Revision as of 08:47, 20 November 2006 editKyndFellow (talk | contribs)519 edits rv: See discussion.← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 08:33, 21 December 2024 edit undoJohn B123 (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Page movers, New page reviewers194,110 edits Restored revision 1256832623 by Citation bot (talk): Unexplained removal of contentTags: Twinkle Undo | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Travel to engage in sexual activity}} | |||
'''Sex tourism''' is travelling for ] with ] or to engage in other sexual activity. The ], a specialized agency of the ] defines sex tourism as "trips organized from within the tourism sector, or from outside this sector but using its structures and networks, with the primary purpose of effecting a commercial sexual relationship by the tourist with residents at the destination". <ref name ="WTO">U.N. ] ''''</ref> | |||
{{Multiple issues| | |||
{{essay-like|date=December 2018}} | |||
{{Globalize|2=Southeast Asia|date=December 2018}} | |||
}} | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} | |||
], a ] in ]]] | |||
'''Sex tourism''' is the practice of traveling to foreign countries, often on a different continent, with the intention of engaging in ] or relationships, in exchange providing money or lifestyle support.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Erica L. |title=Sex Tourism |journal=The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization |date=2012 |doi=10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog516|isbn=978-1-4051-8824-1 }}</ref> This practice predominantly operates in countries where ] is legal. The ] of the ] has acknowledged that this industry is organized both within and outside the structured laws and networks created by them.<ref name="WTO">{{cite conference|date=October 1995|title=WTO Statement on the Prevention of Organized Sex Tourism | |||
| quote = Adopted by the General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization at its eleventh session - Cairo (Egypt), 17–22 October 1995 (Resolution A/RES/338 (XI)) | |||
| publisher = World Tourism Organization | |||
| location = Cairo (Egypt) | |||
| url = http://www.world-tourism.org/protect_children/statements/wto_a.htm | |||
| access-date = 24 December 2014 | |||
| editor = Marina Diotallevi | |||
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030814172032/http://www.world-tourism.org/protect_children/statements/wto_a.htm | |||
| archive-date = 14 August 2003 | |||
| url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
Sex tourism is commonly regarded as a ] challenge, as it can be seen to target marginalised demographics in developing nations, such as countries in the Americas or Southeast Asia. The chief ethical concerns arise from: the economic gap between tourists and residents, the ] of children and women and the parties taking advantage of the ability to engage with minors. These groups and individuals are subject to the foreign ]s of the destination's jurisdiction, often resulting in exploitation and abuse. Prostitution activities that involve ] are universally ] and illegal.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Timothy Siliang |last2=Holmes |first2=Andrea |last3=Noone |first3=Chris |last4=Flaherty |first4=Gerard Thomas |title=Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature |journal=Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines |date=2020 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=24 |doi=10.1186/s40794-020-00124-0 |pmid=33292661 |doi-access=free |pmc=7691961}}</ref> | |||
An attraction for some sex tourists is access to ] that is unavailable in their home country. Several countries have recently enacted laws with extraterritorial reach, punishing citizens who engage in sex with minors in other countries. These laws are rarely enforced since the crime usually goes undiscovered. | |||
Sex tourism is known as a multibillion-dollar industry that globally supports a workforce estimated in the millions,<ref>{{cite journal | |||
The ] opposes sex tourism citing health, social and cultural consequences for both tourist home countries and destination countries, especially in situations exploiting gender, age, social and economic inequalities in sex tourism destinations.<ref name ="WTO"/><ref>U.N. Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI) ''''</ref><ref>U.N. Congress On The Prevention Of Crime And The Treatment Of Offenders Press Release ''''</ref> | |||
|last1 = Hannum | |||
|first1 = Ann Barger | |||
|year = 2002 | |||
|title = Sex Tourism in Latin America | |||
|journal = ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America | |||
|issue = Winter | |||
|access-date = 6 October 2011 | |||
|url = http://dev.drclas.harvard.edu/revista/articles/view/53 | |||
|url-status = dead | |||
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20140904034255/http://dev.drclas.harvard.edu/revista/articles/view/53 | |||
|archive-date = 4 September 2014 | |||
|df = dmy-all | |||
}}</ref> with service industries such as the airline, taxi, restaurant and hotel industries profiting.<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url = http://www.unicef.es/contenidos/582/Kenia_Tourism_exploitation.pdf | |||
|title = La explotación sexual de menores en Kenia alcanza una dimensión horrible | |||
|date = 17 January 2007 | |||
|publisher = Unicef España | |||
|location = Spain | |||
|language = fr | |||
|trans-title=The sexual exploitation of children in Kenya reaches a horrible dimension | |||
|access-date = 6 October 2011 | |||
|url-status = dead | |||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100324040911/http://www.unicef.es/contenidos/582/Kenia_Tourism_exploitation.pdf | |||
|archive-date = 24 March 2010 | |||
|df = dmy-all | |||
}}</ref> The bulk of sex tourism involves males traveling from countries in the ] to countries in the ], such as in ] and ].<ref name="Kachipande 2023 pp. 1–37">{{cite journal | last=Kachipande | first=Sitinga | title=Sun, Sand, Sex, and Safari: The Interplay of Sex Tourism and Global Inequalities in Africa's Tourism Industry | journal=Journal of Global South Studies | publisher=Project MUSE | volume=40 | issue=1 | year=2023 | issn=2476-1419 | doi=10.1353/gss.2023.0007 | pages=1–37}}</ref> Although much rarer, ] also exists. | |||
] | |||
==Destinations== | |||
National destinations for sex tourists include: ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref></ref> Since the collapse of the ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ] have also become popular destinations for sex tourists. In many of those destinations, sex tourism is still only a small percentage of overall ], with most prostitutes serving local men; however, in ], because of economic issues, sex workers usually serve only foreign tourists, as very few nationals can afford them. | |||
==Legal issues== | |||
An individual city or region can have a particular reputation as a sex tourist destination. Many of these coincide with major ]s, and include ] in the Netherlands, ], ] and ] in Thailand and ] in the Philippines. | |||
This particular industry of sex work is a predominant reason for world travel<ref name="Lovelock">{{cite book|last1=Lovelock|first1=Brent|title=The Ethics of Tourism: Critical and Applied Perspectives|last2=Lovelock|first2=Kirsten M.|date=2013|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> and is extremely profitable. The market can become exceedingly exploitative and unethically abused as tourists are motivated to engage in sexual conduct due to the untraceable nature and lack of law enforcement control, especially with accessibility to minors.<ref name="UN Convention" /> | |||
Ethical issues arise due to the situations of participating parties; many sex workers are from low-income backgrounds usually located in underdeveloped societies whose only means for providing basic needs is to engage in sexual services.<ref name=Lovelock /> While sex workers can engage voluntarily in the industry, there is a distinct difference between the coercion found in international sex trafficking and sex tourism which exploits the limited work options for low socioeconomic local residents. | |||
