Misplaced Pages

Latest revision as of 04:52, 20 December 2024

Tobacco
Tobacco flakes, sliced from pressed plugs
Source plant(s)	Nicotiana
Part(s) of plant	Leaf
Geographic origin	The Americas
Active ingredients	Nicotine, harmine
Uses	Recreational, Sacred, Medical, Religious, Traditional, Peacemaking
Legal status	AU: Unscheduled BR: Class E (Controlled plants) CA: Unscheduled DE: Unscheduled UK: General sales list (GSL, OTC) US: Unscheduled UN: Unscheduled In general, legal and regulated as a controlled substance for recreational use in most countries, tobacco smuggling or homemade tobacco making or growing is illegal. See tobacco control

Part of a series on
Tobacco
History History of tobacco
Chemistry Tobacco Smoke
Biology Nicotiana (Nicotiana tabacum) Nicotine Tobacco diseases Types
Personal and social effects Health effects Prevalence of consumption Marketing Art Tobacco and other drugs Control Religious views Politics Smoking Tobacconist
Production Cultivation Curing Industry Products
v t e

Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus Nicotiana of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used in some countries.

Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes and cigars, as well as pipes and shishas. They can also be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco, and snus.

Tobacco contains the highly addictive stimulant alkaloid nicotine as well as harmala alkaloids. Tobacco use is a cause or risk factor for many deadly diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver, and lungs as well as many cancers. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco use as the world's single greatest preventable cause of death.

Etymology

The English word 'tobacco' originates from the Spanish word tabaco. The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived, at least in part, from Taíno, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taíno, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas, 1552), or to tabago, a kind of L-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo, with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba).

However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 for certain medicinal herbs. These probably derived from the Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq), a word reportedly dating to the ninth century, referring to various herbs.

History

Cultural significance

According to Iroquois mythology, tobacco first grew out of Earth Woman's head after she died giving birth to her twin sons, Sapling and Flint.

Traditional use

Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes traditionally grow and use tobacco. Historically, people from the Northeast Woodlands cultures have carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item. It was smoked both socially and ceremonially, such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement. In some Native cultures, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the Creator.

Some Native Americans consider tobacco to be a medicine and advocate for its respectful usage, rather than a commercial one.

Popularization

Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Francisco Hernández de Toledo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales" named after the continuous plagues of cicadas (cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of the lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru, or newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice). Tobacco became so popular that the English colony of Jamestown used it as currency and began exporting it as a cash crop; tobacco is often credited as being the export that saved Virginia from ruin. While a lucrative product, the growing expansion of tobacco demand was intimately tied to the history of slavery in the Caribbean.

The alleged benefits of tobacco also contributed to its success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot, who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island, thought that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body" so that the bodies of the natives "are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithal we in England are often times afflicted."

Production of tobacco for smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700.

Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world-famous.

In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack invented a machine to automate cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until the health revelations of the late 20th century.

Contemporary

Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco was condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became recognized as a cause of cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, which settled the many lawsuits by the U.S. states in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products.

In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1, a strain containing an unusually high nicotine content, nearly doubling from 3.2 to 3.5%, to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to allege that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.

The desire of many addicted smokers to quit has led to the development of tobacco cessation products.

In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. Between 2019 and 2021, concerns about increased COVID-19 health risks due to tobacco consumption facilitated smoking reduction and cessation.

Biology

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Nicotiana

Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific.

Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin to insects. However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.

Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores, a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species due to its other attributes. For example, although the cabbage looper is a generalist pest, tobacco's gummosis and trichomes can harm early larvae survival. As a result, some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca) have become established as invasive weeds in some places.

Types

The types of tobacco include:

• Aromatic fire-cured is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky, and Virginia. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee is used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia, which is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria.
• Brightleaf tobacco is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of the state where it is planted. Prior to the American Civil War, most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. Sometime after the War of 1812, demand for a milder, lighter, more aromatic tobacco arose. Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland all innovated with milder varieties of the tobacco plant. Farmers discovered that brightleaf tobacco needs thin, starved soil, and those who could not grow other crops found that they could grow tobacco. Confederate soldiers traded it with each other and Union soldiers, and developed quite a taste for it. At the end of the war, the soldiers went home and a national market had developed for the local crop.
• Broadleaf, a dark tobacco varietal family popular for producing enormous, resilient, and thick wrapper leaves.
• Burley tobacco is an air-cured tobacco used predominantly in cigarette production, but also in pipe tobacco as a balance to Virginias and other leaves high in sugar content. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from pelletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
• Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type, but is used to thicken flavors from other tobaccos that might lack a body. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced from any tobacco type but is usually one of, or a blend of, Kentucky, Virginia and burley and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco.
• Criollo tobacco is primarily used in the making of cigars. It was by most accounts one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of Columbus.
• Dokha is a tobacco originally grown in Iran, mixed with leaves, bark and herbs for smoking in a midwakh.
• Perique was developed in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation of local tobacco by a farmer, Pierre Chenet. Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but it is no longer sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength and coolness to the blend.
• Shade tobacco is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes, and began cultivating the plant commercially, though the Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The Connecticut shade industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929 and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, and is in danger of disappearing altogether, given the increase in the value of land.
• Turkish tobacco is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (Nicotiana tabacum) grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria and North Macedonia. Originally grown in regions historically part of the Ottoman Empire, it is also known as ‘oriental’. Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Turkish tobacco. Its main use evolved to be included in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco. (A typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Turkish.)
• White burley air-cured leaf was found to be milder than other types of tobacco. In 1865 George Webb of Brown County, Ohio, planted red burley seeds he had purchased and found a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look, which became white burley.
• Wild tobacco is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico and parts of South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica.

