Misplaced Pages

Baseball: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 01:52, 24 November 2006 view sourceBobo192 (talk | contribs)Administrators116,300 editsm Reverted edits by 69.204.203.69 (talk) to last version by Woohookitty← Previous edit Latest revision as of 03:06, 24 December 2024 view source GreekApple123 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users8,598 edits HistoryTag: Visual edit 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Bat-and-ball game}}
{{otheruses1|the sport}}
{{About|the sport|the ball used in the sport|Baseball (ball)|other uses}}
] ].]]
{{Redirect|Base ball|old time baseball|Vintage base ball}}
]. Part of the "]" can be seen on the right side of this picture.]]
{{Featured article}}
] Between the ] and the ].]]
{{Pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox sport
|name = Baseball
|image = File:Tommy Milone gives up a home run to Mike Trout on May 21, 2017.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|caption = ] center fielder ] hits a ] on a pitch from ] pitcher ] on May 21, 2017.
|union = ]
|nickname =
|first = 18th-century ] (predecessors)<br />19th-century ] (modern version)
|registered =
|type = ], ]
|venue = ]<br />]
|glossary = ]
|region = Worldwide (most prominent in the Americas and East Asia)<!-- According to ], this section is suppose to list ALL geographic areas the sport is present in the broadest possible terms. -->
|contact = ]
|clubs =
|equipment = ] <br /> ] <br /> ]<br />]<br />]
|team = 9
|mgender = Yes, separate competitions
|category = ]
|olympic = ]: ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]<br />Medal sport: ]–], ]
|IWGA = ]<ref>{{cite web|last=Sargis|first=Joe|title=The World Games slipped out of town Monday, quietly...|publisher=United Press International|date=August 3, 1981|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1981/08/03/The-World-Games-slipped-out-of-town-Monday-quietly/8794365659200/|access-date=August 13, 2018}}</ref>
}}


{{HistBaseball nav}}
'''Baseball''' is a ] played between two ] usually of nine players each. It is a ] game in which a ] throws (]) a hard, fist-sized, leather-covered ] toward a ] on the opposing team. The batter attempts to hit the baseball with a tapered cylindrical ], made of wood (as required in ]) or a variety of other materials (as allowed in many nonprofessional games). A team scores ] only when batting, by advancing its players—primarily via ]—counterclockwise past a series of four markers called ] arranged at the corners of a ninety-foot square, or "diamond." The game, played without time restriction, is structured around nine segments called ]. In each inning, both teams are given the opportunity to bat and score runs; a team's half-inning ends when ] are recorded against three of its players.


'''Baseball''' is a ] ] played between two ] of nine players each, taking turns ] and ]. The game occurs over the course of several ], with each play generally beginning when a player on the ], called the ], throws a ] that a player on the ], called the ], tries to hit with a ]. The objective of the offensive team (batting team) is to hit the ball into the field of play, away from the other team's players, allowing its players to run the ], having them advance counter-clockwise around four bases to score what are called "]". The objective of the defensive team (referred to as the fielding team) is to prevent batters from becoming ], and to prevent runners ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://content.mlb.com/documents/2/2/4/305750224/2019_Official_Baseball_Rules_FINAL_.pdf|title=''Official Baseball Rules''|publisher=Major League Baseball|edition=2019|access-date=September 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502205240/https://content.mlb.com/documents/2/2/4/305750224/2019_Official_Baseball_Rules_FINAL_.pdf|archive-date=May 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> A run is scored when a runner legally advances around the bases in order and touches home plate (the place where the player started as a batter).
Baseball on both the professional and amateur levels is popular in ], ], parts of ], the ], and ]. The modern version of the game developed in North America beginning in the eighteenth century. The consensus of historians is that it evolved from bat-and-ball games, such as ], brought to the continent by British and Irish immigrants. By the late nineteenth century, baseball was widely recognized as the ] of the ]. The game is sometimes referred to as ''hardball'' to differentiate it from ] such as ].


The initial objective of the batting team is to have a player reach first base ]; this generally occurs either when the batter hits the ball and reaches first base ] an opponent retrieves the ball and touches the base, or when the pitcher persists in throwing the ball ]. Players on the batting team who reach first base without being called "]" can attempt to advance to subsequent bases as a runner, either immediately or during teammates' turns batting. The fielding team tries to prevent runs by using the ball to get batters or runners "out", which forces them out of the field of play. The pitcher can get the batter out by throwing three ] which result in ], while fielders can get the batter out by ] a batted ball before it touches the ground, and can get a runner out by ] them with the ball while the runner is not touching a base.
==History of baseball==
{{main|History of baseball}}


The opposing teams switch back and forth between batting and fielding; the batting team's turn to bat is over once the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for each team constitutes an ]. A game is usually composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Most games end after the ninth inning, but if scores are tied at that point, ] are usually played. Baseball has no game clock, though some competitions feature ] regulations such as the ] to shorten game time.
===Origins of baseball===
{{main|Origins of baseball}}
The distinct evolution of baseball from among the various bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. While there has been general agreement that modern baseball is a North American development from the older game ], the 2005 book ''Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game'', by David Block, argues against that notion.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Block
| first = David
| others = Wiles, Tim
| title = '''Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game'''
| edition = 1st edition
| year = 2006
| month = March
| publisher = Bison Books
| language = English
| id = 0803262558
| pages = 340
}}</ref> The earliest known mention of the sport is in a 1744 British publication, ''A Little Pretty Pocket-Book'', by John Newbery. It contains a wood-cut illustration of boys playing "base-ball," showing a set-up roughly similar to the modern game, and a rhymed description of the sport. The earliest known American reference to the game was published in a 1791 ], statute that prohibited the playing of baseball within 80 yards of the town's new meeting house. The English novelist ] made a reference to children playing "base-ball" on a village green in her book '']'', which was written between 1798 and 1803 (though not published until 1818).


Baseball ] already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, ]. Baseball's American origins, as well as its reputation as a source of ] during troubled points in American history such as the ] and the ], have led the sport to receive the moniker of "America's Pastime"; since the late 19th century, it has been unofficially recognized as the ] of the ], though in modern times is considered ], such as ]. In addition to ], baseball spread throughout the rest of the Americas and the Asia–Pacific in the 19th and 20th centuries,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bjarkman |first=Peter C. |date=2006-09-01 |title=American Baseball Imperialism, Clashing National Cultures, and the Future of Samurai Besuboru |url=https://studiesonasia.scholasticahq.com/article/14327-american-baseball-imperialism-clashing-national-cultures-and-the-future-of-samurai-besuboru |journal=Studies on Asia |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=123–140 |quote=Formal league baseball has long thrived in amateur and professional play around the world, especially in the Caribbean Basin and along the Asian-Pacific Rim. Its history in those regions is every bit as ancient and deep-rooted as it is on the North American continent."}}</ref> and is now considered the most popular sport in parts of ] and ], the ], and ], particularly in ], ], and ].
The first full documentation of a baseball game in North America is Dr. Adam Ford's contemporary description of a game that took place in 1838 on ] (Militia Muster Day) in Beachville, Ontario; this report was related in a 1886 edition of ''Sporting Life'' magazine in a letter by former ], resident Dr. Matthew Harris. Canada was a hotbed of early baseball development and the sport grew quickly on both sides of the U.S.-Canadian border, with strong players and teams in both countries. In 1845, ] of New York City led the codification of an early list of rules (the so-called ]), from which today's have evolved. While there are reports of Cartwright's club, the ], playing games in 1845, the game now recognized as the first in U.S. history to be officially recorded took place on ], ], in ], with the "New York Nine" defeating the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings.


In ] (MLB), the highest level of ] in the United States and Canada, teams are divided into the ] (NL) and ] (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The MLB champion is determined by ] that culminate in the ]. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the ] and ]s and in Cuba between the ]. The ], organized by the ], is the major international competition of the sport and attracts the top national teams from around the world. Baseball was played ] from 1992 to 2008, and was reinstated on a one-off basis in 2020.
===History of baseball in the United States===
{{main|History of baseball in the United States}}


==Rules and gameplay==
Semiprofessional baseball started in the United States in the 1860s; in 1869, the first fully professional baseball club, the ], was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams. By the following decade, American newspapers were referring to baseball as the "National Pastime" or "National Game." The first ] was the ], which lasted from 1871 to 1875. The ], which still exists today, was founded in 1876. Several other major leagues formed and failed, but the ], established in 1901 as a major league and originating from the minor Western League (1893), succeeded. While the two leagues were rivals who actively fought for the best players, often disregarding one another's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes, a modicum of peace was established in 1903, and the ] was inaugurated that fall. The next year, however, the National League champion ] did not participate as their manager, ], refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion, the ]. The following year, McGraw relented and the Giants played the ] in the World Series.
{{Further|Baseball rules|Outline of baseball}}


=== Overview ===
Compared with the present day, games in the early part of the 20th century were lower scoring and pitchers were more successful. The "inside game", whose nature was to "scratch for runs", was played rather more violently and aggressively than it is today. ] said of his era especially, "Baseball is something like a war!" This period, which has since become known as the "]", ended in the 1920s with several rule changes that gave advantages to hitters and the rise of the legendary baseball player ], who showed the world what power hitting could produce and thus changed the nature of the game.
] ''Diamond'' may refer to the square area defined by the four bases or to the entire playing field. The dimensions given are for professional and professional-style games. Children often play on smaller fields.]]
] match between the ] and ], March 20, 2013]]


A baseball game is played between two teams, each usually composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an ]. A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in ] in college, ] and, since the ], ]; and six innings at the Little League level).<ref name="League">{{Cite news|url=https://www.littleleague.org/playing-rules/rules-regulations-policies/|title=Rules, Regulations, and Policies – Little League|last=League|first=Little|work=Little League|access-date=March 19, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning. The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning.
In 1884, ] ] (and, briefly, his brother Welday) had played for the ] of the major-league-level ]. An injury ended Walker's major league career, and by the early 1890s, a "gentlemen's agreement" in the form of the ] effectively barred African-American players from the majors and their affiliated minor leagues, resulting in the formation of several ]. The first crack in the agreement occurred in 1946, when ] was signed by the National League's ] and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal. Finally, in ], Major League Baseball's color barrier was broken when Robinson debuted with the Dodgers. Although the transformation was not instantaneous, baseball has since become fully ].


The goal of the game is to score more points (]) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by touching all four bases, in order, set at the corners of the square-shaped ]. A player bats at ] and must attempt to safely reach a base before proceeding, ], from first base, to second base, third base, and back home to score a run. The team in the field attempts to prevent runs from scoring by recording ], which remove opposing players from offensive action until their next turn at bat comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, ] are played to resolve the contest. Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.<ref>Thurston (2000), p. 15; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/official_info/official_rules/foreword.jsp|title=Official Rules/Foreword|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124020327/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/official_info/official_rules/foreword.jsp|archive-date=January 24, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rules 1.01–1.03)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|title=Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011321/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/04_starting_ending_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/4.00—Starting and Ending a Game (Rule 4.10)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011327/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/04_starting_ending_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Major league baseball finally made it to the West Coast of the United States in 1958, when the ] and ] relocated to ] and ] respectively. The first American League team on the West Coast was the ], who were founded as an expansion team in 1961.


The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the ]; the area farther beyond the infield is the ]. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height. The fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rules 1.04–1.07)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|title=Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011321/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Pitchers dominated the game in the 1960s and early 1970s. In the early 1970s the ] (DH) rule was proposed. The ] adopted this rule in 1973, though pitchers still bat for themselves in the ] to this day. The DH rule now constitutes the primary difference between the two leagues.


There are three basic tools of baseball: the ], the ], and the ]:
Despite the popularity of baseball, and the attendant high salaries relative to those of average Americans, the players have become dissatisfied from time to time, as they believed the owners had too much control. Various job actions have occurred throughout the game's history. Players on specific teams occasionally attempted strikes, but usually came back when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. The throwing of the ], the "]", was in some sense a "strike" or at least a rebellion by the ballplayers against a perceived stingy owner. But the strict rules of baseball contracts tended to keep the players "in line" in general.
* The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around {{convert|9|in|cm|abbr=off|sp=us}} in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white ], with red stitching.<ref>Porterfield (2007), p. 23; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rule 1.09)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about {{convert|2.5|in|cm|abbr=off|sp=us}} in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around {{convert|34|in|cm|abbr=off|sp=us}} long, and not longer than {{convert|42|in|cm|abbr=off|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rule 1.10a)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}} {{cite web|author=Fitzgerald, Stephen|url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2005/0176531.html|title=Polymer Composite Baseball Bat Endcap (U.S. Patent Application 20050176531)|date=November 8, 2005|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=FreePatentsOnline.com|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
* The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rules 1.12–1.15)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
Protective ] are also standard equipment for all batters.<ref>Thurston (2000), pp. 21, 30, 31; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rule 1.16)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>


=== Fielding positions ===
This began to change in the 1960s when former ] president ] became the ] president. The union became much stronger than it had been previously, especially when the reserve clause was effectively nullified in the mid-1970s. Conflicts between owners and the players' union led to major work stoppages in 1972, 1981 and 1994. The so-called ] (which was technically a a ]) led to the cancellation of the World Series, and was not settled until the spring of 1995.
At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players of the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the ], stands on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another fielding team player, the ], squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the fielding team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines (basepaths) between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the ], there is a ] positioned several steps to the left of first base, a ] to the right of second base, a ] to the left of second base, and a ] to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are ], ], and ]. With the exception of the catcher, all fielders are required to be in fair territory when the pitch is delivered. A neutral ] sets up behind the catcher.<ref>Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf|title=Official Rules/9.00—The Umpire (Rule 9.03a)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011323/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well.<ref>{{cite news|title=AP source: 7 umpires rotate at World Series|newspaper=USA Today|agency=Associated Press|date=September 29, 2014|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2014/09/29/ap-source-7-umpires-rotate-at-world-series/16437053/|access-date=March 27, 2018}}</ref>


=== Offense ===
On a happier note, 1995 was the year ] played in his 2131st consecutive game, breaking ]'s record. The number of home runs increased dramatically after the strike. ] and ] both shattered ]'s long-standing single season home run record in the late 1990s. In 2001, ] established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. Bonds has also gone on to hit more homers in his career than any player other than ]. Even though all three sluggers were later implicated in the ]-abuse scandal of the mid-2000s, their feats did do a lot at the time to bolster the game's renewed popularity.
], the batter, awaiting a pitch, with the catcher and umpire]]
Play starts with a member of the batting team, the batter, standing in either of the two ]es next to home plate, holding a bat.<ref name=RulesPuttingBallInPlay>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf|title=Official Rules/5.00—Putting the Ball in Play. Live Ball|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011326/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|title=Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.09)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.06, 10.12)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205082219/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball<ref>{{cite magazine|first=David|last=Epstein|title=It's All About Anticipation: Ryan Howard and Rafael Nadal don't have quicker reflexes than you do. They hit the fastest pitches and return the hardest serves because they can see the future|date=August 8, 2011|magazine=Sports Illustrated|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1188950/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213074933/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1188950/index.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 13, 2011|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> with the bat.<ref name=RulesPuttingBallInPlay/> The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a ''runner'' (or, until the play is over, a ''batter-runner'').
]
A batter-runner who reaches first base without being ] is said to be '']'' and is on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a ]. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a ]. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a ]; third base, a ]. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), or if the batter-runner otherwise safely circles all the bases, it is a ]: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. The ultimate and most desirable result possible for a batter would be to hit a home run while all three bases are occupied or "loaded", thus scoring four runs on a single hit. This is called a ]. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an ].<ref name="RulesPuttingBallInPlay" />


Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base ''must'' attempt to advance if a ball lands in play, as only one runner may occupy a base at any given time; the same applies for other runners if they are on a base that a teammate is forced to advance to. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes ] and any runners must return to the base they occupied when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has ] and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they ] (contact the base they occupied when the play began, as or after the ball is caught). Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate; a successful effort is a ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|title=Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011321/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf|title=Official Rules/5.00—Putting the Ball in Play. Live Ball (Rule 5.09e)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011326/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/05_putting_ball_in_play.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|title=Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.05a)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf|title=Official Rules/7.00—The Runner (Rules 7.08d, 7.10a)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011328/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.07)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205082219/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Professional baseball leagues began to form in ] in the 1920s and 1930s, including the ] (formed in 1922), ] (1936), and ] (1934). Today, ] (1945), the whole of ] (1953), ] (1948), ] (1982), ] (1990), and ] (2003) all have professional leagues as well (however, the leagues in Australia, Italy and the ] have generally had a niche appeal compared to the leagues in ] and Venezuela and only now is the sport beginning to broaden in scope in those nations, most notably in Australia, who won a surprise silver medal in the ]). ] will have a professional league beginning in June 2007. ] has a franchise in ] as well. Competition between national teams, such as in the ] and the ], has been administered by the ] since its formation in 1938. ], this organization has 112 member countries. The new ], first held in March 2006, seems likely to have a much higher profile than previous tournaments, owing to the participation for the first time of a significant number of players from the United States Major Leagues.


=== Defense ===
The ] of the ], held in ] in July 2005, voted not to hold baseball and ] tournaments at the ], but they will remain ]s during the ] and will be put to vote again for each succeeding Summer Olympics. The elimination of baseball and softball from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two other sports to the program instead, but no other sport received a majority of votes favoring its inclusion. While baseball's lack of major appeal in a significant portion of the world was a factor, a more important factor was the unwillingness of ] to have a break during the Games so that its players could participate, something that the ] now does during the ]. Because of the seasonal nature of baseball and the high priority baseball fans place on the integrity of major-league statistics from one season to the next, however, it would be more difficult to accommodate such a break in MLB.
] determines the result of most pitches, and varies in vertical length for each batter.]]
A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded ]. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a ] or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter's body or uniform is ] outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|title=Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.08b)|access-date=April 12, 2012|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529025727/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|archive-date=May 29, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the ], a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee.<ref name="MLBR2">{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|title=Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011321/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/02_definition_of_terms.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> Any pitch which does not pass through the strike zone is called a ball, unless the batter either swings and misses at the pitch, or hits the pitch into foul territory; an exception ] occurs if the ball is hit into foul territory when the batter already has two strikes, in which case neither a ball nor a strike is called.


] tries to ] a runner who is sliding head first, attempting to reach second base.]]
==Gameplay==
While the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. In addition to the strikeout and flyout, common ways a member of the batting team may be put out include the ], ], and ]. These occur either when a runner is forced to advance to a base, and a fielder with possession of the ball reaches that base before the runner does, or the runner is touched by the ball, held in a fielder's hand, while not on a base. (The batter-runner is always forced to advance to first base, and any other runners must advance to the next base if a teammate is forced to advance to their base.) It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play. This is called a ]. Three outs in one play, a ], is possible, though rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's ] or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat as every half-inning begins with the bases empty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|title=Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.05)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf|title=Official Rules/7.00—The Runner (Rules 7.08, 7.10)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011328/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/07_the_runner.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
A simplified version of the rules of baseball is at ]. The complete Official Rules can be found at , the official web site of Major League Baseball in the United States.


=== Batting order and substitution ===
===General structure===
].]]
].]]
An individual player's turn batting or ] is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting ] (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased.
Baseball is played between two teams of nine players each on a ], under the authority of one or more officials, called ]. There are usually four umpires in major league games; up to six (and as few as one) may officiate depending on the league and the importance of the game. There are four '']''. Numbered ], first, second and third bases are cushions (sometimes informally referred to as ''bags'') shaped as 15&nbsp;] (38&nbsp;]) squares which are raised a short distance above the ground; together with ], the fourth "base," they form a square with sides of 90&nbsp;] (27.4&nbsp;]) called the ]. Home base (plate) is a pentagonal rubber slab known as simply ''home.'' The field is divided into two main sections:
*The infield, containing the four bases, is for defensive and offensive purposes bounded by the foul lines and the grass line (see figure). However, the infield technically consists of only the area within the bases, including the foul lines.
*The outfield is the grassed area beyond the infield grass line (for general purposes; see above under infield), between the foul lines, and bounded by a wall or fence. Again, there is a technical difference; properly speaking, the outfield consists of all fair ground beyond the square of the infield and its bases. The area between the foul lines, including the foul lines (the foul lines are in fair territory), is fair territory, and the area outside the foul lines is foul territory.


A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have all taken their turn at bat in the ]. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for ]. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more lenient rules, such as Little League rules, which allow players to be substituted back into the same game.<ref name="League" /><ref>Thurston (2000), p. 100; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/03_game_preliminaries.pdf|title=Official Rules/3.00—Game Preliminaries (Rule 3.03)|access-date=February 2, 2009| publisher=Major League Baseball| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011326/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/03_game_preliminaries.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}} {{cite web| url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|title=Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rules 6.01, 6.04)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The game is played in nine ] (although it can be played with fewer, such as it is in ] games) in which each team gets one turn to ] and try to score '']'' while the other pitches and defends in the field. An inning is broken up into two halves in which the away team bats in the top (first) half, and the home team bats in the bottom (second) half. In baseball, the defense always has the ball &mdash; a fact that differentiates it from most other team sports. The teams switch every time the defending team gets three players of the batting team '']''. The winner is the team with the most runs after nine innings. If the home team is ahead after the top of the ninth, play does not continue into the bottom half. In the case of a tie, additional innings are played until one team comes out ahead at the end of an inning. If the home team takes the lead anytime during the bottom of the ninth or of any inning thereafter, play stops and the home team is declared the winner.


If the ] (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.<ref>Porterfield (2007), p. 19; Thurston (2000), p. 153; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|title=Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.10)|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011324/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules//06_the_batter.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
]
The basic contest is always between the '']'' for the fielding team, and a '']''. The pitcher throws—'']''—the ball towards home plate, where the '']'' for the fielding team waits (in a crouched stance) to receive it. Behind the catcher stands the home plate umpire. The batter stands in one of the ]es and tries to hit the ball with a bat. The pitcher must keep one foot in contact with the top or front of the pitcher's rubber—a 24" x 6" (~ 61 cm x 15 cm) plate located atop the pitcher's mound—during the entire pitch, so he can only take one step backward and one forward in delivering the ball. The catcher's job is to receive any pitches that the batter does not hit and to "call" the game by a series of hand movements that signal to the pitcher what pitch to throw and where. If the pitcher disagrees with the call, he will "shake off" the catcher by shaking his head; he accepts the sign by nodding. The catcher's role becomes more crucial depending on how the game is going, and how the pitcher responds to a given situation. Each pitch begins a new ''play,'' which might consist of nothing more than the pitch itself.


