ref>
* Murray, 2013<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=Laura L. |title=Limited evidence that neurolinguistic programming improves health-related outcomes. |journal=Evidence-Based Mental Health |date=30 May 2013 |url=http://ebmh.bmj.com/content/early/2013/05/29/eb-2013-101355.extract |doi=10.1136/eb-2013-101355 |pmid=23723409 |volume=16 |issue=3 |page=79 |s2cid=150295 }}</ref>
* Sturt et al., 2012{{sfn|Sturt|2012}}
* ''Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Research''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.som.surrey.ac.uk/NLP/Research/index.asp |title=Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Research |access-date=22 February 2010 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103034855/http://www.som.surrey.ac.uk/NLP/Research/index.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Tosey and Mathison, 2010<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tosey |first1=P. |last2=Mathison |first2=J. |doi=10.1108/17465641011042035 |title=Exploring inner landscapes through psychophenomenology: The contribution of neuro-linguistic programming to innovations in researching first person experience |journal=Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management |volume=5 |pages=63–82 |year=2010 |url=http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/7448/126/Mathison_Tosey_QROM_final_Oct_2009_amended_Jan_2010.pdf |access-date=28 January 2019 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719120020/http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/7448/126/Mathison_Tosey_QROM_final_Oct_2009_amended_Jan_2010.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}} the consensus scientific opinion is that NLP is ]{{efn|See the following:
* Witkowsi, 2010<ref name="Witkowski-2010" />
* '']'', 2009<ref name="Carroll-2009" />
* Beyerstein, 1990<ref name="Beyerstein-1990">{{cite journal |last=Beyerstein |first=B. L. |year=1990 |title=Brainscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age |journal=International Journal of Mental Health |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=27–36 (27) |doi=10.1080/00207411.1990.11449169 }}</ref>
* Corballis, in Della Sala and Anderson, 2012<ref>{{cite book| editor1-last = Della Sala| editor1-first = Sergio| editor2-last = Anderson| editor2-first = Mike |last1=Corballis |first1=Michael C. |author-link=Michael Corballis |title=Neuroscience in Education: The good, the bad, and the ugly |chapter=Chapter 13 Educational double-think |quote=The notion of hemisphericity is also incorporated into such cult activities as Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP).... In any event, NLP is a movement that is still going strong, but has little scientific credibility. |edition=1st |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-960049-6 |pages=225–26 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFE5UCaFwEQC}}</ref>
* ] and ]<ref>] & ] (1997). '']'' Jossey Bass, pp.&nbsp;167–95 (169). {{ISBN|0-7879-0278-0}}.</ref>
* Lilienfeld, Lynn and Lohr, 2004<ref>(Eds.) Lilienfeld, S., Lynn, S., & Lohr, J. (2004). ''Science and Pseudo-science in Clinical Psychology''. The Guilford Press.</ref>
* Della Sala, 2007<ref>{{cite book |last1=Della Sala |first1=Sergio |title=Tall Tales About the Mind and Brain: Separating Fact from Fiction |chapter=Introduction: The myth of 10% and other Tall Tales about the mind and brain |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eftFztxKBAwC&pg=PR20 |page=xx |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=1st |year=2007 |location=Oxford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eftFztxKBAwC |isbn=978-0-19-856876-6}}</ref>
* Williams, 2000<ref>William F. Williams, ed. (2000), ''Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy'', ], {{ISBN|978-1-57958-207-4}} p.&nbsp;235</ref>
* Lum, 2001<ref name=Lum-2001>{{cite book |title=Scientific Thinking in Speech and Language Therapy |publisher=] |last=Lum |first=C. |year=2001 |page=16 |isbn=978-0-8058-4029-2}}</ref>
* Lilienfeld, Lohr and Morier, 2001<ref name=Lilienfeld-2001>{{cite journal |last=Lilienfeld |first=Scott O. |author2=Lohr, Jeffrey M. |author3=Morier, Dean |title=The Teaching of Courses in the Science and Pseudoscience of Psychology: Useful Resources |journal=Teaching of Psychology |date=1 July 2001 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=182–91 |doi=10.1207/S15328023TOP2803_03|citeseerx=10.1.1.1001.2558 |s2cid=145224099 }}</ref>
* Dunn, Halonen and Smith, 2008<ref name="Dunn-2008">{{cite book |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |vauthors=Dunn D, Halonen J, Smith R |title=Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/teachingcritical00dunn |url-access=limited |year=2008 |page= |isbn=978-1-4051-7402-2}}</ref>
* Molfese, Segalowitz and Harris, 1988<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Molfese |editor1-first=Dennis L. |editor2-last=Segalowitz |editor2-first=Sidney J. |last1=Harris |first1=Lauren Julius |title=Brain Lateralization in Children: Developmental Implications |edition=1st |year=1988 |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-89862-719-0 |page= |quote=NLP began in 1975 and has quickly achieved cult status. |chapter=Chapter 8 Right-Brain Training: Some Reflections on the Application of Research on Cerebral Hemispheric Specialization to Education |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un-AIyRU328C |url=https://archive.org/details/brainlateralizat0000molf/page/214 }}</ref>
}}{{efn|For a description of the social influence tactics used by NLP and similar pseudoscientific therapies, see Devilly, 2005<ref name="Devilly-2005" />}} and that attempts to dismiss the research findings based on these arguments "s an admission that NLP does not have an evidence base and that NLP practitioners are seeking a post-hoc credibility."<ref name="Roderique-Davies-2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Roderique-Davies |first1=G. |year=2009 |title=Neuro-linguistic programming: Cargo cult psychology? |journal=Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=58–63 |doi=10.1108/17581184200900014}} </ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowan |first1=John |title=NLP is not based on constructivism |journal=The Coaching Psychologist |volume=4 |issue=3 |date=December 2008 |pages=160–163 |doi=10.53841/bpstcp.2008.4.3.160 |s2cid=255903130 |issn=1748-1104 |url=http://www.sgcp.org.uk/sgcp/publications/the-coaching-psychologist/the-coaching-psychologist-4.3$.cfm}}</ref>


Surveys in the academic community have shown NLP to be widely discredited among scientists.{{efn|In 2006, Norcross and colleagues found NLP to be given similar ratings as ], ], ], scared straight programmes, and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Norcross |first=John C. |author2=Koocher, Gerald P. |author3=Garofalo, Ariele |title=Discredited psychological treatments and tests: A Delphi poll. |journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice |date=1 January 2006 |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=515–22 |doi=10.1037/0735-7028.37.5.515|s2cid=35414392 }}</ref> In 2010, Norcross and colleagues listed it as seventh out of their list of ten most discredited drug and alcohol interventions.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Norcross |first=John C. |author2=Koocher, Gerald P. |author3=Fala, Natalie C. |author4=Wexler, Harry K. |title=What Does Not Work? Expert Consensus on Discredited Treatments in the Addictions |journal=Journal of Addiction Medicine |date=1 September 2010 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=174–180 |doi=10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181c5f9db |pmid=21769032|s2cid=41494642 }}</ref> Glasner-Edwards and colleagues also identified it as discredited in 2010.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Glasner-Edwards |first=Suzette |author2=Rawson, Richard |title=Evidence-based practices in addiction treatment: Review and recommendations for public policy |journal=Health Policy |date=1 October 2010 |volume=97 |issue=2–3 |pages=93–104 |doi=10.1016/j.healthpol.2010.05.013 |pmid=20557970 |pmc=2951979}}</ref> }} Among the reasons for considering NLP a pseudoscience are that evidence in favor of it is limited to ] and personal testimony<ref name="Bradley-1985" /><ref name="Tye-1994">{{cite journal |last1=Tye |first1=Marcus J.C. |title=Neurolinguistic programming: Magic or myth? |journal=Journal of Accelerative Learning & Teaching |volume=19 |issue=3–4 |pages=309–42 |year=1994 |issn=0273-2459 |id=2003-01157-001}}</ref> that it is not informed by scientific understanding of ] and ],<ref name="Bradley-1985" /><ref>{{cite journal |author-link=Willem Levelt |last1=Levelt |first1=Willem J.M |title=u voor neuro-linguistische programmering |journal=Skepter |volume=9 |issue=3 |year=1996 |language=nl |url=http://www.skepsis.nl/nlp.html }}</ref> and that the name "neuro-linguistic programming" uses jargon words to impress readers and obfuscate ideas, whereas NLP itself does not relate any phenomena to neural structures and has nothing in common with linguistics or programming.<ref name="Witkowski-2010" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Corballis |first=M.C. |title=Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain |year=1999 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester, UK |isbn=978-0-471-98303-3 |page=41 |edition=Repr. |editor=S.D. Sala |chapter=Are we in our right minds?}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Drenth |first1=Pieter J.D |title=Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science |journal=Studia Psychologica |volume=45 |pages=5–13 |year=2003 |url=http://www.allea.org/Pages/ALL/4/881.bGFuZz1FTkc.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616080310/http://www.allea.org/Pages/ALL/4/881.bGFuZz1FTkc.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Beyerstein-1990" />{{efn|For more information on the use of neuroscience terms to lend the appearance of credibility to arguments, see Weisburg et al., 2008<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1162/jocn.2008.20040 |title=The Seductive Allure of Neuroscience Explanations |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=470–77 |year=2008 |last1=Weisberg |first1=D. S. |last2=Keil |first2=F. C. |last3=Goodstein |first3=J. |last4=Rawson |first4=E. |last5=Gray |first5=J. R. |pmid=18004955 |pmc=2778755}}</ref>}} In education, NLP has been used as a key example of pseudoscience.<ref name="Lum-2001"/><ref name="Lilienfeld-2001"/><ref name="Dunn-2008"/>
Most of the techniques that are commonly grouped together as NLP can be traced back to the early published works of the co-founders and the group of developers that surrounded them in the 1970s. Bandler and Grinder took an immersion approach to learning, and would step into the shoes of successful people in order to learn how they did what they did. They would imitate these people, without an initial concern for understanding. This concept was carried through into their changework.