Parasites

Tobacco, alongside its related products, can be infested by parasites such as the Lasioderma serricorne (tobacco beetle) and the Ephestia elutella (tobacco moth), which are the most widespread and damaging parasites to the tobacco industry. Infestation can range from the tobacco cultivated in the fields to the leaves used for manufacturing cigars, cigarillos, cigarettes, etc. Both the larvae of Lasioderma serricorne and caterpillars of Ephestia elutella are considered pests.

Production

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Tobacco" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Cultivation

Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles (Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Modern tobacco seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination is activated by light. In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially starves the plant of nitrogen, to produce a more desired flavor.

After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either a curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion.

Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, still used, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife; it is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick, and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner entails the serial harvest of a number of "primings", beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before harvesting, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, the harvesting wagons which were used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand.

In the U.S., North Carolina and Kentucky are the leaders in tobacco production, followed by Tennessee, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina and Pennsylvania.

Curing

Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves and gives a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, which is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer. Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used.

Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including:

• Air-cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, mild flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are 'dark' air-cured.
• Fire-cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder, and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire-cured.
• Flue-cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called 'oasts'). These barns have flues run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process generally takes about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. Most cigarettes incorporate flue-cured tobacco, which produces a milder, more inhalable smoke. It is estimated that 1 tree is cut to flue-cure every 300 cigarettes, resulting in serious environmental consequences.
• Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece, and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.

Some tobaccos go through a second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating. Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and/or flavoring.

Global production

Trends

Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record-high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%. During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased. China's increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a low import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff was reduced from 66% in 1999 to 10% in 2004, it has still led to local Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost.

Major producers

Top tobacco producers, 2020
Country	Production (tonnes)	Note
China	2,134,000
India	761,335
Brazil	702,208	F
Zimbabwe	203,488
Indonesia	199,737	F
United States	176,635
Mozambique	158,532	F
Pakistan	132,872	F
Argentina	109,333
Malawi	93,613	F
World	5,886,147	A
No note = official figure, F = FAO Estimate, A = Aggregate (may include official, semiofficial or estimates).

Every year, about 5.9 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout the world. The top producers of tobacco are China (36.3%), India (12.9%), Brazil (11.9%) and Zimbabwe (3.5%).

China

Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12% to the nation's national income. As noted above, despite the income generated for the state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use.

India

India's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh. India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India. Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land is used for tobacco production.

Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Mysore, and West Bengal which houses the core research institute.

Brazil

In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of the country's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue-cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes. Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar.

Problems in production

Child labor

The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children is widespread on farms in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small, family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during the 2007–08 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported experiencing green tobacco sickness, a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to levels of nicotine equivalent to smoking 50 cigarettes, just through direct contact with tobacco leaves. The effects of nicotine on human brain development in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.

Economy

Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco-manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%. Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product.

Environment

Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, waterways, and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm their nervous and immune systems.

As with all crops, tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium) from soil, decreasing its fertility.

Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and the United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes.

In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco.

Research

Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics. Tobacco BY-2 cells, derived from N. tabacum cultivar 'Bright Yellow-2', are among the most important research tools in plant cytology. Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. This research laid the groundwork for all genetically modified crops.

Genetic modification

Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first genetically modified (GM) crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco.

Field trials

Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation, have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco.

Production

Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco. The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997. From 2002 to 2010, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content were available in the US under the market name Quest.

Consumption

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are:

Enema

• Tobacco smoke enemas were employed by the indigenous peoples of North America to stimulate respiration, injecting the smoke with a rectal tube. Later, in the 18th century, Europeans emulated the Americans. Tobacco resuscitation kits consisting of a pair of bellows and a tube were provided by the Royal Humane Society of London and placed at various points along the Thames.

Nasal administration

• Snuff is a ground smokeless tobacco product, inhaled or ‘snuffed’ through the nose. If referring specifically to the orally consumed moist snuff, see dipping tobacco.

Smoked

• Beedi (also known as bidis or biris) are thin, often flavoured cigarettes from India made of tobacco wrapped in a tendu leaf, and secured with coloured thread at one end.
• Cigarettes are a product consumed through inhalation of smoke and manufactured from cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, then rolled into a paper cylinder.
• Cigars are tightly rolled bundles of dried and fermented tobacco, which are ignited so their smoke may be drawn into the smokers' mouths.
• Dokha is a middle eastern tobacco with high nicotine levels grown in parts of Oman and Hatta, which is smoked through a thin pipe called a medwakh. It is a form of tobacco which is dried up and ground and contains little to no additives excluding spices, fruits, or flowers to enhance smell and flavor.
• Heat-not-burn products heat rather than burn tobacco to generate an aerosol that contains nicotine.
• Hookah is a single- or multistemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Hookahs were first used in India and Persia; the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits or moassel, a mixture of tobacco, flavouring, and honey or glycerin.
• Roll-your-own, often called 'rollies' or 'roll-ups', are relatively popular in some European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers, and filters all bought separately. They are usually cheaper to make.
• Tobacco pipes typically consist of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed in the chamber and ignited.