== Personnel ==
Each half-inning, the goal of the defending team is to get three members of the other team out. A player who is out must leave the field and wait for his next turn ]. There are many ways to get batters and baserunners out; some of the most common are catching a batted ball ], ]s, ]s, and ]s. After the fielding team has put out three players from the opposing team, that half of the inning is over and the team in the field and the team at bat switch places; there is no upper limit to the number that may bat in rotation before three outs are recorded. Going through the entire order in an inning is referred to as "batting around". It is indicative of a high scoring inning. A complete inning consists of each opposing side having a turn (three outs) on offense.
{{see also|Baseball positions}}


=== Players ===
The goal of the team at bat is to score more runs than the opposition; a player may do so only by batting, then ], touching all the bases in order (via one or more plays), and finally touching home plate. To that end, the goal of each batter is to enable ] to score or to become a baserunner himself. The batter attempts to hit the ball into ]—between the baselines—in such a way that the defending players cannot get them or the baserunners out. In general, the pitcher attempts to prevent this by pitching the ball in such a way that the batter cannot hit it cleanly or, ideally, at all.
]


{{Category see also|Category:Baseball players|Lists of baseball players}}
A baserunner who successfully touches home plate after touching all previous bases in order scores a '']''. In an enclosed field, a ] hit over the fence on the fly is normally an automatic '']'', which entitles the batter and all runners to touch all the bases and score. A home run hit with all bases occupied ('bases loaded') is called a ''grand slam''.


The number of players on a baseball roster, or ''squad'', varies by ] and by the level of organized play. A ] (MLB) team has a roster of 26 players with specific roles. A typical roster features the following players:<ref>See, e.g., {{cite web|url=http://washington.nationals.mlb.com/news/press_releases/press_release.jsp?ymd=20090404&content_id=4127882&vkey=pr_was&fext=.jsp&c_id=was|title=Nationals Finalize 25-Man Roster|date=April 4, 2009|access-date=April 21, 2009|publisher=Washington Nationals/Major League Baseball|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714104000/http://washington.nationals.mlb.com/news/press_releases/press_release.jsp?ymd=20090404&content_id=4127882&vkey=pr_was&fext=.jsp&c_id=was|archive-date=July 14, 2011}}{{update inline|date=April 2023}}</ref>
===Fielding team===
* Eight ]s: the ], four ]s, and three ]s—all of whom play on a regular basis
{{seealso|Baseball positions|Baseball positioning}}
* Five ]s who constitute the team's ] rotation or starting rotation
* Seven ]s, including one ], who constitute the team's ] (named for the off-field area where pitchers warm up)
* One backup, or substitute, catcher
* Five backup infielders and backup outfielders, or players who can play multiple positions, known as ]s.


Most baseball leagues worldwide have the DH rule, including MLB, ], and Caribbean professional leagues, along with major American amateur organizations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Alexander|first=Charles C.|title=Our Game: An American Baseball History|publisher=Macmillan|year=1991|page=|isbn=9780805015942|url=https://archive.org/details/ourgameamerican000alex/page/290}}</ref> The ] in ] does not have the rule and high-level minor league clubs connected to National League teams are not required to field a DH.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ringolsby|first=Tracy|title=Tide is turning toward a universal DH|publisher=Major League Baseball|date=January 20, 2016|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/national-league-could-add-dh-before-long/c-162404308|access-date=April 22, 2018}}</ref> In leagues that apply the designated hitter rule, a typical team has nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers,<ref>{{cite web|last=McLaughlin|first=Dan|title=Designated Hitters and the Economics of Baseball|publisher=]|date=July 12, 2011|url=http://grantland.com/the-triangle/designated-hitters-and-the-economics-of-baseball/|access-date=August 6, 2017}}</ref> seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher, and two or three other reserve players.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dunn|first=Jay|title=Jay Dunn: It's Time For MLB Teams to Consider Grooming Two-Way Players|work=]|date=June 21, 2017|url=http://www.trentonian.com/article/TT/20170621/SPORTS/170629946|access-date=August 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Goldman|first=Steven|title=It Is Time for Baseball to Fight Back Against Big Bullpen|publisher=]|date=April 26, 2016|url=https://sports.vice.com/en_us/article/kbdw9z/it-is-time-for-baseball-to-fight-back-against-big-bullpen|access-date=August 6, 2017}}</ref>
The squad in the field is the defensive team; they attempt to prevent the baserunners from scoring. There are nine defensive positions, however, only two of the positions have a mandatory location (pitcher and catcher), the locations of the other seven fielders is not specified by the rules, except that at the moment the pitch is delivered they must be positioned in fair territory and not in the space between the pitcher and the catcher. These fielders often shift their ] in response to specific batters or game situations, and they may exchange positions with one another at any time. The nine positions most commonly used are: pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, third baseman, shortstop, left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. Note that, in rare cases, teams may use dramatically differing schemes, such as switching an outfielder for an infielder. Scorekeepers label each position with a number starting with the pitcher (1), catcher (2), first baseman (3), second baseman (4), third baseman (5), shortstop (6), left fielder (7), center fielder (8), right fielder (9). This convention was established by ]. The reason the shortstop seems out of order has to do with the way fielders positioned themselves in the early years of the game.


====The battery==== === Managers and coaches ===
The ], or head coach, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more ]; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, who occupy designated coaches' boxes, just outside the foul lines. These coaches assist in the direction of baserunners, when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners, during pauses in play.<ref>Walfoort, Cleon, "Most 'Signs' Given by Coaches Are Merely Camouflage", '']'', December 1960 – January 1961, pp. 47–49.</ref> In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform to be allowed on the field to confer with players during a game.<ref>"The Fans Speak Out" , ''Baseball Digest'', August 1999, pp. 9–10; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/03_game_preliminaries.pdf|title=Official Rules/3.00—Game Preliminaries (Rule 3.15)|access-date=April 27, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520205621/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/03_game_preliminaries.pdf|archive-date=May 20, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
The '']'' is composed of the ''],'' who stands on the rubber of the mound, and the '']'', who squats behind home plate. These are the two fielders who always deal directly with the batter on every pitch, hence the term "battery", coined by ] and later reinforced by the implied comparison to ] fire.


=== Umpires ===
The pitcher's main role is to ] the ball toward home plate with the goal of getting the batter ]. Pitchers also play defense by fielding batted balls, ] (for a potential ] or ] on an approaching runner), or backing up throws. The catcher's main role is to receive the pitch if the batter does not hit it. Together with the pitcher and coaches, the catcher plots game strategy by suggesting different pitches and by shifting the starting positions of the other fielders. Catchers are also responsible for defense in the area near home plate.
Any baseball game involves one or more ], who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In MLB, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines.<ref>Zoss (2004), p. 293; {{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf|title=Official Rules/9.00—The Umpire|access-date=February 18, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215915/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/09_the_umpire.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>


====The infielders==== == Strategy ==
{{see also|Baseball positioning}}
The four infielders are the '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']''. Originally the first, second and third basemen played very near their respective bases, and the shortstop generally played "in" (hence the term), covering the area between second, third, and the pitchers box, or wherever the game situation required. As the game evolved, the fielding positions changed to the now-familiar "umbrella", with the first and third baseman generally positioned a short distance toward second base from their bases, the second baseman to the right side of second base standing farther away from the base than any other infielder, and the shortstop playing to the left of second base, as seen from the batter's perspective, filling in the gaps.


Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers.<ref>{{cite web|author=Bast, Andrew|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/146842|title=Southpaw's Revenge|date=July 18, 2008|access-date=February 8, 2009|work=]}}</ref> A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup, who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher, may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions. The manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups and the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder (known as a ]).<ref>See, e.g., Davis, Hank, ''Small-town Heroes: Images of Minor League Baseball'' (Univ. of Iowa Press, 1997), p. 186.</ref>
The ]'s job consists largely of making ]s at first base on ]s hit to the other ]s. When an infielder picks up a ball from the ground hit by the ], he must throw it to the first baseman who must catch the ball and maintain contact with the base before the batter gets to it for the batter to be out. The need to do this quickly often requires the first baseman to stretch one of his legs to touch first base while catching the ball simultaneously. The first baseman must be able to catch the ball very well and usually wears a specially designed ]. The first baseman also fields balls hit near first base. The first baseman also has to receive throws from the pitcher in order to tag runners out who have reached base safely. The position is less physically challenging than the other positions, but there is still a lot of skill involved. Infielders don't always make good throws to first base, so it is the first baseman's job to field any ball thrown toward him cleanly. Older players who can no longer fulfill the demands of their original positions also often become first basemen. The second baseman covers the area to the first-base side of second base and provides backup for the first baseman in ] situations. He also is a cut-off for the ]. This is when the outfielder doesn't have to throw the full distance from him/her to the base, but just to the cut-off. The shortstop fills the critical gap between second and third bases—where right-handed batters generally hit ground balls—and also covers second or third base and the near part of ]. This player is also a cut-off for the outfield. This position is the most demanding defensively, so a good shortstop doesn't need to necessarily be a good batter. The third baseman's primary requirement is a strong throwing arm, in order to make the long throw across the infield to the first baseman. Quick reaction time is also important for third basemen, as they tend to see more sharply hit balls than the other infielders, thus the nickname for third base as the "hot corner."


==Tactics==
====The outfielders====
=== Pitching and fielding ===
The three outfielders, '']'', '']'', and '']'', are so named from the ]'s perspective looking out onto the field. The ] generally has the strongest arm of all the ]s due to the need to make throws on runners attempting to take ]. The ] has more territory to cover than the corner ]s, so this player must be quick and agile with a strong arm to throw balls in to the ]; as with the ], teams tend to emphasize defense at this position. Also, the ] is considered the ] leader, and left- and right-fielders often cede to his direction when fielding ]s. Of all outfielders, the '']'' often has the weakest arm, as they generally do not need to throw the ball as far in order to prevent the advance of any baserunners. The left fielder still requires good fielding and catching skills, and tends to receive more balls than the right fielder due to the fact that ] hitters, who are much more common, tend to "pull" the ball into left field. Each outfielder runs to "back up" a nearby outfielder who attempts to field a ball hit near both their positions. Outfielders also run to back up infielders on batted balls and thrown balls, including pick-off attempts from the ] or from the ].
] receives a ] throw, as the runner dives back to first base.]]


{{see also|Pitch (baseball)}}
====Defensive strategy====
=====Pitching=====
]
{{main|Pitching}}


The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection.<ref>{{cite news|last=Paine|first=Neil|title=Game Theory Says R.A. Dickey Should Throw More Knuckleballs|work=FiveThirtyEight|date=August 13, 2015|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/game-theory-says-r-a-dickey-should-throw-more-knuckleballs/|access-date=April 22, 2018}}</ref> By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter, thus creating differing pitches that can be selected.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=The Mechanics Of A Breaking Pitch|magazine=Popular Mechanics|date=December 6, 2004|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/adventure/sports/a3207/1283161/|access-date=April 23, 2018}}</ref> Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the ], the ] (or off-speed pitch), and two ]s—the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Walsh, John|url=http://www.hardballtimes.com/main/article/fastball-slider-changeup-curveball-an-analysis/|title=Fastball, Slider, Change-up, Curveball—An Analysis|date=December 20, 2007|access-date=February 21, 2009|publisher=]}}</ref> Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical or horizontal location.<ref>Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 192.</ref> If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may ] and the catcher will call for a different pitch.
Effective pitching is vitally important to a baseball team, as pitching is the key for the defensive team to retire batters and to preventing runners from getting on base. A full game usually involves over one hundred pitches thrown by each team. However, most pitchers begin to tire before they reach this point. In previous eras, pitchers would often throw up to four complete games (all nine innings) in a week. With new advances in medical research and thus a better understanding of how the human body functions and tires out, starting pitchers tend more often to throw fractions of a game (typically 6 or 7 innings depending on their performance) about every five days (though a few complete games do still occur each year).


With a runner on base and ], the pitcher may attempt a ], a quick throw to a fielder ] to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McCarver|first1=Tim|last2=Peary|first2=Danny|title=Tim McCarver's Baseball for Brain Surgeons and Other Fans: Understanding and Interpreting the Game So You Can Watch It Like a Pro|publisher=Random House|year=2013|pages=71, 272–273|isbn=9780307831774}}</ref> Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a ] against the pitcher, which permits any runners on base to advance one base with impunity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Balk|publisher=Major League Baseball|url=http://m.mlb.com/glossary/rules/balk|access-date=April 23, 2018}}</ref> If an attempted ] is anticipated, the catcher may call for a ], a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base.<ref>Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 126–132.</ref> Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a ], with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may ], moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ], though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.<ref name=SB45>Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45.</ref>
Multiple pitchers are often needed in a single game, including the ] and ](s). Pitchers are substituted for one another like any other player (see below), and the rules do not limit the number of pitchers that can be used in a game; the only limiting factor is the size of the squad, naturally. In general, starting pitchers are not used in relief situations except sometimes during the post-season when every game is vital. If a game runs into many extra innings, a team may well empty its ]. If it then becomes necessary to use a "position player" as a pitcher, major league teams generally have certain players pre-designated as emergency relief pitchers, to avoid the embarrassment of using a less skillful player. In baseball's early years, squads were smaller, and relief pitchers were relatively uncommon, with the starter normally remaining for the entire game unless he was either thoroughly ineffective or became injured; today, with a much greater emphasis on pitch count (100 being the "magic number" in general), over the course of a single game each team will frequently use from two to five pitchers. In the 2005 ], all four of the ] victories were complete games by the starters, a highly noteworthy event in the modern game.


=== Batting and baserunning ===
Although a pitcher can only take one step backward and one forward, he has to step off the mound to throw over to first base if he is a right handed pitcher. While delivering the ball, the pitcher has a great arsenal at his disposal in the variation of location, velocity, movement, and arm location (see ]). Most pitchers attempt to master two or three types of pitches; some pitchers throw up to 6 types of pitches with varying degrees of control. Common pitches include a ], which is the ball thrown at high speed; a ], which is made to curve by rotation imparted by the pitcher; and a ], which seeks to mimic the delivery of a fastball but arrives at significantly lower velocity.
] player ] hits a pitch by swinging his ].]]
Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The ] is sometimes employed, with a skillful ], the runner takes off with the pitch, drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through.<ref>Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 5, 46–47.</ref> The ], calls for the batter to focus on making soft contact with the ball, so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into ] as the batter is thrown out at first. A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to ] for a hit. A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a ].<ref>Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 42–43, 47–48.</ref> With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter, in this case, gets credit for a ].<ref name=SB45/> In order to increase the chance of advancing a batter to first base via a walk, the manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ] (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to ], or not swing at, the next pitch. The batter's potential reward of reaching base (via a walk) exceeds the disadvantage if the next pitch is a strike.<ref>Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 186.</ref>


== History ==
To illustrate pitching strategy, consider the "fastball/change-up" combination: The average major-league pitcher can throw a fastball around 90 ] (145 km/h), and a few pitchers have even exceeded 100 miles per hour (161 km/h). The change-up is thrown somewhere between 75 to 85 miles per hour (121 to 137 km/h). Since the batter's timing is critical to hitting a pitch, a batter swinging to hit what looks like a fastball, would be terribly fooled (swing and miss, hopefully) when the pitch turns out to be a much slower change-up.
{{main|History of baseball}}
{{Further|Origins of baseball}}


The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game ], popular among children in ].<ref name="BlockRader"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rounders (English Game)|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/510872/rounders |access-date=October 23, 2018 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Cohen|first=Claire|title=Save rounders! It's the only sport for people who hate sport|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11384071/Rounders-Its-the-only-sport-for-people-who-hate-sport.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/11384071/Rounders-Its-the-only-sport-for-people-who-hate-sport.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Telegraph|date=February 2, 2015|access-date=October 23, 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> American baseball historian David Block suggests that the game originated in ]; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. According to Block and ], official MLB historian, this earlier version of baseball may have involved hitting the ball with a hand, making it akin to today's ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thorn |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gqF84JTKCNoC&oi=fnd&pg=PA58 |title=Baseball in the Garden of Eden: The Secret History of the Early Game |date=2012-03-20 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-9404-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Curtis |first=Bryan |date= |title=» In Search of Baseball’s Holy Grail |url=https://grantland.com/features/baseball-archaeologist-david-block/ |access-date=2024-12-24 |language=en-US}}</ref> Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of ] and "tut-ball".<ref name="BlockRader">Block (2005), pp. 86, 87, 111–113, 118–121, 135–138, 144, 160; Rader (2008), p. 7.</ref> The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, '']'', by ].<ref>Block (2005), pp. 139, 140, 151, 164, 178, 179, et seq.; {{cite web|author=Hellier, Cathy|url=http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume2/june04/pocketbook.cfm|title=Mr. Newbery's Little Pretty Pocket-Book|access-date=April 12, 2008|publisher=Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}} See ].</ref> Block discovered that the first recorded game of "Bass-Ball" took place in 1749 in ], and featured the ] as a player.<ref>{{cite news|title=Why isn't baseball more popular in the UK?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23425907|access-date=July 26, 2013|work=BBC News|date=July 26, 2013}}</ref> This early form of the game was apparently brought to ] by English immigrants.<ref>Block (2005), pp. 58, 160, 300, 307, 310; {{cite web|author=Miller, Doug|url=http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050802&content_id=1154441&vkey=news_bos&fext=.jsp&c_id=bos|title=Pittsfield: Small City, Big Baseball Town|date=August 2, 2005|access-date=February 3, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321043321/http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050802&content_id=1154441&vkey=news_bos&fext=.jsp&c_id=bos|archive-date=March 21, 2006}}</ref>
Some pitchers choose to throw using the '],' a very efficient sidearm or near-underhand motion. Pitchers with a submarine delivery are often very difficult to hit because of the angle and movement of the ball once released. ], who threw one of the fastest fastballs in the history of the game, threw sidearm (though not submarine) rather than a normal overhand. True underhanded pitching is permitted in Major League Baseball. However, it is difficult to generate enough velocity and movement with the underhand motion.
], baseball (bottom) had overtaken its fellow bat-and-ball sport ] (top) in popularity within the United States.{{Efn|Partially because baseball was much shorter in duration than the form of cricket ] and did not require a ].}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crown |first=Daniel |date=2017-10-19 |title=The Battle Between Baseball and Cricket for American Sporting Supremacy |url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/cricket-baseball-american-sport |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Why cricket and America are made for each other |url=https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2022/12/20/why-cricket-and-america-are-made-for-each-other |access-date=2023-01-05 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> Growing American influence abroad meant the same occurred in Japan and the Dominican Republic by the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guthrie-Shimizu |first=Sayuri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx2i3f5k6MkC&pg=PA26 |title=Transpacific Field of Dreams: How Baseball Linked the United States and Japan in Peace and War |date=2012-04-04 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-8266-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=DR1.com - Dominican Republic News & Travel Information Service |url=https://dr1.com/articles/cricket.shtml |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=dr1.com}}</ref>]]
By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America.<ref>Block (2005), pp. 4–5, 11–15, 25, 33, 59–61, et. seq.</ref> The first officially recorded baseball game in North America was played in ], Canada, on June 4, 1838.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Giddens|first=David|url=https://www.cbc.ca/sportslongform/entry/how-canada-invented-american-football-baseball-basketball-and-hockey|title=How Canada invented 'American' football, baseball, basketball and hockey|publisher=]|date=June 15, 2017|access-date=June 4, 2019|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1845, ], a member of New York City's ], led the codification of the so-called ],<ref>Sullivan (1997), p. 292.</ref> which in turn were based on rules developed in 1837 by ] of the Gotham Club.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://protoball.org/1845_Knickerbocker_Rules|title=Evolution or Revolution? A Rule-By-Rule Analysis of the 1845 Knickerbocker Rules|publisher=Protoball|author=Kittel, Jeffrey|access-date=May 9, 2016|archive-date=December 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205115830/https://protoball.org/1845_Knickerbocker_Rules|url-status=dead}}</ref> While there are reports that the ] played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in ]: the "New York Nine" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings.<ref>Sullivan (1997), pp. 32, 80, 95.</ref> With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century.<ref>Tygiel (2000), pp. 8–14; Rader (2008), pp. 71–72.</ref> The game then went on to spread throughout the ] and the Americas,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guthrie-Shimizu |first=Sayuri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx2i3f5k6MkC&pg=PP15 |title=Transpacific Field of Dreams: How Baseball Linked the United States and Japan in Peace and War |date=2012-04-04 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-8266-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317980360 |title=Mapping an Empire of American Sport |date=2013-09-13 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-98036-0 |editor-last=Dyreson |editor-first=Mark |edition=0 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315872971 |editor-last2=Mangan |editor-first2=J.A. |editor-last3=Park |editor-first3=Roberta J.}}</ref> with Americans backing the sport as a way to spread American values.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Beyond the outfield: Baseball fiction and historical fantasy, 1864-present |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2142/104978 |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |date=2019-03-29 |degree=text |first=Debora N. |last=Tienou |pages=1|hdl=2142/104978 }}</ref>


=== In the United States ===
=====Fielding strategy=====
{{Further|Baseball in the United States|History of baseball in the United States}}
Only the pitcher's and catcher's locations are fixed, and then only at the beginning of each pitch. Thus, the players on the field move around as needed to defend against scoring a run. Many variations of this are possible, as location depends upon the situation. Circumstances such as the number of outs, the count (balls and strikes) on the batter, the number and speed of runners, the ability of the fielders, the ability of the pitcher, the type of pitch thrown, and the inning cause the fielders move to more strategic locations on the field. Common defensive strategies include: playing for the bunt, trying to prevent a ], moving to a shallow position to throw out a runner at home, playing at "] depth", and moving fielders to locations where hitters are most likely to hit the ball.


==== Establishment of professional leagues ====
===Team at bat===
In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the ],<ref>Rader (2008), pp. 9, 10.</ref> and by 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the "national pastime" or "national game".<ref>Tygiel (2000), p. 6.</ref> A year later, the sport's first governing body, the ], was formed. In 1867, it barred participation by ].<ref>Rader (2008), p. 27; Sullivan (1997), pp. 68, 69.</ref> The more formally structured ] was founded in 1876.<ref>Sullivan (1997), pp. 83, 130, 243.</ref> Professional ] formed, but quickly folded.<ref>Sullivan (1997), p. 115.</ref> In 1887, ], under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game.<ref>Heaphy, Leslie, "Women Playing Hardball", in ''Baseball and Philosophy: Thinking Outside the Batter's Box'', ed. Eric Bronson (Open Court, 2004), pp. 246–256: p. 247.</ref> The National League's first successful counterpart, the ], which evolved from the minor ], was established in 1893, and virtually all of the modern ] were in place by then.<ref name=R71>Rader (2008), p. 71.</ref><ref>Sullivan (1997), pp. 243–246.</ref>
====Batters and runners====
The ultimate goal of the team at bat is to score runs. To accomplish this feat, the team at bat successively (in a predetermined order called a ''lineup'' or ''batting order'') sends its nine players to the batter's box (adjacent to home plate) where they become batters. (Each team sets its batting lineup at the beginning of the game. Changes to the lineup are tightly limited by the rules of baseball and must be communicated to the umpires, who have the substitutions announced for the opposing team and fans. See ] below.)