In the ], prostitution is largely illegal, with the exception of rural areas of the state of ]; these have become a sex tourist destination for some Americans. To a lesser extent, several other large cities in the U.S. are also domestic sex tourist destinations despite legal sanctions on prostitution. | |||
Government and law enforcement often do not place priority on policing prostitution and sex trafficking.<ref name="McPhee/McCartan" /> For example, in ], the Cambodian government has previously overlooked tourists having sex with Cambodian adolescents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2013/12/world/cambodia-child-sex-trade/|title='The women who sold their daughters into sex slavery}}</ref> | |||
The primary destinations for female sex tourism are ] (mainly ], ], ], ] and ]), the ] (led by ], ] and the ]), the ] and ] in Africa, ] and ] in Thailand. Lesser destinations include ], ], ], ] and ]. Female sex or romance tourism differs from male sex tourism, in that women do not usually sign up for tours or go to specific bars. Women sometimes give clothes, meals, cash and gifts to their holiday boyfriends, but not all (especially in Southern Europe) expect compensation. | |||
Individuals are not exempt from prosecution. Sex tourism as recognised by the ] supports human trafficking and slavery.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sex Tourism {{!}} Travelers' Health {{!}} CDC|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/sex-tourism|access-date=2021-05-05|website=wwwnc.cdc.gov}}</ref> Even if ] is legal in a country or region, human trafficking, sexual encounters with a minor, and ] are almost universally criminal in nature and individuals caught breaking these laws can be prosecuted. Citizens of any foreign country must abide by the laws of the country in which they hold citizenship in addition to the local laws of the country they are visiting, including laws regarding ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andrews|first=Sara K.|date=2004|title=U.S. Domestic Prosecution of the American International Sex Tourist: Efforts to Protect Children from Sexual Exploitation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3491375|journal=The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology|volume=94|issue=2|pages=415–454|doi=10.2307/3491375|jstor=3491375|issn=0091-4169}}</ref> | |||
==Criminality and controversy== | |||
===Tourism involving sex with minors=== | |||
{{main|Prostitution of children}} | |||
While most sex tourists only engage in this activity with other adults, some actively look for ], while others are not very selective either way, regarding age<ref></ref>. Many countries have signed the ] and implemented domestic law making having sex with ] a criminal offence for their ] or inhabitants including when practised abroad regardless of whether it is forbidden by the laws of the other country. ] has been criticized for having no such law, in spite of being adjacent to the sex tourism destination of ] in ], which has many underage sex workers, many of whom have been forced into prostitution<ref></ref>. In 2004 ] started to prosecute individuals under the sex tourism law. The first individual charged in Canada under this law was ]. | |||
== Demographics == | |||
===Legal issues in the United States=== | |||
Demographics include: female sex tourism (women seeking men), men seeking men, adults seeking children, and men seeking women.<ref name="Lovelock" /> Sex tourists generally come from ] countries but they may also come from other countries as well. The most common destinations for these sex tourists is to visit less economically developed nations in Asia, such as: ], the ], ], ], ], as well as countries in Central and South America like ] or ].<ref name="UN Global Report Trafficking" /> | |||
Federal law (see ]) prohibits United States citizens or permanent residents to engage in international travel with the purpose or effect of having commercial sex with a person under the age of 18, or any sex with a person under the age of 16; facilitating such travel is also illegal. Arrests by Immigration and Customs Enforcement are becoming common, however prosecutions under this law are still very rare.<ref></ref> | |||
A study conducted by the non-profit public charity ], revealed the percentage of men who had paid for sex at least once in their lives between 1994 and 2010. It found the highest rates were located in Cambodia, where 59–80% of men had paid for sex at least once. Thailand was a close second with an estimated 75% of men, followed by Italy at 16.7–45%, Spain at 27–39%, Japan at 37%, the Netherlands at 13.5–21.6%, and the United States 15.0–20.0%.<ref name="ProCon">{{cite web|title=Percentage of Men (by Country) Who Paid for Sex at Least Once: The Johns Chart|url=http://prostitution.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=004119|publisher=ProCon|access-date=29 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305122229/https://prostitution.procon.org/percentage-of-men-by-country-who-paid-for-sex-at-least-once-the-johns-chart/ |archive-date=2022-03-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
As of 2005, there has been one effort to prosecute a sex tour operator: ] of ] was prosecuted for "promotion of prostitution" by the New York State Attorney General after lobbying by feminist human rights groups, however the case has been thrown out twice. HR 972, the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2005 reauthorizes the 2000 law, but it also gives U.S. law enforcement better tools to study human trafficking within the United States and to prosecute those who purchase sex acts. The measure authorizes $50 million for grants to state and local law enforcement to investigate and prosecute persons who engage in the purchase of commercial sex acts.<ref></ref> | |||
Challenges in gathering data has made it hard to find out the exact number of people who work in the sex tourism industry. Estimates show 24.9 million victims that are trapped in ], 4.8 million (about 19%) were sexually exploited.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Human Trafficking by the Numbers|url=https://www.humanrightsfirst.org/resource/human-trafficking-numbers|access-date=2021-05-11|website=Human Rights First|language=en|archive-date=7 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507064607/https://www.humanrightsfirst.org/resource/human-trafficking-numbers|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is estimated that about 21% of the total victims of commercial sexual exploitation are children,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trafficking in Persons|url=https://www.unodc.org/unodc/data-and-analysis/glotip.html|access-date=2021-05-11|website=United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime|language=en}}</ref> with the ] estimating that over one million children are trafficked for sex throughout the world. The sex tourism industry often preys on those that are the most vulnerable, potentially explaining why children and women are more likely to be forced into the industry.<ref name=":3">{{Citation|title=Paradigms of sex tourism|date=2005-07-08|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203991763-7|work=Sex Tourism|pages=65–86|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9780203991763-7|isbn=978-0-203-99176-3|access-date=2021-05-11}}</ref> | |||
===Servaty scandal=== | |||
In 2005 it was reported that ], a newspaper columnist for ], travelled to ] where he persuaded women to engage in sexual activity by promising to marry and bring them to ]. He then posted photos online to boast of his conquests, but when his explicit materials were circulated back to Morocco many of the women were arrested, had their lives ruined, committed suicide or disappeared. <ref>, '']'', ] ]</ref> | |||