In the mouth

Tobacco used in the mouth (buccal (sublabial), sublingual):

• Chewing tobacco is the oldest way of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands ("chew" or "chaw"), or in a shredded form ("dip"). When consuming the long, sweetened strands, the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed inside the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it is often called dipping tobacco. Both methods stimulate the salivary glands, which led to the development of the spittoon.
• Creamy snuff is tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, and Ganesh. It is locally known as mishri in some parts of Maharashtra.
• Dipping tobaccos are a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco, which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums. Some brands, as with snus, are portioned in small, porous pouches for less mess.
• Gutka is a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-sized packets.
• Kreteks are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves, and a flavoring "sauce". They were first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs.
• Pituri, a nicotine-containing substance traditionally made from Australian tobacco plants, used by Indigenous Australians for chewing and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums.
• Snus is a steam-pasteurized moist powdered tobacco product that is not fermented and induces minimal salivation. It is consumed by placing it (loose or in little pouches) against the upper gums for an extended period of time. It is somewhat similar to dipping tobacco but does not require spitting and is significantly lower in TSNAs.
• Tobacco chewing gum A gum containing nicotine or tobacco designed to be chewed.
• Tobacco edibles, often in the form of an infusion or a spice, have gained popularity in recent years.
• Tobacco water is a traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled, the mixture can be applied as a spray, or painted onto the leaves of garden plants, where it kills insects. Tobacco is, however, banned from use as a pesticide in certified organic production by the USDA's National Organic Program.

Topical

• Topical tobacco paste is sometimes used as a treatment for wasp, hornet, fire ant, scorpion, and bee stings. An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a half a teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area.

Influence

Social

Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and smoking by women was sometimes associated with promiscuity; in Japan, during the Edo period, prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th-century Europe.

Following the American Civil War, the use of tobacco, primarily in cigars, became associated with masculinity and power. Modern tobacco use has often been stigmatized; this has spawned quitting associations and antismoking campaigns. Bhutan is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal. Due to its propensity for causing detumescence and erectile dysfunction, some studies have described tobacco as an anaphrodisiacal substance.

Religion

Christianity

In Christian denominations of the conservative holiness movement, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Evangelical Wesleyan Church, the use of tobacco and other drugs is prohibited; ¶42 of the 2014 Book of Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection states:

In the judgment of The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference), the use of tobacco is a great evil, unbecoming a Christian, a waste of the Lord's money, and a defilement of the body, which should be the temple of the Holy Ghost. We do, therefore, most earnestly require our members to refrain from its cultivation, manufacture, and sale, and to abstain from its use in all forms, for Jesus' sake. We will not receive as members into our churches nor will we ordain or license to preach or to exhort, persons who use, cultivate, manufacture, or sell tobacco. Using tobacco by a member of a church or of the Conference after being received from this date (June 28, 1927) is a violation of the law of the church, and the offending party should be dealt with according to the judiciary rules.

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (popularly known as Mormons) adhere to the Word of Wisdom, a religious health code that is interpreted as prohibiting the consumption of tobacco as well as alcohol, coffee, and tea.

Islam

Most Islamic scholars have condemned tobacco due to its harmful effects on health. The earliest fatwa (religious opinion) against tobacco use dates from 1602. Most major Islamic sects prohibit its use. While tobacco is not mentioned in the Quran, the Quran does instruct Muslims to live healthy lives.

Sikhism

Sikhism, a Dharmic religion from India, considers tobacco consumption as a taboo and very bad for health and spirituality. Initiated Sikhs are never to consume tobacco in any form.

Demographic

Research on tobacco use is limited mainly to smoking, which has been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption. An estimated 1.1 billion people, and up to one-third of the adult population, use tobacco in some form. Smoking is more prevalent among men (however, the gender gap declines with age), the poor, and in transitional or developing countries. A study published in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report found that in 2019 approximately one in four youths (23.0%) in the U.S. had used a tobacco product during the past 30 days. This represented approximately three in 10 high school students (31.2%) and approximately one in eight middle school students (12.5%).

Rates of smoking continue to rise in developing countries, but have leveled off or declined in developed countries. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults. In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.

Health effects

Chemicals

Tobacco smoking harms health because of the toxic chemicals in tobacco smoke, including carbon monoxide, cyanide, and carcinogens, which have been proven to cause heart and lung diseases and cancer. Thousands of different substances in cigarette smoke, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzopyrene), formaldehyde, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, tobacco-specific nitrosamines, and phenols contribute to the harmful effects of smoking.

According to the World Health Organization, tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally. WHO estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004 and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century. Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describe tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide." Due to these health consequences, it is estimated that a 10 hectare (approximately 24.7 acre) field of tobacco used for cigarettes causes 30 deaths per year – 10 from lung cancer and 20 from cigarette-induced diseases like cardiac arrest, gangrene, bladder cancer, mouth cancer, etc.

The harms caused by inhaling tobacco smoke include diseases of the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (emphysema), and cancer (particularly cancers of the lungs, larynx, mouth, and pancreas). Cancer is caused by inhaling carcinogenic substances in tobacco smoke.

Inhaling secondhand tobacco smoke (which has been exhaled by a smoker) can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. In the United States, about 3,000 adults die each year due to lung cancer from secondhand smoke exposure. Heart disease caused by secondhand smoke kills around 46,000 nonsmokers every year.

In children, exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke is associated with a higher incidence and severity of respiratory illnesses, middle ear disease, and asthma attacks. Each year in the United States, secondhand smoke exposure causes 24,500 infants to be born with low birthweight, 71,900 preterm births, 202,300 episodes of asthma, and 790,000 health care visits for ear infections.

The addictive alkaloid nicotine is a stimulant, and popularly known as the most characteristic constituent of tobacco. In drug effect preference questionnaires, a rough indicator of addictive potential, nicotine scores almost as highly as opioids. Users typically develop tolerance and dependence. Nicotine is known to produce conditioned place preference, a sign of psychological enforcement value. In one medical study, tobacco's overall harm to user and self was determined at three percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking sixth most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed.

Tobacco also contains 2,3,6-Trimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (sometimes called 2,3,6-TQ and TMN) which is a reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor of type A and B with a binding affinity somewhat similar to that of clorgyline and deprenyl. It is a stronger dopamine releasing agent than nicotine and inhibits dopamine metabolism from its MAOI activity. Tobacco also contains Harmine and Norharmine which is a reversible MAO-A inhibitor. The MAO-A activity of tobacco alkaloids have been thought to play a role in the addictive qualities of tobacco.