The National Agreement of 1903 formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's ].<ref>Rader (2008), p. 110; Zimbalist (2006), p. 22. See {{cite web|title=National Agreement for the Government of Professional Base Ball Clubs|url=http://roadsidephotos.sabr.org/baseball/1903NatAgree.htm|publisher=roadsidephotos.sabr.org|access-date=January 29, 2009}}</ref> The ], pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall.<ref>Sullivan (1997), pp. 13–16.</ref> The ] of the ] led to the formation of the office of the ].<ref>Powers (2003), pp. 39, 47, 48.</ref> The first commissioner, ], was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the ]; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the ].<ref>Burgos (2007), pp. 117, 118.</ref>
A batter's turn at the plate is called a '']'' or an "]." Batters advance to the bases in a variety of ways: hits, walks, hit-by-pitch, and a few others. When the batter hits a fair ball, he must run to first base, and may continue or stop at any base unless he is put out. A successful hit occurs when the batter reaches a base: reaching only first base is a ''single''; reaching second base, a ''double''; third base, a ''triple''; and a hit that allows the batter to touch all bases in order on the same play is a ], whether the ball is hit over the fence. Once a runner is held to a base, he may attempt to advance at any time, but is not required to do so unless the batter or another runner displaces him (called a force play). A batter always drops his bat when running the bases— otherwise, the bat would slow him down and could give rise to a call of fielder to catch it on its descent. A '']'' is like a fly ball, but the ball is hit with such force that its trajectory seems level to the ground. A batted ball which is not hit into the air, and which touches the ground within the infield before it can be caught, is called a '']''. When a ball is hit outside the foul line, it is a ''foul ball'', requiring the batter and all runners to return to their respective bases.


==== Rise of Ruth and racial integration ====
Once the batter and any existing runners have all stopped at a base or been put out, the ball is returned to the pitcher, and the next batter comes to the plate. After the opposing team bats in its own order and three more outs are recorded, the first team's batting order will continue again from where it left off.


Compared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring, and pitchers were more dominant.<ref>Sullivan (1997), p. 214.</ref> This so-called "]" ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governed the ball's size, shape and composition, along with a new rule officially banning the ] and other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit.<ref>Zoss (2004), p. 90.</ref> The rise of the legendary player ], the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game.<ref>Zoss (2004), p. 192.</ref> In the late 1920s and early 1930s, ] general manager ] invested in several ] and developed the first modern ].<ref>Burk (2001), pp. 34–37.</ref> A new ] was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the ]. The ] to the ] took place in 1936. In 1939, ] was founded in Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.littleleague.org/about/history.asp|title=History of Little League|access-date=June 26, 2007|publisher=Little League|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514082459/http://www.littleleague.org/about/history.asp|archive-date=May 14, 2007}}</ref>
When a runner reaches home plate, he scores a run and is no longer a base runner. He must leave the playing area until his spot in the order comes up again. A runner may only circle the bases once per plate appearance and thus can score no more than a single run.


] barnstorming team, November 1945 (photo by Maurice Terrell)|] in 1945, with the era's ], a ] squad associated with the ]'s ]]]
====Batting====
] ] just after swinging at a pitch]]
{{main|Batting (baseball)}}
Each ] consists of a series of pitches, in which the ] throws the ball towards home plate while a batter is standing in the ]. With each pitch, the batter must decide whether to swing the bat at the ball in an attempt to hit it. The pitches arrive quickly, so the decision to swing must be made in less than a tenth of a second, based on whether the ball is hittable and in the '']'', a region defined by the area directly above home plate and between the hollow beneath the batter's knee and the midpoint between the top of the shoulders and the top of the uniform pants. In addition to swinging at the ball, a batter who wishes to put the ball in play may hold his bat over home plate and attempt to tap a pitch lightly; this is called a ]. Good bunting technique has been described as "catching the ball with the bat."


Many minor league teams disbanded when ] led to a player shortage. ] owner ] led the formation of the ] to help keep the game in the public eye.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aagpbl.org/index.cfm/pages/league/12/league-history|title=League History|author=Lesko, Jeneane|year=2005|publisher=All-American Girls Professional Baseball League Players Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724213445/http://aagpbl.org/index.cfm/pages/league/12/league-history|archive-date=July 24, 2011|url-status=dead|access-date=January 29, 2009}}</ref> The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred in 1945: ] was signed by the National League's ] and began playing for their minor league ].<ref>Burgos (2007), p. 158.</ref> In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers.<ref>Burgos (2007), pp. 180, 191.</ref> Latin-American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born ] and black Cuban-born ], became the first Hispanic ].<ref name="P111">Powers (2003), p. 111.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E06E3DD113FF935A15753C1A9639C8B63|title=Baseball: White Sox and Fans Speak Same Language, with a Spanish Accent|date=October 26, 2005|work=]|access-date=February 4, 2009}}</ref> ] proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster.<ref name="P111" />
On any pitch, if the batter swings at the ball and misses, he is charged with a '']''. If the batter does not swing, the home plate ] judges whether the ball passed through the strike zone. If the ball, or any part of it, passed through the zone, it is ruled a strike; otherwise, it is called a '']''. The number of balls and strikes thrown to the current batter is known as the ]; the count is always given balls first (except in Japan, where it is reversed), then strikes (such as 3-2 or "three and two", also known as a "full count," which would be 3 balls and 2 strikes).


==== Attendance records and the age of steroids ====
If the batter swings and makes contact with the ball, but does not put it in play in fair territory—a '']''—he is charged with an additional strike, except when there are already two strikes. Thus, a foul ball with two strikes leaves the count unchanged. (However, a noted exception to this rule is that a ball bunted foul with two strikes always counts as a strike.) If a pitch is batted foul or fair and a member of the defensive team is able to catch it, before the ball strikes the ground, the batter is declared out. In the event that a bat contacts the ball, but the ball continues sharply and directly to the catcher's mitt and is caught by the catcher, it is a '']'', which is same as an ordinary strike.


In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was ], leading to the ].<ref>Powers (2003), pp. 178, 180, 245.</ref> Significant work stoppages occurred in ] and ], the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years.<ref>Powers (2003), pp. 184–187, 191, 192, 280–282.</ref> Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance.<ref name="Simm">Simmons, Rob, "The Demand for Spectator Sports", in ''Handbook on the Economics of Sport'', ed. Wladimir Andreff and Stefan Szymanski (Edward Elgar, 2006), pp. 77–89.</ref><ref>Koppett (2004), pp. 376, 511.</ref> After play resumed in 1995, non-division-winning ] teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season ] was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set.<ref>Koppett (2004), p. 481.</ref> In 2000, the National and American Leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and ] supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of MLB.<ref>Koppett (2004), p. 489.</ref>
When three strikes occur on a batter, it is a '']'' and the batter is automatically out unless the pitch is not caught by the catcher or if the pitch bounces before it is caught. It is then ruled a ]. (This is a violation of the third strike rule.<ref>The "third strike rule", which has been on the books since at least the time of the ], is that the batter can try to advance to first base on the third strike, if the third strike is not caught. However, the batter is ''not'' permitted to advance if first base is occupied, unless there are already two outs. This is to prevent the catcher from dropping the ball on purpose and setting up a potential double or triple play. The underlying concept is the same as the "]", to curb defensive ]s. Both rules change when there are two outs, because then there is no defensive advantage to dropping the ball on purpose. Statistically, such a play still counts as a strikeout for the pitcher, plus either a passed ball charged to the catcher or a wild pitch charged to the pitcher, so if the batter advances safely to first on such a play, it is possible for a pitcher to record 4 (or more) strikeouts in one inning. Such has happened several dozen times in the history of the major leagues, and at least one time in the minor leagues a pitcher has recorded 5.</ref>) If the catcher drops the third strike the batter is permitted to attempt to advance to first base. In this case, the batter is not out (although the pitcher is awarded a strikeout). The catcher can try to get the batter out by tagging him with the ball or throwing the ball to first base and forcing him out. (See ] and ] for famous examples of dropped third strikes that dramatically altered the course of post-season series'.)


In 2001, ] established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by ] (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004.<ref>Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271; Zimbalist (2007), pp. 195, 196; {{cite magazine|author=Verducci, Tom|title=To Cheat or Not to Cheat|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/magazine/05/29/baseball.steroids/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601005751/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/magazine/05/29/baseball.steroids/index.html?|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 1, 2012|magazine=]|date=May 29, 2012|access-date=May 30, 2012}}</ref> In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing ], as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs.<ref name="MajorAtRec">{{cite web|title=MLB Regular-Season Attendance Just Shy of Last Year's Record|url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/article/124427|work=Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Daily|access-date=January 29, 2009}}</ref><ref name="MinorAtRec">{{cite web|title=Minor League Baseball History|url=http://web.minorleaguebaseball.com/milb/history/|publisher=Minor League Baseball|access-date=January 29, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120173052/http://web.minorleaguebaseball.com/milb/history/|archive-date=January 20, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
On the fourth ] the batter becomes a runner, and is entitled to advance to first base without risk of being put out, called a '']'' or a ''walk'' (abbreviated BB). If a pitch touches the batter, the umpire declares a '']'' (abbreviated HBP) and the batter is awarded first base, unless the umpire determines that the ball was in the strike zone when it hit the batter, or that the batter did not attempt to avoid being hit. In practice, neither exception is ever called unless the batter obviously tries to get hit by the pitch; even standing still in the box will virtually always be overlooked, and the batter awarded first. If the catcher's mitt, catcher's mask, or any part of the catcher comes in contact with the batter and/or the batter's bat as the batter is attempting to hit a pitch, the batter is awarded first base, ruled "catcher's interference."


=== Around the world{{Anchor|Around-the-world}} ===
====Baserunning====
{{Main|History of baseball outside the United States}}
{{main|Baserunning}}
Despite having been called "America's national pastime", baseball is well-established in several other countries. As early as 1877, a professional league, the ], featured teams from both Canada and the United States.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), p. 73; Burk (2001), p. 58.</ref> While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country,<ref>{{cite web|title=Canada: Baseball participation, popularity rising across the nation|publisher=World Baseball Softball Confederation|date=October 12, 2016|url=http://www.wbsc.org/canada-baseball-participation-popularity-rising-across-the-nation/|access-date=April 2, 2018|archive-date=April 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402231713/http://www.wbsc.org/canada-baseball-participation-popularity-rising-across-the-nation/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1=Flaherty, David H.|editor2=Manning, Frank E.|title=The Beaver Bites Back?: American Popular Culture in Canada|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1993|pages=157–158|isbn=9780773511200}}</ref> the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the ] joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion ] joined the American League.<ref>{{cite book|last=Riess|first=Steven A.|title=Sports in America from Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century: An Encyclopedia|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|pages=172, 656–657|isbn=9781317459477}}</ref>


] managing the ] in the ]. Playing for the ]'s ] (1959–80), Oh set the professional world record for home runs.]]
Once a batter becomes a runner and reaches first base safely, he is said to be "on" that base until he attempts to advance to the next base, until he is put out, or until the half-inning ends. When comparing two or more runners on the basepaths, the runner farther along is called a ''lead runner'' or a ''preceding runner''; the other runner is called a ''trailing runner'' or a ''following runner'' . Runners on second or third base are considered to be in ''scoring position'' since ordinary hits, even singles, will often allow them to score.
In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at ] in ], ].<ref>Terry (1909), p. 506.</ref> The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition. The ] held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv.</ref> Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938).<ref>Bjarkman (2004), pp. 356, 123, 137, xxiv, 11, 233; Gmelch (2006), p. 296.</ref> The ] have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States.<ref>McNeil (2000), p. 113.</ref>


], a ] variation of baseball, was invented by ] in the 1920s,<ref>
A runner legally touching a base is "safe"—he may not be put out. Runners may attempt to advance from base to base at any time (except when the ]), but must attempt to advance when ]--when all previous bases are occupied and the batter becomes a runner. When a ball is hit in the air, a ''fly ball'', and caught by the defending team, runners must return and touch the base they occupied at the ]—called '']''—after the ball is first touched. Once they do this, they may attempt to advance at their own risk.
{{cite web |url= http://www.pesis.fi/pesapalloliitto/international_site/introduction/ |title= Introduction to the game |website= Pesis.fi |publisher= Pesäpalloliitto |access-date=October 16, 2015 }}</ref> and after that, it has changed with the times and grown in popularity. Picture of Pesäpallo match in 1958 in ], Finland.]]


After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American countries, most prominently ] (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955).<ref>Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv, xxv; Burgos (2007), p. 46.</ref> Since the early 1970s, the annual ] has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the ], ], ], and ]. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990) and China (2003) all have professional leagues.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), pp. 362, 368; Gmelch (2006), pp. 100, 75, 59.</ref>
Only one runner may occupy a base at a time; if two runners are touching a base at once, the trailing runner is ] and will be out if ], unless he was forced--in which case the lead runner is out when tagged for failing to reach his ]. Either such occurrence is very rare. Thus, after a play, at most three runners may be on the basepaths, one on each base--first, second, and third. When three runners are on base, this is called ''bases loaded''.


The English football club, ], were the first British baseball champions winning the ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Kendrick |first=Mat |url=http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/aston-villa-the-day-the-claret-and-blues-157375 |title=Aston Villa: The day the claret and blues won the baseball league |newspaper=] |access-date=October 3, 2016}}</ref><ref name=Cheats>{{cite news|title=The Baseball Championship: Aston Villa the Winners|publisher=Sporting Life|date=September 3, 1890|page=1}}</ref> The 2020 ] were the ]. Other European countries have seen professional leagues; the most successful, other than the ], is the ], founded in 1948.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), pp. xv.</ref> In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mayo, Jonathan|title=Perspective: Baseball in the Holy Land|url=http://web.minorleaguebaseball.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090127&content_id=501366&vkey=news_milb&fext=.jsp|publisher=Minor League Baseball|date=January 28, 2009|access-date=February 5, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131063101/http://web.minorleaguebaseball.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090127&content_id=501366&vkey=news_milb&fext=.jsp|archive-date=January 31, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries. Other competitions between national teams, such as the ] and the ], were administered by the ] (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the ] to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the ] (WBSC).<ref>{{cite web|title=International Baseball Federation (Confederations/Member Federations)|url=http://www.ibaf.org/|publisher=International Baseball Federation|access-date=February 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306131244/http://www.ibaf.org/|archive-date=March 6, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> ] is played on an organized amateur basis in numerous countries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Seymour Mills|first=Dorothy|title=Chasing Baseball: Our Obsession with its History, Numbers, People and Places|publisher=McFarland & Company|year=2009|pages=169–170|isbn=9780786455881}}</ref>
]
Baserunners may attempt to advance, or ], while the pitcher is throwing a pitch. The pitcher, in lieu of delivering the pitch, may try to prevent this by throwing the ball to one of the infielders in order to tag the runner; if successful, it is called a ''pick-off''. If the runner attempts to steal the next base but is tagged out before reaching it safely, he is ''caught stealing''. An illegal attempt by the pitcher to deceive a runner, among other pitching violations, is called a ], allowing the runners to advance one base without risk of being put out.


After being admitted to the Olympics as a ] beginning with the ], baseball was dropped from the ] at the 2005 ]. It remained part of the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Fewer Sports for London Olympics|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4658925.stm|work=BBC News|date=July 8, 2005|access-date=September 16, 2008}}</ref> While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor,<ref>{{cite web|title=Secret ballot eliminates baseball, softball|publisher=]|agency=Associated Press|date=July 8, 2005|url=http://www.espn.com/olympics/news/story?id=2103234|access-date=June 2, 2019}}</ref> more important was MLB's reluctance to allow its players to participate during the major league season.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Fetters, Ashley|title=Lost Sports of the Summer Olympics|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2012/07/lost-sports-of-the-summer-olympics/260101/|magazine=]|date=July 20, 2012|access-date=June 2, 2019}}</ref> MLB initiated the ], scheduled to precede its season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The ], held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants.<ref>{{cite news|author=Isidore, Chris|title=The Spring Classic?|url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/03/10/commentary/column_sportsbiz/sportsbiz/index.htm|publisher=CNNMoney.com|date=March 11, 2006|access-date=February 3, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=McNeal, Stan|title=Your Guide to the '06 World Baseball Classic|work=]|publisher=CBS Interactive|date=March 3, 2006|access-date=February 3, 2009|url=http://business.highbeam.com/62653/article-1G1-142729829/your-guide-06-world-baseball-classic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701033537/http://business.highbeam.com/62653/article-1G1-142729829/your-guide-06-world-baseball-classic|archive-date=July 1, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its ] in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.ibaf.org/en/news/2011/12/03/the-congress-approved-a-new-format-of-internationa/cd3e0ea8-a62d-4c01-85f5-4c2aafba5119|title=IBAF Congress Approves New Format of International Tournaments|publisher=International Baseball Federation|date=December 3, 2011|access-date=January 20, 2013}}</ref>
Another fundamental tenet of the rules of baseball is that a runner originally ruled out can subsequently be ruled safe, but once a runner is ruled safe he cannot be called out on the same play. A runner initially called out can be subsequently ruled safe if the fielder putting the runner out drops the ball (on either a tag or force play), pulls his foot off the base (in the case of a force play), or otherwise illegally obstructs a runner from reaching a base that he otherwise would have reached safely.


== Distinctive elements ==
====Batting and base running strategy====
Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following. All of these sports use a clock,<ref>Guttmann (2007), p. 140.</ref> play is less individual,<ref name="Mandelbaum5557">Mandelbaum (2005), pp. 55–57.</ref> and the variation between playing fields is not as substantial or important.<ref>Morris (2007), p. xi.</ref> The ] demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Brancazio|first=Peter J.|title=The Hardest Blow of All|magazine=]|date=December 22–29, 1983|pages=880–883|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpS_6bpt9KoC&pg=PA880|access-date=August 6, 2017}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
The goal of each batter is to become a base runner himself (by a ], a ], being ], a ], or ]) or to help move other base runners along (by ], ], or ]).


=== No clock to kill ===
Batters attempt to "read" pitchers through pre-game preparation by studying the tendencies of pitchers and by talking to other batters that previously faced the pitcher. While batting, batters attempt to "read" pitches by looking for clues that the pitcher or catcher reveal. These clues (also referred to as "tipping pitches") include movements of the pitchers arms, shoulders, body, etc, or the positioning of the catcher's feet and glove. Batters can attempt to "read" the spin of a ball early in the pitch to anticipate its trajectory. Batters also remain keenly aware of the count during their at bat. The count is considered to be in the batter's favor when there are more balls than strikes (e.g.two balls and no strikes). This puts pressure on the pitcher to throw a strike to avoid a walk so the batter is more likely to get an easier pitch to hit and can look for a particular pitch in a particular zone or take a riskier or bigger swing. The count is considered to be in the pitcher's favor when there are fewer balls than strikes (e.g. no balls and two strikes). This gives the pitcher more freedom to try enticing the batter to swing at a pitch outside the strike zone or throwing a pitch that is harder to control (e.g. a ], ] or ]), but that is also harder to hit. Thus the batter will take a more protective swing. A major strategy in batting at competitive levels of baseball is patient hitting. An example of patient hitting is when a batter has a zero strike count the batter will almost always look for his perfect pitch. One strike hitting is very similar to no strike hitting and the batter usually is still looking for a good pitch to hit. Two strike hitting, the strategy is changed where the batter will protect the plate by fouling off pitches until the batter is able to find a pitch to hit. This style of hitting is known as patience at the plate. This style of hitting allows the hitter to look for a good pitch to hit and make the pitcher throw more pitches so that the pitcher will tire out faster. This is critical if the batting team is facing a very skilled pitcher who if allowed to will take over the game with his ability to get batters to do what he wants them to do with the pitches that he makes.
]
In clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead ] rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock, thus a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy.<ref>Mount, Nicholas James, "Team Sports", in ''Encyclopedia of Time'', ed. Samuel L. Macey (Taylor & Francis, 1994), pp. 588–590: p. 590.</ref> Whereas, in the case of multi-day ] and ], the possibility of a ] (which occurs because of the restrictions on time, which like in baseball, originally ]<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 22, 2015|title=The Test match that went on and on and on. Without a winner but with meaning {{!}} Andy Bull|url=http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/dec/22/the-spin-cricket-the-timeless-test-1939|access-date=September 6, 2020|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>) often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind, to bat defensively and run out the clock, giving up any faint chance at a win, to avoid an overall loss.<ref>Eastaway, Rob, ''What Is a Googly?: The Mysteries of Cricket Explained'' (Anova, 2005), p. 134.</ref>


While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960.<ref name="HB">{{cite news|author=Bodley, Hal|url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/columnist/bodley/2004-02-26-bodley_x.htm|title=Baseball Wants Just a Few More Minutes|date=February 26, 2004|access-date=February 3, 2009|work=]}}</ref> By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters).<ref name="JG">{{cite news|author=Greenfield, Jeff|author-link=Jeff Greenfield|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988721,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930042801/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988721,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 30, 2007|title=Midnight Baseball|date=July 13, 1998|access-date=February 3, 2009|magazine=Time}}</ref> In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of 2:45.<ref name="HB"/> By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete.<ref>{{cite news|author=Berg, Ted|url=http://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/09/mlb-games-length-three-hours-pace-of-play|title=Why Are Baseball Games Getting So Much Longer?|date=September 30, 2014|access-date=December 27, 2014|work=USA Today}}</ref> The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play, with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently.<ref name="HB"/><ref name="JG"/> Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, ] took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.japanfs.org/en/pages/027087.html|title=Japan's Pro Baseball Teams Start Eco-Project to Cut Energy Use by 6%|date=July 13, 2008|access-date=February 18, 2009|publisher=Japan for Sustainability}}</ref>
In general, base running is a tactical part of the game requiring good judgment by runners (and their coaches) to assess the risk in attempting to advance. During ] plays, a good ] can affect the outcome of the play. Managers will sometimes simultaneously send a runner and require the batter to swing (a ] play) in an attempt to advance runners. Often, on a hit-and-run play the batter will try to "hit behind the runner" by hitting the ball to right field which makes it more likely that the runner will be able to make it to third base, thus taking an extra base.