== Cultural attitudes == | |||
==Academic study== | |||
Globally, cultural attitudes towards sex tourism can be seen to be different. In less developed countries for example, families in poor rural areas may sell their children to human traffickers, who will take the children to major cities to work in the sex industry.<ref name="Samarasinghe">{{cite book|last1=Samarasinghe|first1=Vidyamali|title=Female Sex Trafficking in Asia: The Resilience of Patriarchy in a Changing World|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|location=New York and London}}</ref> In Thailand for example, women will support their husbands by becoming sex workers.<ref name="Samarasinghe" /> To work in the sex industry, particularly in less developed countries, can often be seen as a viable source of income available to struggling families from low socioeconomic backgrounds. | |||
The cultural attitudes of sex tourism in highly developed countries such as ] however where sex trafficking is illegal and highly policed can offer a different perspective to those of lesser backgrounds. Brothels are still vivid within states such as Tasmania and New South Wales where people can exchange money for sex. Recent studies suggest that sex slavery is still happening in Australia, exploiting the vulnerability of individuals and families from poor backgrounds.<ref>The Conversation, Human trafficking and slavery still happen in Australia. This comic explains how, June 12, 2019</ref> | |||
Sociologists from the ] have studied this subject as part of a research project for the ] and End Child Prostitution and Trafficking campaign. This research focussed on interviewing sex tourists, which revealed that preconceptions about sex and gender influenced their opinions.<ref>Sex Tourism in the Caribbean by Jacqueline Sanchez Taylor, University of Leicester. Chapter for Tourism, Travel and Sex, eds. Stephen Clift and Simon Carter, 1999.</ref><ref>The New West Indian </ref> | |||
Male tourists, sometimes known as ''sexpats (''expatriate ''+'' sex tourist''),'' join ] in which they share advice on destinations<ref name=":2">Monge-Nájera, J. (2016). Male sexual tourism in Costa Rica: team spirit, peer dialogue and gender roles in a large sample of Internet forum posts. Cuadernos de Investigación UNED, 8(2), 207-216.</ref><ref>Blevins KR and Holt TJ. (2009). Examining the Virtual Subculture of Johns. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 38 (5), 619-648</ref> and, although it is not among the most common cases, there is the category of "girlfriend experience" which, in some cases, evolves into an emotional relationship.<ref name=":2" /><ref>Milrod C and Weitzer R. (2012). The Intimacy Prism: Emotion Management among the Clients of Escorts. Men and Masculinities, 00 (0), 1-21.</ref> | |||
==Depictions in fiction and popular culture== | |||
The 2005 film '']'' describes the experiences of a group of middle-aged women in the late 1970s, who travel to ] for the purposes of sexual tourism. | |||
General attitudes towards sex work are complex and often regarded as controversial.<ref name=Samarasinghe /> Many countries where tourists come from, can have harsher attitudes towards sexual services.<ref name="McPhee/McCartan">{{cite book|last1=McPhee|first1=Duncan|title=Sex Offending and Sex Tourism: Problems, Policy, and Challenges|publisher=Palgrave Studies in Risk, Crime and Society}}</ref> Often the men who travel seeking to pay for sex may do so because it is much harder to engage in sex work in their home countries. Furthermore, in some countries, such as Cambodia and Thailand, this practice is considered commonplace, and men who do not engage in commercial sex may be considered unusual by their peers.<ref name="ProCon" /> | |||
In the animated TV series ] the character ] joins the ] which travels the world having sex with children. | |||
Sociologists from the ] conducted a research study for the ] and End Child Prostitution and Trafficking campaign, which interviewed over 250 ] sex tourists.<ref>{{cite book | |||
| last = Taylor | |||
| first = Jacqueline Sánchez | |||
| editor1-last = Clift | |||
| editor1-first = Stephen | |||
| editor2-last = Carter | |||
| editor2-first = Simon | |||
| title = Tourism and Sex: Culture, Commerce and Coercion | |||
| access-date = 7 October 2011 | |||
| series = Tourism, Leisure and Recreation | |||
|date= May 2000 | |||
| publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group | |||
| isbn = 978-1-85567-549-0 | |||
| pages = 41–53 | |||
| chapter = Chapter 3: Tourism and 'embodied' commodities: sex tourism in the Caribbean | |||
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6yMcS7-qWcC&pg=PA41 | |||
}}</ref> Amongst their findings were: | |||
* Preconceptions about ] and ] influenced the tourist's opinions. | |||
* Underdeveloped countries are considered ], so in Western tourist's ], the exploitation or male domination of women is without consequence or stigma of that found in their home countries. | |||
Despite a great deal of interest in sexual tourism amongst theorists, detailed studies of cultural attitude are rare,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Kimberly|title=The Implications of Sex Tourism on Men's Social, Psychological, and Physical Health|journal=The Qualitative Report|volume=9|issue=2|pages=176–191|url=http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR9-2/bender.pdf|date=June 2004}}</ref> regardless of the increasing accessibility of group studies in the past three decades.<ref>{{cite web|title=BangkokPod Interviews Kaewmala of Thai Sex Talk|url=http://www.bangkokpodcast.com/thai-sex-talk-kaewmala/|access-date=11 December 2012|date=13 February 2011|archive-date=11 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211181803/http://www.bangkokpodcast.com/thai-sex-talk-kaewmala/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Open-Ended Prostitution as a Skillful Game of Luck: Opportunity, Risk and Security among Tourist-Oriented Prostitutes in Bangkok|url=http://www.pattayapages.com/girls/academic.html|publisher=Erik Cohen Department of Sociology and Social-Anthropology Hebrew University of Jerusalem|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130219164003/http://www.pattayapages.com/girls/academic.html|archive-date=19 February 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | |||
== Economic and policy implications == | |||
Sex tourism has implications for all nations involved.<ref name="McPhee/McCartan"/> Economically, sex tourism is encouraged by the tourist sectors of destination countries. It draws wealthy individuals with the allure of cheap, unstigmatised sexual activities, and stimulates the economy of poorer nations. This line of sex work ensures a consistent flow of income into developing countries' economies.<ref name="Mahler" /> | |||
In an article published by the ], it is argued that the promotion of sex tourism caters to tourists by enticing racial and ethnic stereotypes.<ref name="Patil">{{cite journal|last1=Patil|first1=Vrushali|date=2011|title=Reproducing-Resisting Race and Gender Difference: Examining India's Online Tourism Campaign from a Transnational Feminist Perspective|journal=Signs|volume=37|issue=1|pages=185–210|doi=10.1086/660181|s2cid=146310057}}</ref> This in turn creates ethical and policy implications, as colonial and traditional attitudes reinforce inequality between the groups.<ref name=Patil /> The state plays a vital part in this interaction, as governments create financially motivated barriers when asked to formulate more progressive and ethical policy.<ref name=Patil /> | |||
Sex work may yield higher wages than work in the formal sector, and can encourage engagement with the industry for those seeking to achieve a much higher quality of life.<ref name="Mahler" /> This economic temptation can often lead to sexual exploitation of children.<ref name=Mahler>{{cite journal|last1=Mahler|first1=Karen|title=Global Concern for Children's Rights: The World Congress Against Sexual Exploitation|journal=International Family Planning Perspectives|date=1997|volume=23|issue=2|pages=79–84|doi=10.2307/2950828|jstor=2950828|s2cid=58440462}}</ref> Young girls and adolescent women are some of the most common to be sold into slavery or transported across national borders to work in the commercial sex industry.<ref name=Mahler /> | |||