== As a quasi-religion ==
Their first published model, ] was an approach to change based on responding to the ] in a client's language which gave them information about the limits to their model of the world. Gregory Bateson, who wrote the foreword for the first book on NLP, was impressed with the early work in NLP, and introduced the co-founders to Milton Erickson. Bateson became quite influential in the development of the people behind NLP, and providing many of the intellectual foundations for the field.
Sociologists and anthropologists have categorized NLP as a quasi-religion belonging to the ] and/or ]s.{{sfnm|1a1=Cresswell|1a2=Wilson|1y=1999|1p=|2a1=Edwards|2y=2001|2p=573|3a1=Clarke|3y=2006|3pp=440–41|4a1=Walker|4y=2007|4p=235|5a1=Hammer|5a2=Rothstein|5y=2012|5p=}}


Medical anthropologist Jean M. Langford categorizes NLP as a form of ]; that is to say, a practice with symbolic efficacy—as opposed to physical efficacy—that is able to effect change through nonspecific effects (e.g., placebo). To Langford, NLP is akin to a syncretic folk religion "that attempts to wed the magic of folk practice to the science of professional medicine".{{sfn|Langford|1999}}
The pair became immersed in the world of ] and were given full access to his work, they developed and published the Milton model based on Erickson's hypnotic language, therapeutic metaphors and other behavioral patterns such as pacing and leading in to build ]. Erickson and the co-founders shared the idea that ] is limited and thus attempted to engage the willing attention of the unconscious mind through use of metaphor and other hypnotic language patterns.<ref name="patterns1" /> Other concepts and ideas surrounding the conscious and unconscious mind were heavily influenced by Erickson:


Bandler and Grinder were influenced by the ] described in the books of ].{{sfnm|1a1=Grinder|1a2=DeLozier|1y=1987|1p={{page needed|date=May 2024}}|2a1=Grinder|2a2=Bostic St. Clair|2y=2001|2p={{page needed|date=May 2024}}}} Concepts like "double induction"{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} and "stopping the world", central to NLP modeling, were incorporated from these influences.{{sfn|Grimley|2013|p=}}
{{cquote|He does not translate unconscious communication into conscious form. Whatever the patient says in metaphoric form, Erickson responds <nowiki>]<nowiki>]</nowiki> in kind. By parables, by interpersonal action, and by directives, he works within the metaphor to bring about change. He seems to feel that the depth and swiftness of that change can be prevented if the person suffers a translation of the communication. (Haley, "Uncommon therapy", 1973 + 1986, p.28)}}


Some theorists characterize NLP as a type of "psycho-shamanism", and its focus on modeling has been compared to ritual practices in certain syncretic religions.<ref name="Tye-1994"/>{{sfn|Fanthorpe|Fanthorpe|2008|p=}} The emphasis on lineage from an NLP ] has also been likened to similar concepts in some ].{{sfn|Hunt|2003}} Aupers, Houtman, and Bovbjerg identify NLP as a New Age "psycho-religion".{{sfn|Aupers|Houtman|2010|p={{page needed|date=May 2024}}}} Bovbjerg argues that New Age movements center on a transcendent "other".{{sfn|Bovbjerg|2011|p={{page needed|date=May 2024}}}} While monotheistic religions seek communion with a divine being, this focus shifts inward in these movements, with the "other" becoming the unconscious self. Bovbjerg posits that this emphasis on the unconscious and its hidden potential underlies NLP techniques promoting self-perfection through ongoing transformation.{{sfn|Bovbjerg|2011|p={{page needed|date=May 2024}}}}
The early group (Dilts et al. 1980) observed that people tended to give away information about their unconscious processing in the current eye movements patterns, as well as changes in body posture, gestures, fluctuating voice tone, breathing shifts were linked to sensory-based language, "I ''see'' that ''clearly''!", "I ''hear'' what you are ''saying''" or "let's remain in ''touch''" <ref name="nlpvol1" /><ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /><ref name="whispering" />. This formed the basis of the ] model. And in turn allowed them to develop approaches to map the strategies both successful people and clients in therapeutic contexts. For example, the phobia reduction process involves separating (] ]) that is supposed to reduce the negative feelings associated to a traumatic event <ref name="frogs" /><ref name="carbonell_figley99"></ref name=cancer></ref> and ] change work which involved altering representations of memory, for example, size, brightness, movement of internal images, in order to affect a behavioural change. <ref name="brain" /> <ref name=andreas1987>{{cite web | author=Steve & Connirae Andreas | title=. | url=http://www.achievingexcellence.com/p-ch_and4.html | publisher=1987 | accessdate=.}}</ref>. By being able to notice non-verbal cues that indicate internal processing as well as the type an sequence of the process, they were able to focus on pattern, rather than personal content of client. Other methods for change included anchoring, the process involving elicitation of resourceful memory, in order to bootstrap those for future contexts.


Bovbjerg's secular critique echoes the conservative Christian perspective, as exemplified by ]. He argues that NLP's emphasis on self-transformation and internal power conflicts with the Christian belief in salvation through divine grace.{{sfn|Jeremiah|1995}}
There are several beliefs and presuppositions that were published by the NLP developers still taught in NLP training which were designed to bring together some of the patterns shared by the successful therapists and experts in communication. Most of these stem from Bateson or Korzybski's idea that the map is not the territory; multiple descriptions promote choice and flexibility and that people have organised personal resources (states, outcomes, beliefs) effectively in order to change themselves and achieve outcomes<ref name="frogs"/>. Even a seemingly negative behavior or part is considered in NLP to be attempting to fulfill some positive intention (of which they may not be aware of consciously). These presuppositions may not be true, but it is useful to act as if they are in the change contexts. The last one, for example, assumes that the current behavior exhibited by a person represents the best choice available to them at the time.<ref name="frogs" /><ref name="reframing" />. All of these methods and techniques (anchoring, representational systems) require superb sensory acuity and calibration skills, considered to be prerequisites to using any of these models. Several of the presuppositions of NLP which relate directly to this, for example from William Ross Ashby, state 'there is no failure', only 'feedback'; an idea which was borrowed from information theory about the importance of feedback loops to learning.<ref name="structure1"/> Another idea, is that the meaning of communication is the response it produces.<ref name="frogs"/>


== Legal disputes ==
With the 1980s, Grinder and Bandler fell out, and amidst acrimony and ] lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazard by many individuals, some ethically, and some opportunistically, often under multiple confusing ]s. During the 1990s, tentative attempts were made to put NLP on a more formal and better regulated footing, in countries such as the ]. Around 2001, the law suits finally became settled.
===Founding, initial disputes, and settlement (1979–1981)===
In 1979, Richard Bandler and John Grinder established the Society of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) to manage commercial applications of NLP, including training, materials, and certification. The founding agreement conferred exclusive rights to profit from NLP training and certification upon Bandler's corporate entity, Not Ltd. Around November 1980, Bandler and Grinder had ceased collaboration for undisclosed reasons.<ref name="Clancy-1989" />


On September 25, 1981, Bandler filed suit against Grinder's corporate entity, Unlimited Ltd., in the ] seeking injunctive relief and damages arising from Grinder's NLP-related commercial activities; the Court issued a judgment in Bandler's favor on October 29, 1981.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Not Ltd v. Unlimited Ltd et al (Super. Ct. Santa Cruz County, 1981, No. 78482)|vol=|reporter=|opinion=|pinpoint=|court=Super. Ct. Santa Cruz County|date=29 October 1981|url=http://63.197.255.150/openaccesspublic/civil/casereport.asp?casenumber=CV078482&courtcode=A&casetype=CIS}}{{Dead link|date=October 2020|fix-attempted=yes}}<!-- might be able to find it by searching the court's cases - https://www.santacruz.courts.ca.gov/online-services/case-lookup --></ref> The subsequent settlement agreement granted Grinder a 10-year license to conduct NLP seminars, offer NLP certification, and utilize the NLP name, subject to royalty payments to Bandler.<ref name="Legal1997">{{cite web |title=Summary of the Legal Proceedings January 1997 – June 23, 2003 |url=http://www.steverrobbins.com/nlpschedule/random/lawsuit-text.html |access-date=12 June 2013 |archive-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410011826/http://www.steverrobbins.com/nlpschedule/random/lawsuit-text.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===Origins of the name===
<!-- this entire section was previously disputed because the use of 'engram' not wide enough to be acceptable. The other views, including that of the developers, is not mentioned. The sources used to back up this section represent a minority view, and do not provide proper coverage of significant majority views, such as that of co-founder Dr. John Grinder. ---=-C-=- 13:27, ] ] (UTC) -->


===Further litigation and consequences (1996–2000)===
The developers of NLP, Bandler and Grinder, explain NLP follows ]'s ideas; that our maps of the world are distorted representations due to neurological functioning and constraints. ( p12). “Information about the world arrives at the receptors of the ] and is then subjected to various neurological transforms (F1) and linguistic transforms (F2) even before our first access to the information, meaning we never experience an objective reality that hasn't been shaped by our ] and ]. (Grinder, 2001, Pgs 127, 171, 222)
Bandler commenced further civil actions against Unlimited Ltd., various figures within the NLP community, and 200 initially unnamed defendants in July 1996 and January 1997. Bandler alleged violations of the initial settlement terms by Grinder and sought damages of no less than US$10,000,000.00 from each defendant.<ref name="Legal1997"/>