Radioactivity

Polonium-210 is a radioactive trace contaminant of tobacco, providing additional explanation for the link between smoking and bronchial cancer. The radioactive particles build up over time in the lungs and a UCLA study has estimated that the radiation from 25 years of smoking would cause over 120 deaths per thousand smokers.

Economic

Tobacco makes a significant economic contribution. The global tobacco market in 2010 was estimated at US$760 billion, excluding China. The global revenues from tobacco taxes in 2013–2014 was approximately $269 billion.

In China, cigarette manufacturing is one of the few profitable state-owned industries. For example, in 1998 the 1 429 state-owned enterprises in Yunnan province had revenue of Renminbi (RMB) 69.1 billion (US$8.3 billion) while 8 cigarette manufacturing plants alone accounted for about 53 percent (or RMB 36.2 billion) of total provincial industry sales. The Chinese government also collects tax on tobacco products. Tax revenues from cigarettes increased from 740 to 842 billion Chinese yuan between 2014 and 2016. This generated an additional 101 billion Chinese yuan in tax revenues for the government.

In India, tobacco generates approximately 20 billion Indian rupees (US$0.45 billion) of income per annum as a result of employment, income and government revenue.

Statistica estimates that in the U.S. alone, the tobacco industry has a market of US$121 billion, despite the fact the CDC reports that US smoking rates are declining steadily. In terms of health expenditures, cigarette smoking contributed to more than $225 billion (or 11.7%) of annual healthcare spending in the U.S. in 2014. Smoking-attributable healthcare spending increased more than 30% for Medicaid between 2010 and 2014.

In the US, the decline in the number of smokers, the end of the Tobacco Transition Payment Program in 2014, and competition from growers in other countries, made tobacco farming economics more challenging.

Of the 1.22 billion smokers worldwide, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies, and much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor. While smoking prevalence has declined in many developed countries, it remains high in others, and is increasing among women and in developing countries. Between one-fifth and two-thirds of men in most populations smoke. Women's smoking rates vary more widely but rarely equal male rates.

Tobacco users must also spend a significant amount of money on cigarettes to maintain regular use, as tobacco products are often heavily taxed by governments. For example, a pack a day smoker in the state of New York would have to spend around $4,690.25 a year on cigarettes alone.

In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15% of its total expenditures on tobacco. In Egypt, more than 10% of low-income household expenditure is on tobacco. The poorest 20% of households in Mexico spend 11% of their income on tobacco.

Advertising

The tobacco industry advertises its products through a variety of media, including sponsorship, particularly of sporting events. Because of the health risks of these products, this is now one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of tobacco advertising are banned in many countries.

Legality

See also

• Biorefining of tobacco
• List of tobacco-related topics
• Research about cure of asthma and Bronchodilatation
• Smoking cessation