== Gay sex tourism == | |||
The sex tourism industry offers a market for gay, bisexual and bi-curious tourists. Studies suggest that gay sex tourism has similar motivations to non-gay sex tourism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/25299/|title=Identity and Sex: Concurrent Aspects of Gay Tourism|last=Monterrubio|first=J. Carlos|date=7 December 2008|website=mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de|access-date=2019-04-14}}</ref> These studies suggest, "leisure activities and holidays have a particular significance for ], as they provide an opportunity for constructing, confirming and/or changing their sexual identity."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Howard|date=February 1997|title=Holidays and homosexual identity|journal=Tourism Management|volume=18|issue=1|pages=3–7|doi=10.1016/s0261-5177(96)00093-3|issn=0261-5177}}</ref> | |||
Popular gay sex tourism markets can be found in ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{Citation|last=Hughes|first=H. L.|pages=1–14|publisher=CABI|isbn=9781845930769|doi=10.1079/9781845930769.0001|title=Pink tourism: Holidays of gay men and lesbians|year=2006}}</ref> Similar to heterosexual sex tourism markets, some arrangements may be monetary and others may not. Different places have different ways of identifying their interest in such arrangements. For example, in ], Brazil, gay sex tourism has become a popular niche hosting a racially diverse market. The workers there are called "Michês" and stand out by wearing bright blue towels and often work in ]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MITCHELL|first=GREGORY|date=2011|title=TurboConsumers in paradise: Tourism, civil rights, and Brazil's gay sex industry|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=38|issue=4|pages=666–682|issn=0094-0496|jstor=41410425|doi=10.1111/j.1548-1425.2011.01329.x}}</ref> | |||
== Adult-only resorts == | |||
Over recent years, adult-only sex resorts have become a popular alternative for travellers wanting to experience consensual sex abroad whilst avoiding the ethical issues of paid sexual activity. Those resorts can be characterised as safe, consensual spaces, and sexually positive nature, where all expressions of gender, orientation, and relationships are free of any pressure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/travel/article/3033000/sex-tourism-changing-travellers-seek-pleasure-adult|title=Sex tourism is changing. Can Asia keep up?|date=16 October 2019|website=South China Morning Post|language=en|access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref> These resorts largely occur in ] and the ]. Certain establishments will be clothing-optional resorts, where travellers can meet and make use of "playrooms".<ref name=":0" /> | |||
== Child sex tourism == | |||
{{Main|Child sex tourism}} | |||
Some sex tourists travel in order to engage in sex with children. While it is criminal in most countries, this industry is believed to involve as many as 2 million children around the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sex trade blights the lives of 2 million children; Canada is not doing enough to fight the international scourge of sex tourism |author=Janet Bagnall |work=Montreal Gazette |year=2007}}</ref> ] is considered to have the worst child sex trafficking record, followed closely by ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Crisis of Child Sexual Exploitation in Brazil: Between 250,000 and 2 million children forced into prostitution in Brazil|url=http://www.libertadlatina.org/LA_Brazils_Child_Prostitution_Crisis.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603204047/http://www.libertadlatina.org/LA_Brazils_Child_Prostitution_Crisis.htm|archive-date=3 June 2016|access-date=7 October 2011|publisher=Libertad Latina|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | |||
"Child sex tourists may not have a specific preference for children as sexual partners but take advantage of a situation in which children are made available to them for sexual exploitation. It is often the case that these people have travelled from a wealthier country (or a richer town or region within a country) to a less-developed destination, where poorer economic conditions, favourable exchange rates for the traveller and relative anonymity are key factors conditioning their behaviour and sex tourism."<ref>{{cite web|title=Child Sex Tourism|url=http://www.ecpat.net/ei/csec_cst.asp|publisher=ECPAT International|access-date=3 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617133538/http://www.ecpat.net/ei/csec_cst.asp|archive-date=17 June 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | |||
In an effort to eradicate the practice, many countries have enacted laws that allow the prosecution of their citizens for ] that occurs outside their home country, even if it is not against the law in the country where the incident took place. This is evident in America, under the United States ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
|url = http://www.thailawforum.com/sex-crimes-in-thailand.html | |||
|title = US Sex Laws Abroad: The Long Arm of Uncle Sam | |||
|author = Chaninat & Leeds | |||
|date = 3 September 2009 | |||
|website = Sex Laws in Thailand, Part 1 | |||
|publisher = Thailand Law Forum | |||
|access-date = 7 October 2011 | |||
}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 allows for prosecution in British criminal courts of British citizens who commit sexual offences against children while traveling abroad; this legislation was used to prosecute ] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jun/06/richard-huckle-given-23-life-sentences-for-abusing-malaysian-children|title=Richard Huckle given 22 life sentences for abuse of Malaysian children|website=]|date=6 June 2016}}</ref> In Ireland, the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ireland|first1=Government of Ireland|title=Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017|url=https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2017/act/2/enacted/en/print.html|access-date=12 January 2017|date=2017-11-16}}</ref> gives worldwide jurisdiction to prosecutors for sexual offences committed against children outside the state, and was used to prosecute Kieran Creaven for sexual acts with a child and producing child pornography in The Philippines in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2021/1203/1264668-kieran-creaven-courts/|title=Former RTÉ Sport producer Kieran Creaven jailed for 10 years|website=]|date=3 December 2021}}</ref> ] is an international organisation composed of members of the ] industry and ] experts with the purpose to eradicate the practice of child sex tourism. | |||
] notes that sexual activity is often seen as a private matter, making communities reluctant to act and intervene in cases of sexual exploitation.<ref name="DeenaGuzder2" /> These attitudes make children far more vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Most exploitation of children takes place as a result of their absorption into the adult sex trade where they are exploited by local people and sex tourists.<ref name="DeenaGuzder2" /> The ] provides an efficient global networking tool for individuals to share information on destinations and procurement.<ref name="DeenaGuzder2"/> | |||