In February 2000, the Court ruled against Bandler. The judgment asserted that Bandler had misrepresented his exclusive ownership of NLP intellectual property and sole authority over Society of NLP membership and certification.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Richard W Bandler et al v. Quantum Leap Inc. et al (Super. Ct. Santa Cruz County, 2000, No. 132495) |vol= |reporter= |opinion= |pinpoint= |court=Super. Ct. Santa Cruz County |date=10 February 2000 |url=http://63.197.255.150/openaccesspublic/civil/casereport.asp?casenumber=CV132495&courtcode=A&casetype=CIS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NLP Matters 2 |url=http://www.anlp.org/anlpnews2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010210021504/http://www.anlp.org/anlpnews2.htm |archive-date=10 February 2001 |access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref>
===Alternate brands===
Individual trainers sometimes introduce or develop their own methods, concepts and labels, branding them as "NLP" <ref name="skepdic">{{cite web
| author=Carroll, Robert T.
| title=The Skeptic's Dictionary | url=http://skepdic.com/neurolin.html | publisher=. | accessdate=2003}}</ref>:


===Trademark revocation (1997)===
*John Grinder teaches ]
In December 1997, a separate civil proceeding initiated by Tony Clarkson resulted in the revocation of Bandler's UK ] of NLP. The Court ruled in Clarkson's favor.<ref>{{cite web |title=NLP Matters |url=http://www.anlp.org/anlpnews.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010406091232/http://www.anlp.org/anlpnews.htm |archive-date=6 April 2001 |access-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Case details for trade mark UK00002067188 |url=http://www.ipo.gov.uk/tmcase/Results/1/UK00002067188 |date=13 June 2013 |access-date=25 July 2015}}</ref>
*] himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (]<sup>TM</sup>)
*] teaches NAC (Neuro Associative Conditioning<sup>TM</sup>)
*Michael Hall teaches ]<sup>TM</sup>
*Tad James teaches NLP under his company, NLP Coaching<sup>TM</sup> and developed the visually oriented ]<sup>TM</sup> process.
While Tad James and Michael Hall are certainly well-known in the field of NLP, people like Judith DeLozier and Connirae and Stephen Andreas have been much more influential in its development. FYI.


==Controversies and criticisms== ===Resolution and legacy (2000)===
Bandler and Grinder reached a settlement in late 2000, acknowledging their status as co-creators and co-founders of NLP and committing to refrain from disparaging one another's NLP-related endeavors.{{sfn|Grinder|Bostic St. Clair|2001|loc=Appendix A}}
NLP has been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, and psychotherapists, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethically questionable practices, cult-like characteristics, promotion by exaggerated claims, and promises of extraordinary therapeutic results.


Due to these disputes and settlements, the terms 'NLP' and 'Neuro-Linguistic Programming' remain in the ]. No single party holds exclusive rights, and there are no restrictions on offering NLP certifications.{{sfn|Hall|2010}}<ref>{{cite web |title=3.5. Who Owns NLP? |website=NLP Archives – Frequently Asked Questions about NLP |url=http://users.telenet.be/merlevede/nlpfaq35.htm |access-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624042934/http://users.telenet.be/merlevede/nlpfaq35.htm |archive-date=2013-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=((This page contains the ruling in the case of Richard Bandler against many others in the NLP community)) |website=NLP Archives – Frequently Asked Questions about NLP |url=http://users.telenet.be/merlevede/lawsuit.htm |access-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627031836/http://users.telenet.be/merlevede/lawsuit.htm |archive-date=2013-06-27}}</ref><ref name="Trademark Status and Document Retrieval-2013">{{cite web |title=75351747 |website=Trademark Status and Document Retrieval |publisher=United States Patent and Trademark Office |url=http://tsdr.uspto.gov/#caseNumber=75351747&caseType=SERIAL_NO&searchType=statusSearch |date=13 June 2013 |access-date=14 June 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Trademark Status and Document Retrieval-2013a">{{cite web |title=73253122 |website=Trademark Status and Document Retrieval |publisher=United States Patent and Trademark Office |url=http://tsdr.uspto.gov/#caseNumber=73253122&caseType=SERIAL_NO&searchType=statusSearch |date=13 June 2013 |access-date=14 June 2013 }}</ref>
Several reviews have characterized NLP as a "cult" <ref name="elich">(Elich et al 1985 p.625)</ref>, and mass-marketed ]<ref name="drenth" /><ref name="williams">Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Publisher: Facts On File, New York.</ref>.


The designations "NLP" and "Neuro-linguistic Programming" are not owned, trademarked, or subject to centralized regulation.<ref>{{cite web |title=NLP FAQ |url=http://users.telenet.be/merlevede/nlpfaq35.htm |date=27 July 2001 |access-date=14 June 2013 |archive-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624042934/http://users.telenet.be/merlevede/nlpfaq35.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NLP Comprehensive Lawsuit Response |url=http://www.steverrobbins.com/nlpschedule/random/lawsuit-nlpc.html |access-date=14 June 2013 |archive-date=17 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717201129/http://www.steverrobbins.com/nlpschedule/random/lawsuit-nlpc.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Trademark Status and Document Retrieval-2013"/><ref name="Trademark Status and Document Retrieval-2013a" /> Consequently, there are no restrictions on individuals self-identifying as "NLP Master Practitioners" or "NLP Master Trainers."<ref name="Roderique-Davies-2009" /> This decentralization has led to numerous certifying associations.
Sanghera, a columnist for Financial Times (London, 2005) writes, "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses ] to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"<ref name="sanghera">''Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser'', Financial Times, London (UK), Sanghera. </ref>.


===Claims to science=== ===Decentralization and criticism===
This lack of centralized control means there's no single standard for NLP practice or training. Practitioners can market their own methodologies, leading to inconsistencies within the field.<ref name="Carroll-2009" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moxom |first1=Karen |title=The NLP Professional: Create a More Professional, Effective and Successful NLP Business |edition=|year=2011 |publisher=Ecademy Press |location=Herts |isbn=978-1-907722-55-4 |pages=46–50 |chapter=Three: Demonstrating Best Practice |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7KEYurmAA8sC}}</ref> This has been a source of criticism, highlighted by an incident in 2009 where a British television presenter registered his cat<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8303126.stm |title=Cat registered as hypnotherapist |publisher=] |date=12 October 2009 |access-date=6 November 2009}}</ref> with the British Board of Neuro Linguistic Programming (BBNLP), demonstrating the organization's lax credentialing. Critics like Karen Stollznow find irony in the initial legal battles between Bandler and Grinder, considering their failure to apply their own NLP principles to resolve their conflict.<ref name="Stollznow-2010"/> Others, such as Grant Devilly, characterize NLP associations as "]s"—a term implying a lack of unifying principles or a shared sense of purpose.<ref name="Devilly-2005"/>
Singer (1996) states that "NLP often associates itself with science in order to raise its own prestige" <ref name="singer99"/>. Winkin (1990) considers such promotion to be "intellectually fraudulent" and compares NLP's association with Science to ]'s association to ] <ref name="winkin91">Winkin Y 1990 , MédiAnalyses, no. 7, septembre, 1990, pp. 43-50.</ref>.{{Verify_credibility}}<!-- Winkin is a foreign citation. He appears unnotable and only appears in this article twice. In both cases it is in a "guilt by association" style phrase. Is this scientist worth having? There must be a better source for supporting what is needed-->


== See also ==
Singer (1996:172) <ref name="singer96">(1996 p172)</ref> states that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to "prove" their models correct though NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators scientists and use such terms as science, technology and hi-tech psychology in describing NLP". CAP, a UK-based advertising body has issued an advisory in relation to "Stop smoking claims by hypnotherapists" that "references to NLP should avoid implying that it is a ''new science''" <ref name="cap"></ref>.
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


'''Notable practitioners'''
] Willem Levelt states that (translated into English by Drenth) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming" <ref name="drenth" /><ref name=levelt />.
* ]
* ]


== Notes ==
Corballis <ref name="sala">Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN 0-471-98303-9 p.41</ref> states that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability. NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".
{{notelist|30em}}


==References==
NLP has been classed as a ] self help development <ref name="levelt" /> <ref name="williams" /><ref name="lilienfeld" /><ref name="drenth" />, in the same mold as ] (]) and ](Scientology). Self-help critic Salerno <ref name="salerno" /> associates NLP with pseudoscience, and has criticized its promotion as self-help. Psychologists such as Singer <ref name="singer99" /> and management experts such as Von Bergen (1997) have criticized its use within management and human resources developments.
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}