References

1. Rudgley R (1998). "Tobacco". The Encyclopaedia of Psychoactive Substances. London: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-64347-4. OCLC 39129000. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved November 26, 2017.
2. CDC (August 2, 2023). "What Are the Risk Factors for Lung Cancer?". Retrieved March 31, 2024.
3. ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008 : The MPOWER Package (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008. pp. 6, 8, 20. ISBN 978-92-4-068311-2. OCLC 476167599. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022. Tobacco is the single most preventable cause of death in the world today.
4. ^ Ernst A (1889). "On the etymology of the word tobacco". American Anthropologist. A2 (2): 133–142. doi:10.1525/aa.1889.2.2.02a00020. ISSN 0002-7294.
5. Hilton R (April 3, 2011). "Christopher Columbus discovers Cuba". World Association of International Studies. Stanford University. Archived from the original on September 1, 2011.
6. Lane EW (1863). "طُباق". An Arabic-English Lexicon: Derived From the Best and the Most Copious Eastern Sources. Vol. I, Book 5. London: Williams and Norgate. p. 1827. ISBN 978-0-342-25192-6. OCLC 1299308839. Archived from the original on June 22, 2016. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
7. The word ṭubāq no longer refers to various herbs, but has come to refer, in some dialects, specifically to tobacco. See Wehr H (1979). "طُباق". In Cowan JM (ed.). A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (4th ed.). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 647. ISBN 978-3-447-02002-2. OCLC 759999696. Archived from the original on June 22, 2016. Retrieved June 21, 2016.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
8. Day A (November 20, 2023). "3 Sisters to Invite to Thanksgiving". Food & Wine.
9. Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture: An Encyclopedia (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005).
10. Leonard JN (1970). Recipes, Latin American cooking. Time-Life International (Nederlands). p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8094-0063-8.
11. e.g. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania, p. 149 ff.
12. "They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way." – Dièreville describing the Mi'kmaq, circa 1699 in Port Royal.
13. {{Ci te book |last=Gottsegen |first=Jack Jacob |title=Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States |date=1940 |publisher=Pitman |page=107 |oclc=14728283}}
14. Cohen K (November 1998). "Native American medicine". Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine. 4 (6): 45–57. PMID 9810067. ProQuest 204813987.
15. Appleby J (2010). The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 131.
16. "Tobacco and slavery : a neverending history". www.medicusmundi.ch (in German). Retrieved July 11, 2024.
17. Hariot T (1590). A BRIEFE AND TRUE REPORT OF THE NEW FOUND LAND OF VIRGINIA (Report). Project Gutenberg.
18. Eric Burns, The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco (2006), A popular history focused on the US.
19. Jordan Goodman, Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence (1993), A scholarly history worldwide.
20. Charlotte Cosner, The Golden Leaf: How Tobacco Shaped Cuba and the Atlantic World (Vanderbilt University Press; 2015)
21. Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War (1996)
22. Allan Brandt, The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America (2007)
23. Schroeder SA (January 15, 2004). "Tobacco Control in the Wake of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement". New England Journal of Medicine. 350 (3): 293–301. doi:10.1056/NEJMsr031421. PMID 14715919.
24. "Interviews – Dr. David Kessler | Inside The Tobacco Deal | Frontline | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved April 20, 2023.
25. Commissioner Oo (September 9, 2020). "Want to Quit Smoking? FDA-Approved Products Can Help". FDA.
26. "WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)". Who.int. Archived from the original on May 27, 2008. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
27. "WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control". WHO. Retrieved February 17, 2021.
28. Yang H, Ma J (August 2021). "How the COVID-19 pandemic impacts tobacco addiction: Changes in smoking behavior and associations with well-being". Addictive Behaviors. 119: 106917. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106917. PMC 9186053. PMID 33862579.
29. Lewis A (1931). "Tobacco in New Guinea". The American Anthropologist. 33 (1): 134–139. doi:10.1525/aa.1931.33.1.02a00290.
30. Panter KE, Keeler RF, Bunch TD, Callan RJ (1990). "Congenital skeletal malformations and cleft palate induced in goats by ingestion of Lupinus, Conium and Nicotiana species". Toxicon. 28 (12): 1377–1385. Bibcode:1990Txcn...28.1377P. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(90)90154-Y. PMID 2089736.
31. Elsey KD, Rabb RL (December 1, 1967). "Biology of the Cabbage Looper on Tobacco In North Carolina1". Journal of Economic Entomology. 60 (6): 1636–1639. doi:10.1093/jee/60.6.1636.
32. ^ Ryan L, ed. (1995). "Introduction". Post-harvest Tobacco Infestation Control. Norwell, Massachusetts and Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-2723-5_1. ISBN 978-94-017-2723-5.
33. Garner WW (February 27, 1914). "Tobacco Culture". Farmers' Bulletin (571). United States Department of Agriculture: 3–4. Retrieved March 22, 2020.
34. Yorktown MA, Us V2. "Tobacco: Colonial Cultivation Methods - Historic Jamestowne Part of Colonial National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved February 21, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
35. van Willigen J, Eastwood S (2015). Tobacco Culture: Farming Kentucky's Burley Belt. University Press of Kentucky. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8131-4808-3. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
36. "USDA/NASS QuickStats Ad-hoc Query Tool". quickstats.nass.usda.gov. 2019. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
37. Cerami C, Founds H, Nicholl I, Mitsuhashi T, Giordano D, Vanpatten S, Lee A, Al-Abed Y, Vlassara H, Bucala R, Cerami A (1997). "Tobacco smoke is a source of toxic reactive glycation products". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (25): 13915–20. Bibcode:1997PNAS...9413915C. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.25.13915. PMC 28407. PMID 9391127.
38. "tobacco curing." The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide. Abington: Helicon, 2010. Credo Reference. Web. September 26, 2012.
39. ^ World Health Organization (2017). Tobacco and its Environmental Impact: An Overview. World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-151249-7. OCLC 988541317. Archived from the original on May 31, 2017.
40. "Tobacco production". Our World in Data. Retrieved March 7, 2020.
41. ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Projection of tobacco production, consumption and trade for the year 2010. (Rome, 2003).
42. ^ The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Higher World Tobacco use expected by 2010-growth rates slowing down. (Rome, 2004).
43. Rowena Jacobs, et al. (2000). "The Supply-Side Effects Of Tobacco Control Policies". In Prabhat Jha, Frank J. Chaloupka (eds.). Tobacco Control in Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 311ff. ISBN 978-0-19-263250-0.
44. Hu TW, Mao Z, et al. (2006). "China at the Crossroads: The Economics of Tobacco and Health". Tobacco Control. 15 (Suppl 1): i37 – i41. doi:10.1136/tc.2005.014621. PMC 2563551. PMID 16723674.
45. ^ "FAOSTAT". Food And Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