In 2016, the average nine-inning playoff game in Major League baseball was 3 hours and 35 minutes. This was up 10 minutes from 2015 and 21 minutes from 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last=Crasnick |first=Jerry |url=http://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/21057049/mlb-playoff-games-averaging-three-hours-thirty-five-minutes-season |title=Major league teams playing marathon-length games in October |publisher=] |date=October 17, 2017 |access-date=October 18, 2017 }}</ref> In response to the lengthening of the game, MLB decided from the 2023 season onward to institute a ] rule to penalize batters and pitchers who take too much time between pitches; this had the effect of shortening 2023 regular season games by 24 minutes on average.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pitch Timer (2023 rule change) {{!}} Glossary |url=https://www.mlb.com/glossary/rules/pitch-timer |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=MLB.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=McCullough |first=Andy |title=The pitch clock meets the postseason: MLB's new rules face October pressure |url=https://theathletic.com/4917785/2023/10/02/pitch-clock-postseason-mlb/ |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=The Athletic |language=en}}</ref>
A batter can also attempt to move a baserunner forward by "sacrificing" his ]. This can be done by ] the ball, hitting a ] far enough in the air that a baserunner can advance after the catch, or simply making contact with the ball on a ] play.


=== Individual focus ===
During the course of play many offensive and defensive players run close to each other, and during tag plays, the defensive player must touch the offensive player. Although baseball is considered a ] sport, a runner may be allowed to make potentially dangerous contact with a fielder as part of an attempt to reach base, unless that fielder is fielding a batted ball. (Noted exceptions to the dangerous contact rule are found throughout amateur competitions, including youth leagues, high school, and college baseball.) A good slide is often more advantageous than such contact, and "malicious" contact by runners is typically prohibited as offensive ]. The most common occurrence of contact of this nature is at home plate between the runner and the catcher, as the catcher is well padded and locked into position that completely blocks home plate from the runner, and the runner will often try to knock the ball out of the catchers hand by running him over. Since the catcher is seen (symbolically and literally) as the last line of defense, it seems natural that the more physical play happens here.
] in 1920, the year he joined the ]]]
Although baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure. While rewarding, it has sometimes been described as "ruthless" due to the pressure on the individual player.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/sports/sporting-scene/ways-to-stay-sane-in-baseball|title = Ways to Stay Sane in Baseball|magazine = ]|date = April 4, 2015}}</ref> In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: "the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits".<ref>Clarke and Dawson (1915), p. 48.</ref> Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The ] is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it.


Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the ] and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the ] for an hour or much more.<ref>{{Cite web|title=10 Cricketers who batted on all five days of a Test match|url=https://cricket.yahoo.net/news/10-cricketers-batted-five-days-184512717|access-date=September 6, 2020|website=cricket.yahoo.net}}</ref> There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play.<ref>Morton, Richard, "Baseball in England", ''Badminton Magazine'', August 1896, pp. 157–158: "The scoring is one of the most interesting features in this new importation from America . Every detail of play is recorded, and a man's mistakes are tabulated as well as his successes... A line in a cricket score may read, 'Lockwood, ''caught'' Stoddart, ''bowled'' J. T. Hearne; 30.'...&nbsp;here is so much that is left out! There is no mention of the fact that O'Brien missed Lockwood before he had scored, and that somebody else failed to take a chance when his score was ten. These are items that go to make cricket history; but there is no record of them in the analysis... The man who catches a ball is thought worthy of mention, but the man who muffs one does not suffer by publicity."</ref>
===Innings and determining a winner===
An '']'' consists of each team having one turn in the field and one turn to hit, with the visiting team batting before the home team. A standard game lasts nine innings, although some leagues (such as high school baseball and ]) play fewer. The team with the most runs at the end of the game wins. If the home team is ahead after eight-and-a-half innings have been played, it is declared the winner, and the last half-inning is not played. If the home team is trailing or tied in the ninth inning or beyond and they score to take the lead, the game ends as soon as the winning run touches home plate; however, if the last batter hits a home run to win the game, he and any runners on base are all permitted to score.


=== Uniqueness of parks ===
If both teams have scored the same number of runs at the end of a regular-length game, a ] is avoided by the addition of ]. As many innings as necessary are played until one team has the lead at the end of an inning. Thus, the home team always has a chance to respond if the visiting team scores in the top half of the inning; this gives the home team a small tactical advantage. In theory, a baseball game could go on forever; in practice, however, they eventually end. In addition to that rule, a game might theoretically end if both the home and away team were to run out of players to substitute (See Substitutions). In ] the longest game played was a 26-inning affair between the ] and ] on ], ]. The game ended in a 1-1 tie called on account of darkness. Two ] teams, the ] and ], played a ] in 1981.
{{Further|Ballpark}}
], home of the ]. The ] is visible beyond the playing field on the left.]]


Unlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams, following the rules of MLB and ], is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of {{convert|325|ft|m|0}} from home plate to the fences in left and right field and {{convert|400|ft|m|0}} to center.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game. (Rule 1.04a)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at ], which became the home of the ] in 2000, the ] in left field are only {{convert|315|ft|m|0}} from home plate.<ref>{{cite news |author=Nightengale, Bob|date=August 20, 2008|url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2008-08-20-bestseats-minutemaid_N.htm|title=No. 8: Out in Left Field in Houston's Crawford Boxes|access-date=February 17, 2009|work=USA Today}}</ref> There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's ], in use since 1912: the ] is {{convert|310|ft|m|0}} from home plate down the line and {{convert|37|ft|m|0}} tall.<ref>Powers (2003), p. 85.</ref>
In Major League Baseball, games end with tie scores only because conditions have made it impossible to continue play. A tie game does not count as an official game in the standings unless it is finished later or replayed; however, individual player statistics from tie games are counted. Inclement weather may also shorten games, but at least five innings must be played for the game to be considered official; four-and-a-half innings are enough if the home team is ahead. Previously, ]s and the absence of adequate lighting caused more ties and shortened games. Also, with more modern playing surfaces better able to handle light rains, the process for calling or shortening a game due to weather has changed; it is more common than in the past to delay a game as much as 2 hours before a cancellation; also, a delay usually does not occur anymore until the rain is moderate-heavy and/or there is standing water on some part of the playing field.


Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground.<ref>Powers (2003), p. 219.</ref> A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or ].<ref>Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 198; {{cite news|author=Shaikin, Bill|date=May 27, 2006|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-may-27-sp-angels27-story.html|title=Guerrero Becomes Mr. Inside|access-date=February 17, 2009|work=]}}</ref> The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the adjacent image shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|title=Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game. (Rule 1.04)|access-date=February 2, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205011325/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/01_objectives_of_the_game.pdf|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> Some fields—including several in MLB—use ]. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played.<ref>{{cite news|author=Shaikin, Bill|date=October 8, 2002|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-oct-08-sp-angnote8-story.html|title=No Fly Ball Routine in Dome|access-date=February 17, 2009|work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant.<ref>Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 207.</ref>
In ], if the score remains tied after nine innings, up to three extra innings may be played before the game is called a tie. Some youth or amateur leagues will end a game early if one team is ahead by ten or more runs, a practice known as the "mercy rule" or "]". Rarely, a game can also be won or lost by ].


] batter (]) and a ] catcher at ]]]
There is a short break between each half-inning during which the new defensive team takes the field and the pitcher warms up. Traditionally, the break between the top half and the bottom half of the seventh inning is known as the ]. During the "stretch," fans in the United States often sing the chorus of "];" since the ], "God Bless America" has often been added to it.


These physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is ], home of the ]. Its high altitude—{{convert|5282|ft|m|0}} above sea level—is partly responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues due to the low air pressure.<ref>Keri (2007), pp. 295–301.</ref> ], home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a pitcher's park when the strong winds off ] are blowing in, it becomes more of a hitter's park when they are blowing out.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gilbert, Steve|date=September 30, 2008|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080930&content_id=3575106|title=Wrigley's Winds Don't Rattle Lowe|access-date=February 17, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201003317/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080930&content_id=3575106&vkey=ps2008news&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb|archive-date=December 1, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball {{convert|330|ft|m|-1}} into right field might result in an easy catch on the ] at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the ], will tend to stock its roster with left-handed ]s, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park.<ref>{{cite news|author=Sheinin, Dave|date=March 26, 2008|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/24/AR2008032402798.html|title=After Move, a Breaking In Process|access-date=February 17, 2009|newspaper=]}} See also Powers (2003), p. 85.</ref>
===Substitutions===
Each team is allowed to substitute for any player at any time the ball is dead. A batter who replaces another batter is referred to as a '']''; similarly, a '']'' may be used as a replacement for a baserunner. Any player who replaces another player between innings is known as a "defensive replacement". Any replacement is a permanent substitution; the replaced player may not return to the game.


== Statistics ==
It is common for a pitcher to pitch for several innings and then be removed in favor of a ]. Because pitching is a specialized skill, most pitchers are relatively poor hitters; it is common to substitute for a pitcher when he is due to bat. This pinch hitter is typically then replaced by a relief pitcher when the team returns to the field on defense, but more complicated substitutions are possible, most notably the '']''.
{{Further|Baseball statistics}}


Organized baseball lends itself to ] to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born ] of ], was responsible for the "development of the ], tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the ], and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball."<ref name=T16>Tygiel (2000), p. 16.</ref> The statistical record is so central to the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball.<ref name=T16/> In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian ] describes as a "tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines."<ref>Schwarz (2004), p. 50.</ref>
Many ] leagues allow a starting player who was removed to return to the game in the same position in the batting order under a re-entry rule. Youth leagues often allow free and open substitution to encourage player participation.


The Official Baseball Rules administered by MLB require the ] to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The ] is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> General managers, managers, and ] use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.
A few leagues, notably Major League Baseball's ], allow a ], a player whose sole purpose is to hit when it would normally be the pitcher's turn. This is not considered a substitution but rather a position, albeit a purely offensive one. A designated hitter does not play in the field on defense and may remain in the game regardless of changes in pitchers. Many baseball traditionalists consider having a designated hitter to be a unequal way to play, as the designated hitter does not field a position.


]—the major leagues' all-time leader in runs and stolen bases—stealing third base in a 1988 game]]
===Rosters===
Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.02a, 10.04, 10.21b)|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ]s: plate appearances, excluding walks and ]es—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners
* Hits: times a base is reached safely, because of a batted, fair ball without a fielding error or ]
* Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely
* ] (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
* Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error
* ]: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability
The basic baserunning statistics include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.07)|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball
* Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base
]—the holder of many major league career marks, including wins and innings pitched, as well as losses—in 1908. MLB's annual ] are named for Young.]]
The basic pitching statistics include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.15, 10.17, 10.19, 10.21a, 10.21e)|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ]: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)
* ]: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished
* ]: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or ]; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings
* ]: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., "5.2" or "7.1", the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)
* Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter
* ]: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)
* ] (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched
The basic fielding statistics include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.09, 10.10, 10.12, 10.21d)|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ]s: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out
* ]: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball
* ]: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result
* ]: putouts plus assists plus errors
* ]: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances


Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as ''situational statistics''. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher ] the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed.<ref>See, e.g., Albert, Jim, and Jay Bennett, "Situational Effects", ch. 4 in ''Curve Ball: Baseball, Statistics, and the Role of Chance in the Game'', 2d ed. (Springer, 2003), pp. 71–110.</ref>
The number of players on a Major League roster is dictated by the labor agreements worked out between players and management. According to ], a team may have a maximum of 25 men on a roster from Opening Day until August 31. After that, teams may call up additional personnel, up to a maximum of 40 players on the active roster, with the exception of the postseason, where rosters are fixed at 25 men.


==Other personnel== === Sabermetrics ===
] is the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. Such new statistics are also called sabermetrics. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, ], and derives from the ] (SABR).<ref>Gray, Scott, ''The Mind of Bill James: How a Complete Outsider Changed Baseball'' (Doubleday, 2006), p. ix.</ref>


The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average:<ref>Guzzo (2007), pp. 20–21, 67; Schwarz (2004), p. 233; Lewis (2003), p. 127.</ref>
Any baseball game involves one or more ], who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call each pitch a ball or a strike. Additional umpires may be stationed near the bases, thus making it easier to see plays in the field. In ], four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the all-star game and playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along either foul line.
* ] (OBP) measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.21f)|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ] (SLG) measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter's ] (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|title=Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.21c)|access-date=February 22, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224215917/http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/y2008/official_rules/10_the_official_scorer.pdf|archive-date=February 24, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>


Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:
==Baseball's unique style==
* ] (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage.<ref>Guzzo (2007), pp. 22, 67, 140; Schwarz (2004), p. 233.</ref>
Baseball is unique among American sports in several ways. This uniqueness is a large part of its longstanding appeal and strong association with the American psyche. The philosopher ] described baseball as a national religion. Many people believe that baseball is the ultimate combination of skill, timing, athleticism, and strategy. ] (a ] baseball player) once said, "Baseball is 90% mental—the other half is physical." Although these elements all contribute to baseball's appeal in American culture, they are also shared by its cousin game ]. In many ] nations, cricket and the culture surrounding it hold a similar place and affection to baseball's role in American culture.
* ] (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated by adding the number of walks and hits a pitcher surrendered, then dividing by the number of innings pitched.<ref>Guzzo (2007), pp. 140–141.</ref>
*] (WAR) measures number of additional wins his team has achieved above the number of expected team wins if that player were substituted with a ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is WAR? {{!}} Sabermetrics Library|url=https://library.fangraphs.com/misc/war/|access-date=October 12, 2021}}</ref>


== Popularity and cultural impact ==
The lure of baseball is in its subtleties: situational defense, pitch location, pitch sequence, statistics, ball parks, history, and player personalities. It's been noted that the game itself has no time limit, and its playing surface, rather than rigidly rectangular and standardized, extends theoretically to eternity from a single point (home plate) to beyond its own fences (if only a batter could hit a ball hard enough to break the escape velocity of ]). For the avid fan, the game—even during its slowest points—is never boring because of these nuances. Therefore, a full appreciation of baseball naturally requires some knowledge of the rules; it also requires deep observation of those endearing and enduring qualities that give baseball its unique style.
] in 1921]]
Writing in 1919, philosopher ] described baseball as the national religion of the US.<ref>Cohen, Morris Raphael, "Baseball as a National Religion" (1919), in Cohen, ''The Faith of a Liberal'' (Transaction, 1993 ), pp. 334–336: p. 334.</ref> In the words of sports columnist ], baseball has long been "a unique paragon of American culture"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stark, Jayson|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/columns/story?columnist=stark_jayson&id=3892788|title=A-Rod Has Destroyed Game's History|date=February 8, 2009|access-date=February 8, 2009|work=]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210124048/http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/columns/story?columnist=stark_jayson&id=3892788|archive-date=February 10, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes "how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan."<ref>Bjarkman (2004), p. xix.</ref>


===Time element=== === Western Hemisphere ===
American influence in the Western Hemisphere has meant that baseball grew significantly in the region.
], ], ], and ] all use a clock, and games often end by a team ] rather than competing directly against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time.


==== In the United States ====
In recent decades, observers have criticized professional baseball for the length of its games, with some justification as the time required to play a baseball game has increased steadily through the years. One hundred years ago, games typically took an hour and a half to play; in 2004, the average major league baseball game lasted 2 hours and 47 minutes. This is due to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play.
{{See also|Baseball in Canada}}
The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience.<ref>Riess (1991), pp. 69–71.</ref> A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most popular blue-collar-oriented American spectator sports.<ref>Riess (1991), pp. 247–248.</ref>


] celebrating the 2017 title in ], ]]]
In response, Major League Baseball has instructed umpires to be stricter in enforcing speed-up rules and the size of the ]. Although the official rules specify that when the bases are empty, the pitcher should deliver the ball within 12 seconds of receiving it (with the penalty of a ball called if he fails to do so), this rule is rarely, if ever, enforced. The umpire also has the option of calling a balk if there are runners on base, but is also rarely, if ever, enforced.
Overall, baseball has a large following in the United States; a 2006 poll found that nearly half of Americans are fans.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Jeffrey M.|date=April 4, 2006|title=Nearly Half of Americans are Baseball Fans|url=http://news.gallup.com/poll/22240/nearly-half-americans-baseball-fans.aspx|access-date=May 31, 2018|publisher=Gallup}}</ref> This led to baseball being granted the title of "America's favorite pastime" by many American baseball fans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-03-14 |title=America's Favorite Pastime |url=https://www.archives.gov/news/topics/baseball-and-the-archives |access-date=2024-03-11 |website=National Archives |language=en}}</ref> The game was historically seen as contributing to the ] society of the nation, encouraging immigrants to integrate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Missimer |first=Katy |date=2019-03-18 |title=American Immigration and Baseball: A Parallel Pastime |url=https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/the_histories/vol5/iss2/5/ |journal=The Histories |volume=5 |issue=2}}</ref> In the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, MLB set a revenue record of $6.5&nbsp;billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades.<ref>{{cite news|author=Kercheval, Nancy|date=October 1, 2008|title=Major League Baseball Revenue Reaches Record, Attendance Falls|publisher=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=asFEMjfiKA5s|url-status=dead|access-date=February 8, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629051650/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=asFEMjfiKA5s|archive-date=June 29, 2011}} {{cite news|author=Battista, Judy|date=December 9, 2008|title=Feeling Pinch, N.F.L. Will Cut About 150 Jobs|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/sports/football/10nfl.html|access-date=February 8, 2009}} {{cite web|author=Haudricourt, Tom|date=October 20, 2007|title=Bases Loaded|url=http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/29405374.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706194429/http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brewers/29405374.html|archive-date=July 6, 2009|access-date=February 8, 2009|work=]}}</ref> A new MLB revenue record of more than $10&nbsp;billion was set in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|date=November 22, 2017|title=Report: MLB revenues exceed $10 billion for the first time|work=USA Today|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2017/11/22/mlb-revenues-exceed-10-billion/890041001/|access-date=March 27, 2018}}</ref> On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bonesteel|first=Matt|date=January 10, 2018|title=Despite all the bad news, poll shows football still is America's favorite sport by a wide margin|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2018/01/10/despite-all-the-bad-news-poll-shows-football-still-is-americas-favorite-sport-by-a-wide-margin/|access-date=March 27, 2018}}</ref> In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 27, 2009|title=Professional Football Continues Dominance over Baseball as America's Favorite Sport|url=http://www.allbusiness.com/sports-recreation/sports-games-outdoor/11762627-1.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110073300/http://www.allbusiness.com/sports-recreation/sports-games-outdoor/11762627-1.html|archive-date=January 10, 2011|access-date=September 15, 2010|work=Business Wire|publisher=AllBusiness}}</ref> Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance.<ref>{{cite news|last=McGinty|first=Jo Craven|date=April 10, 2015|title=Popularity Contest: Baseball vs. Football|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/popularity-contest-baseball-vs-football-1428679449|url-access=subscription|access-date=May 18, 2018}}</ref> In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6&nbsp;million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year.<ref name="MajorAtRec" /> The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4&nbsp;million.<ref name="Brown10">{{cite web|author=Brown, Maury|date=February 25, 2010|title=MLB Sees a Record $6.6 Billion in Revenues for 2009|url=http://www.bizofbaseball.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4124:mlb-sees-a-record-66-billion-in-revenues-for-2009&catid=30:mlb-news&Itemid=42|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027080204/http://bizofbaseball.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4124%3Amlb-sees-a-record-66-billion-in-revenues-for-2009&catid=30%3Amlb-news&Itemid=42|archive-date=October 27, 2010|access-date=September 17, 2010|publisher=Biz of Baseball}}</ref> Eight years later, it dropped under 73&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jeff Passan|date=April 16, 2018|title=10 Degrees: MLB's enormous attendance drop due to bad weather or something far worse for baseball?|work=Yahoo Sports|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/10-degrees-mlbs-enormous-attendance-drop-due-bad-weather-something-far-worse-baseball-152051024.html|access-date=June 16, 2018}}</ref> Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|date=September 9, 2015|title=Minor League attendance tops 42.5 million|url=https://www.milb.com/milb/news/minor-league-attendance-tops-425-million/c-148297748|access-date=June 16, 2018|publisher=Minor League Baseball}}</ref> While MLB games have not drawn the same national TV viewership as football games, MLB games are dominant in teams' local markets and regularly lead all programs in ] in their markets during the summer.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hayes|first1=Dade|date=February 14, 2020|title=Baseball Returns As Playoff Format Debate, Houston Astros Cheating Scandal Raise Questions About Future Of ESPN, Turner TV Rights|work=Deadline|url=https://deadline.com/2020/02/baseball-houston-astros-playoff-format-changes-tv-rights-1202859213/|access-date=October 29, 2020}}</ref>


===Individual and team=== ==== Latin America ====
{{See also|Latin America–United States relations}}
Baseball is fundamentally a team sport—even two or three Hall of Fame-caliber players are no guarantee of a ]—yet it places individual players under great pressure and scrutiny. The pitcher must make good pitches or risk losing the game; the hitter has a mere fraction of a second to decide what pitch has been thrown and whether to swing at it. While their respective managers and/or coaches can sometimes signal players regarding the strategies the manager wants to employ, no one can help the pitcher while he pitches or the hitter while he bats. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder, as the last line of defense, makes the lone decision to try to catch it or play it on the bounce. Baseball's history is full of heroes and goats—men who in the heat of the moment (the "clutch") distinguished themselves with a timely hit or catch, or an untimely strikeout or error.
Baseball is very popular in Venezuela; in 2011, 95% of people surveyed claimed it to be the national sport.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lang |first=Jack |title=Baseball is Venezuela's national sport – but the 2024 Copa America shows why that might be changing |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/5615753/2024/07/05/venezuela-copa-america-baseball-soccer/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The sport's overall popularity in Latin America has assisted in integrating ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chamberlain |first=Craig |date=2020-10-12 |title=Capturing the story of Latinos and baseball {{!}} College of Liberal Arts & Sciences at Illinois |url=https://las.illinois.edu/news/2020-10-12/capturing-story-latinos-and-baseball |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=las.illinois.edu |language=en}}</ref>