===Works cited===
Extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters, including claims of the heightening of perception to allow a novice martial artist to beat an expert <ref name="bandler93" />, and that it is possible to develop ] through the use of NLP <ref name="structure1" />.
;Primary sources
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=Richard |last2=Grinder |first2=John |title=The Structure of Magic I: A Book about Language and Therapy |year=1975 |publisher=Science and Behavior Books Inc. |isbn=978-0-8314-0044-6 |title-link=The Structure of Magic}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=Richard |last2=Grinder |first2=John |title=The Structure of Magic II |edition=1st |year=1976 |publisher=Science and Behavior Books |location=California |isbn=978-0-8314-0049-1 |title-link=The Structure of Magic}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=Richard |last2=Grinder |first2=John| editor1-last = Andreas| editor1-first = Steve |title=Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming |edition= |year=1979 |publisher=Real People Press |location=Utah |isbn=978-0-911226-19-5 |title-link=Frogs into Princes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=Richard |last2=Grinder |first2=John |title=Trance-formations: Neuro-linguistic Programming and the Structure of Hypnosis |year=1981 |publisher=Real People Press |isbn=978-0-911226-22-5 |chapter=Appendix II: Hypnotic Language Patterns: The Milton-Model}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=Richard |last2=Grinder |first2=John |year=1982 |title=Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning |publisher=Real People Press |isbn=0-911226-25-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=Richard |editor1-last=Andreas |editor1-first=Steve |editor2-link=Connirae Andreas |editor2-last=Andreas |editor2-first=Connirae |year=1985 |title=Using Your Brain–for a Change |publisher=Real People Press |isbn=0-911226-27-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Bandler |first=Richard |title=Time for a Change |year=1993 |publisher=Meta Publications |isbn=978-0-916990-28-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/timeforchange00band |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dilts |first1=Robert |last2=Grinder |first2=John |last3=Bandler |first3=Richard |last4=DeLozier |first4=Judith |title=Neuro-Linguistic Programming |volume=I: The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience |edition=Limited |year=1980 |publisher=Meta Publications |location=California |isbn=978-0-916990-07-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CwsRAQAAIAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Grinder |first1=John |last2=DeLozier |first2=Judith |title=Turtles All The Way Down: Prerequisites To Personal Genius |edition=1st |year=1987 |publisher=Grinder & Associates |location=California |isbn=978-1-55552-022-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/turtlesallwaydow00grin|url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last1=Grinder |first1=John |last2=Bostic St. Clair |title=Whispering in the Wind |year=2001 |publisher=J & C Enterprises |isbn=978-0-9717223-0-9}}
{{refend}}


;Secondary sources
According to Sala <ref name="sala99" /> {{Verify_source}}, NLP's pseudoscientific associations include claims to rapid cures and treatment of traumas, the use of popular new age myths such as unlimited potential, left/right brain simplicities, and past life regression.
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal| editor1-last = Aupers| editor1-first = Stef| editor2-last = Houtman| editor2-first = Dick |title=Religions of Modernity: Relocating the Sacred to the Self and the Digital | journal = International Studies in Religion and Society|edition=1st |year=2010 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |issn=1573-4293 |isbn=978-90-04-18451-0 |pages=115–132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l85zsiTI28sC&pg=PA115}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Bovbjerg |first=Kirsten Marie |date=2011-05-01 |title=Personal Development under Market Conditions: NLP and the Emergence of an Ethics of Sensitivity Based on the Idea of the Hidden Potential of the Individual |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2011.573333 |journal=Journal of Contemporary Religion |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=189–205 |doi=10.1080/13537903.2011.573333 |s2cid=145148234 |issn=1353-7903}}
*{{cite book| editor1-last = Clarke| editor1-first = Peter B. |title=Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements |edition=1st |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-203-48433-3}}
*{{cite book| editor1-last = Cresswell| editor1-first = Jamie | editor2-last = Wilson| editor2-first = Bryan |title=New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response |edition=1st |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-20049-3}}
*{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Linda |title=A Brief Guide to Beliefs: Ideas, Theologies, Mysteries, and Movements |edition=1st |year=2001 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Kentucky |isbn=978-0-664-22259-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_s5t3|url-access=registration }}
*{{cite book |last1=Fanthorpe |first1=Lionel |last2=Fanthorpe |first2=Patricia |title=Mysteries and Secrets of Voodoo, Santeria, and Obeah |edition=1st |year=2008 |publisher=New Page Books |location=New Jersey |isbn=978-1-55002-784-6}}
<!-- G -->
*{{cite book |last1=Grimley |first1=Bruce |title=Theory and Practice of NLP Coaching: A Psychological Approach |edition=1st |year=2013 |publisher=Sage Publications Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-1-4462-0172-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=L. Michael |last2=Belnap |first2=Barbara P. |title=The Sourcebook of Magic: A Comprehensive Guide to the Technology of NLP |orig-year=1999 |year=2000 |publisher=Crown House Publishing Limited |location=Wales |isbn=978-1-899836-22-2}}
*{{cite web |last=Hall |first=L. Michael |title=The lawsuit that almost killed NLP |url=http://www.neurosemantics.com/nlp/the-history-of-nlp/the-lawsuit-that-almost-killed-nlp |date=20 September 2010 |access-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627130505/http://www.neurosemantics.com/nlp/the-history-of-nlp/the-lawsuit-that-almost-killed-nlp |archive-date=27 June 2013}}
*{{cite book| editor1-last = Hammer| editor1-first = Olav| editor2-last = Rothstein| editor2-first = Mikael |title=The Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements |edition=1st |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-14565-7}}
*{{cite book |title=Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd |location=Hampshire |last1=Hunt |first1=Stephen J. |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7546-3410-2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Jeremiah |first1=David |title=Invasion of Other Gods: The Seduction of New Age Spirituality |edition=1st |year=1995 |publisher=W Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8499-3987-7 |chapter=Chapter 9: Corporate Takeovers}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Langford |first1=Jean M. |title=Medical Mimesis: Healing Signs of a Cosmopolitan "Quack" |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=24–46 |date=February 1999 |jstor=647497 |doi=10.1525/ae.1999.26.1.24|doi-access=free }}
<!-- M -->
*{{cite journal |last=Maag |first=John W. |year=1999 |title=Why they say no: Foundational precises and techniques for managing resistance |journal=Focus on Exceptional Children |volume=32 |page=1 |url=http://altcommtechniques.com/publications/why_they_say_no.pdf |access-date=27 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417095148/http://altcommtechniques.com/publications/why_they_say_no.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2012 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite journal |last=Maag |first=John W. |year=2000 |title=Managing resistance |journal=Intervention in School and Clinic |volume=35 |page=3 |doi=10.1177/105345120003500301 |issue=3|s2cid=220927708 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Sturt |first1=Jackie |display-authors=etal |title=Neurolinguistic programming: a systematic review of the effects on health outcomes |journal=British Journal of General Practice |volume=62 |issue=604 |pages=e757–64 |date=November 2012 |doi=10.3399/bjgp12X658287 |pmid=23211179 |id=23211179|pmc=3481516 }}
<!-- W -->
*{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=James K. |title=The Concise Guide to Today's Religions and Spirituality |edition=1st |year=2007 |publisher=Harvest House Pubslishers |location=Oregon |isbn=978-0-7369-2011-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseguidetoto0000walk|url-access=registration }}
*{{cite book |last1=Weitzenhoffer |first1=André Muller |title=The Practice of Hypnotism |volume=2: Applications of Traditional an Semi-Traditional Hypnotism. Non-Traditional Hypnotism |year=1989 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |isbn=978-0-471-62168-3 |chapter=Chapter 8: Ericksonian Hypnotism: The Bandler/Grinder Interpretation}}
{{refend}}


{{Citecheck}}

In reference to NLP, Lilienfeld <ref name="lilienfeld">(2003 p.8)</ref> states "the characteristics of pseudoscience are more specifically shown thus", for example:

*"The use of obscurantist language" (eg ]s, ], ], ] etc)
*"The absence of ]" <ref name="levelt" />
*"Over-reliance on testimonial and ]" <ref name="krugman">Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.</ref>
*"An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses and reversed ] designed to immunize claims from falsification" <ref name="singer99" />
*"Emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)"
*"Absence of ]"
*"Reversed ] (away from those making claim (NLP promoters), and towards those testing the claim (Scientists))".
*"The mantra of ] and eclecticism designed to immunize from verifiable efficacy" <ref name="lilienfeld" />(Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors or to simplistically “do what works”)<ref name="eisner" />.
*"Evasion of ]" (If claims were true, why were they not properly documented and presented to the scientific community?)<ref name="eisner">{{cite book | author=Eisner, D. A. | title=The death of psychotherapy: From Freud to alien abductions. | location= Westport, CT | publisher=Praeger. | year=2000 | id=- | url=http://print.google.com/print?hl=en&id=hmcDl6l8uXwC&q=NLP | pages=p.158}}]</ref>

Pseudoscientific arguments tend to contain several or all of these factors, as can be seen in this example that shows ad hoc hypotheses and holistic argument as an attempt to explain away the negative findings, and an emphasis on confirmation and reversed burden of proof etc.

Modern neuroscience indicates that NLP's notions of neurology are erroneous and pseudoscientific in regards to: left/right brain hemispheric differences <ref name="sala99" /><ref name="diltsdelozier2000" /><ref name="drenth" />, the association of eye movements or body gestures to brain hemispheres. The idea that people have visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles which has little substantative evidence {{fact}}.

Robert Carroll <ref name="skepdic" /> states that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model. NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades<ref name="eisner" />.

===Scientific analysis===

Sharpley, Druckman, and the National Research Council have criticised NLP in research reviews which conclude it has failed to show its claimed efficacy in controlled studies <ref name="singer99">{{cite book | author= Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich | title=unknown | publisher=- | year=1999 | id=-}}</ref><ref name="heap98">{{cite book
| author=Heap, M.
| title=Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices
| location=London
| publisher=Croom Helm, pp 268-280.
| year=1988
| id=}}</ref><ref name="lilienfeld">{{cite book
| author=Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr | title=Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology | publisher=Guilford Press, New York. | year=2003 | url=http:// }}</ref>.