46. ^ Issues in the global tobacco economy : selected case studies (PDF). United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. 2003. pp. 2, 39, 43. ISBN 925105083X. OCLC 55056109. Series number 1810-0783. Archived from the original on March 7, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
47. "People's Republic of China. "State Tobacco Monopoly Administration". Gov.cn. September 15, 2005. Archived from the original on August 10, 2013. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
48. "Talking Points, February 3–17, 2010". USC U.S.-China Institute. February 6, 2010. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015.
49. "Tobacco Board, Guntur". Tobaccoboard.com. Retrieved April 21, 2014.
50. Shoba, John and Shailesh Vaite. Tobacco and Poverty: Observations from India and Bangladesh. Canada, 2002.
51. "Tobacco Manufacturing in India".
52. ^ International Tobacco Growers' Association (n.d.). Tobacco farming: sustainable alternatives? Volume 2 (PDF). East Sussex: ITGA. ISBN 978-1-872854-02-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
53. "Report from South America (Brazil)" (PDF). Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 9, 2007. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
54. Wurth M, Buchanan J (May 13, 2014). Becker J, Ross J, Olugboji B (eds.). Tobacco's Hidden Children Hazardous Child Labor in United States Tobacco Farming. Joe Amon, Zama Coursen-Neff, Arvind Ganesan, Grace Meng. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-62313-134-0. OCLC 881428758. Archived from the original on August 6, 2015. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
55. UNICEF (1997). The State of the World's Children 1997 (PDF) (Report). Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-262871-8. OCLC 36286998. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 9, 2021.
56. Jaffe ME, Mills M, Rosen SA, Shepard RB, Slavet B, Samet AJ (1995). By the Sweat and Toil of Children. Volume 2. The Use of Child Labor in U.S. Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor : A Report to the Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Congress (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: International Child Labor Study Group, Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Department of Labor. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 6, 2022.
57. Bitter Harvest, Child Labour in Agriculture (PDF) (Report). Geneva: International Labour Organization. 1997. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 6, 2022.
58. Bosch D, Gordon A (August 27–30, 1996). Child Labour in Commercial Agriculture in Africa (Working paper number 3). Subregional technical workshop on child labour in commercial agriculture for selected English-speaking African countries. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour Organization. ISBN 978-92-2-110485-8. OCLC 36763053.
59. ^ Clacherty G (2009). "Hard work, long hours and little pay: Research with children working on tobacco farms in Malawi". Plan International, Clacherty & Associates Education and Social Development (Pty) Ltd. Archived from the original on October 6, 2022.
60. England LJ, Bunnell RE, Pechacek TF, Tong VT, McAfee TA (August 2015). "Nicotine and the Developing Human". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 49 (2): 286–293. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.01.015. PMC 4594223. PMID 25794473.
61. "International Cigarette Manufacturers," Tobacco Reporter, March 2001
62. The Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids (November 2001). "Golden Leaf, Barren Harvest: The Costs of Tobacco Farming" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 6, 2013.
63. "Tobacco Underground". The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
64. ^ Taylor P (September 1994). Smoke Ring: The Politics of Tobacco. London: Panos Briefing Paper.
65. FAO Yearbook, Production, Volume 48. 1995.
66. National Research Council (US) Committee on Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993). "Chapter 8 Estimating the Risks". Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. p. 341. doi:10.17226/2126. ISBN 978-0-309-04875-0. OCLC 42329648. PMID 25144038.
67. ^ World Health Organization. "Tobacco Free Initiative: Environmental issues". Archived from the original on December 19, 2004.
68. Ganapathi TR, et al. (2004). "Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) – A model system for tissue culture interventions and genetic engineering" (PDF). Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 3: 171–184.
69. Fraley RT, et al. (1983). "Expression of bacterial genes in plant cells". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80 (15): 4803–4807. Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4803F. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.15.4803. PMC 384133. PMID 6308651.
70. "Science of Transgenic Cotton". Cottoncrc.org.au. Archived from the original on March 21, 2012. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
71. ^ James C (1996). "Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995" (PDF). The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
72. ^ "Tobacco". GMO Compass. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
73. Conner AJ, Glare TR, Nap JP (January 2003). "The release of genetically modified crops into the environment. Part II. Overview of ecological risk assessment". Plant J. 33 (1): 19–46. doi:10.1046/j.0960-7412.2002.001607.x. PMID 12943539.
74. Rubin R. "If You Took The Nicotine Out Of Cigarettes, Would Fewer People Want To Smoke?". Forbes. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
75. Hurt R, Barry JE, Adams AP, Fleming PR (1996), The History of Cardiothoracic Surgery from Early Times, Informa Health Care, p. 120, ISBN 978-1-85070-681-6
76. Nordenskiold E (1929), "The American Indian as an Inventor", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 59: 277, doi:10.2307/2843888, JSTOR 2843888
77. Hurt et al. 1996, p. 120
78. Nordenskiold 1929, p. 277
79. Sterling Haynes, MD (December 2012). "Special feature: Tobacco smoke enemas". British Columbia Medical Journal. Doctors of BC. Retrieved March 29, 2019.
80. "Information Sheet:21 Enemas" (PDF). Information Sheets. Museum of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society, London. Retrieved July 26, 2014.
81. Tobacco Free Kids (2008). "Bidis: An Overview" (PDF). Tobacco Free Kids. Retrieved October 27, 2021.
82. American Lung Association. February 2007 An Emerging Deadly Trend: Waterpipe Tobacco Use Archived January 2, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
83. "Generic Materials Search | Organic Materials Review Institute". Omri.org. Archived from the original on July 23, 2015. Retrieved October 3, 2014.
84. Sparks B. "Stinging and Biting Pests of People". Archived from the original on February 14, 2007. Extension Entomologist of the University of Georgia College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension Service.
85. Gilman & Zhou 2004, p. 92–99.
86. Durkin S, Brennan E, Wakefield M (2012). "Mass media campaigns to promote smoking cessation among adults: an integrative review" (PDF). Tobacco Control. 21 (2): 127–138. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050345. PMID 22345235. S2CID 3053297.
87. Mullin Sandra (2011). "Global anti-smoking campaigns urgently needed". The Lancet. 378 (9795): 970–971. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)61058-1. PMID 21741699. S2CID 7532790.
88. Weiner E (January 20, 2005). "The First Nonsmoking Nation". Slate.com. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
89. Verze P, Margreiter M, Esposito K, Montorsi P, Mulhall J (2015). "The Link Between Cigarette Smoking and Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review". European Urology Focus. 1 (1): 39–46. doi:10.1016/j.euf.2015.01.003. PMID 28723353.