In cases involving children, the U.S. has relatively strict domestic laws that hold accountable any American citizen or permanent resident of the U.S. who travels abroad for the purpose of engaging in illicit conduct with a minor.<ref name="DeenaGuzder2">{{cite web |last1=Guzder |first1=Deena |author1-link=Deena Guzder |title=Local Thai NGOs discuss efforts to end commercial sexual exploitation |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/local-thai-ngos-discuss-efforts-end-commercial-sexual-exploitation |website=] |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416010609/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/local-thai-ngos-discuss-efforts-end-commercial-sexual-exploitation |archive-date=16 April 2013 |date=30 August 2009 |url-status=dead}}{{cbignore}}</ref> As of 2009, sex tourism and human trafficking remain fast-growing industries.<ref name="DeenaGuzder2"/> | |||
== Regulation == | |||
], ]'s ], offers activities such as legal ] and a number of ] that sell ]. It is one of the main tourist attractions.]] | |||
Regulations and government involvement can be seen to have a positive impact on the community. It is argued that, by decriminalising prostitution, a government can protect sex workers under labor laws accessible by workers in other fields.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Godwin|first=John|date=October 2012|title=Sex Work and the Law in Asia and the Pacific|url=http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/hivaids/English/HIV-2012-SexWorkAndLaw.pdf|journal=UNDP Reports|access-date=24 July 2017|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506030517/https://www1.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/hivaids/English/HIV-2012-SexWorkAndLaw.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> For example, in the ], sex workers have access to unlimited free ].<ref name=":1" /> | |||
The criminalisation of sex-related jobs may be seen to increase workers' vulnerability to ] by escalating stigma and discernment. It is suggested that judgement towards sex workers within the healthcare community acts as a barrier to accessing regular and informed care.<ref name=":1" /> | |||
== Opposition == | |||
]''. Feminist activist group ] protest against the increase in ] into Ukraine.]] | |||
One of the primary sources of opposition to sex tourism is child sex tourism. This act is internationally defined as travel to have sex with a person under 18 years of age. An example of this would be when tourists from wealthy countries take advantage of legal prostitution, lower consent ages, and the lack of extradition laws in order to engage in sex with minors in foreign countries.<ref name=Bang>{{cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Brandy|last2=Baker|first2=Paige L.|last3=Carpinteri|first3=Alexis|last4=Van Hasselt|first4=Vincent B.|title=Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children|date=2014|publisher=Springer}}</ref> Developed nations with more conservative views of sexuality can provide a steady stream of tourists who feed the sex tourism industry.<ref name=Bang /> Human rights organisations and governments argue that this pattern creates an incentive for trafficking of children and violation of children's human rights.<ref name="UN Convention" /> | |||
Oppositions to sex tourism also stem from concerns around the trafficking of women. The ] targets the trafficking of women and children as a central concern in their approach to ].<ref name="UN Convention">{{cite book|title=United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto|date=2004|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|location=Vienna}}</ref> ] Global Report on Trafficking in Persons states that women "comprise the vast majority" of human trafficking victims for sexual exploitation across the world.<ref name="UN Global Report Trafficking" /> They also note that women make up a relatively large portion of human trafficking offenders—about 30% of convicted human traffickers are women.<ref name="UN Global Report Trafficking">{{cite book|title=Global Report on Trafficking in Persons|date=2014|publisher=The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|location=Vienna}}</ref> It can be seen that women who become involved in human trafficking were once victims of sex trafficking and sexual exploitation themselves.<ref name="Samarasinghe" /> | |||
These factors can all contribute to the debate on human rights and their relations with sex tourism. The sex tourism industry showcases a global view in sexual exploitation, and a lack of concern for the rights and dignity of sex workers.<ref name="Barry">{{cite book|last1=Barry|first1=Kathleen|title=The Prostitution of Sexuality|date=1994|publisher=NYU Press|location=New York|access-date=29 March 2015|url=https://nyupress.org/books/9780814712771/}}</ref> It can be argued that through the growing international porn industry, indicate a normalisation of prostitution and an increase in the exploitation of women.<ref name="Barry" /> | |||
== Prostitution by country == | |||
{{Main|Prostitution by country}} | |||
The legality of prostitution and enforcement of such laws varies considerably around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Overs|first=Cheryl|title=Sex work and the law – it's complicated|url=http://theconversation.com/sex-work-and-the-law-its-complicated-81316|access-date=2021-10-11|website=The Conversation|date=2 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Prostitution laws around the world - National {{!}} Globalnews.ca|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/128029/at-a-glance-prostitution-laws/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=Global News|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Countries and Their Prostitution Policies - Prostitution - ProCon.org|url=https://prostitution.procon.org/countries-and-their-prostitution-policies/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=Prostitution|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
<gallery mode="packed"> | |||
File:Prostitution in North America2.svg|Prostitution in North America | |||
File:Prostitution in CentralAmerica-Caribbean.svg|Prostitution in Central America and the Caribbean | |||
File:Prostitution in South America2.svg|Prostitution in South America | |||
File:Prostitution in Europe.svg|Prostitution in Europe | |||
File:Prostitution in Africa2.svg|Prostitution in Africa | |||
File:Prostitution in Asia2.svg|Prostitution in Asia | |||
File:Prostitution in Oceania2.png|Prostitution in Oceania | |||
</gallery> | |||
:{{legend|#00ffff|Decriminalization - No criminal penalties for prostitution}} | |||
:{{legend|#008000|Legalization - prostitution legal and regulated}} | |||
:{{legend|#336699|Abolitionism - prostitution is legal, but organized activities such as brothels and pimping are illegal; prostitution is ''not'' regulated}} | |||
:{{legend|#ff7f00|Neo-abolitionism - illegal to buy sex and for 3rd party involvement, legal to sell sex}} | |||
:{{legend|#FF0000|Prohibitionism - prostitution illegal}} | |||
:{{legend|#585858|Legality varies with local laws}} | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
{{portal|Sex|Sex work|Prostitution}} | |||
*] | |||
{{div col|colwidth=30em}} | |||
*] | |||
* ] | |||
*] | |||
*] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
*] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
{{div col end}} | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{reflist|30em}} | |||
<references/> | |||
{{Prostitution}} | |||
==External links== | |||
{{Sex}} | |||
{{External links|November 2006}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* by ], published in ], ] ]. | |||
* | |||
* <!-- inserted by site owner. See Discussion page. --> | |||
* | |||
* | |||
* | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 08:33, 21 December 2024
Travel to engage in sexual activityThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)
|
Sex tourism is the practice of traveling to foreign countries, often on a different continent, with the intention of engaging in sexual activity or relationships, in exchange providing money or lifestyle support. This practice predominantly operates in countries where sex work is legal. The World Tourism Organization of the United Nations has acknowledged that this industry is organized both within and outside the structured laws and networks created by them.