Beyerstein <ref name="beyerstein">(1990 p.30)</ref>, Lilienfeld <ref name="lilienfeld">(2003 p.133)</ref>, and Eisner <ref name="eisner" /> express concern over the verification of certain aspects of NLP. On the questions of “does NLP work?” and “is NLP effective?” ] (1996) cited the NRC research committee who stated that there was no evidence of its claimed effectiveness. <ref name="singer96">Singer 96 175</ref>.

Von Bergen et al <ref name="vonbergen">(1997 page 291)</ref> state that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error", and Druckman et al (1988) say that "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors".

The 1988 US National Committee (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts) report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique"<ref name="druckman" />. In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work"<ref name="squires" />. Heap (1989) says "NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness" <ref name="heap89">{{cite book | author=Heap, M. | title=Neuro-linguistic programming: What is the evidence? In D Waxman D. Pederson. I | publisher= | year=1989 | id=}}</ref>.

Heap <ref name="heap89" /> says "the conjecture that a person has a preferred representational system (PRS), which is observed in the choice of words, has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews" <ref name="heap89" /><ref name="platt" />. "The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support" <ref name="heap89" /><ref name="platt" />.

A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) said that Sharpley's<ref name="sharpley84" /> review of NLP contained methodological errors. However, Sharpley refuted this and provided further experimental evidence to demonstrate that NLP is ineffective and in error in both method and model<ref name="sharpley87" />.

Von Bergen et al <ref name="vonbergen">(1997 page 291)</ref> state that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny". Thus, objective empirical studies <ref name="heap89" /><ref name="bertelsen" /><ref name="bliemeister" /> and review papers <ref name="druckman" /><ref name="platt" /> have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analysis have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment, and the reiterated statement is that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP's claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy <ref name="sharpley87" /><ref name="drenth" /><ref name="lilienfeld" /><ref name="singer96" /><ref name="eisner" />.

Efran and Lukens <ref name="efran">(Efran & Lukens1990 p.122)</ref> state that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy". Eisner (2000) states that "NLP proponents have provided not one iota of scientific support for their claims" <ref name="eisner" />

Devilly <ref name="devilly"/> states that "controlled studies shed such a poor light on NLP and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers found it unwise to test the theory any further". "NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets: The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains and some people still enroll".

Beyerstein states that "bogus therapies can be explained by the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment , and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures."<ref name="beyerstein97">(1997p20)</ref> In Brianscams, Beyerstein states that when the New Age brain manipulators such as NLP are challenged, "critics typically encounter anecdotes and user testimonials where there ought to be rigorous pre-and post treatment comparisons" <ref name="beyerstein">(Beyerstein 1990 p.33)</ref>.

===Views on therapeutic classification===

NLP is considered a "dubious therapy" by Dryden (2001) <ref name="dryden">Dryden. W. 2001 Brunner-Routledge 0415229804</ref> and The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies <ref name="dobson">Dobson (2001) The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies p.438</ref>. In Crazy Therapies (1996), Singer <ref name="singer96" /> states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else". <ref name="singer96">{{cite book | author=Singer, Margaret | title=Crazy Therapies | location=New York, NY | publisher=Jossey Bass | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-7879-6741-6}}</ref> <ref name="druckman"/>). Beyerstein (1990p31) <ref name="raso94" /> considers NLP to be a fringe or alternative therapy. Devilly, a professor of psychology considers NLP to be an "alphabet" or "power therapy" similar to ] or ], ] and ]. According to Eisner, the various claims NLP proponents make have no clinical support and are grossly missleading.

Irrespective of these classifications, NLP is used or suggested as an approach by a some mental health bodies, including the National Phobics Society of Great Britain <ref name="phobics"></ref>, MIND <ref name="assert">(PDF)</ref> , <ref name="eating"></ref>, the British Stammering Association <ref name="stammering"> </ref>, the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism <ref name="autism"></ref>,<ref name="asca"></ref>. Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. Barrett 2001:239) says that NLP promoters sell a biofeedback GSR meter which is "cheaper and perhaps more effective than the Scientology E-meter".

Peter Schütz, Austrian management consultant, and psychotherapist who applies NLP to his profession, outlines the issues with varying length and quality of NLP training, and the difference between the hobbyist courses and full length training, he outlines some criticism of NLP saying it has even been, "labeled in unfavorable political ways (nazilinguistic programming)" <ref name="schutz">Peter Schütz</ref>

===Questionable applications===
Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of NLP within psychotherapy associations <ref name="lilienfeld" /><ref name="eisner" />. NLP certification for therapists in most countries still does not require any professional qualifications <ref name="eisner" />.

*'''Human resources''': Human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training . NLP has been found to be most ineffective concerning influence/persuasion and modeling of skills <ref name="druckman" />. Hardiman and Summers claim NLP is dubious and not to be taken seriously in a business context <ref name="hardiman" >Hardiman </ref><ref name="summers" >Summers, Lynn. (Jan 1996) Training & Development. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training & Development: Vol. 50, Iss. 1; pg. 30, 2 pgs</ref>. Within management training there have been complaints concerning pressured adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.<ref name="singer95" /> {{Request quote}} Since the divorce of Tony Robbins, despite his commercial promotion of "Perfect Marriage" counseling, many of his followers became disenchanted <ref name="salerno">(Salerno 2005)</ref>.

*'''Education''': Beyerstein <ref name="beyerstein">(1990, p.30)</ref> states that a method should be supported using controlled studies before it is applied in education.

*'''Cosmetic effect claims''': NLP is applied to breast enhancement and penis enlargement. For example, the NLP practitioner, Goodman <ref name="goodman"> </ref> sells NLP audio recordings of the NLP swish pattern for enlarging penis size. Eisner <ref name="eisner">(2000 p150)</ref> asks why, if these miraculous effects are true, have they not been properly documented, nor presented to the scientific community? <ref name="eisner" />

*'''Occult and New Age practices''': Winkin <ref name="winkin91">(1990p45)</ref>{{Verify_credibility}}<!-- Winkin is a foreign citation. He appears unnotable and only appears in this article twice. In both cases it is in a "guilt by association" style phrase. Is this scientist worth having? There must be a better source for supporting what is needed--> states that with its promotion with Tai Chi, Meditation, and Dianetics (Scientology), NLP is in the margins of contemporary obscurantism. NLP practitioners sometimes attempt to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support. NLP's new age background often leads to it being sold in combination with ] methods of magic (such as by Richard Bandler or ] mysticism (notably by Tad James) {{fact}}.

===NLP as a New Age approach===
{{Relevance}}<!-- This section establishes that NLP is considered New Age. However it does not establish why that is considered criticism? Is anyone saying "NLP is New Age, which is inherintly bad because X." Without this information the entire section is POV and borderline OR. September 11 2006 -->

Psychologists Beyerstein and Lilienfeld classify NLP as a "New Age" development
<ref name="Beyerstein 1990">
{{cite journal
| author=Beyerstein.B.L
| title= Brainscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age.
| journal= International Journal of Mental Health
| year=1990
| volume=19(3)
| pages=27-36,27}}</ref>
<ref name="Lilienfeld 2002">
{{cite journal
| author= Lilienfeld,S.O.
| title= Our Raison D’etre
| journal= The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice
| year=2002
| volume=1(1)
| pages=20}}</ref>,
and Kelly
<ref name="Fireside">{{cite book
| author=Kelly.M.O
| title=The Fireside Treasury of Light
| location=
| publisher=Simon & Schuster.
| year=1990
| id=0671685058
| pages=p.25,182</ref>
says NLP was involved in the foundation of the New Age.

According to Dilts <ref name="diltsdelozier2000">(2000 p.143)</ref>, Grinder developed NLP rituals from the shamanic teachings of Carlos Castaneda, such as the NLP double induction process, and perceptual positions, designed to move attention or energy to other realities.

Beyerstein and Lilienfeld, characterize NLP as a ] therapy.

===Cult allegations===
Hunt says, NLP can be seen as “similar to new religions of eastern origin that trace themselves back through a progression of gurus, and to esoteric movements claiming the authority of authenticity through their descent from previous movements". <ref name="hunt">Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) A Sociological Introduction, London: Ashgate p.195 ISBN 0-7546-3409-4</ref>

Barrett (2001:238) states that "Like many alternative religions, particularly the Estoeric movements, there is a career ladder within NLP. Many people find the introductory seminar interesting and thirst for more. Practitioner training is the place to go next.

For these reasons NLP is sometimes referred to by journalists and researchers as a kind of cult or ''psychocult''.<ref name="heap89" /><ref name="singer95" /> <ref name="novopashin" /><ref name="rekaunt" >(eg. NLP Rekaunt)</ref><ref name="recovery">{{cite book
| author=Michael D Langone (Ed).
| title=Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse
| location=New York, NY | publisher=W W Norton & Company | year=1993.
| id=-}}</ref><ref name="tippet94">{{cite news
| last=Tippet
| first=Gary
| title=Inside the cults of mind control | date=] ] | publisher=Melbourne, Australia: Sunday Age | url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/general/general756.html}}</ref><ref name="eisner" /><ref name="sharpley87" /> A German educational ministry banned the use of NLP in education and stated that it has a close similarity to ].<ref name="rekaunt" />{{fact}} <!-- The article is from a published Journal of Adult Education. This needs proper attrib ~~~~ -->

Critics say NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance from the cult's victim or to induce dependence.<ref name="recovery" /> According to Devilly<ref name="devilly">(2005 p.441)</ref> it is common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a ] in order to promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics. Thus, although NLP's effectiveness is disputed, it nonetheless operates as a fake science. {{fact}} <!-- The biases of these sources need to be indentified. And the sources used checked. ---=-C-=- 13:27, ] ] (UTC)-->

===Ethical concerns===

Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards ] have been raised due to NLP book titles such as "The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP" and “NLP the New Art and Science of Getting What You Want”. {{fact}} <!-- This needs to be checked. ---=-C-=- 13:27, ] ] (UTC) --> Similar concerns have been raised about the entire field of psychology, beginning with Watson foree into advertising, so this must be understood in context.

Therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: ).

In addition, Beyerstein <ref name="beyerstein">(1999 p.26)</ref> states that "ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands". NLP is also criticised for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals<ref name="salerno" />. Drenth 2003 explains that NLP is driven by economic motives and "manipulation of credulity" of clients, and explains that "often pseudoscientific practices are motivated by loathsome pursuit of gain". Drenth clarifies this with reference to the well known "financial exploitation of the victims of scientology, Avatar and similar movements".

NLP has also been described as a ] ], and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive<ref name="singer95">{{cite book | author=Singer, Margaret | title=Cults in Our Midst : The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace | location=New York, NY | publisher=Jossey Bass | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0-7879-6741-6}}</ref>.

==Notes and references==
{{cleanup-date|June 2006}}
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references /></div>
== Further reading == == Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
{{main|Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography}}
* Andreas, Steve & Charles Faulkner (Eds.) (1996). ''NLP: the new technology of achievement''. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-688-14619-8. * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Andreas |editor1-first=Steve |editor1-link=Steve Andreas |editor2-first=Charles |editor2-last=Faulkner |title=NLP: the new technology of achievement |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-688-14619-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/nlpnewtechnology00andr |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Austin |first=A. |title=The Rainbow Machine: Tales from a Neurolinguist's Journal |location=UK |publisher=Real People Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-911226-44-7 |ref=none}}
* Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). ''The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy''. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0044-7.
* {{cite book |last1=Bandler |first1=R. |last2=Grinder |first2=J. |author3-link=Virginia Satir |last3=Satir |first3=V. |year=1976 |title=Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human |publisher=Science and Behavior Books |isbn=0-8314-0051-X |ref=none}}
* Grinder, John & Richard Bandler (1975). ''The Structure of Magic II: A Book About Communication and Change''. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0049-8.
* Dilts, Robert B & Judith A DeLozier (2000). ''Encyclopaedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding''. NLP University Press. ISBN 0-9701540-0-3. * {{cite journal |last1=Bradbury |first1=A. |title=Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Time for an Informed Review |journal=Skeptical Intelligencer |volume=11 |year=2008 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burn |first=Gillian |title=NLP Pocketbook |location=Alresford, United Kingdom |publisher=Management Pocketbooks Ltd |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-903776-31-5 |ref=none}}
==See also==
* {{cite book |last=Dilts |first=R. |year=1990 |title=Changing Belief Systems with NLP |publisher=Meta Publications |isbn=978-0-916990-24-4 |ref=none}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* {{cite book |last1=Dilts |first1=R. |last2=Hallbom |first2=Tim |last3=Smith |first3=Suzi |year=1990 |title=Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being |publisher=Crown House Publishing |isbn=978-1-84590-802-7 |ref=none}}
=== Philosophy relevant to NLP ===
* {{Skeptoid | id=4155 | number= 155| title= NLP: Neuro-linguistic Programming| date=26 May 2009 | last= Dunning| first=Brian |ref=none}}
*]
* {{Cite book |last=Ellerton |first=Roger |title=Live Your Dreams, Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You |location=Ottawa, Canada |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4120-4709-8 |ref=none}}
*]
* {{cite book |last=Grinder |first=M. |year=1991 |title=Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt |publisher=Metamorphous Press |isbn=1-55552-036-7 |ref=none}}
*]
* {{cite book |last=O'Connor |first=Joseph |year=2007 |title=Not Pulling Strings: Application of Neuro-Linguistic Programming to Teaching and Learning Music |publisher=Kahn & Averill |place=London |isbn=978-1-871082-90-6 |ref=none}}
*]
* {{Cite journal |last=Platt |first=Garry |title=NLP – Neuro Linguistic Programming or No Longer Plausible? |series=May |journal=Training Journal |year=2001 |volume=2001 |pages=10–15 |ref=none}}
*]
{{Refend}}
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==External links==
=== Academic subjects relevant to NLP ===
*{{Wiktionary inline|Neuro-linguistic programming}}
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Latest revision as of 00:02, 4 September 2024

Pseudoscientific approach to psychotherapy Not to be confused with Natural language processing (also NLP). For other uses, see NLP.

Medical intervention
Neuro-linguistic programming
MeSHD020557
[edit on Wikidata]
Neuro-linguistic
programming
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Developers
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Organisations

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development and psychotherapy, that first appeared in Richard Bandler and John Grinder's 1975 book The Structure of Magic I. NLP asserts that there is a connection between neurological processes, language and acquired behavioral patterns, and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life. According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP can treat problems such as phobias, depression, tic disorders, psychosomatic illnesses, near-sightedness, allergy, the common cold, and learning disorders, often in a single session. They also say that NLP can model the skills of exceptional people, allowing anyone to acquire them.

NLP has been adopted by some hypnotherapists as well as by companies that run seminars marketed as leadership training to businesses and government agencies.

There is no scientific evidence supporting the claims made by NLP advocates, and it has been called a pseudoscience. Scientific reviews have shown that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of the brain's inner workings that are inconsistent with current neurological theory, and that NLP contains numerous factual errors. Reviews also found that research that favored NLP contained significant methodological flaws, and that there were three times as many studies of a much higher quality that failed to reproduce the claims made by Bandler, Grinder, and other NLP practitioners.

Early development

According to Bandler and Grinder, NLP consists of a methodology termed modeling, plus a set of techniques that they derived from its initial applications. They derived many of the fundamental techniques from the work of Virginia Satir, Milton Erickson and Fritz Perls. Bandler and Grinder also drew upon the theories of Gregory Bateson, Alfred Korzybski and Noam Chomsky (particularly transformational grammar).

Bandler and Grinder say that their methodology can codify the structure inherent to the therapeutic "magic" as performed in therapy by Perls, Satir and Erickson, and indeed inherent to any complex human activity. From that codification, they say, the structure and its activity can be learned by others. Their 1975 book, The Structure of Magic I: A Book about Language and Therapy, is intended to be a codification of the therapeutic techniques of Perls and Satir.

Bandler and Grinder say that they used their own process of modeling to model Virginia Satir so they could produce what they termed the Meta-Model, a model for gathering information and challenging a client's language and underlying thinking. They say that by challenging linguistic distortions, specifying generalizations, and recovering deleted information in the client's statements, the transformational grammar concept of surface structure yields a more complete representation of the underlying deep structure and therefore has therapeutic benefit. Also derived from Satir were anchoring, future pacing and representational systems.

In contrast, the Milton-Model—a model of the purportedly hypnotic language of Milton Erickson—was described by Bandler and Grinder as "artfully vague" and metaphoric. The Milton-Model is used in combination with the Meta-Model as a softener, to induce "trance" and to deliver indirect therapeutic suggestion.

Psychologist Jean Mercer writes that Chomsky's theories "appear to be irrelevant" to NLP. Linguist Karen Stollznow describes Bandler's and Grinder's reference to such experts as namedropping. Other than Satir, the people they cite as influences did not collaborate with Bandler or Grinder. Chomsky himself has no association with NLP, with his work being theoretical in nature and having no therapeutic element. Stollznow writes, "ther than borrowing terminology, NLP does not bear authentic resemblance to any of Chomsky's theories or philosophies—linguistic, cognitive or political."

According to André Muller Weitzenhoffer, a researcher in the field of hypnosis, "the major weakness of Bandler and Grinder's linguistic analysis is that so much of it is built upon untested hypotheses and is supported by totally inadequate data." Weitzenhoffer adds that Bandler and Grinder misuse formal logic and mathematics, redefine or misunderstand terms from the linguistics lexicon (e.g., nominalization), create a scientific façade by needlessly complicating Ericksonian concepts with unfounded claims, make factual errors, and disregard or confuse concepts central to the Ericksonian approach.

More recently, Bandler has stated, "NLP is based on finding out what works and formalizing it. In order to formalize patterns I utilized everything from linguistics to holography ... The models that constitute NLP are all formal models based on mathematical, logical principles such as predicate calculus and the mathematical equations underlying holography." There is no mention of the mathematics of holography nor of holography in general in Spitzer's, or Grinder's account of the development of NLP.

On the matter of the development of NLP, Grinder recollects:

My memories about what we thought at the time of discovery (with respect to the classic code we developed—that is, the years 1973 through 1978) are that we were quite explicit that we were out to overthrow a paradigm and that, for example, I, for one, found it very useful to plan this campaign using in part as a guide the excellent work of Thomas Kuhn (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions) in which he detailed some of the conditions which historically have obtained in the midst of paradigm shifts. For example, I believe it was very useful that neither one of us were qualified in the field we first went after—psychology and in particular, its therapeutic application; this being one of the conditions which Kuhn identified in his historical study of paradigm shifts.