==== Caribbean ====
===The uniqueness of each baseball park===
Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of ], has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), pp. 159–165.</ref> In 2017, 83 of the 868 players on MLB Opening Day rosters (and disabled lists) were from the country. Among other Caribbean countries and territories, a combined 97 MLB players were born in Venezuela, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web|title=Opening Day Rosters Feature 230 Players Born Outside the U.S.|date=April 6, 2015 |publisher=Major League Baseball|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/opening-day-rosters-feature-230-players-born-outside-the-us/c-116591920|access-date=April 24, 2018}}</ref> Hall-of-Famer ] remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico's history.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), p. 487.</ref> While baseball has long been the island's primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues' annual first-year player draft.<ref>{{cite news|author=Castillo, Jorge|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/17/sports/baseball/puerto-rico-traces-decline-in-prospects-to-inclusion-in-the-baseball-draft.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/17/sports/baseball/puerto-rico-traces-decline-in-prospects-to-inclusion-in-the-baseball-draft.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022 |url-access=limited|title=Puerto Rico Traces Baseball's Slide to the Draft|date=January 16, 2012|access-date=January 25, 2012|work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport,<ref>González Echevarría (2001), pp. 76, 133, 278–279, 352.</ref> the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues.<ref name="WW">{{cite news |author=Weissert, Will |date=March 5, 2009 |title=Cubans' Baseball Dreams Take Root on Rocky Fields |work=USA Today |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2009-03-05-3277668016_x.htm |access-date=April 28, 2009}}</ref>
], ] ]-] game.]]
{{main|Baseball parks}}


=== Asia ===
Unlike the majority of sports, baseball parks do not have to follow a strict set of guidelines. With the exception of the strict rules on the dimensions of the infield, discussed above, the simply state that fields built after ], ] must have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 (121 m) feet to center. This rule (a footnote to official rule 1.04) was passed specifically in response to the fence at the ], which was not originally designed for baseball, and thus was only 251 feet (77 m) to the left field pole (1 foot (0.3 m) over the bare minimum required by the rules). However, major league teams often skirt this rule. For example, ]'s left field is only 315 feet (96 m), and with a fence much lower than the famous "Green Monster" at ]. And there are no rules at all regulating the height of "fences, stands or other obstructions", other than the assumption that they exist. Because of this flexibility, there are all sorts of variations in parks, from different lengths to the fences to uneven playing surfaces to massive or minimal amounts of foul territory. All of these factors, as well as local variations in altitude, climate and game scheduling, can affect the nature of the games played at those ballparks, and a park may be referred to as either a "pitcher's park" or a "hitter's park", depending on which side benefits more from the unique factors present. Chicago's ], strangely enough, can be ''either'', depending on the wind direction at any given time. This is due to Chicago's direct relationship with ]. Anytime the wind blows in, it causes drag on the baseball leading to more fly ball outs. In contrast, when the wind blows out, home runs are more likely to reach the streets.
]
In East Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan and South Korea.<ref>{{cite news|author=Hernandez, Dylan|title=World Baseball Classic keeps sport relevant in Japan|work=Los Angeles Times|date=March 21, 2017|url=http://www.latimes.com/sports/la-sp-us-japan-hernandez-20170321-story.html|access-date=April 26, 2018}}</ref> In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the ], combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific Leagues, was estimated at $1&nbsp;billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20&nbsp;million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country.<ref name=RW>{{Cite news|author=Whiting, Robert|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2007/04/11/baseball/is-the-mlb-destroying-japans-national-pastime/|title=Is the MLB Destroying Japan's National Pastime?|date=April 11, 2007|access-date=February 8, 2009|work=]}}</ref> Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority "has never taken into account attendance&nbsp;... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes".<ref>González Echevarría (2001), p. 366.</ref> In Taiwan, baseball is one of the ], with the origins dating back to ].<ref name="Taiwan Culture Portal">{{Cite web |last=Yeh |first=Joseph |date=September 30, 2008 |title=Taiwan Baseball a new rallying point for national pride |url=http://www.culture.tw/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=918&Itemid=157 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712193311/http://www.culture.tw/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=918&Itemid=157 |archive-date=July 12, 2015 |access-date= May 1, 2022}}</ref> Baseball has ] in recent years, with MLB estimating in 2019 that there are 21 million active fans in the country.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Feature: China sees growing youthful exuberance on baseball diamond -Xinhua |url=https://english.news.cn/20231024/88327d19144e4ada846036e80a00365d/c.html |access-date=2024-06-03 |website=english.news.cn}}</ref>


=== Among children ===
==Statistics==
{{as of|2018}}, ] oversees leagues with close to 2.4&nbsp;million participants in over 80 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Little League International General Media Guide 2018|publisher=Little League Baseball|year=2018|page=3|url=https://ll-production-uploads.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/2017/12/General-Media-Guide-1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ll-production-uploads.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/2017/12/General-Media-Guide-1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=March 31, 2018}}</ref> The number of players has fallen since the 1990s, when 3 million children took part in Little League Baseball annually.<ref>{{cite news|author=Fisher, Mark|title=Baseball is struggling to hook kids – and risks losing fans to other sports|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=April 5, 2015|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/nationals/baseballs-trouble-with-the-youth-curve--and-what-that-means-for-the-game/2015/04/05/2da36dca-d7e8-11e4-8103-fa84725dbf9d_story.html|access-date=April 30, 2018}}</ref> Babe Ruth League teams have over 1&nbsp;million participants.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Babe Ruth League Program|url=https://www.baberuthleague.org/history.aspx|publisher=Babe Ruth League Online|access-date=April 10, 2018}}</ref> According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of ].<ref>{{cite news|author=Frommer, Frederic J|url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2009-04-06-2437047144_x.htm|title=Baseball to Add Women to Olympic Bid|date=April 6, 2009|access-date=April 29, 2009|agency=Associated Press|work=USA Today}}</ref>
{{main|Baseball statistics}}


A varsity baseball team is an established part of ] departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States.<ref name=MB>{{cite web|author=Bradford, Marcia|title=Expanding Opportunities on the Ball Fields|url=http://www.sportseventsmagazine.com/article/baseballsoftball/207/|work=SportsEvents Magazine|year=2008|access-date=May 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209193735/http://www.sportseventsmagazine.com/article/baseballsoftball/207/|archive-date=February 9, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estimated probability of competing in college athletics|publisher=National Collegiate Athletic Association|url=https://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/estimated-probability-competing-college-athletics|access-date=April 22, 2018|date=March 2, 2015}}</ref> By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, ] in particular is immensely popular there.<ref>Bjarkman (2004), p. xxiv; Gmelch (2006), pp. 23, 53.</ref> The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the ] in the spring, and the even more important ] in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the ] where they are played.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ellsesser, Stephen|url=http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20060810&content_id=1602960|title=Summer Tournament Is Big in Japan|date=August 11, 2006|access-date=April 28, 2009|publisher=Major League Baseball|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014063836/http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20060810&content_id=1602960|archive-date=October 14, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.<ref name=WW/>
As with many sports, and perhaps even more so, ] are very important to baseball. Statistics have been kept for the Major Leagues since their creation, and presumably statistics were around even before that. General managers, ], managers, and players alike study player statistics to help them choose various strategies to best help their team.


=== In popular culture ===
Traditionally, statistics like ] for batters—the number of hits divided by the number of at bats—and ]—approximately the number of runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings—have governed the statistical world of baseball. However, the advent of ] has brought an onslaught of new statistics that perhaps better gauge a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year.
]'s line of baseball cards featured shortstop ] of the ] from 1909 to 1911. In 2007, ] sold for $2.8&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id=3007893|title=Honus Wagner Card Sells for Record $2.8 Million|agency=Associated Press|publisher=ESPN|date=September 6, 2007|access-date=May 3, 2009}}</ref>]]


Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of ]; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used ].<ref>Kte'pi (2009), p. 66.</ref> The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the ]: famed sportswriter ] announced ] from New York City's ] on ]–], which was connected by wire to ]–], and ]–].<ref>Rudel (2008), pp. 145–146.</ref> The ] has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|author=Lam, Andrew|url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/Too-much-self-esteem-spoils-your-child-2552521.php|title=Too Much Self Esteem Spoils Your Child|publisher=New America Media|date=July 6, 2007|access-date=May 2, 2009}} {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3660333.stm|title=Happy 50th, Baseball Caps|work=BBC News|date=April 27, 2004|access-date=May 2, 2009}}</ref>
Some ] have entered the mainstream baseball statistic world. ] (OPS) is a somewhat complicated formula that some say gauges a hitter's performance better than batting average. It combines the hitter's ]—hits plus walks plus ]es divided by ] plus ] plus ]es plus ]—with their ]—] divided by at bats. ] (or ''WHIP'') gives a good representation of a pitcher's abilities; it is calculated exactly as its name suggests.


Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, ]'s poem "]", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a "clutch situation", the poem became the source of ] and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many ]s, including the ]–winning '']'' (1942) and the Oscar nominees '']'' (1984) and '']'' (1989). The ]'s selection of the ten best sports movies includes ''The Pride of the Yankees'' at number 3 and '']'' (1988) at number 5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afi.com/10top10/sports.html|title=AFI 10 Top 10—Top 10 Sports|publisher=]|date=June 17, 2008|access-date=May 2, 2009}}</ref> Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the ]–] musical '']''—and record—]'s "Slide, Kelly, Slide", ]'s "]", and ]'s "]".<ref>Zoss (2004), pp. 373–374.</ref> The baseball-inspired comedic sketch "]", popularized by ] in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, '']'' named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,36533,00.html|title=The Best of the Century|magazine=Time|date=December 26, 1999|access-date=May 2, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504145236/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C36533%2C00.html|archive-date=May 4, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Also important are more specific statistics for particular situations. For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might cause his manager to give him more chances to face lefties. Some hitters hit better with runners in scoring position, so an opposing manager, knowing this statistic, might elect to ] him in order to face a poorer hitter.


Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of ] and novels such as ]'s '']'' (the source for the movie), ]'s '']'', ]'s ] and ]'s '']'' (the source for ''Field of Dreams''). Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of ]; the columns of Grantland Rice, ], ], and ]; and the essays of ]. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are ]'s '']'', ]'s '']'', and ]'s '']''. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher ]'s tell-all chronicle '']'' is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports.<ref>{{cite web|author=Neyer, Rob|author-link=Rob Neyer|url=http://static.espn.go.com/mlb/ballfour/neyer.html|title='Ball Four' Changed Sports ''and'' Books|work=ESPN.com|date=June 15, 2000|access-date=May 12, 2009}}</ref>
==Popularity==
Baseball is most popular in East Asia and the Americas, although in South America its popularity is mainly limited to the northern portion of the continent. In ], ], the ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], it is one of the most popular sports. The United States is the birthplace of baseball, where it has long been regarded as more than just a "]"; for many decades, it has been popularly referred to as the "]" and ] has been given a unique monopoly status by the ]. Although the three most popular professional team sports in the United States are ball games—baseball, ] and ]—baseball's historical popularity was so great that even today the word "ballgame" in the United States almost always refers to a game of baseball (except in the South, where the word is also used in association with football), and "ballpark" invariably refers to a ].


Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. ]s were introduced in the late 19th century as ]s. A typical example featured an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader ] industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields.<ref>Zoss (2004), pp. 16–25.</ref>
Baseball has often been a barometer of the fabled American "melting pot", as immigrants from different regions have tried to "make good" in various areas including sports. In the 19th century, baseball was populated with many players of Irish or German extraction. A number of Native Americans had successful careers especially in the early 1900s. Italians and Poles appeared on many rosters during the 1920s and 1930s. Black Americans came on strong starting in the late 1940s after the barriers had been lifted, and continue to form a significant contingent. By the 1960s, Hispanics had started to make the scene, and had become a dominant force by the 1990s. In the 21st century, East Asians have been appearing in increasing numbers.


Modern ] began in 1980 with the invention of ] by New York writer ] and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active MLB players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as ], it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports.<ref>Zoss (2004), pp. 27–31.</ref> The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports-related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800&nbsp;million on the hobby.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2008/07/prweb1084994.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503091523/http://www.prweb.com/releases/2008/07/prweb1084994.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 3, 2009|title=Fantasy Sports Industry Grows to an $800 Million Industry with 29.9 Million Players|work=PRWeb|date=July 10, 2008|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals.<ref>Lewis (2003), pp. 86–88.</ref>
While baseball is perhaps the most popular sport in the United States and is certainly one of the two most popular along with football, it is difficult to determine which is more popular because of the wide discrepancy in number of games per season. For example, the total attendance for major league games is roughly equal to that of all other American professional team sports combined, but football gets higher television ratings, both a function in part of the long (162-game) baseball season and short (16-game) football season. According to ] ] both revenue and attendance are currently higher than at any previous point in the history of the game.


=== Derivative games ===
==Organized leagues==
{{Main|Variations of baseball}}
Baseball is played at a number of levels, by amateur and professionals, and by the young and the old. Youth programs use modified versions of adult and professional ], which may include a smaller field, easier pitching (from a coach, a tee, or a machine), less contact, base running restrictions, limitations on innings a pitcher can throw, liberal balk rules, and run limitations, among others. Since rules vary from location-to-location and among the organizations, coverage of the nuances in those rules is beyond this article.
] is a common street variant of baseball which often features impromptu adaptations. (Note the painted strike zone on the wall behind the batter.)]]
Informal ] have popped up over time, with games like ] reflecting local traditions and allowing the game to be played in diverse environments.<ref>{{cite web|title=Derivative Games|publisher=Major League Baseball|url=https://mlb.mlb.com/memorylab/spread_of_baseball/derivative_games.jsp|access-date=February 20, 2022}}</ref> Two variations of baseball, ] and ], are internationally governed alongside baseball by the ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=WBSC – World Baseball Softball Confederation|url=https://www.wbsc.org/|access-date=October 4, 2021|website=wbsc.org|language=en}}</ref>


==== British baseball ====
Following is a list of organized leagues:
{{Main|British baseball}}
* Youth Leagues
American ] teams toured Britain in 1874 and 1889, and had a great effect on similar sports in Britain. In Wales and Merseyside, a strong community game had already developed with skills and plays more in keeping with the American game and the Welsh began to informally adopt the name "baseball" (Pêl Fas), to reflect the American style. By the 1890s, calls were made to follow the success of other working class sports (like Rugby in Wales and Soccer in Merseyside) and adopt a distinct set of rules and bureaucracy.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales|publisher=University of Wales Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6|editor1-last=Davies|editor1-first=John|editor1-link=John Davies (historian)|location=Cardiff|page=53|editor2-last=Jenkins|editor2-first=Nigel|editor2-link=Nigel Jenkins|editor3-last=Menna|editor3-first=Baines|editor4-last=Lynch|editor4-first=Peredur I.}}</ref> During the 1892 season rules for the game of "baseball" were agreed and the game was officially codified.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ivor Beynon & Bob Evans|title=The Inside Story of Baseball|date=1962|location=Cardiff|page=4|language=en}}</ref>
** ]
** , a youth program, headquartered in Washington, Pennsylvania (USA).
** a youth program in the USA.
** , a youth program, headquartered in Indianapolis, IN.
** a youth and adult program, headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri (USA).
** , a youth program, headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland (USA).
** , a youth program, headquartered in Trenton, New Jersey (USA).
** ], a youth program, headquartered in St. Louis, Missouri (USA).


==== Finnish baseball ====
* High School
{{Main|Pesäpallo}}
** In the USA, the ] (NFHS) and each state association governs the play of baseball at the high school level.
Finnish baseball, also known as pesäpallo, is a combination of traditional ball-batting team games and North American baseball, invented by ] in the 1920s.<ref name="INTRO2">{{cite web|title=Introduction to the game|url=http://www.pesis.fi/pesapalloliitto/international_site/introduction/|access-date=October 16, 2015|website=Pesis.fi|publisher=Pesäpalloliitto|archive-date=October 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029075041/http://www.pesis.fi/pesapalloliitto/international_site/introduction/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/news/first-english-language-broadcast-of-finland-baseball-game-pesapallo|title=There's a pitcher, a batter... even a river sometimes. Welcome to Finnish baseball|first=Michael|last=Clair|publisher=]|date=2 August 2024|access-date=4 August 2024}}</ref> The basic idea of pesäpallo is similar to that of baseball: the offense tries to score by hitting the ball successfully and running through the bases, while the defense tries to put the batter and runners out. One of the most important differences between pesäpallo and baseball is that the ball is pitched vertically, which makes hitting the ball, as well as controlling the power and direction of the hit, much easier. This gives the offensive game more variety, speed, and tactical aspects compared to baseball.<ref name="INTRO2"/>
* Collegiate Level
** ], including ] and the ]
** ], including the ]
** ]
** National Club Baseball Association (NCBA)
* International Competition
** Many international baseball events are coordinated by the ], including ] and The ].
** As an ], see earlier section on the status of baseball in the Olympic games, and the article "]."
* Semi-professional baseball
**
* ]
** ] (MLB) in the United States and Canada;
** ] in the United States and Canada;
**
** ], defunct since 1958, in the United States.
** ]
** ]
** ]
**
** ]
**
** ]
** ]
** ]
** ] (KBO)
** ]
** ]
** There are also smaller professional leagues in ], ], the ], and many others.


==See also== == See also ==
{{portal}} {{Portal|Baseball}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


===Culture=== ===Related sports===
* ] (Scandinavian bat-and-ball game)
{{col-begin}}
* ]
{{col-break}}
* ] (Russian bat-and-ball game)
* ]
* ] (Romanian bat-and-ball game)
* ]
* ] (with similar rules played in India during winters)
* ]
* "]" * ]
* "]" * ]
* ]
* "]"
* ]
{{col-break}}
* "]"
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
{{col-end}}


== Citations ==
===General information===
{{reflist}}{{Notelist}}
* ]
* ]
* ] (terms used in the game)
* ] (slang also used outside the scope of baseball)
* ] (occurring within a single game)
* ]
*]


== General and cited sources ==
==Footnotes==
{{Refbegin}}
<references />
* {{cite book |last=Bjarkman |first=Peter C. |title=Diamonds Around the Globe: The Encyclopedia of International Baseball |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-32268-6 |oclc=58806121}}
* {{cite book |last=Block |first=David |title=Baseball Before We Knew It: A Search for the Roots of the Game |url=https://archive.org/details/baseballbeforewe00davi |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8032-6255-3 |oclc=70261798}}
* {{cite book |last=Burgos |first=Adrian |title=Playing America's Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line |url=https://archive.org/details/playingamericasg00burg |url-access=registration |year=2007 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-520-25143-4 |oclc=81150202}}
* {{cite book |last=Burk |first=Robert F. |title=Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920 |year=2001 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8078-4961-3 |oclc=28183874}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Charlton |editor-first=James |title=The Baseball Chronology: The Complete History of the Most Important Events in the Game of Baseball |year=1991 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-02-523971-5 |oclc=22704314}}
* {{cite book |author1=Clarke, William Jones |author2=Fredrick Thomas Dawson |name-list-style=amp |title=Baseball: Individual Play and Team Play in Detail |url=https://archive.org/details/baseballindivid00dawsgoog |year=1915 |publisher=] |oclc=2781766}}
* {{cite book |last=Gmelch |first=George |title=Baseball Without Borders: The International Pastime |year=2006 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-7125-8 |oclc=64594333}}
* {{cite book |last=González Echevarría |first=Roberto |title=The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball |year=2001 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-19-514605-9 |oclc=46601626}}
* {{cite book |last=Guttmann |first=Allen |title=Sports: The First Five Millennia |year=2007 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-55849-610-1 |oclc=5912442808}}
* {{cite book |last=Guzzo |first=Glenn |title=The New Ballgame: Baseball Statistics for the Casual Fan |year=2007 |publisher=ACTA |isbn=978-0-87946-318-2 |oclc=123083947}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Keri |editor-first=Jonah |title=Baseball Between the Numbers: Why Everything You Know About the Game Is Wrong |year=2007 |publisher=Basic |isbn=978-0-465-00547-5 |oclc=77795904}}
* {{cite book |last=Koppett |first=Leonard |title=Koppett's Concise History of Major League Baseball |year=2004 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7867-1286-1 |oclc=54674804}}
* {{cite book |last=Kte'pi |first=Bill |chapter=Baseball (Amateur) |title=Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society, Volume 1 |editor=Rodney Carlisle |year=2009 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-6670-2 |oclc=251215353}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Michael M. |author-link=Michael Lewis |title=Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game |year=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-393-32481-5 |oclc=54896532}}
* {{cite book |last=Mahony |first=Phillip |url=http://www.baseballexplained.com |title=Baseball Explained |year=2014 |publisher=McFarland Books |isbn=978-0-7864-7964-1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813034018/http://www.baseballexplained.com/ |archive-date=August 13, 2014 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mandelbaum |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Mandelbaum |title=The Meaning of Sports: Why Americans Watch Baseball, Football, and Basketball and What They See When They Do |year=2005 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1-58648-330-2 |oclc=55539339 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/meaningofsportsw0000mand }}
* {{cite book |last=McNeil |first=William |title=Baseball's Other All-Stars: The Greatest Players from the Negro Leagues, the Japanese Leagues, the Mexican League, and the Pre-1960 Winter Leagues in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic |url=https://archive.org/details/baseballsotheral0000mcne |url-access=registration |year=2000 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-0784-2 |oclc=42976826}}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Peter |title=Level Playing Fields: How the Groundskeeping Murphy Brothers Shaped Baseball |year=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1110-0 |oclc=70884952}}
* {{cite book |last=Porterfield |first=Jason |title=Baseball: Rules, Tips, Strategy, and Safety |year=2007 |publisher=Rosen |isbn=978-1-4042-0991-6 |oclc=67773742}}
* {{cite book |last=Powers |first=Albert Theodore |title=The Business of Baseball |year=2003 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-1426-0 |oclc=50866929}}
* {{cite book |author1=Puhalla, Jim|author2=Jeff Krans|author3=Mike Goatley |title=Baseball and Softball Fields: Design, Construction, Renovation, and Maintenance |year=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-471-44793-1 |oclc=50959054}}
* {{cite book |last=Rader |first=Benjamin G. |title=Baseball: A History of America's Game |edition=3rd |year=2008 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-252-07550-6 |oclc=176980876}}
* {{cite book |last=Riess |first=Steven A. |title=City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports |year=1991 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=978-0-252-06216-2 |oclc=23739530}}
* {{cite book |last=Rudel |first=Anthony J. |title=Hello, Everybody!: The Dawn of American Radio |year=2008 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-15-101275-6 |oclc=192042215 |url=https://archive.org/details/helloeverybodyd00rude }}
* {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Alan |title=The Numbers Game: Baseball's Lifelong Fascination with Statistics |year=2004 |publisher=Thomas Dunne |isbn=978-0-312-32222-9 |oclc=54692908}}
* {{cite book |editor=Stallings, Jack |editor2=Bob Bennett |title=Baseball Strategies: Your Guide to the Game Within the Game |year=2003 |publisher=American Baseball Coaches Association/Human Kinetics |isbn=978-0-7360-4218-5 |oclc=50203866 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780736042185 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Sullivan |editor-first=Dean |title=Early Innings: A Documentary History of Baseball, 1825–1908 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyinningsdocu00sull |url-access=registration |year=1997 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-9244-4 |oclc=36258074}}
* {{cite book |last=Terry |first=Thomas Philip |title=Terry's Mexico: Handbook for Travellers |edition=2nd rev. |year=1911 |publisher=Gay and Hancock, Houghton Mifflin, and Sonora News |oclc=7587420}}
* {{cite book |last=Thurston |first=Bill |title=Coaching Youth Baseball: A Baffled Parents Guide |year=2000 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-135822-4 |oclc=43031493 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/baffledparentsgu0000thur }}
* {{cite book |last=Tygiel |first=Jules |title=Past Time: Baseball as History |url=https://archive.org/details/pasttimebaseball0000tygi |url-access=registration |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508958-5 |oclc=42290019}}
* {{cite book |last=Votano |first=Paul |title=Stand and Deliver: A History of Pinch-Hitting |year=2013 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-1588-5 |oclc=52047315}}
* {{cite book |last=Zimbalist |first=Andrew |title=In the Best Interests of Baseball?: The Revolutionary Reign of Bud Selig |year=2007 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-12824-4 |oclc=62796332 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/inbestinterestso00andr }}
* {{cite book |last=Zoss |first=Joel |title=Diamonds in the Rough: The Untold History of Baseball |year=2004 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-9920-7 |oclc=54611393 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/diamondsinroughu0000zoss }}
{{Refend}}