Sex tourism is commonly regarded as a transnational challenge, as it can be seen to target marginalised demographics in developing nations, such as countries in the Americas or Southeast Asia. The chief ethical concerns arise from: the economic gap between tourists and residents, the sexual trafficking of children and women and the parties taking advantage of the ability to engage with minors. These groups and individuals are subject to the foreign prostitution laws of the destination's jurisdiction, often resulting in exploitation and abuse. Prostitution activities that involve minors are universally non-consensual and illegal.
Sex tourism is known as a multibillion-dollar industry that globally supports a workforce estimated in the millions, with service industries such as the airline, taxi, restaurant and hotel industries profiting. The bulk of sex tourism involves males traveling from countries in the Global North to countries in the Global South, such as in East and Southeast Asia and Latin America. Although much rarer, female sex tourism also exists.
Legal issues
This particular industry of sex work is a predominant reason for world travel and is extremely profitable. The market can become exceedingly exploitative and unethically abused as tourists are motivated to engage in sexual conduct due to the untraceable nature and lack of law enforcement control, especially with accessibility to minors.
Ethical issues arise due to the situations of participating parties; many sex workers are from low-income backgrounds usually located in underdeveloped societies whose only means for providing basic needs is to engage in sexual services. While sex workers can engage voluntarily in the industry, there is a distinct difference between the coercion found in international sex trafficking and sex tourism which exploits the limited work options for low socioeconomic local residents.
Government and law enforcement often do not place priority on policing prostitution and sex trafficking. For example, in Cambodia, the Cambodian government has previously overlooked tourists having sex with Cambodian adolescents.
Individuals are not exempt from prosecution. Sex tourism as recognised by the CDC supports human trafficking and slavery. Even if prostitution is legal in a country or region, human trafficking, sexual encounters with a minor, and child pornography are almost universally criminal in nature and individuals caught breaking these laws can be prosecuted. Citizens of any foreign country must abide by the laws of the country in which they hold citizenship in addition to the local laws of the country they are visiting, including laws regarding consent.
Demographics
Demographics include: female sex tourism (women seeking men), men seeking men, adults seeking children, and men seeking women. Sex tourists generally come from Western world countries but they may also come from other countries as well. The most common destinations for these sex tourists is to visit less economically developed nations in Asia, such as: Thailand, the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Nepal, as well as countries in Central and South America like Mexico or Brazil.
A study conducted by the non-profit public charity ProCon, revealed the percentage of men who had paid for sex at least once in their lives between 1994 and 2010. It found the highest rates were located in Cambodia, where 59–80% of men had paid for sex at least once. Thailand was a close second with an estimated 75% of men, followed by Italy at 16.7–45%, Spain at 27–39%, Japan at 37%, the Netherlands at 13.5–21.6%, and the United States 15.0–20.0%.
Challenges in gathering data has made it hard to find out the exact number of people who work in the sex tourism industry. Estimates show 24.9 million victims that are trapped in modern-day slavery, 4.8 million (about 19%) were sexually exploited. It is estimated that about 21% of the total victims of commercial sexual exploitation are children, with the US Department of State estimating that over one million children are trafficked for sex throughout the world. The sex tourism industry often preys on those that are the most vulnerable, potentially explaining why children and women are more likely to be forced into the industry.
Cultural attitudes
Globally, cultural attitudes towards sex tourism can be seen to be different. In less developed countries for example, families in poor rural areas may sell their children to human traffickers, who will take the children to major cities to work in the sex industry. In Thailand for example, women will support their husbands by becoming sex workers. To work in the sex industry, particularly in less developed countries, can often be seen as a viable source of income available to struggling families from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
The cultural attitudes of sex tourism in highly developed countries such as Australia however where sex trafficking is illegal and highly policed can offer a different perspective to those of lesser backgrounds. Brothels are still vivid within states such as Tasmania and New South Wales where people can exchange money for sex. Recent studies suggest that sex slavery is still happening in Australia, exploiting the vulnerability of individuals and families from poor backgrounds.
Male tourists, sometimes known as sexpats (expatriate + sex tourist), join online communities in which they share advice on destinations and, although it is not among the most common cases, there is the category of "girlfriend experience" which, in some cases, evolves into an emotional relationship.
General attitudes towards sex work are complex and often regarded as controversial. Many countries where tourists come from, can have harsher attitudes towards sexual services. Often the men who travel seeking to pay for sex may do so because it is much harder to engage in sex work in their home countries. Furthermore, in some countries, such as Cambodia and Thailand, this practice is considered commonplace, and men who do not engage in commercial sex may be considered unusual by their peers.
Sociologists from the University of Leicester conducted a research study for the Economic and Social Research Council and End Child Prostitution and Trafficking campaign, which interviewed over 250 Caribbean sex tourists. Amongst their findings were:
- Preconceptions about race and gender influenced the tourist's opinions.
- Underdeveloped countries are considered culturally different, so in Western tourist's understanding, the exploitation or male domination of women is without consequence or stigma of that found in their home countries.
Despite a great deal of interest in sexual tourism amongst theorists, detailed studies of cultural attitude are rare, regardless of the increasing accessibility of group studies in the past three decades.
Economic and policy implications
Sex tourism has implications for all nations involved. Economically, sex tourism is encouraged by the tourist sectors of destination countries. It draws wealthy individuals with the allure of cheap, unstigmatised sexual activities, and stimulates the economy of poorer nations. This line of sex work ensures a consistent flow of income into developing countries' economies.
In an article published by the University of Chicago, it is argued that the promotion of sex tourism caters to tourists by enticing racial and ethnic stereotypes. This in turn creates ethical and policy implications, as colonial and traditional attitudes reinforce inequality between the groups. The state plays a vital part in this interaction, as governments create financially motivated barriers when asked to formulate more progressive and ethical policy.
Sex work may yield higher wages than work in the formal sector, and can encourage engagement with the industry for those seeking to achieve a much higher quality of life. This economic temptation can often lead to sexual exploitation of children. Young girls and adolescent women are some of the most common to be sold into slavery or transported across national borders to work in the commercial sex industry.