90. ^ The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference). Salem: Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection. 2014.
91. Stack PF (August 31, 2012). "It's Official: Coke and Pepsi are OK for Mormons". Washington Post. (Religion News Service). Archived from the original on March 27, 2013. Retrieved September 20, 2013..
92. Dhillon BS (n.d.). "Sikhs and Smoking".
93. Gilman & Zhou 2004, p. 26.
94. "Guindon & Boisclair" 2004, pp. 13–16.
95. Samet & Yoon 2001, p. 5-6.
96. Surgeon General's Report Women and Smoking 2001, p. 47.
97. ^ "WHO/WPRO-Tobacco". World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 2005. Archived from the original on February 11, 2009. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
98. Wang TW, Gentzke AS, Creamer MR, Cullen KA, Holder-Hayes E, Sawdey MD, Anic GM, Portnoy DB, Hu S, Homa DM, Jamal A, Neff LJ (November 6, 2019). "Tobacco Product Use and Associated Factors Among Middle and High School Students — United States, 2019". MMWR. Surveillance Summaries. 68 (12): 1–22. doi:10.15585/mmwr.ss6812a1. PMC 6903396. PMID 31805035.
99. "Who Fact Sheet: Tobacco". Who.int. July 26, 2013. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
100. "Cigarette Smoking Among Adults – United States, 2006". Cdc.gov. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
101. "WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics". Wpro.who.int. May 27, 2002. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013. Retrieved April 21, 2014.
102. Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD (November 2010). "Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis". Lancet. 376 (9752): 1558–1565. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.690.1283. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6. PMID 21036393. S2CID 5667719.
103. Proctor Robert N (2012). "The history of the discovery of the cigarette-lung cancer link: evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll" (PDF). Tobacco Control. 21 (2): 87–91. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338. PMID 22345227. S2CID 2734836.
104. Mathers C, Boerma T, Fat DM (2008). The Global Burden of Disease : 2004 Update (PDF). World Health Organization. hdl:10665/43942. ISBN 978-92-4-156371-0. OCLC 264018380. Archived from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
105. "Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on February 26, 2009.
106. Proctor RN (March 2012). "The history of the discovery of the cigarette–lung cancer link: evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll: Table 1". Tobacco Control. 21 (2): 87–91. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338. PMID 22345227.
107. "Secondhand Smoke". BeTobaccoFree. Health and Human Services. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014.
108. Air Resources Board (June 24, 2005). Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant (PDF) (Report). California Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on November 27, 2021. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
109. Fischman MW, Mello NK, eds. (1989). Testing for Abuse Liability of Drugs in Humans (PDF). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, Health and Human Services. p. 79. NIDA Research Monograph No. 92. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 22, 2016.
110. "Tobacco Facts – Why is Tobacco So Addictive?". Tobaccofacts.org. Archived from the original on March 14, 2007. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
111. "Philip Morris Information Sheet". Stanford University. Archived from the original on April 5, 2008. Retrieved September 18, 2008.
112. Le Foll B, Goldberg SR (April 2005). "Nicotine induces conditioned place preferences over a large range of doses in rats". Psychopharmacology. 178 (4): 481–492. doi:10.1007/s00213-004-2021-5. PMID 15765262. S2CID 34966899.
113. Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD (November 2010). "Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis". The Lancet. 376 (9752): 1558–1565. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.690.1283. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6. PMID 21036393. S2CID 5667719.
114. McAfee G (March 25, 2024). Smoking and brain dopaminergic neurochemistry (Thesis). North-West University.
115. "1,4-Naphthalenedione, 2,3,6-trimethyl-".
116. Salahshoor MR, Roshankhah S, Motavalian V, Jalili C (2019). "Effect of Harmine on Nicotine-Induced Kidney Dysfunction in Male Mice". International Journal of Preventive Medicine. 10: 97. doi:10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_85_18. PMC 6592107. PMID 31360344.
117. Truman P, Grounds P, Brennan KA (2017). "Monoamine oxidase inhibitory activity in tobacco particulate matter: Are harman and norharman the only physiologically relevant inhibitors?". Neurotoxicology. 59: 22–26. Bibcode:2017NeuTx..59...22T. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2016.12.010. PMID 28057462.
118. Ding Z, Li X, Chen H, Hou H, Hu Q (2022). "Harmane Potentiates Nicotine Reinforcement Through MAO-A Inhibition at the Dose Related to Cigarette Smoking". Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 15. doi:10.3389/fnmol.2022.925272. PMC 9271706. PMID 35832393.
119. Janiger O, De Rios MD (March 25, 1976). "Nicotiana an Hallucinogen?". Economic Botany. 30 (2): 149–151. Bibcode:1976EcBot..30..149J. doi:10.1007/BF02862960. JSTOR 4253715.
120. Bacher I, Houle S, Xu X, Zawertailo L, Soliman A, Wilson AA, Selby P, George TP, Sacher J, Miler L, Kish SJ, Rusjan P, Meyer JH (2011). "Monoamine Oxidase a Binding in the Prefrontal and Anterior Cingulate Cortices During Acute Withdrawal from Heavy Cigarette Smoking". Archives of General Psychiatry. 68 (8): 817–826. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.82. PMID 21810646.
121. Radford EP, Hunt VR (1964). "Polonium-210: A Volatile Radioelement in Cigarettes". Science. 143 (3603): 247–249. Bibcode:1964Sci...143..247R. doi:10.1126/science.143.3603.247. JSTOR 1712451. PMID 14078362. S2CID 23455633.
122. "Big Tobacco knew radioactive particles in cigarettes posed cancer risk but kept quiet". www.uclahealth.org.
123. "British American Tobacco – The global market". www.bat.com. Archived from the original on March 10, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
124. Goodchild M, Zheng R (July 1, 2018). "Early assessment of China's 2015 tobacco tax increase". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 96 (7): 506–512. doi:10.2471/BLT.17.205989 (inactive December 5, 2024). PMC 6022610. PMID 29962553.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
125. "TOBACCO IN INDIA: 4.10 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF TOBACCO". Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Retrieved October 27, 2021.
126. "Tobacco: U.S. market value 2012–2017 | Statistic". Statista. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
127. Health CO. "CDC – Trends in Current Cigarette Smoking – Smoking & Tobacco Use". Smoking and Tobacco Use. Archived from the original on March 7, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
128. ^ Xu X, Shrestha SS, Trivers KF, Neff L, Armour BS, King BA (September 2021). "U.S. healthcare spending attributable to cigarette smoking in 2014". Preventive Medicine. 150: 106529. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106529. PMC 10953804. PMID 33771566.
129. Bomey N (September 2, 2015). "Thousands of farmers stopped growing tobacco after deregulation payouts". USA Today.
130. "Tobacco: Active and Passive Smoking". Greenfacts.org. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
131. "Cost of Smoking". Tobacco-Free Life. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
132. Products Cf (January 28, 2022). "Advertising and Promotion". FDA. Retrieved July 6, 2022.

Further reading

• "Cancer Facts & Figures 2015". American Cancer Society. Archived from the original on January 17, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
• G. Emmanuel Guindon, David Boisclair (2003). "Past, current and future trends in tobacco use" (PDF). Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. Retrieved January 2, 2008.
• Gilman SL, Zhou X (2004). Smoke : A Global History of Smoking. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-200-3. OCLC 56967899.
• Mathers C, Boerma T, Fat DM (2008). The Global Burden of Disease : 2004 Update (PDF). World Health Organization. hdl:10665/43942. ISBN 978-92-4-156371-0. OCLC 264018380. Archived from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
• Montesano, R., Hall, J. (2001). "Environmental causes of human cancers". European Journal of Cancer. 37: 67–87. doi:10.1016/S0959-8049(01)00266-0. PMID 11602374.
• Office of the Surgeon General (2001). "Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking". Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
• Paul Lichtenstein, Niels V. Holm, Pia K. Verkasalo, Anastasia Iliadou, Jaakko Kaprio, Markku Koskenvuo, Eero Pukkala, Axel Skytthe, Kari Hemminki (2000). "Environmental and Heritable Factors in the Causation of Cancer — Analyses of Cohorts of Twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland". New England Journal of Medicine. 343 (2): 78–85. doi:10.1056/NEJM200007133430201. PMID 10891514.
• Richard Peto, Alan D Lopez, Jillian Boreham, Michael Thun (2006). "Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950–2000: indirect estimates from national vital statistics" (PDF). New York: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 24, 2005. Retrieved January 3, 2009.
• Samet JM, Yoon SY, eds. (2001). "Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century" (PDF). World Health Organization, The Institute for Global Tobacco Control, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 28, 2003. Retrieved January 2, 2009.
• WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008 : The MPOWER Package (PDF). World Health Organization. 2008. pp. 6, 8, 20. ISBN 978-92-4-068311-2. OCLC 476167599. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022.
• Aristée Poché L (2002). Perique Tobacco Mystery and History: A Monograph.
• Benedict C (2011). Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550–2010. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94856-3.
• Brandt A (2009). The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-2190-0.
• Breen TH (1985). Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00596-6.. Source on tobacco culture in 18th-century Virginia pp. 46–55
• Burns E (2006). The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-59213-482-3.
• Cosner C (February 10, 2015). The Golden Leaf: How Tobacco Shaped Cuba and the Atlantic World. Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-2034-0.
• Fuller RR (Spring 2003). "Perique, the Native Crop". Louisiana Life.
• Gately I (December 2007). Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Open Road + Grove/Atlantic. ISBN 978-0-8021-9848-8.
• Goodman J (2005). Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-81840-2.
• Graves J (1980). From a Limestone Ledge: Some Essays and Other Ruminations about Country Life in Texas. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-51238-3.
• Grehan J (2006). "Smoking and "Early Modern" Sociability: The Great Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries)". The American Historical Review. 111 (5): 1352–1377. doi:10.1086/ahr.111.5.1352. JSTOR 10.1086/ahr.111.5.1352. PMID 17907367.
• Hahn BM (2011). Making Tobacco Bright: Creating an American Commodity, 1617–1937. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0286-4.; examines how marketing, technology, and demand figured in the rise of Bright Flue-Cured Tobacco, a variety first grown in the inland Piedmont region of the Virginia-North Carolina border.
• Hawks SN, Collins WK (1983). Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production.
• Killebrew JB, Myrick H (1897). Tobacco Leaf, Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture: A Practical Handbook on the Most Approved Methods in Growing, Harvesting, Curing, Packing and Selling Tobacco, Also of Tobacco Manufacture. Orange Judd Company. Source for flea beetle typology (p. 243)
• Kluger R (1999). Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris. Random House Value. ISBN 978-0-517-45110-6., Pulitzer Prize
• Murphey R (2007). Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture, 16th–18th Centuries. Ashgate Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7546-5931-0.
• Neuburger MC (2012). Balkan Smoke: Tobacco and the Making of Modern Bulgaria. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-6550-5.
• Price JM (1954). "The Rise of Glasgow in the Chesapeake Tobacco Trade, 1707–1775". The William and Mary Quarterly. 11 (2): 179–199. doi:10.2307/1922038. JSTOR 1922038.
• Schoolcraft HR (1851). Historical and statistical information respecting the history, condition and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States: Collected and prepared under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs per act of Congress of March 3rd, 1847. Historical American Indian Press.
• Shechter R (2006). Smoking, Culture and Economy in the Middle East. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 1-84511-137-0.
• Tilley NM (2012). The Bright Tobacco Industry, 1860–1929. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7953-5.

• Werner, Carl Avery. Tobaccoland: A book about tobacco; its history, legends, literature, cultivation, social and hygienic influences, commercial development, industrial processes and governmental regulation. (1922) online

External links

• WHO fact sheet on tobacco

• Anaphrodisia
• Tobacco
• CYP1A2 inducers
• Crops originating from the Americas
• Entheogens
• Herbal and fungal stimulants
• Leaves
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
• Native American religion
• Nicotinic agonists
• IARC Group 1 carcinogens