== Further reading ==
==References==
* Dickson, Paul. ''The Dickson Baseball Dictionary'', 3rd ed. (W. W. Norton, 2009). {{ISBN|0-393-06681-9}}.
* ] and Charlie Euchner, ''The Umpire's Handbook'', rev. ed. (1987)
* Fitts, Robert K. ''Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game'' (Southern Illinois University Press, 2005). {{ISBN|0-8093-2629-9}}.
* ] and John Dewan, ''Bill James Presents the Great American Baseball Stat Book'', ed. by Geoff Beckman ''et al.'' (1987)
* ], ''The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract'', (ISBN 0-7432-2722-0) * ], and ] (eds.). ''The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia'', 5th ed. (Sterling, 2008). {{ISBN|1-4027-6051-5}}.
* Robert Peterson, ''Only the Ball Was White'' (1970, reprinted 1984) * Peterson, Robert. ''Only the Ball Was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black Professional Teams'' (Oxford University Press, 1992 ). {{ISBN|0-19-507637-0}}.
* Reaves, Joseph A. ''Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia'' (Bison, 2004). {{ISBN|0-8032-3943-2}}.
* Joseph L. Reichler (ed.), ''The Baseball Encyclopedia'', 7th rev. ed. (1988). (since 1871)
* Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig, ''The Image of Their Greatness: An Illustrated History of Baseball from 1900 to the Present'', updated ed. (1984) * Ward, Geoffrey C., and ]. ''Baseball: An Illustrated History'' (Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). {{ISBN|0-679-40459-7}}.
* Lawrence S. Ritter (comp.), '']'', new ed. (1984)
* David Quentin Voigt, ''Baseball, an Illustrated History'' (1987)
* Charles Euchner, ''The Last Nine Innings: Inside the Real Game Fans Never See'' (2006)
* Jeff MacGregor, The New Electoral Sex Symbol: Nascar Dad, ''The New York Times'' (] ])
* Michael Mandelbaum, ''The Meaning of Sports'', (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1).
* ''Diamonds of the North: A Concise History of Baseball in Canada'' by ] (Oxford University Press, 1995).
* ''Old Time Baseball and the London Tecumsehs of the late 1870s'' by Les Bronson, a recorded (and later transcribed) talk given to the London & Middlesex Historical Society on ] ]. Available in the London Room of the Central Branch of the London Public Library.
* ''Journal of Sport History'' (1988), ''A Critical Examination of a Source in Early Ontario Baseball: The Reminiscence of Adam E. Ford'' by UWO Professor Robert K. Barney and Nancy Bouchier.
* ''], Exploring Canada's History'' October-November 1994, ''Baseball's Canadian Roots: Abner Who?'' by Mark Kearney.
* ''The Northern Game: Baseball the Canadian Way'' by Bob Elliott (Sport Classic, 2005).
* '''The 1948 London Majors: A Great Canadian Team'' by Dan Mendham (unpublished academic paper, ], ] ]).
* An Eight-Page Indenture/ Instrument #33043 between The London and Western Trusts Company Limited, The Corporation of The City of London and ], dated ] ], and registered on title in the Land Registry Office for the City of London on ] ], conveying Tecumseh Park to the City of London along with $10,000 on the provisos that the athletic field be preserved, maintained and operated "for the use of the citizens of the City of London as an athletic field and recreation ground" and that it be renamed "The John Labatt Memorial Athletic Park."
* ''Heritage Baseball: City of London'' a souvenir program from ] ], celebrating the history of ] and ]'s 150th anniversary as an incorporated city.
* , earliest known baseball reference


==External links== == External links ==
<!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links.
;Baseball Organizations/Leagues
* Major League Baseball
* Minor League Baseball
* British Baseball Federation pooop


Misplaced Pages is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising.
;Baseball Reference & Stats
Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed.
* Baseball stats
* Baseball stats
* Baseball dictionary
* Society for American Baseball Research


See ] and ] for details.
;Baseball News, Resources, & Other
* Online museum of early baseball
* Library of Congress of Spalding Guides
* PBS documentary - "Baseball" by Ken Burns
* PBS documentary - "Stealing Home"
* Baseball newspaper archive
* Baseball in China
* online news/collecting magazine


If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on
{{Olympic Games Baseball}}
the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at
the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}.


-->
{{featured article}}
{{Sister project links|wikt=baseball|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Base-Ball|auto=1|voy=Baseball in the United States}}
{{Spoken Misplaced Pages|date=2024-04-25|En-Baseball-article.ogg}}
*
* . '']'' Online.
*
*
* European baseball news
* at ] in ]
* "", historical perspective on statistics of baseball injuries, '']'', July 13, 1878, p.&nbsp;21
* at the ]



{{Baseball}}
{{Baseball pitches}}
{{Baseball positions}}
{{Baseball statistics}}
{{International Baseball}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Articles relating to Baseball
|list1=
{{Team Sport}} {{Team Sport}}
{{Template:Professional Baseball}} {{Professional Baseball}}
{{Summer Olympic sports}}
{{Baseball Hall of Fame members}}
{{Honor Rolls of Baseball}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

] ]
] ]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
] ]
] ]
]

{{Link FA|eo}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Latest revision as of 03:06, 24 December 2024

Bat-and-ball game This article is about the sport. For the ball used in the sport, see Baseball (ball). For other uses, see Baseball (disambiguation). "Base ball" redirects here. For old time baseball, see Vintage base ball.

Baseball
Los Angeles Angels center fielder Mike Trout hits a home run on a pitch from New York Mets pitcher Tommy Milone on May 21, 2017.
Highest governing bodyWorld Baseball Softball Confederation
First played18th-century England (predecessors)
19th-century United States (modern version)
Characteristics
ContactTagging-only
Team members9
Mixed-sexYes, separate competitions
TypeTeam sport, bat-and-ball
EquipmentBaseball
Baseball bat
Baseball glove
Batting helmet
Catcher's gear
VenueBaseball park
Baseball field
GlossaryGlossary of baseball terms
Presence
Country or regionWorldwide (most prominent in the Americas and East Asia)
OlympicDemonstration sport: 1912, 1936, 1952, 1956, 1964, 1984 and 1988
Medal sport: 19922008, 2020
World Games1981
Part of a series on the
History of baseball
Early years
By country
International competitions
Other topics
Related games
Baseball portal

Baseball is a bat-and-ball sport played between two teams of nine players each, taking turns batting and fielding. The game occurs over the course of several plays, with each play generally beginning when a player on the fielding team, called the pitcher, throws a ball that a player on the batting team, called the batter, tries to hit with a bat. The objective of the offensive team (batting team) is to hit the ball into the field of play, away from the other team's players, allowing its players to run the bases, having them advance counter-clockwise around four bases to score what are called "runs". The objective of the defensive team (referred to as the fielding team) is to prevent batters from becoming runners, and to prevent runners advancing around the bases. A run is scored when a runner legally advances around the bases in order and touches home plate (the place where the player started as a batter).

The initial objective of the batting team is to have a player reach first base safely; this generally occurs either when the batter hits the ball and reaches first base before an opponent retrieves the ball and touches the base, or when the pitcher persists in throwing the ball out of the batter's reach. Players on the batting team who reach first base without being called "out" can attempt to advance to subsequent bases as a runner, either immediately or during teammates' turns batting. The fielding team tries to prevent runs by using the ball to get batters or runners "out", which forces them out of the field of play. The pitcher can get the batter out by throwing three pitches which result in strikes, while fielders can get the batter out by catching a batted ball before it touches the ground, and can get a runner out by tagging them with the ball while the runner is not touching a base.

The opposing teams switch back and forth between batting and fielding; the batting team's turn to bat is over once the fielding team records three outs. One turn batting for each team constitutes an inning. A game is usually composed of nine innings, and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins. Most games end after the ninth inning, but if scores are tied at that point, extra innings are usually played. Baseball has no game clock, though some competitions feature pace-of-play regulations such as the pitch clock to shorten game time.

Baseball evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. Baseball's American origins, as well as its reputation as a source of escapism during troubled points in American history such as the American Civil War and the Great Depression, have led the sport to receive the moniker of "America's Pastime"; since the late 19th century, it has been unofficially recognized as the national sport of the United States, though in modern times is considered less popular than other sports, such as American football. In addition to North America, baseball spread throughout the rest of the Americas and the Asia–Pacific in the 19th and 20th centuries, and is now considered the most popular sport in parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia, particularly in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.

In Major League Baseball (MLB), the highest level of professional baseball in the United States and Canada, teams are divided into the National League (NL) and American League (AL), each with three divisions: East, West, and Central. The MLB champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series. The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League. The World Baseball Classic, organized by the World Baseball Softball Confederation, is the major international competition of the sport and attracts the top national teams from around the world. Baseball was played at the Olympic Games from 1992 to 2008, and was reinstated on a one-off basis in 2020.

Rules and gameplay

Further information: Baseball rules and Outline of baseball

Overview

Diagram of a baseball field Diamond may refer to the square area defined by the four bases or to the entire playing field. The dimensions given are for professional and professional-style games. Children often play on smaller fields.
2013 World Baseball Classic championship match between the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, March 20, 2013

A baseball game is played between two teams, each usually composed of nine players, that take turns playing offense (batting and baserunning) and defense (pitching and fielding). A pair of turns, one at bat and one in the field, by each team constitutes an inning. A game consists of nine innings (seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college, Minor League Baseball and, since the 2020 season, Major League Baseball; and six innings at the Little League level). One team—customarily the visiting team—bats in the top, or first half, of every inning. The other team—customarily the home team—bats in the bottom, or second half, of every inning.

The goal of the game is to score more points (runs) than the other team. The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by touching all four bases, in order, set at the corners of the square-shaped baseball diamond. A player bats at home plate and must attempt to safely reach a base before proceeding, counterclockwise, from first base, to second base, third base, and back home to score a run. The team in the field attempts to prevent runs from scoring by recording outs, which remove opposing players from offensive action until their next turn at bat comes up again. When three outs are recorded, the teams switch roles for the next half-inning. If the score of the game is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played to resolve the contest. Many amateur games, particularly unorganized ones, involve different numbers of players and innings.

The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries, the foul lines, extend forward from home plate at 45-degree angles. The 90-degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory; the 270-degree area outside them is foul territory. The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield. In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher's mound, with a rectangular rubber plate (the rubber) at its center. The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence, which may be of any material and height. The fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball's field of play, though significant events can take place in foul territory, as well.

There are three basic tools of baseball: the ball, the bat, and the glove or mitt:

  • The baseball is about the size of an adult's fist, around 9 inches (23 centimeters) in circumference. It has a rubber or cork center, wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide, with red stitching.
  • The bat is a hitting tool, traditionally made of a single, solid piece of wood. Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games. It is a hard round stick, about 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) in diameter at the hitting end, tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob. Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches (86 centimeters) long, and not longer than 42 inches (110 centimeters).
  • The glove or mitt is a fielding tool, made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers. As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball, it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions.

Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters.

Fielding positions

At the beginning of each half-inning, the nine players of the fielding team arrange themselves around the field. One of them, the pitcher, stands on the pitcher's mound. The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber, pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate. Another fielding team player, the catcher, squats on the far side of home plate, facing the pitcher. The rest of the fielding team faces home plate, typically arranged as four infielders—who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines (basepaths) between first, second, and third base—and three outfielders. In the standard arrangement, there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base, a second baseman to the right of second base, a shortstop to the left of second base, and a third baseman to the right of third base. The basic outfield positions are left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. With the exception of the catcher, all fielders are required to be in fair territory when the pitch is delivered. A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher. Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well.

Offense

David Ortiz, the batter, awaiting a pitch, with the catcher and umpire

Play starts with a member of the batting team, the batter, standing in either of the two batter's boxes next to home plate, holding a bat. The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch (the ball) toward home plate, and attempts to hit the ball with the bat. The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit—as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect—and returns them to the pitcher. A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base, at which point the player is referred to as a runner (or, until the play is over, a batter-runner).

A runner sliding into home plate and scoring.

A batter-runner who reaches first base without being put out is said to be safe and is on base. A batter-runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond—however far the player believes can be reached safely. A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit. A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single. If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit, it is a double; third base, a triple. If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield (and outfield fence, if there is one), or if the batter-runner otherwise safely circles all the bases, it is a home run: the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases, each scoring a run. This is the most desirable result for the batter. The ultimate and most desirable result possible for a batter would be to hit a home run while all three bases are occupied or "loaded", thus scoring four runs on a single hit. This is called a grand slam. A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit—instead, the responsible fielder is charged with an error.

Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land, or contact the ground, in fair territory, before or after the ball lands. A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play, as only one runner may occupy a base at any given time; the same applies for other runners if they are on a base that a teammate is forced to advance to. If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield, it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they occupied when the play began. If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands, the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up (contact the base they occupied when the play began, as or after the ball is caught). Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate; a successful effort is a stolen base.

Defense

The strike zone determines the result of most pitches, and varies in vertical length for each batter.

A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball. A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out. A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk, a free advance to first base. (A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone, provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit.) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone, a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee. Any pitch which does not pass through the strike zone is called a ball, unless the batter either swings and misses at the pitch, or hits the pitch into foul territory; an exception generally occurs if the ball is hit into foul territory when the batter already has two strikes, in which case neither a ball nor a strike is called.

A shortstop tries to tag out a runner who is sliding head first, attempting to reach second base.

While the team at bat is trying to score runs, the team in the field is attempting to record outs. In addition to the strikeout and flyout, common ways a member of the batting team may be put out include the ground out, force out, and tag out. These occur either when a runner is forced to advance to a base, and a fielder with possession of the ball reaches that base before the runner does, or the runner is touched by the ball, held in a fielder's hand, while not on a base. (The batter-runner is always forced to advance to first base, and any other runners must advance to the next base if a teammate is forced to advance to their base.) It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play. This is called a double play. Three outs in one play, a triple play, is possible, though rare. Players put out or retired must leave the field, returning to their team's dugout or bench. A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team. Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat as every half-inning begins with the bases empty.

Batting order and substitution

A pitcher handing off the ball after being taken out of the game during a mound meeting.

An individual player's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base, hits a home run, makes an out, or hits a ball that results in the team's third out, even if it is recorded against a teammate. On rare occasions, a batter may be at the plate when, without the batter's hitting the ball, a third out is recorded against a teammate—for instance, a runner getting caught stealing (tagged out attempting to steal a base). A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team's next turn batting; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased.

A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn. Once a player has completed a plate appearance, that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player's team have all taken their turn at bat in the batting order. The batting order is set before the game begins, and may not be altered except for substitutions. Once a player has been removed for a substitute, that player may not reenter the game. Children's games often have more lenient rules, such as Little League rules, which allow players to be substituted back into the same game.

If the designated hitter (DH) rule is in effect, each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat (and run). The DH takes the place of another player—almost invariably the pitcher—in the batting order, but does not field. Thus, even with the DH, each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players.

Personnel

See also: Baseball positions

Players

Defensive positions on a baseball field, with abbreviations and scorekeeper's position numbers (not uniform numbers)
See also the categories Baseball players and Lists of baseball players

The number of players on a baseball roster, or squad, varies by league and by the level of organized play. A Major League Baseball (MLB) team has a roster of 26 players with specific roles. A typical roster features the following players:

Most baseball leagues worldwide have the DH rule, including MLB, Japan's Pacific League, and Caribbean professional leagues, along with major American amateur organizations. The Central League in Japan does not have the rule and high-level minor league clubs connected to National League teams are not required to field a DH. In leagues that apply the designated hitter rule, a typical team has nine offensive regulars (including the DH), five starting pitchers, seven or eight relievers, a backup catcher, and two or three other reserve players.

Managers and coaches

The manager, or head coach, oversees the team's major strategic decisions, such as establishing the starting rotation, setting the lineup, or batting order, before each game, and making substitutions during games—in particular, bringing in relief pitchers. Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches; they may have specialized responsibilities, such as working with players on hitting, fielding, pitching, or strength and conditioning. At most levels of organized play, two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat: the first base coach and third base coach, who occupy designated coaches' boxes, just outside the foul lines. These coaches assist in the direction of baserunners, when the ball is in play, and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners, during pauses in play. In contrast to many other team sports, baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team's uniforms; coaches must be in uniform to be allowed on the field to confer with players during a game.

Umpires

Any baseball game involves one or more umpires, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call balls and strikes. Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases, thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs. In MLB, four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines.

Strategy

See also: Baseball positioning

Many of the pre-game and in-game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact: in general, right-handed batters tend to be more successful against left-handed pitchers and, to an even greater degree, left-handed batters tend to be more successful against right-handed pitchers. A manager with several left-handed batters in the regular lineup, who knows the team will be facing a left-handed starting pitcher, may respond by starting one or more of the right-handed backups on the team's roster. During the late innings of a game, as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in, the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions. The manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same-handed pitcher-batter matchups and the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite-handed matchups. With a team that has the lead in the late innings, a manager may remove a starting position player—especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again—for a more skillful fielder (known as a defensive substitution).

Tactics

Pitching and fielding

A first baseman receives a pickoff throw, as the runner dives back to first base.
See also: Pitch (baseball)

The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection. By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner, and by throwing it at a certain speed, pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side, or downward, as it approaches the batter, thus creating differing pitches that can be selected. Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown, the four basic types are the fastball, the changeup (or off-speed pitch), and two breaking balls—the curveball and the slider. Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing. Conventionally, before each pitch, the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw, as well as its general vertical or horizontal location. If there is disagreement on the selection, the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch.

With a runner on base and taking a lead, the pitcher may attempt a pickoff, a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner's lead in check or, optimally, effect a tag out. Pickoff attempts, however, are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher's movements before and during the pickoff attempt. Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher, which permits any runners on base to advance one base with impunity. If an attempted stolen base is anticipated, the catcher may call for a pitchout, a ball thrown deliberately off the plate, allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base. Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field, the fielding team may employ a shift, with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions. With a runner on third base, the infielders may play in, moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball, though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn-in infield.

Batting and baserunning

Boston Red Sox player Mookie Betts hits a pitch by swinging his bat.

Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base, including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base. The hit and run is sometimes employed, with a skillful contact hitter, the runner takes off with the pitch, drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base, creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through. The sacrifice bunt, calls for the batter to focus on making soft contact with the ball, so that it rolls a short distance into the infield, allowing the runner to advance into scoring position as the batter is thrown out at first. A batter, particularly one who is a fast runner, may also attempt to bunt for a hit. A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base, aimed at bringing that runner home, is known as a squeeze play. With a runner on third and fewer than two outs, a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that, even if it is caught, will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score—a successful batter, in this case, gets credit for a sacrifice fly. In order to increase the chance of advancing a batter to first base via a walk, the manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count (i.e., has more balls than strikes) to take, or not swing at, the next pitch. The batter's potential reward of reaching base (via a walk) exceeds the disadvantage if the next pitch is a strike.

History

Main article: History of baseball Further information: Origins of baseball

The evolution of baseball from older bat-and-ball games is difficult to trace with precision. Consensus once held that today's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders, popular among children in Great Britain and Ireland. American baseball historian David Block suggests that the game originated in England; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position. According to Block and John Thorn, official MLB historian, this earlier version of baseball may have involved hitting the ball with a hand, making it akin to today's punchball. Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other, and that the game's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and "tut-ball". The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. Block discovered that the first recorded game of "Bass-Ball" took place in 1749 in Surrey, and featured the Prince of Wales as a player. This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants.

By the 1860s Civil War, baseball (bottom) had overtaken its fellow bat-and-ball sport cricket (top) in popularity within the United States. Growing American influence abroad meant the same occurred in Japan and the Dominican Republic by the early 20th century.

By the early 1830s, there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat-and-ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America. The first officially recorded baseball game in North America was played in Beachville, Ontario, Canada, on June 4, 1838. In 1845, Alexander Cartwright, a member of New York City's Knickerbocker Club, led the codification of the so-called Knickerbocker Rules, which in turn were based on rules developed in 1837 by William R. Wheaton of the Gotham Club. While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845, the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19, 1846, in Hoboken, New Jersey: the "New York Nine" defeated the Knickerbockers, 23–1, in four innings. With the Knickerbocker code as the basis, the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half-century. The game then went on to spread throughout the Pacific Rim and the Americas, with Americans backing the sport as a way to spread American values.

In the United States

Further information: Baseball in the United States and History of baseball in the United States

Establishment of professional leagues

In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area, and by 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the "national pastime" or "national game". A year later, the sport's first governing body, the National Association of Base Ball Players, was formed. In 1867, it barred participation by African Americans. The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876. Professional Negro leagues formed, but quickly folded. In 1887, softball, under the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a winter version of the parent game. The National League's first successful counterpart, the American League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was established in 1893, and virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by then.

The National Agreement of 1903 formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the country's minor professional leagues. The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against each other, was inaugurated that fall. The Black Sox Scandal of the 1919 World Series led to the formation of the office of the Commissioner of Baseball. The first commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis, was elected in 1920. That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League; the first significant Negro league, it would operate until 1931. For part of the 1920s, it was joined by the Eastern Colored League.

Rise of Ruth and racial integration

Compared with the present, professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower-scoring, and pitchers were more dominant. This so-called "dead-ball era" ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters. Strict new regulations governed the ball's size, shape and composition, along with a new rule officially banning the spitball and other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed-up with foreign substances, resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit. The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth, the first great power hitter of the new era, helped permanently alter the nature of the game. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern farm system. A new Negro National League was organized in 1933; four years later, it was joined by the Negro American League. The first elections to the National Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936. In 1939, Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania.