Gay sex tourism
The sex tourism industry offers a market for gay, bisexual and bi-curious tourists. Studies suggest that gay sex tourism has similar motivations to non-gay sex tourism. These studies suggest, "leisure activities and holidays have a particular significance for gay men, as they provide an opportunity for constructing, confirming and/or changing their sexual identity."
Popular gay sex tourism markets can be found in Gran Canaria, Ibiza, Sardinia, Sicily and Fire Island. Similar to heterosexual sex tourism markets, some arrangements may be monetary and others may not. Different places have different ways of identifying their interest in such arrangements. For example, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, gay sex tourism has become a popular niche hosting a racially diverse market. The workers there are called "Michês" and stand out by wearing bright blue towels and often work in saunas.
Adult-only resorts
Over recent years, adult-only sex resorts have become a popular alternative for travellers wanting to experience consensual sex abroad whilst avoiding the ethical issues of paid sexual activity. Those resorts can be characterised as safe, consensual spaces, and sexually positive nature, where all expressions of gender, orientation, and relationships are free of any pressure. These resorts largely occur in Mexico and the Caribbean. Certain establishments will be clothing-optional resorts, where travellers can meet and make use of "playrooms".
Child sex tourism
Main article: Child sex tourismSome sex tourists travel in order to engage in sex with children. While it is criminal in most countries, this industry is believed to involve as many as 2 million children around the world. Thailand is considered to have the worst child sex trafficking record, followed closely by Brazil.
"Child sex tourists may not have a specific preference for children as sexual partners but take advantage of a situation in which children are made available to them for sexual exploitation. It is often the case that these people have travelled from a wealthier country (or a richer town or region within a country) to a less-developed destination, where poorer economic conditions, favourable exchange rates for the traveller and relative anonymity are key factors conditioning their behaviour and sex tourism."
In an effort to eradicate the practice, many countries have enacted laws that allow the prosecution of their citizens for child abuse that occurs outside their home country, even if it is not against the law in the country where the incident took place. This is evident in America, under the United States Protect Act. In the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 allows for prosecution in British criminal courts of British citizens who commit sexual offences against children while traveling abroad; this legislation was used to prosecute Richard Huckle in 2016. In Ireland, the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017 gives worldwide jurisdiction to prosecutors for sexual offences committed against children outside the state, and was used to prosecute Kieran Creaven for sexual acts with a child and producing child pornography in The Philippines in 2021. The Code of Conduct for the Sexual Exploitation of Children in Travel and Tourism is an international organisation composed of members of the tourism industry and children's rights experts with the purpose to eradicate the practice of child sex tourism.
UNICEF notes that sexual activity is often seen as a private matter, making communities reluctant to act and intervene in cases of sexual exploitation. These attitudes make children far more vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Most exploitation of children takes place as a result of their absorption into the adult sex trade where they are exploited by local people and sex tourists. The Internet provides an efficient global networking tool for individuals to share information on destinations and procurement.
In cases involving children, the U.S. has relatively strict domestic laws that hold accountable any American citizen or permanent resident of the U.S. who travels abroad for the purpose of engaging in illicit conduct with a minor. As of 2009, sex tourism and human trafficking remain fast-growing industries.
Regulation
Regulations and government involvement can be seen to have a positive impact on the community. It is argued that, by decriminalising prostitution, a government can protect sex workers under labor laws accessible by workers in other fields. For example, in the Netherlands, sex workers have access to unlimited free STI testing.
The criminalisation of sex-related jobs may be seen to increase workers' vulnerability to HIV by escalating stigma and discernment. It is suggested that judgement towards sex workers within the healthcare community acts as a barrier to accessing regular and informed care.
Opposition
One of the primary sources of opposition to sex tourism is child sex tourism. This act is internationally defined as travel to have sex with a person under 18 years of age. An example of this would be when tourists from wealthy countries take advantage of legal prostitution, lower consent ages, and the lack of extradition laws in order to engage in sex with minors in foreign countries. Developed nations with more conservative views of sexuality can provide a steady stream of tourists who feed the sex tourism industry. Human rights organisations and governments argue that this pattern creates an incentive for trafficking of children and violation of children's human rights.
Oppositions to sex tourism also stem from concerns around the trafficking of women. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime targets the trafficking of women and children as a central concern in their approach to transnational crime. The United Nations Global Report on Trafficking in Persons states that women "comprise the vast majority" of human trafficking victims for sexual exploitation across the world. They also note that women make up a relatively large portion of human trafficking offenders—about 30% of convicted human traffickers are women. It can be seen that women who become involved in human trafficking were once victims of sex trafficking and sexual exploitation themselves.
These factors can all contribute to the debate on human rights and their relations with sex tourism. The sex tourism industry showcases a global view in sexual exploitation, and a lack of concern for the rights and dignity of sex workers. It can be argued that through the growing international porn industry, indicate a normalisation of prostitution and an increase in the exploitation of women.
Prostitution by country
Main article: Prostitution by countryThe legality of prostitution and enforcement of such laws varies considerably around the world.
- Prostitution in North America
- Prostitution in Central America and the Caribbean
- Prostitution in South America
- Prostitution in Europe
- Prostitution in Africa
- Prostitution in Asia
- Prostitution in Oceania
- Decriminalization - No criminal penalties for prostitution
- Legalization - prostitution legal and regulated
- Abolitionism - prostitution is legal, but organized activities such as brothels and pimping are illegal; prostitution is not regulated
- Neo-abolitionism - illegal to buy sex and for 3rd party involvement, legal to sell sex
- Prohibitionism - prostitution illegal
- Legality varies with local laws
See also
- Cuban jineterismo
- Female sex tourism
- Gigolo
- Male prostitution
- Male prostitution in the arts
- Prostitution by country
- Prostitution in India
- Prostitution in Germany
- Prostitution in the United Kingdom
- Prostitution in Ukraine
- Prostitution in Russia
- Prostitution law
- Sex trafficking
References
- Williams, Erica L. (2012). "Sex Tourism". The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization. doi:10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog516. ISBN 978-1-4051-8824-1.
- Marina Diotallevi, ed. (October 1995). WTO Statement on the Prevention of Organized Sex Tourism. Cairo (Egypt): World Tourism Organization. Archived from the original on 14 August 2003. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
Adopted by the General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization at its eleventh session - Cairo (Egypt), 17–22 October 1995 (Resolution A/RES/338 (XI))
- Lu, Timothy Siliang; Holmes, Andrea; Noone, Chris; Flaherty, Gerard Thomas (2020). "Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature". Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines. 6 (1): 24. doi:10.1186/s40794-020-00124-0. PMC 7691961. PMID 33292661.