The philosopher Robert Todd Carroll responded that Grinder has not understood Kuhn's text on the history and philosophy of science, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Carroll replies: (a) individual scientists never have nor are they ever able to create paradigm shifts volitionally and Kuhn does not suggest otherwise; (b) Kuhn's text does not contain the idea that being unqualified in a field of science is a prerequisite to producing a result that necessitates a paradigm shift in that field and (c) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is foremost a work of history and not an instructive text on creating paradigm shifts and such a text is not possible—extraordinary discovery is not a formulaic procedure. Carroll explains that a paradigm shift is not a planned activity, rather it is an outcome of scientific effort within the dominant paradigm that produces data that cannot be adequately accounted for within the current paradigm—hence a paradigm shift, i.e. the adoption of a new paradigm. In developing NLP, Bandler and Grinder were not responding to a paradigmatic crisis in psychology nor did they produce any data that caused a paradigmatic crisis in psychology. There is no sense in which Bandler and Grinder caused or participated in a paradigm shift. "What did Grinder and Bandler do that makes it impossible to continue doing psychology ... without accepting their ideas? Nothing," argues Carroll.

Commercialization and evaluation

By the late 1970s, the human potential movement had developed into an industry and provided a market for some NLP ideas. At the center of this growth was the Esalen Institute at Big Sur, California. Perls had led numerous Gestalt therapy seminars at Esalen. Satir was an early leader and Bateson was a guest teacher. Bandler and Grinder have said that in addition to being a therapeutic method, NLP was also a study of communication and began marketing it as a business tool, writing that, "if any human being can do anything, so can you." After 150 students paid $1,000 each for a ten-day workshop in Santa Cruz, California, Bandler and Grinder gave up academic writing and started producing popular books from seminar transcripts, such as Frogs into Princes, which sold more than 270,000 copies. According to court documents relating to an intellectual property dispute between Bandler and Grinder, Bandler made more than $800,000 in 1980 from workshop and book sales.

A community of psychotherapists and students began to form around Bandler and Grinder's initial works, leading to the growth and spread of NLP as a theory and practice. For example, Tony Robbins trained with Grinder and utilized a few ideas from NLP as part of his own self-help and motivational speaking programmes. Bandler led several unsuccessful efforts to exclude other parties from using NLP. Meanwhile, the rising number of practitioners and theorists led NLP to become even less uniform than it was at its foundation. Prior to the decline of NLP, scientific researchers began testing its theoretical underpinnings empirically, with research indicating a lack of empirical support for NLP's essential theories. The 1990s were characterized by fewer scientific studies evaluating the methods of NLP than the previous decade. Tomasz Witkowski attributes this to a declining interest in the debate as the result of a lack of empirical support for NLP from its proponents.

Main components and core concepts

NLP can be understood in terms of three broad components: subjectivity, consciousness, and learning.

According to Bandler and Grinder, people experience the world subjectively, creating internal representations of their experiences. These representations involve the five senses and language. In other words, our conscious experiences take the form of sights, sounds, feelings, smells, and tastes. When we imagine something, recall an event, or think about the future, we utilize these same sensory systems within our minds Furthermore it is stated that these subjective representations of experience have a discernible structure, a pattern.

Bandler and Grinder assert that behavior (both our own and others') can be understood through these sensory-based internal representations. Behavior here includes verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as effective or adaptive behaviors and less helpful or "pathological" ones. They also assert that behavior in both the self and other people can be modified by manipulating these sense-based subjective representations.

NLP posits that consciousness can be divided into conscious and unconscious components. The part of our internal representations operating outside our direct awareness is referred to as the "unconscious mind".

Finally, NLP uses a method of learning called "modeling", designed to replicate expertise in any field. According to Bandler and Grinder, by analyzing the sequence of sensory and linguistic representations used by an expert while performing a skill, it's possible to create a mental model that can be learned by others.

Techniques or set of practices

Further information: Methods of neuro-linguistic programming
An "eye accessing cue chart" as it appears as an example in Bandler & Grinder's Frogs into Princes (1979). The six directions represent "visual construct", "visual recall", "auditory construct", "auditory recall", "kinesthetic" and "auditory internal dialogue".

According to one study by Steinbach, a classic interaction in NLP can be understood in terms of several major stages including establishing rapport, gleaning information about a problem mental state and desired goals, using specific tools and techniques to make interventions, and integrating proposed changes into the client's life. The entire process is guided by the non-verbal responses of the client. The first is the act of establishing and maintaining rapport between the practitioner and the client which is achieved through pacing and leading the verbal (e.g., sensory predicates and keywords) and non-verbal behavior (e.g., matching and mirroring non-verbal behavior, or responding to eye movements) of the client.

Once rapport is established, the practitioner may gather information about the client's present state as well as help the client define a desired state or goal for the interaction. The practitioner pays attention to the verbal and non-verbal responses as the client defines the present state and desired state and any resources that may be required to bridge the gap. The client is typically encouraged to consider the consequences of the desired outcome, and how they may affect his or her personal or professional life and relationships, taking into account any positive intentions of any problems that may arise. The practitioner thereafter assists the client in achieving the desired outcomes by using certain tools and techniques to change internal representations and responses to stimuli in the world. Finally, the practitioner helps the client to mentally rehearse and integrate the changes into his or her life. For example, the client may be asked to envision what it is like having already achieved the outcome.

According to Stollznow, "NLP also involves fringe discourse analysis and 'practical' guidelines for 'improved' communication. For example, one text asserts 'when you adopt the "but" word, people will remember what you said afterwards. With the "and" word, people remember what you said before and after.'"

Applications

Alternative medicine

NLP has been promoted as being able to treat a variety of diseases including Parkinson's disease, HIV/AIDS and cancer. Such claims have no supporting medical evidence. People who use NLP as a form of treatment risk serious adverse health consequences as it can delay the provision of effective medical care.

Psychotherapeutic

Early books about NLP had a psychotherapeutic focus given that the early models were psychotherapists. As an approach to psychotherapy, NLP shares similar core assumptions and foundations in common with some contemporary brief and systemic practices, such as solution focused brief therapy. NLP has also been acknowledged as having influenced these practices with its reframing techniques which seeks to achieve behavior change by shifting its context or meaning, for example, by finding the positive connotation of a thought or behavior.

The two main therapeutic uses of NLP are, firstly, as an adjunct by therapists practicing in other therapeutic disciplines and, secondly, as a specific therapy called Neurolinguistic Psychotherapy.

According to Stollznow, "Bandler and Grinder's infamous Frogs into Princes and their other books boast that NLP is a cure-all that treats a broad range of physical and mental conditions and learning difficulties, including epilepsy, myopia and dyslexia. With its promises to cure schizophrenia, depression and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and its dismissal of psychiatric illnesses as psychosomatic, NLP shares similarities with Scientology and the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR)." A systematic review of experimental studies by Sturt et al. (2012) concluded that "there is little evidence that NLP interventions improve health-related outcomes." In his review of NLP, Stephen Briers writes, "NLP is not really a cohesive therapy but a ragbag of different techniques without a particularly clear theoretical basis ... evidence base is virtually non-existent." Eisner writes, "NLP appears to be a superficial and gimmicky approach to dealing with mental health problems. Unfortunately, NLP appears to be the first in a long line of mass marketing seminars that purport to virtually cure any mental disorder ... it appears that NLP has no empirical or scientific support as to the underlying tenets of its theory or clinical effectiveness. What remains is a mass-marketed serving of psychopablum."

André Muller Weitzenhoffer—a friend and peer of Milton Erickson—wrote, "Has NLP really abstracted and explicated the essence of successful therapy and provided everyone with the means to be another Whittaker, Virginia Satir, or Erickson? ... failure to do this is evident because today there is no multitude of their equals, not even another Whittaker, Virginia Satir, or Erickson. Ten years should have been sufficient time for this to happen. In this light, I cannot take NLP seriously ... contributions to our understanding and use of Ericksonian techniques are equally dubious. Patterns I and II are poorly written works that were an overambitious, pretentious effort to reduce hypnotism to a magic of words."

Clinical psychologist Stephen Briers questions the value of the NLP maxim—a presupposition in NLP jargon—"there is no failure, only feedback". Briers argues that the denial of the existence of failure diminishes its instructive value. He offers Walt Disney, Isaac Newton and J.K. Rowling as three examples of unambiguous acknowledged personal failure that served as an impetus to great success. According to Briers, it was "the crash-and-burn type of failure, not the sanitised NLP Failure Lite, i.e. the failure-that-isn't really-failure sort of failure" that propelled these individuals to success. Briers contends that adherence to the maxim leads to self-deprecation. According to Briers, personal endeavour is a product of invested values and aspirations and the dismissal of personally significant failure as mere feedback effectively denigrates what one values. Briers writes, "Sometimes we need to accept and mourn the death of our dreams, not just casually dismiss them as inconsequential." Briers also contends that the NLP maxim is narcissistic, self-centered and divorced from notions of moral responsibility.

Other uses

Although the original core techniques of NLP were therapeutic in orientation their generic nature enabled them to be applied to other fields. These applications include persuasion, sales, negotiation, management training, sports, teaching, coaching, team building, public speaking, and in the process of hiring employees.

Scientific criticism

In the early 1980s, NLP was advertised as an important advance in psychotherapy and counseling, and attracted some interest in counseling research and clinical psychology. However, as controlled trials failed to show any benefit from NLP and its advocates made increasingly dubious claims, scientific interest in NLP faded.

Numerous literature reviews and meta-analyses have failed to show evidence for NLP's assumptions or effectiveness as a therapeutic method. While some NLP practitioners have argued that the lack of empirical support is due to insufficient research which tests NLP, the consensus scientific opinion is that NLP is pseudoscience and that attempts to dismiss the research findings based on these arguments "s an admission that NLP does not have an evidence base and that NLP practitioners are seeking a post-hoc credibility."