Robinson posing in the uniform cap of the Kansas City Royals, a California Winter League barnstorming team, November 1945 (photo by Maurice Terrell)
Jackie Robinson in 1945, with the era's Kansas City Royals, a barnstorming squad associated with the Negro American League's Kansas City Monarchs

Many minor league teams disbanded when World War II led to a player shortage. Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League to help keep the game in the public eye. The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white-controlled professional ball occurred in 1945: Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League's Brooklyn Dodgers and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal. In 1947, Robinson broke the major leagues' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers. Latin-American players, largely overlooked before, also started entering the majors in greater numbers. In 1951, two Chicago White Sox, Venezuelan-born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban-born Minnie Miñoso, became the first Hispanic All-Stars. Integration proceeded slowly: by 1953, only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster.

Attendance records and the age of steroids

In 1975, the union's power—and players' salaries—began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down, leading to the free agency system. Significant work stoppages occurred in 1981 and 1994, the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years. Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid-1970s and in 1994, before the stoppage, the majors were setting their all-time record for per-game attendance. After play resumed in 1995, non-division-winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post-season. Regular-season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second-highest attendance mark for a full season was set. In 2000, the National and American Leagues were dissolved as legal entities. While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes (and the designated hitter distinction), the regulations and other functions—such as player discipline and umpire supervision—they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of MLB.

In 2001, Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season. There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids (as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion), but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance-enhancing drugs before 2004. In 2007, Bonds became MLB's all-time home run leader, surpassing Hank Aaron, as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all-time highs.

Around the world

Main article: History of baseball outside the United States

Despite having been called "America's national pastime", baseball is well-established in several other countries. As early as 1877, a professional league, the International Association, featured teams from both Canada and the United States. While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country, the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969, when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team. In 1977, the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League.

Sadaharu Oh managing the Japan national team in the 2006 World Baseball Classic. Playing for the Central League's Yomiuri Giants (1959–80), Oh set the professional world record for home runs.

In 1847, American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa, Veracruz. The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba, which maintains a rich baseball tradition. The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912. Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars, including the Netherlands (formed in 1922), Australia (1934), Japan (1936), Mexico (1937), and Puerto Rico (1938). The Japanese major leagues have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States.

Pesäpallo, a Finnish variation of baseball, was invented by Lauri "Tahko" Pihkala in the 1920s, and after that, it has changed with the times and grown in popularity. Picture of Pesäpallo match in 1958 in Jyväskylä, Finland.

After World War II, professional leagues were founded in many Latin American countries, most prominently Venezuela (1946) and the Dominican Republic (1955). Since the early 1970s, the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues: the Dominican Professional Baseball League, Mexican Pacific League, Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. In Asia, South Korea (1982), Taiwan (1990) and China (2003) all have professional leagues.

The English football club, Aston Villa, were the first British baseball champions winning the 1890 National League of Baseball of Great Britain. The 2020 National Champions were the London Mets. Other European countries have seen professional leagues; the most successful, other than the Dutch league, is the Italian league, founded in 1948. In 2004, Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games. The Confédération Européene de Baseball (European Baseball Confederation), founded in 1953, organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries. Other competitions between national teams, such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament, were administered by the International Baseball Federation (IBAF) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC). Women's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in numerous countries.

After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games, baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting. It remained part of the 2008 Games. While the sport's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor, more important was MLB's reluctance to allow its players to participate during the major league season. MLB initiated the World Baseball Classic, scheduled to precede its season, partly as a replacement, high-profile international tournament. The inaugural Classic, held in March 2006, was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants. The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic.

Distinctive elements

Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following. All of these sports use a clock, play is less individual, and the variation between playing fields is not as substantial or important. The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports.

No clock to kill

A well-worn baseball

In clock-limited sports, games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock, thus a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time. At almost any turn in any baseball game, the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy. Whereas, in the case of multi-day Test and first-class cricket, the possibility of a draw (which occurs because of the restrictions on time, which like in baseball, originally did not exist) often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind, to bat defensively and run out the clock, giving up any faint chance at a win, to avoid an overall loss.

While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball, the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years. At the turn of the 20th century, games typically took an hour and a half to play. In the 1920s, they averaged just less than two hours, which eventually ballooned to 2:38 in 1960. By 1997, the average American League game lasted 2:57 (National League games were about 10 minutes shorter—pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters). In 2004, Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of 2:45. By 2014, though, the average MLB game took over three hours to complete. The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half-innings for television commercials, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play, with pitchers taking more time between each delivery, and batters stepping out of the box more frequently. Other leagues have experienced similar issues. In 2008, Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade's average of 3:18.

In 2016, the average nine-inning playoff game in Major League baseball was 3 hours and 35 minutes. This was up 10 minutes from 2015 and 21 minutes from 2014. In response to the lengthening of the game, MLB decided from the 2023 season onward to institute a pitch clock rule to penalize batters and pitchers who take too much time between pitches; this had the effect of shortening 2023 regular season games by 24 minutes on average.

Individual focus

Babe Ruth in 1920, the year he joined the New York Yankees

Although baseball is a team sport, individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure. While rewarding, it has sometimes been described as "ruthless" due to the pressure on the individual player. In 1915, a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch, of which there are often more than two hundred in a game, involves an individual, one-on-one contest: "the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits". Pitcher, batter, and fielder all act essentially independent of each other. While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing. The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it.

Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more. There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play.

Uniqueness of parks

Further information: Ballpark
Fenway Park, home of the Boston Red Sox. The Green Monster is visible beyond the playing field on the left.

Unlike those of most sports, baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated, the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams, following the rules of MLB and Minor League Baseball, is that fields built or remodeled since June 1, 1958, must have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 feet (122 m) to center. Major league teams often skirt even this rule. For example, at Minute Maid Park, which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000, the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 feet (96 m) from home plate. There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield. The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left-field wall at Boston's Fenway Park, in use since 1912: the Green Monster is 310 feet (94 m) from home plate down the line and 37 feet (11 m) tall.

Similarly, there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory. Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands, but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground. A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders, while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions, as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner. These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside-the-park home run. The surface of the field is also unregulated. While the adjacent image shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement (and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields), teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare. Some fields—including several in MLB—use artificial turf. Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning. Similarly, the presence of a roof (seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs) can greatly affect how fly balls are played. While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized. The area out-of-bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does, so variations in that regard are largely insignificant.

A New York Yankees batter (Andruw Jones) and a Boston Red Sox catcher at Fenway Park

These physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark. Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also significantly affect play. A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher's park or a hitter's park, if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements. The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies. Its high altitude—5,282 feet (1,610 m) above sea level—is partly responsible for giving it the strongest hitter's park effect in the major leagues due to the low air pressure. Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, is known for its fickle disposition: a pitcher's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing in, it becomes more of a hitter's park when they are blowing out. The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out, but the nature of team rosters and players' statistical records. For example, hitting a fly ball 330 feet (100 m) into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park, and a home run at another. A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field, such as the New York Yankees, will tend to stock its roster with left-handed pull hitters, who can best exploit it. On the individual level, a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time—even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park.

Statistics

Further information: Baseball statistics

Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. In the late 19th century, a former cricket player, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, was responsible for the "development of the box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball." The statistical record is so central to the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball. In the 1920s, American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics, initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a "tectonic shift in sports, as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines."

The Official Baseball Rules administered by MLB require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously. The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency. The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records. General managers, managers, and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions.

Rickey Henderson—the major leagues' all-time leader in runs and stolen bases—stealing third base in a 1988 game

Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans. The basic batting statistics include:

  • At bats: plate appearances, excluding walks and hit by pitches—where the batter's ability is not fully tested—and sacrifices and sacrifice flies—where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners
  • Hits: times a base is reached safely, because of a batted, fair ball without a fielding error or fielder's choice
  • Runs: times circling the bases and reaching home safely
  • Runs batted in (RBIs): number of runners who scored due to a batter's action (including the batter, in the case of a home run), except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
  • Home runs: hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error
  • Batting average: hits divided by at bats—the traditional measure of batting ability

The basic baserunning statistics include:

  • Stolen bases: times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner's own efforts, generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball
  • Caught stealing: times tagged out while attempting to steal a base
Cy Young—the holder of many major league career marks, including wins and innings pitched, as well as losses—in 1908. MLB's annual awards for the best pitcher in each league are named for Young.

The basic pitching statistics include:

  • Wins: credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished (a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win)
  • Losses: charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished
  • Saves: games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher's team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and either (a) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game; (b) the potential tying run was on base, at bat, or on deck; or (c) the pitcher pitched three or more innings
  • Innings pitched: outs recorded while pitching divided by three (partial innings are conventionally recorded as, e.g., "5.2" or "7.1", the last digit actually representing thirds, not tenths, of an inning)
  • Strikeouts: times pitching three strikes to a batter
  • Winning percentage: wins divided by decisions (wins plus losses)
  • Earned run average (ERA): runs allowed, excluding those resulting from fielding errors, per nine innings pitched

The basic fielding statistics include:

  • Putouts: times the fielder catches a fly ball, tags or forces out a runner, or otherwise directly effects an out
  • Assists: times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball
  • Errors: times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort, and the batting team benefits as a result
  • Total chances: putouts plus assists plus errors
  • Fielding average: successful chances (putouts plus assists) divided by total chances

Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics. For example, statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against. If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter, the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed.

Sabermetrics

Sabermetrics is the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools. Such new statistics are also called sabermetrics. The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field's leading proponents, Bill James, and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).

The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter's skill than batting average:

  • On-base percentage (OBP) measures a batter's ability to get on base. It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter's successes in getting on base (hits plus walks plus hit by pitches) and dividing that by the batter's total plate appearances (at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies), except for sacrifice bunts.
  • Slugging percentage (SLG) measures a batter's ability to hit for power. It is calculated by taking the batter's total bases (one per each single, two per double, three per triple, and four per home run) and dividing that by the batter's at bats.

Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use:

  • On-base plus slugging (OPS) measures a batter's overall ability. It is calculated by adding the batter's on-base percentage and slugging percentage.
  • Walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) measures a pitcher's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base. It is calculated by adding the number of walks and hits a pitcher surrendered, then dividing by the number of innings pitched.
  • Wins Above Replacement (WAR) measures number of additional wins his team has achieved above the number of expected team wins if that player were substituted with a replacement-level player.

Popularity and cultural impact

Two players on the baseball team of Tokyo, Japan's Waseda University in 1921

Writing in 1919, philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as the national religion of the US. In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark, baseball has long been "a unique paragon of American culture"—a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal. Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well: Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes "how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba, how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan."

Western Hemisphere

American influence in the Western Hemisphere has meant that baseball grew significantly in the region.

In the United States

See also: Baseball in Canada

The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle-class, white-collar audience: relative to other spectator pastimes, the National League's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high, while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue-collar audience. A century later, the situation was very different. With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices—football, basketball, and hockey—professional baseball had become among the most popular blue-collar-oriented American spectator sports.

The Tampere Tigers celebrating the 2017 title in Turku, Finland

Overall, baseball has a large following in the United States; a 2006 poll found that nearly half of Americans are fans. This led to baseball being granted the title of "America's favorite pastime" by many American baseball fans. The game was historically seen as contributing to the melting pot society of the nation, encouraging immigrants to integrate. In the late 1900s and early 2000s, baseball's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions. In 2008, MLB set a revenue record of $6.5 billion, matching the NFL's revenue for the first time in decades. A new MLB revenue record of more than $10 billion was set in 2017. On the other hand, the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 9%, compared to pro football at 37%. In 1985, the respective figures were pro football 24%, baseball 23%. Because there are so many more major league games played, there is no comparison in overall attendance. In 2008, total attendance at major league games was the second-highest in history: 78.6 million, 0.7% off the record set the previous year. The following year, amid the U.S. recession, attendance fell by 6.6% to 73.4 million. Eight years later, it dropped under 73 million. Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella set a record in 2008, with 43.3 million. While MLB games have not drawn the same national TV viewership as football games, MLB games are dominant in teams' local markets and regularly lead all programs in primetime in their markets during the summer.

Latin America

See also: Latin America–United States relations

Baseball is very popular in Venezuela; in 2011, 95% of people surveyed claimed it to be the national sport. The sport's overall popularity in Latin America has assisted in integrating Latin American migrants to the United States.

Caribbean

Since the early 1980s, the Dominican Republic, in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís, has been the major leagues' primary source of foreign talent. In 2017, 83 of the 868 players on MLB Opening Day rosters (and disabled lists) were from the country. Among other Caribbean countries and territories, a combined 97 MLB players were born in Venezuela, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Hall-of-Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico's history. While baseball has long been the island's primary athletic pastime, its once well-attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990, when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues' annual first-year player draft. In Cuba, where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport, the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues.

Asia

An Afghan girl playing baseball in August 2002

In East Asia, baseball is among the most popular sports in Japan and South Korea. In Japan, where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport, combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific Leagues, was estimated at $1 billion in 2007. Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million. While in the preceding two decades, MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled, the comparable NPB figures were stagnant. There are concerns that MLB's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country. Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority "has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes". In Taiwan, baseball is one of the most widely spectated sports, with the origins dating back to Japanese rule. Baseball has grown significantly in China in recent years, with MLB estimating in 2019 that there are 21 million active fans in the country.

Among children

As of 2018, Little League Baseball oversees leagues with close to 2.4 million participants in over 80 countries. The number of players has fallen since the 1990s, when 3 million children took part in Little League Baseball annually. Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants. According to the president of the International Baseball Federation, between 300,000 and 500,000 women and girls play baseball around the world, including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball.

A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States. In 2015, nearly half a million high schoolers and over 34,000 collegians played on their schools' baseball teams. By early in the 20th century, intercollegiate baseball was Japan's leading sport. Today, high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there. The final rounds of the two annual tournaments—the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring, and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer—are broadcast around the country. The tournaments are known, respectively, as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55,000-capacity stadium where they are played. In Cuba, baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education, which begins at age six. Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training—the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team.

In popular culture

The American Tobacco Company's line of baseball cards featured shortstop Honus Wagner of the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1909 to 1911. In 2007, the card shown here sold for $2.8 million.

Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the United States and elsewhere. Dozens of English-language idioms have been derived from baseball; in particular, the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms. The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series: famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play-by-play from New York City's Polo Grounds on WJZNewark, New Jersey, which was connected by wire to WGYSchenectady, New York, and WBZSpringfield, Massachusetts. The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan, but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular, such as the United Kingdom.

Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment. One of the first major examples, Ernest Thayer's poem "Casey at the Bat", appeared in 1888. A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a "clutch situation", the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances, audio recordings, film adaptations, and an opera, as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media. There have been many baseball movies, including the Academy Award–winning The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and the Oscar nominees The Natural (1984) and Field of Dreams (1989). The American Film Institute's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham (1988) at number 5. Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage—the AdlerRoss musical Damn Yankees—and record—George J. Gaskin's "Slide, Kelly, Slide", Simon and Garfunkel's "Mrs. Robinson", and John Fogerty's "Centerfield". The baseball-inspired comedic sketch "Who's on First?", popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938, quickly became famous. Six decades later, Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century.

Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud's The Natural (the source for the movie), Robert Coover's The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., John Grisham's Calico Joe and W. P. Kinsella's Shoeless Joe (the source for Field of Dreams). Baseball's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon; the columns of Grantland Rice, Red Smith, Dick Young, and Peter Gammons; and the essays of Roger Angell. Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter's The Glory of Their Times, Roger Kahn's The Boys of Summer, and Michael Lewis's Moneyball. The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton's tell-all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports.

Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms. Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards. A typical example featured an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other. In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies. The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card, with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data. Baseball cards—many of which are now prized collectibles—are the source of the much broader trading card industry, involving similar products for different sports and non-sports-related fields.

Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends. Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active MLB players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players' latest real-world statistics. Rotisserie-style play quickly became a phenomenon. Now known more generically as fantasy baseball, it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports. The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports-related websites. By 2008, 29.9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports, spending $800 million on the hobby. The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics—first among fans, only later among baseball professionals.

Derivative games

Main article: Variations of baseball
Stickball is a common street variant of baseball which often features impromptu adaptations. (Note the painted strike zone on the wall behind the batter.)

Informal variations of baseball have popped up over time, with games like corkball reflecting local traditions and allowing the game to be played in diverse environments. Two variations of baseball, softball and Baseball5, are internationally governed alongside baseball by the World Baseball Softball Confederation.

British baseball

Main article: British baseball

American professional baseball teams toured Britain in 1874 and 1889, and had a great effect on similar sports in Britain. In Wales and Merseyside, a strong community game had already developed with skills and plays more in keeping with the American game and the Welsh began to informally adopt the name "baseball" (Pêl Fas), to reflect the American style. By the 1890s, calls were made to follow the success of other working class sports (like Rugby in Wales and Soccer in Merseyside) and adopt a distinct set of rules and bureaucracy. During the 1892 season rules for the game of "baseball" were agreed and the game was officially codified.

Finnish baseball

Main article: Pesäpallo

Finnish baseball, also known as pesäpallo, is a combination of traditional ball-batting team games and North American baseball, invented by Lauri "Tahko" Pihkala in the 1920s. The basic idea of pesäpallo is similar to that of baseball: the offense tries to score by hitting the ball successfully and running through the bases, while the defense tries to put the batter and runners out. One of the most important differences between pesäpallo and baseball is that the ball is pitched vertically, which makes hitting the ball, as well as controlling the power and direction of the hit, much easier. This gives the offensive game more variety, speed, and tactical aspects compared to baseball.