- Hannum, Ann Barger (2002). "Sex Tourism in Latin America". ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America (Winter). Archived from the original on 4 September 2014. Retrieved 6 October 2011.
- "La explotación sexual de menores en Kenia alcanza una dimensión horrible" [The sexual exploitation of children in Kenya reaches a horrible dimension] (PDF) (in French). Spain: Unicef España. 17 January 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2011.
- Kachipande, Sitinga (2023). "Sun, Sand, Sex, and Safari: The Interplay of Sex Tourism and Global Inequalities in Africa's Tourism Industry". Journal of Global South Studies. 40 (1). Project MUSE: 1–37. doi:10.1353/gss.2023.0007. ISSN 2476-1419.
- ^ Lovelock, Brent; Lovelock, Kirsten M. (2013). The Ethics of Tourism: Critical and Applied Perspectives. Routledge.
- ^ United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2004.
- ^ McPhee, Duncan. Sex Offending and Sex Tourism: Problems, Policy, and Challenges. Palgrave Studies in Risk, Crime and Society.
- "'The women who sold their daughters into sex slavery".
- "Sex Tourism | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
- Andrews, Sara K. (2004). "U.S. Domestic Prosecution of the American International Sex Tourist: Efforts to Protect Children from Sexual Exploitation". The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 94 (2): 415–454. doi:10.2307/3491375. ISSN 0091-4169. JSTOR 3491375.
- ^ Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. Vienna: The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2014.
- ^ "Percentage of Men (by Country) Who Paid for Sex at Least Once: The Johns Chart". ProCon. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
- "Human Trafficking by the Numbers". Human Rights First. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
- "Trafficking in Persons". United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
- "Paradigms of sex tourism", Sex Tourism, Routledge, pp. 65–86, 8 July 2005, doi:10.4324/9780203991763-7, ISBN 978-0-203-99176-3, retrieved 11 May 2021
- ^ Samarasinghe, Vidyamali (2008). Female Sex Trafficking in Asia: The Resilience of Patriarchy in a Changing World. New York and London: Routledge.
- The Conversation, Human trafficking and slavery still happen in Australia. This comic explains how, June 12, 2019
- ^ Monge-Nájera, J. (2016). Male sexual tourism in Costa Rica: team spirit, peer dialogue and gender roles in a large sample of Internet forum posts. Cuadernos de Investigación UNED, 8(2), 207-216.
- Blevins KR and Holt TJ. (2009). Examining the Virtual Subculture of Johns. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 38 (5), 619-648
- Milrod C and Weitzer R. (2012). The Intimacy Prism: Emotion Management among the Clients of Escorts. Men and Masculinities, 00 (0), 1-21.
- Taylor, Jacqueline Sánchez (May 2000). "Chapter 3: Tourism and 'embodied' commodities: sex tourism in the Caribbean". In Clift, Stephen; Carter, Simon (eds.). Tourism and Sex: Culture, Commerce and Coercion. Tourism, Leisure and Recreation. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 41–53. ISBN 978-1-85567-549-0. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
- Bender, Kimberly (June 2004). "The Implications of Sex Tourism on Men's Social, Psychological, and Physical Health" (PDF). The Qualitative Report. 9 (2): 176–191.
- "BangkokPod Interviews Kaewmala of Thai Sex Talk". 13 February 2011. Archived from the original on 11 December 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- "Open-Ended Prostitution as a Skillful Game of Luck: Opportunity, Risk and Security among Tourist-Oriented Prostitutes in Bangkok". Erik Cohen Department of Sociology and Social-Anthropology Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 19 February 2013.
- ^ Mahler, Karen (1997). "Global Concern for Children's Rights: The World Congress Against Sexual Exploitation". International Family Planning Perspectives. 23 (2): 79–84. doi:10.2307/2950828. JSTOR 2950828. S2CID 58440462.
- ^ Patil, Vrushali (2011). "Reproducing-Resisting Race and Gender Difference: Examining India's Online Tourism Campaign from a Transnational Feminist Perspective". Signs. 37 (1): 185–210. doi:10.1086/660181. S2CID 146310057.
- Monterrubio, J. Carlos (7 December 2008). "Identity and Sex: Concurrent Aspects of Gay Tourism". mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
- Hughes, Howard (February 1997). "Holidays and homosexual identity". Tourism Management. 18 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1016/s0261-5177(96)00093-3. ISSN 0261-5177.
- Hughes, H. L. (2006), Pink tourism: Holidays of gay men and lesbians, CABI, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1079/9781845930769.0001, ISBN 9781845930769
- MITCHELL, GREGORY (2011). "TurboConsumers in paradise: Tourism, civil rights, and Brazil's gay sex industry". American Ethnologist. 38 (4): 666–682. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2011.01329.x. ISSN 0094-0496. JSTOR 41410425.
- ^ "Sex tourism is changing. Can Asia keep up?". South China Morning Post. 16 October 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
- Janet Bagnall (2007). "Sex trade blights the lives of 2 million children; Canada is not doing enough to fight the international scourge of sex tourism". Montreal Gazette.
- "The Crisis of Child Sexual Exploitation in Brazil: Between 250,000 and 2 million children forced into prostitution in Brazil". Libertad Latina. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
- "Child Sex Tourism". ECPAT International. Archived from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- Chaninat & Leeds (3 September 2009). "US Sex Laws Abroad: The Long Arm of Uncle Sam". Sex Laws in Thailand, Part 1. Thailand Law Forum. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
- "Richard Huckle given 22 life sentences for abuse of Malaysian children". TheGuardian.com. 6 June 2016.
- Ireland, Government of Ireland (16 November 2017). "Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017". Retrieved 12 January 2017.
- "Former RTÉ Sport producer Kieran Creaven jailed for 10 years". RTE.ie. 3 December 2021.
- ^ Guzder, Deena (30 August 2009). "Local Thai NGOs discuss efforts to end commercial sexual exploitation". Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2022.
- ^ Godwin, John (October 2012). "Sex Work and the Law in Asia and the Pacific" (PDF). UNDP Reports. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
- ^ Bang, Brandy; Baker, Paige L.; Carpinteri, Alexis; Van Hasselt, Vincent B. (2014). Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. Springer.
- ^ Barry, Kathleen (1994). The Prostitution of Sexuality. New York: NYU Press. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
- Overs, Cheryl (2 August 2017). "Sex work and the law – it's complicated". The Conversation. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- "Prostitution laws around the world - National | Globalnews.ca". Global News. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
- "Countries and Their Prostitution Policies - Prostitution - ProCon.org". Prostitution. Retrieved 11 October 2021.