Surveys in the academic community have shown NLP to be widely discredited among scientists. Among the reasons for considering NLP a pseudoscience are that evidence in favor of it is limited to anecdotes and personal testimony that it is not informed by scientific understanding of neuroscience and linguistics, and that the name "neuro-linguistic programming" uses jargon words to impress readers and obfuscate ideas, whereas NLP itself does not relate any phenomena to neural structures and has nothing in common with linguistics or programming. In education, NLP has been used as a key example of pseudoscience.

As a quasi-religion

Sociologists and anthropologists have categorized NLP as a quasi-religion belonging to the New Age and/or Human Potential Movements.

Medical anthropologist Jean M. Langford categorizes NLP as a form of folk magic; that is to say, a practice with symbolic efficacy—as opposed to physical efficacy—that is able to effect change through nonspecific effects (e.g., placebo). To Langford, NLP is akin to a syncretic folk religion "that attempts to wed the magic of folk practice to the science of professional medicine".

Bandler and Grinder were influenced by the shamanism described in the books of Carlos Castaneda. Concepts like "double induction" and "stopping the world", central to NLP modeling, were incorporated from these influences.

Some theorists characterize NLP as a type of "psycho-shamanism", and its focus on modeling has been compared to ritual practices in certain syncretic religions. The emphasis on lineage from an NLP guru has also been likened to similar concepts in some Eastern religions. Aupers, Houtman, and Bovbjerg identify NLP as a New Age "psycho-religion". Bovbjerg argues that New Age movements center on a transcendent "other". While monotheistic religions seek communion with a divine being, this focus shifts inward in these movements, with the "other" becoming the unconscious self. Bovbjerg posits that this emphasis on the unconscious and its hidden potential underlies NLP techniques promoting self-perfection through ongoing transformation.

Bovbjerg's secular critique echoes the conservative Christian perspective, as exemplified by David Jeremiah. He argues that NLP's emphasis on self-transformation and internal power conflicts with the Christian belief in salvation through divine grace.

Legal disputes

Founding, initial disputes, and settlement (1979–1981)

In 1979, Richard Bandler and John Grinder established the Society of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) to manage commercial applications of NLP, including training, materials, and certification. The founding agreement conferred exclusive rights to profit from NLP training and certification upon Bandler's corporate entity, Not Ltd. Around November 1980, Bandler and Grinder had ceased collaboration for undisclosed reasons.

On September 25, 1981, Bandler filed suit against Grinder's corporate entity, Unlimited Ltd., in the Superior Court of California, County of Santa Cruz seeking injunctive relief and damages arising from Grinder's NLP-related commercial activities; the Court issued a judgment in Bandler's favor on October 29, 1981. The subsequent settlement agreement granted Grinder a 10-year license to conduct NLP seminars, offer NLP certification, and utilize the NLP name, subject to royalty payments to Bandler.

Further litigation and consequences (1996–2000)

Bandler commenced further civil actions against Unlimited Ltd., various figures within the NLP community, and 200 initially unnamed defendants in July 1996 and January 1997. Bandler alleged violations of the initial settlement terms by Grinder and sought damages of no less than US$10,000,000.00 from each defendant.

In February 2000, the Court ruled against Bandler. The judgment asserted that Bandler had misrepresented his exclusive ownership of NLP intellectual property and sole authority over Society of NLP membership and certification.

Trademark revocation (1997)

In December 1997, a separate civil proceeding initiated by Tony Clarkson resulted in the revocation of Bandler's UK trademark of NLP. The Court ruled in Clarkson's favor.

Resolution and legacy (2000)

Bandler and Grinder reached a settlement in late 2000, acknowledging their status as co-creators and co-founders of NLP and committing to refrain from disparaging one another's NLP-related endeavors.

Due to these disputes and settlements, the terms 'NLP' and 'Neuro-Linguistic Programming' remain in the public domain. No single party holds exclusive rights, and there are no restrictions on offering NLP certifications.

The designations "NLP" and "Neuro-linguistic Programming" are not owned, trademarked, or subject to centralized regulation. Consequently, there are no restrictions on individuals self-identifying as "NLP Master Practitioners" or "NLP Master Trainers." This decentralization has led to numerous certifying associations.

Decentralization and criticism

This lack of centralized control means there's no single standard for NLP practice or training. Practitioners can market their own methodologies, leading to inconsistencies within the field. This has been a source of criticism, highlighted by an incident in 2009 where a British television presenter registered his cat with the British Board of Neuro Linguistic Programming (BBNLP), demonstrating the organization's lax credentialing. Critics like Karen Stollznow find irony in the initial legal battles between Bandler and Grinder, considering their failure to apply their own NLP principles to resolve their conflict. Others, such as Grant Devilly, characterize NLP associations as "granfalloons"—a term implying a lack of unifying principles or a shared sense of purpose.

See also

Notable practitioners

Notes

  1. ^ Note that, in a seminar, Bandler & Grinder 1982, p. 166, said that a single session of NLP combined with hypnosis could eliminate certain eyesight problems such as myopia and cure the common cold (op.cit., pp. 169, 174).
  2. Bandler 1993, p. vii: "In single sessions, they can accelerate learning, neutralize phobias, enhance creativity, improve relationships, eliminate allergies, and lead firewalks without roasting toes. NLP achieves the goal of its inception. We have ways to do what only a genius could have done a decade ago."
  3. Weitzenhoffer 1989, pp. 304–305: "I have chosen nominalization to explain what some of the problems are in Bandler and Grinder's linguistic approach to Ericksonian hypnotism. Almost any other linguistic concept used by these authors could have served equally well for the purpose of showing some of the inherent weaknesses in their treatment."
  4. Weitzenhoffer 1989, p. 307: "As I have mentioned in the last chapter, any references made to left and right brain functions in relation to hypnotic phenomena must be considered as poorly founded. They do not add to our understanding of nor our ability to utilize hypnotic phenomena in the style of Erickson. Indeed, references such as Bandler and Grinder make to these functions give their subject matter a false appearance of having a more scientific status than it has."
  5. Weitzenhoffer 1989, p. 306: "This work , incidentally, contains some glaring misstatements of facts. For example, Freud and Mesmer were depicted as contemporaries!"
  6. Weitzenhoffer 1989, p. 306: One of the most striking features of the Bandler/Grinder interpretation is that it somehow ignores the issue of the existence and function of suggestion, which even in Erickson's own writings and those done with Rossi, is a central idea."
  7. Dilts et al. 1980, pp. 13–14: "There are three characteristics of effective patterning in NLP which sharply distinguish it from behavioural science as it is commonly practiced today. First, for a pattern or generalization regarding human communication to be acceptable or well–formed in NLP, it must include in the description the human agents who are initiating and responding to the pattern being described, their actions, their possible responses. Secondly, the description of the pattern must be represented in sensory grounded terms which are available to the user. This user–oriented constraint on NLP ensures usefulness. We have been continually struck by the tremendous gap between theory and practice in the behavioural sciences—this requirement closes that gap. Notice that since patterns must be represented in sensory grounded terms, available through practice to the user, a pattern will typically have multiple representation—each tailored for the differing sensory capabilities of individual users Thirdly, NLP includes within its descriptive vocabulary terms which are not directly observable ."
  8. Dilts et al. (1980), p. 36: "The basic elements from which the patterns of human behaviour are formed are the perceptual systems through which the members of the species operate on their environment: vision (sight), audition (hearing), kinesthesis (body sensations) and olfaction/gustation (smell/taste). The neurolinguistic programming model presupposes that all of the distinctions we as human beings are able to make concerning our environment (internal and external) and our behaviour can be usefully represented in terms of these systems. These perceptual classes constitute the structural parameters of human knowledge. We postulate that all of our ongoing experience can usefully be coded as consisting of some combination of these sensory classes."
  9. Dilts et al. (1980), p. 7: "NLP presents specific tools which can be applied effectively in any human interaction. It offers specific techniques by which a practitioner may usefully organize and re–organize his or her subjective experience or the experiences of a client in order to define and subsequently secure any behavioural outcome."
  10. Dilts et al. 1980, pp. 77–80: "Strategies and representations which typically occur below an individual's level of awareness make up what is often called or referred to as the 'unconscious mind'."
  11. See, for instance, the following:
    • Sharpley, 1984 and 1987
    • Druckman and Swets, 1988
    • Heap, 1988
    • von Bergen et al., 1997
    • Druckman, 2004
    • Witkowski, 2010
  12. See the following:
    • Einspruch and Forman, 1985
    • Murray, 2013
    • Sturt et al., 2012
    • Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Research
    • Tosey and Mathison, 2010
  13. See the following:
    • Witkowsi, 2010
    • The Skeptic's Dictionary, 2009
    • Beyerstein, 1990
    • Corballis, in Della Sala and Anderson, 2012
    • Singer and Lalich
    • Lilienfeld, Lynn and Lohr, 2004
    • Della Sala, 2007
    • Williams, 2000
    • Lum, 2001
    • Lilienfeld, Lohr and Morier, 2001
    • Dunn, Halonen and Smith, 2008
    • Molfese, Segalowitz and Harris, 1988
  14. For a description of the social influence tactics used by NLP and similar pseudoscientific therapies, see Devilly, 2005
  15. In 2006, Norcross and colleagues found NLP to be given similar ratings as dolphin-assisted therapy, equine-assisted therapy, psychosynthesis, scared straight programmes, and emotional freedom technique. In 2010, Norcross and colleagues listed it as seventh out of their list of ten most discredited drug and alcohol interventions. Glasner-Edwards and colleagues also identified it as discredited in 2010.
  16. For more information on the use of neuroscience terms to lend the appearance of credibility to arguments, see Weisburg et al., 2008

References

Citations

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