See also

Related sports

Citations

  1. Sargis, Joe (August 3, 1981). "The World Games slipped out of town Monday, quietly..." United Press International. Retrieved August 13, 2018.
  2. "Official Baseball Rules" (PDF) (2019 ed.). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 2, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2021.
  3. Bjarkman, Peter C. (September 1, 2006). "American Baseball Imperialism, Clashing National Cultures, and the Future of Samurai Besuboru". Studies on Asia. 3 (3): 123–140. Formal league baseball has long thrived in amateur and professional play around the world, especially in the Caribbean Basin and along the Asian-Pacific Rim. Its history in those regions is every bit as ancient and deep-rooted as it is on the North American continent."
  4. ^ League, Little. "Rules, Regulations, and Policies – Little League". Little League. Retrieved March 19, 2018.
  5. Thurston (2000), p. 15; "Official Rules/Foreword". Major League Baseball. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rules 1.01–1.03)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official Rules/4.00—Starting and Ending a Game (Rule 4.10)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  6. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rules 1.04–1.07)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  7. Porterfield (2007), p. 23; "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rule 1.09)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  8. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rule 1.10a)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. Fitzgerald, Stephen; et al. (November 8, 2005). "Polymer Composite Baseball Bat Endcap (U.S. Patent Application 20050176531)". FreePatentsOnline.com. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  9. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rules 1.12–1.15)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  10. Thurston (2000), pp. 21, 30, 31; "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game (Rule 1.16)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  11. Porterfield (2007), pp. 16–18, 25, 34, 35; "Official Rules/9.00—The Umpire (Rule 9.03a)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  12. "AP source: 7 umpires rotate at World Series". USA Today. Associated Press. September 29, 2014. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
  13. ^ "Official Rules/5.00—Putting the Ball in Play. Live Ball" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.09)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.06, 10.12)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  14. Epstein, David (August 8, 2011). "It's All About Anticipation: Ryan Howard and Rafael Nadal don't have quicker reflexes than you do. They hit the fastest pitches and return the hardest serves because they can see the future". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on December 13, 2011. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  15. "Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official Rules/5.00—Putting the Ball in Play. Live Ball (Rule 5.09e)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.05a)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/7.00—The Runner (Rules 7.08d, 7.10a)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.07)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  16. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.08b)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 29, 2008. Retrieved April 12, 2012.
  17. "Official Rules/2.00—Definitions of Terms" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  18. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.05)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009. "Official Rules/7.00—The Runner (Rules 7.08, 7.10)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  19. Thurston (2000), p. 100; "Official Rules/3.00—Game Preliminaries (Rule 3.03)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009. "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rules 6.01, 6.04)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  20. Porterfield (2007), p. 19; Thurston (2000), p. 153; "Official Rules/6.00—The Batter (Rule 6.10)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  21. See, e.g., "Nationals Finalize 25-Man Roster". Washington Nationals/Major League Baseball. April 4, 2009. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved April 21, 2009.
  22. Alexander, Charles C. (1991). Our Game: An American Baseball History. Macmillan. p. 290. ISBN 9780805015942.
  23. Ringolsby, Tracy (January 20, 2016). "Tide is turning toward a universal DH". Major League Baseball. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  24. McLaughlin, Dan (July 12, 2011). "Designated Hitters and the Economics of Baseball". Grantland. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
  25. Dunn, Jay (June 21, 2017). "Jay Dunn: It's Time For MLB Teams to Consider Grooming Two-Way Players". The Trentonian. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
  26. Goldman, Steven (April 26, 2016). "It Is Time for Baseball to Fight Back Against Big Bullpen". VICE Media. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
  27. Walfoort, Cleon, "Most 'Signs' Given by Coaches Are Merely Camouflage", Baseball Digest, December 1960 – January 1961, pp. 47–49.
  28. "The Fans Speak Out" , Baseball Digest, August 1999, pp. 9–10; "Official Rules/3.00—Game Preliminaries (Rule 3.15)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 20, 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2009.
  29. Zoss (2004), p. 293; "Official Rules/9.00—The Umpire" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
  30. Bast, Andrew (July 18, 2008). "Southpaw's Revenge". Newsweek. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
  31. See, e.g., Davis, Hank, Small-town Heroes: Images of Minor League Baseball (Univ. of Iowa Press, 1997), p. 186.
  32. Paine, Neil (August 13, 2015). "Game Theory Says R.A. Dickey Should Throw More Knuckleballs". FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  33. "The Mechanics Of A Breaking Pitch". Popular Mechanics. December 6, 2004. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  34. Walsh, John (December 20, 2007). "Fastball, Slider, Change-up, Curveball—An Analysis". The Hardball Times. Retrieved February 21, 2009.
  35. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 192.
  36. McCarver, Tim; Peary, Danny (2013). Tim McCarver's Baseball for Brain Surgeons and Other Fans: Understanding and Interpreting the Game So You Can Watch It Like a Pro. Random House. pp. 71, 272–273. ISBN 9780307831774.
  37. "Balk". Major League Baseball. Retrieved April 23, 2018.
  38. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 126–132.
  39. ^ Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 45.
  40. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 5, 46–47.
  41. Stallings and Bennett (2003), pp. 42–43, 47–48.
  42. Stallings and Bennett (2003), p. 186.
  43. ^ Block (2005), pp. 86, 87, 111–113, 118–121, 135–138, 144, 160; Rader (2008), p. 7.
  44. "Rounders (English Game)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
  45. Cohen, Claire (February 2, 2015). "Save rounders! It's the only sport for people who hate sport". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 11, 2022. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
  46. Thorn, John (March 20, 2012). Baseball in the Garden of Eden: The Secret History of the Early Game. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-9404-1.
  47. Curtis, Bryan. "» In Search of Baseball's Holy Grail". Retrieved December 24, 2024.
  48. Block (2005), pp. 139, 140, 151, 164, 178, 179, et seq.; Hellier, Cathy. "Mr. Newbery's Little Pretty Pocket-Book". Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Retrieved April 12, 2008. See Wikisource edition of A Little Pretty Pocket-Book.
  49. "Why isn't baseball more popular in the UK?". BBC News. July 26, 2013. Retrieved July 26, 2013.
  50. Block (2005), pp. 58, 160, 300, 307, 310; Miller, Doug (August 2, 2005). "Pittsfield: Small City, Big Baseball Town". Major League Baseball. Archived from the original on March 21, 2006. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  51. Crown, Daniel (October 19, 2017). "The Battle Between Baseball and Cricket for American Sporting Supremacy". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  52. "Why cricket and America are made for each other". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  53. Guthrie-Shimizu, Sayuri (April 4, 2012). Transpacific Field of Dreams: How Baseball Linked the United States and Japan in Peace and War. Univ of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-8266-5.
  54. "DR1.com - Dominican Republic News & Travel Information Service". dr1.com. Retrieved July 30, 2024.
  55. Block (2005), pp. 4–5, 11–15, 25, 33, 59–61, et. seq.
  56. Giddens, David (June 15, 2017). "How Canada invented 'American' football, baseball, basketball and hockey". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved June 4, 2019.
  57. Sullivan (1997), p. 292.
  58. Kittel, Jeffrey. "Evolution or Revolution? A Rule-By-Rule Analysis of the 1845 Knickerbocker Rules". Protoball. Archived from the original on December 5, 2022. Retrieved May 9, 2016.
  59. Sullivan (1997), pp. 32, 80, 95.
  60. Tygiel (2000), pp. 8–14; Rader (2008), pp. 71–72.
  61. Guthrie-Shimizu, Sayuri (April 4, 2012). Transpacific Field of Dreams: How Baseball Linked the United States and Japan in Peace and War. Univ of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-8266-5.
  62. Dyreson, Mark; Mangan, J.A.; Park, Roberta J., eds. (September 13, 2013). Mapping an Empire of American Sport (0 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315872971. ISBN 978-1-317-98036-0.
  63. Tienou, Debora N. (March 29, 2019). Beyond the outfield: Baseball fiction and historical fantasy, 1864-present (text thesis). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. p. 1. hdl:2142/104978.
  64. Rader (2008), pp. 9, 10.
  65. Tygiel (2000), p. 6.
  66. Rader (2008), p. 27; Sullivan (1997), pp. 68, 69.
  67. Sullivan (1997), pp. 83, 130, 243.
  68. Sullivan (1997), p. 115.
  69. Heaphy, Leslie, "Women Playing Hardball", in Baseball and Philosophy: Thinking Outside the Batter's Box, ed. Eric Bronson (Open Court, 2004), pp. 246–256: p. 247.
  70. Rader (2008), p. 71.
  71. Sullivan (1997), pp. 243–246.
  72. Rader (2008), p. 110; Zimbalist (2006), p. 22. See "National Agreement for the Government of Professional Base Ball Clubs". roadsidephotos.sabr.org. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
  73. Sullivan (1997), pp. 13–16.
  74. Powers (2003), pp. 39, 47, 48.
  75. Burgos (2007), pp. 117, 118.
  76. Sullivan (1997), p. 214.
  77. Zoss (2004), p. 90.
  78. Zoss (2004), p. 192.
  79. Burk (2001), pp. 34–37.
  80. "History of Little League". Little League. Archived from the original on May 14, 2007. Retrieved June 26, 2007.
  81. Lesko, Jeneane (2005). "League History". All-American Girls Professional Baseball League Players Association. Archived from the original on July 24, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
  82. Burgos (2007), p. 158.
  83. Burgos (2007), pp. 180, 191.
  84. ^ Powers (2003), p. 111.
  85. "Baseball: White Sox and Fans Speak Same Language, with a Spanish Accent". The New York Times. October 26, 2005. Retrieved February 4, 2009.
  86. Powers (2003), pp. 178, 180, 245.
  87. Powers (2003), pp. 184–187, 191, 192, 280–282.
  88. Simmons, Rob, "The Demand for Spectator Sports", in Handbook on the Economics of Sport, ed. Wladimir Andreff and Stefan Szymanski (Edward Elgar, 2006), pp. 77–89.
  89. Koppett (2004), pp. 376, 511.
  90. Koppett (2004), p. 481.
  91. Koppett (2004), p. 489.
  92. Rader (2008), pp. 254, 271; Zimbalist (2007), pp. 195, 196; Verducci, Tom (May 29, 2012). "To Cheat or Not to Cheat". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on June 1, 2012. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
  93. ^ "MLB Regular-Season Attendance Just Shy of Last Year's Record". Street & Smith's SportsBusiness Daily. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
  94. "Minor League Baseball History". Minor League Baseball. Archived from the original on January 20, 2009. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
  95. Bjarkman (2004), p. 73; Burk (2001), p. 58.
  96. "Canada: Baseball participation, popularity rising across the nation". World Baseball Softball Confederation. October 12, 2016. Archived from the original on April 2, 2018. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
  97. Flaherty, David H.; Manning, Frank E., eds. (1993). The Beaver Bites Back?: American Popular Culture in Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 9780773511200.
  98. Riess, Steven A. (2015). Sports in America from Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 172, 656–657. ISBN 9781317459477.
  99. Terry (1909), p. 506.
  100. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv.
  101. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 356, 123, 137, xxiv, 11, 233; Gmelch (2006), p. 296.
  102. McNeil (2000), p. 113.
  103. "Introduction to the game". Pesis.fi. Pesäpalloliitto. Retrieved October 16, 2015.
  104. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xxiv, xxv; Burgos (2007), p. 46.
  105. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 362, 368; Gmelch (2006), pp. 100, 75, 59.
  106. Kendrick, Mat. "Aston Villa: The day the claret and blues won the baseball league". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved October 3, 2016.
  107. "The Baseball Championship: Aston Villa the Winners". Sporting Life. September 3, 1890. p. 1.
  108. Bjarkman (2004), pp. xv.
  109. Mayo, Jonathan (January 28, 2009). "Perspective: Baseball in the Holy Land". Minor League Baseball. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved February 5, 2009.
  110. "International Baseball Federation (Confederations/Member Federations)". International Baseball Federation. Archived from the original on March 6, 2009. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  111. Seymour Mills, Dorothy (2009). Chasing Baseball: Our Obsession with its History, Numbers, People and Places. McFarland & Company. pp. 169–170. ISBN 9780786455881.
  112. "Fewer Sports for London Olympics". BBC News. July 8, 2005. Retrieved September 16, 2008.
  113. "Secret ballot eliminates baseball, softball". ESPN. Associated Press. July 8, 2005. Retrieved June 2, 2019.
  114. Fetters, Ashley (July 20, 2012). "Lost Sports of the Summer Olympics". The Atlantic. Retrieved June 2, 2019.
  115. Isidore, Chris (March 11, 2006). "The Spring Classic?". CNNMoney.com. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  116. McNeal, Stan (March 3, 2006). "Your Guide to the '06 World Baseball Classic". Sporting News. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on July 1, 2015. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  117. "IBAF Congress Approves New Format of International Tournaments" (Press release). International Baseball Federation. December 3, 2011. Retrieved January 20, 2013.
  118. Guttmann (2007), p. 140.
  119. Mandelbaum (2005), pp. 55–57.
  120. Morris (2007), p. xi.
  121. Brancazio, Peter J. (December 22–29, 1983). "The Hardest Blow of All". New Scientist. pp. 880–883. Retrieved August 6, 2017.
  122. Mount, Nicholas James, "Team Sports", in Encyclopedia of Time, ed. Samuel L. Macey (Taylor & Francis, 1994), pp. 588–590: p. 590.
  123. "The Test match that went on and on and on. Without a winner but with meaning | Andy Bull". The Guardian. December 22, 2015. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
  124. Eastaway, Rob, What Is a Googly?: The Mysteries of Cricket Explained (Anova, 2005), p. 134.
  125. ^ Bodley, Hal (February 26, 2004). "Baseball Wants Just a Few More Minutes". USA Today. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  126. ^ Greenfield, Jeff (July 13, 1998). "Midnight Baseball". Time. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
  127. Berg, Ted (September 30, 2014). "Why Are Baseball Games Getting So Much Longer?". USA Today. Retrieved December 27, 2014.
  128. "Japan's Pro Baseball Teams Start Eco-Project to Cut Energy Use by 6%". Japan for Sustainability. July 13, 2008. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
  129. Crasnick, Jerry (October 17, 2017). "Major league teams playing marathon-length games in October". ESPN. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
  130. "Pitch Timer (2023 rule change) | Glossary". MLB.com. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
  131. McCullough, Andy. "The pitch clock meets the postseason: MLB's new rules face October pressure". The Athletic. Retrieved October 2, 2023.
  132. "Ways to Stay Sane in Baseball". The New Yorker. April 4, 2015.
  133. Clarke and Dawson (1915), p. 48.
  134. "10 Cricketers who batted on all five days of a Test match". cricket.yahoo.net. Retrieved September 6, 2020.
  135. Morton, Richard, "Baseball in England", Badminton Magazine, August 1896, pp. 157–158: "The scoring is one of the most interesting features in this new importation from America . Every detail of play is recorded, and a man's mistakes are tabulated as well as his successes... A line in a cricket score may read, 'Lockwood, caught Stoddart, bowled J. T. Hearne; 30.'... here is so much that is left out! There is no mention of the fact that O'Brien missed Lockwood before he had scored, and that somebody else failed to take a chance when his score was ten. These are items that go to make cricket history; but there is no record of them in the analysis... The man who catches a ball is thought worthy of mention, but the man who muffs one does not suffer by publicity."
  136. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game. (Rule 1.04a)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  137. Nightengale, Bob (August 20, 2008). "No. 8: Out in Left Field in Houston's Crawford Boxes". USA Today. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
  138. Powers (2003), p. 85.
  139. Powers (2003), p. 219.
  140. Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 198; Shaikin, Bill (May 27, 2006). "Guerrero Becomes Mr. Inside". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
  141. "Official Rules/1.00—Objectives of the Game. (Rule 1.04)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  142. Shaikin, Bill (October 8, 2002). "No Fly Ball Routine in Dome". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
  143. Puhalla, Krans, and Goatley (2003), p. 207.
  144. Keri (2007), pp. 295–301.
  145. Gilbert, Steve (September 30, 2008). "Wrigley's Winds Don't Rattle Lowe". Major League Baseball. Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
  146. Sheinin, Dave (March 26, 2008). "After Move, a Breaking In Process". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 17, 2009. See also Powers (2003), p. 85.
  147. ^ Tygiel (2000), p. 16.
  148. Schwarz (2004), p. 50.
  149. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  150. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.02a, 10.04, 10.21b)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  151. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.07)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  152. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.15, 10.17, 10.19, 10.21a, 10.21e)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  153. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rules 10.09, 10.10, 10.12, 10.21d)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  154. See, e.g., Albert, Jim, and Jay Bennett, "Situational Effects", ch. 4 in Curve Ball: Baseball, Statistics, and the Role of Chance in the Game, 2d ed. (Springer, 2003), pp. 71–110.
  155. Gray, Scott, The Mind of Bill James: How a Complete Outsider Changed Baseball (Doubleday, 2006), p. ix.
  156. Guzzo (2007), pp. 20–21, 67; Schwarz (2004), p. 233; Lewis (2003), p. 127.
  157. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.21f)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  158. "Official Rules/10.00—The Official Scorer (Rule 10.21c)" (PDF). Major League Baseball. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2009.
  159. Guzzo (2007), pp. 22, 67, 140; Schwarz (2004), p. 233.
  160. Guzzo (2007), pp. 140–141.
  161. "What is WAR? | Sabermetrics Library". Retrieved October 12, 2021.
  162. Cohen, Morris Raphael, "Baseball as a National Religion" (1919), in Cohen, The Faith of a Liberal (Transaction, 1993 ), pp. 334–336: p. 334.
  163. Stark, Jayson (February 8, 2009). "A-Rod Has Destroyed Game's History". ESPN.com. Archived from the original on February 10, 2009. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
  164. Bjarkman (2004), p. xix.
  165. Riess (1991), pp. 69–71.
  166. Riess (1991), pp. 247–248.
  167. Jones, Jeffrey M. (April 4, 2006). "Nearly Half of Americans are Baseball Fans". Gallup. Retrieved May 31, 2018.
  168. "America's Favorite Pastime". National Archives. March 14, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2024.
  169. Missimer, Katy (March 18, 2019). "American Immigration and Baseball: A Parallel Pastime". The Histories. 5 (2).
  170. Kercheval, Nancy (October 1, 2008). "Major League Baseball Revenue Reaches Record, Attendance Falls". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved February 8, 2009. Battista, Judy (December 9, 2008). "Feeling Pinch, N.F.L. Will Cut About 150 Jobs". The New York Times. Retrieved February 8, 2009. Haudricourt, Tom (October 20, 2007). "Bases Loaded". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on July 6, 2009. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
  171. "Report: MLB revenues exceed $10 billion for the first time". USA Today. November 22, 2017. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
  172. Bonesteel, Matt (January 10, 2018). "Despite all the bad news, poll shows football still is America's favorite sport by a wide margin". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
  173. "Professional Football Continues Dominance over Baseball as America's Favorite Sport". Business Wire. AllBusiness. January 27, 2009. Archived from the original on January 10, 2011. Retrieved September 15, 2010.
  174. McGinty, Jo Craven (April 10, 2015). "Popularity Contest: Baseball vs. Football". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved May 18, 2018.
  175. Brown, Maury (February 25, 2010). "MLB Sees a Record $6.6 Billion in Revenues for 2009". Biz of Baseball. Archived from the original on October 27, 2010. Retrieved September 17, 2010.
  176. Jeff Passan (April 16, 2018). "10 Degrees: MLB's enormous attendance drop due to bad weather or something far worse for baseball?". Yahoo Sports. Retrieved June 16, 2018.
  177. "Minor League attendance tops 42.5 million". Minor League Baseball. September 9, 2015. Retrieved June 16, 2018.
  178. Hayes, Dade (February 14, 2020). "Baseball Returns As Playoff Format Debate, Houston Astros Cheating Scandal Raise Questions About Future Of ESPN, Turner TV Rights". Deadline. Retrieved October 29, 2020.
  179. Lang, Jack. "Baseball is Venezuela's national sport – but the 2024 Copa America shows why that might be changing". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  180. Chamberlain, Craig (October 12, 2020). "Capturing the story of Latinos and baseball | College of Liberal Arts & Sciences at Illinois". las.illinois.edu. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  181. Bjarkman (2004), pp. 159–165.
  182. "Opening Day Rosters Feature 230 Players Born Outside the U.S." Major League Baseball. April 6, 2015. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
  183. Bjarkman (2004), p. 487.
  184. Castillo, Jorge (January 16, 2012). "Puerto Rico Traces Baseball's Slide to the Draft". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2012.
  185. González Echevarría (2001), pp. 76, 133, 278–279, 352.
  186. ^ Weissert, Will (March 5, 2009). "Cubans' Baseball Dreams Take Root on Rocky Fields". USA Today. Associated Press. Retrieved April 28, 2009.
  187. Hernandez, Dylan (March 21, 2017). "World Baseball Classic keeps sport relevant in Japan". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
  188. Whiting, Robert (April 11, 2007). "Is the MLB Destroying Japan's National Pastime?". The Japan Times. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
  189. González Echevarría (2001), p. 366.
  190. Yeh, Joseph (September 30, 2008). "Taiwan Baseball a new rallying point for national pride". Archived from the original on July 12, 2015. Retrieved May 1, 2022.
  191. "Feature: China sees growing youthful exuberance on baseball diamond -Xinhua". english.news.cn. Retrieved June 3, 2024.
  192. "Little League International General Media Guide 2018" (PDF). Little League Baseball. 2018. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
  193. Fisher, Mark (April 5, 2015). "Baseball is struggling to hook kids – and risks losing fans to other sports". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
  194. "History of the Babe Ruth League Program". Babe Ruth League Online. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
  195. Frommer, Frederic J (April 6, 2009). "Baseball to Add Women to Olympic Bid". USA Today. Associated Press. Retrieved April 29, 2009.
  196. Bradford, Marcia (2008). "Expanding Opportunities on the Ball Fields". SportsEvents Magazine. Archived from the original on February 9, 2009. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
  197. "Estimated probability of competing in college athletics". National Collegiate Athletic Association. March 2, 2015. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
  198. Bjarkman (2004), p. xxiv; Gmelch (2006), pp. 23, 53.
  199. Ellsesser, Stephen (August 11, 2006). "Summer Tournament Is Big in Japan". Major League Baseball. Archived from the original on October 14, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2009.
  200. "Honus Wagner Card Sells for Record $2.8 Million". ESPN. Associated Press. September 6, 2007. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
  201. Kte'pi (2009), p. 66.
  202. Rudel (2008), pp. 145–146.
  203. Lam, Andrew (July 6, 2007). "Too Much Self Esteem Spoils Your Child". New America Media. Retrieved May 2, 2009. "Happy 50th, Baseball Caps". BBC News. April 27, 2004. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
  204. "AFI 10 Top 10—Top 10 Sports". American Film Institute. June 17, 2008. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
  205. Zoss (2004), pp. 373–374.
  206. "The Best of the Century". Time. December 26, 1999. Archived from the original on May 4, 2009. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
  207. Neyer, Rob (June 15, 2000). "'Ball Four' Changed Sports and Books". ESPN.com. Retrieved May 12, 2009.
  208. Zoss (2004), pp. 16–25.
  209. Zoss (2004), pp. 27–31.
  210. "Fantasy Sports Industry Grows to an $800 Million Industry with 29.9 Million Players". PRWeb. July 10, 2008. Archived from the original on May 3, 2009. Retrieved October 25, 2011.
  211. Lewis (2003), pp. 86–88.
  212. "Derivative Games". Major League Baseball. Retrieved February 20, 2022.
  213. "WBSC – World Baseball Softball Confederation". wbsc.org. Retrieved October 4, 2021.
  214. Davies, John; Jenkins, Nigel; Menna, Baines; Lynch, Peredur I., eds. (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6.
  215. Ivor Beynon & Bob Evans (1962). The Inside Story of Baseball. Cardiff. p. 4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  216. ^ "Introduction to the game". Pesis.fi. Pesäpalloliitto. Archived from the original on October 29, 2015. Retrieved October 16, 2015.
  217. Clair, Michael (August 2, 2024). "There's a pitcher, a batter... even a river sometimes. Welcome to Finnish baseball". Major League Baseball. Retrieved August 4, 2024.
  1. Partially because baseball was much shorter in duration than the form of cricket played at the time and did not require a special playing surface.

General and cited sources

Further reading

  • Dickson, Paul. The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, 3rd ed. (W. W. Norton, 2009). ISBN 0-393-06681-9.
  • Fitts, Robert K. Remembering Japanese Baseball: An Oral History of the Game (Southern Illinois University Press, 2005). ISBN 0-8093-2629-9.
  • Gillette, Gary, and Pete Palmer (eds.). The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia, 5th ed. (Sterling, 2008). ISBN 1-4027-6051-5.
  • Peterson, Robert. Only the Ball Was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black Professional Teams (Oxford University Press, 1992 ). ISBN 0-19-507637-0.
  • Reaves, Joseph A. Taking in a Game: A History of Baseball in Asia (Bison, 2004). ISBN 0-8032-3943-2.
  • Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. Baseball: An Illustrated History (Alfred A. Knopf, 1996). ISBN 0-679-40459-7.

External links

Listen to this article (1 hour and 12 minutes)
Spoken Misplaced Pages iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 25 April 2024 (2024-04-25), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)


Baseball and softball concepts
Outline · Glossary
Baseball rules
Ballpark/field
Equipment
Game process
Batting
Pitching
(softball)
Base running
Fielding
(positioning)
Related
Baseball pitches
Fastballs
Off-speed pitches
Breaking balls
Changeups
Junk pitches
Purpose pitches
Illegal pitches
Other
Deliveries
Related
Baseball positions
Pitchers
by role
by style
Baseball fielding positions
Defensive
players
by type
by number
Offensive
players
by role
by style
Non-players
team roles
executives
other
Related
Baseball statistics
Batting
Base running
Pitching
Fielding
Sabermetrics
International baseball
WBSC Events
Minor World Events
Defunct World Events
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Articles relating to Baseball
Team sports
Ball sports
Invasion games
Basket sports
Football
codes
Association football
Gridiron codes
Hybrid codes
Medieval/historical
football
codes
Rugby codes
Other related codes
Stick-and-ball
sports
Hockey sports
Polo sports
Other goal sports
Bat-and-ball
games
Baseball variants
Cricket variants
Other games
Net and wall games
Other ball games
Tag sports
Water sports
Other non-ball sports
Professional baseball leagues
Americas
Major
Minor
Triple-A
Double-A
High-A
Single-A
Rookie
Independent
MLB Partner Leagues
Non-partnered leagues
Off-season
MLB-affiliated
Independent
Defunct
MLB-recognized
Other major
Minor
Asia
China
Israel
Defunct major
Japan
Major
Minor
Off-season
Independent
Women's
South Korea
Major
Minor
Taiwan
Major
Minor
Defunct major
Europe
Italy and San Marino
Netherlands
Major
Minor
Rookie
Oceania
Australia
MLB-affiliated:Australian Baseball League
Inter-league
Summer Olympic sports
Mandatory sports
Discretionary sports
Members of the National Baseball Hall of Fame
Pitchers
Catchers
First basemen
Second basemen
Third basemen
Shortstops
Left fielders
Center fielders
Right fielders
Designated hitters
Managers
Executives
and pioneers
Umpires
Italics denote members who have been elected, but not yet inducted.
Honor Rolls of Baseball
Executives
Managers
Umpires
Sportswriters
Categories: