Revision as of 02:47, 27 May 2019 editPiCo (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers44,429 edits Undid revision 898883843 by Fajkfnjsak (talk)There's no need to keep adding material to the leadTag: Undo← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 00:55, 5 December 2024 edit undoRemoveRedSky (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Rollbackers1,399 editsm Reverted 1 edit by 76.35.93.2 (talk) to last revision by Torah musaTags: Twinkle Undo Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit | ||
(769 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|Second book of the Bible}} | |||
{{About|the second book of the Torah and of the Old Testament|the events related in that book|The Exodus|other uses|Exodus (disambiguation)}} | |||
{{About|the second book of the Torah and the Old Testament|the Israelite migration narrative|The Exodus|other uses|Exodus (disambiguation){{!}}Exodus}} | |||
{{redirect|Exodus 4|the single|Exodus '04}} | |||
{{Tanakh OT |Torah |Pentateuch}} | {{Tanakh OT |Torah |Pentateuch}} | ||
The '''Book of Exodus''' (from {{langx|grc|Ἔξοδος|translit=Éxodos}}; {{langx|hbo|שְׁמוֹת}} ''Šəmōṯ'', 'Names'; {{langx|la|Liber Exodus}}) is the second book of the ]. It is a ] of ], the ] of the ] leaving ] in ] through the strength of their ] named ], who according to the story ] as his people. The Israelites then journey with the ]ary prophet ] to ], where Yahweh gives the ] and they enter into a ] with Yahweh, who promises to make them a "], and a kingdom of priests" on condition of their faithfulness. He gives them their laws and instructions to build the ], the means by which he will come from ] and dwell with them and lead them in a ] to conquer ] (the "]"), which has earlier, according to the ], been promised to the "seed" of ], the legendary patriarch of the Israelites. | |||
Traditionally ] himself, modern scholars see its initial composition as a product of the ] (6th century BCE), based on earlier written sources and oral traditions, with final revisions in the ] (5th century BCE).{{sfn|Johnstone|2003|p=72}}{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=68}} American ] ], in her commentary on Exodus, suggests that it is arguably the most important book in the Bible, as it presents the defining features of Israel's identity—memories of a past marked by hardship and escape, a binding covenant with their ], who chooses Israel, and the establishment of the life of the community and the guidelines for sustaining it.<ref>Meyers, p. xv.</ref> The consensus of modern scholars is that the ] does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of ] in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the ]) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.{{sfn|Grabbe|2017|p=36}}{{sfn|Meyers|2005|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|p=81}} | |||
The '''Book of Exodus''', the second book of the ] and the ], {{sfn|Dozeman|2000|p=443}} tells of Israel's delivery from slavery in Egypt through the hand of ] their god, their encounter with God on the holy mountain (Sinai), and the "divine indwelling" of God with Israel which follows.{{sfn|Dozeman|2000|p=443}} | |||
==Title== | |||
Traditionally ], modern scholarship sees its initial composition as a product of the ] (6th century BCE), with final revisions in the ] (5th century BCE).{{sfn|Johnstone|2003|p=72}}{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=68}} ], in her commentary on Exodus, suggests that it is arguably the most important book in the Bible, as it presents the defining features of Israel's identity: memories of a past marked by hardship and escape, a binding covenant with God, who chooses Israel, and the establishment of the life of the community and the guidelines for sustaining it.<ref>Meyers, p. xv.</ref> Everything is presented as the work of God, who appears frequently in person.<ref>Houston, p. 68.</ref> It is not a historical narrative in any modern sense, instead its primary concern is theological.<ref name=":0" /> It reflects common themes of past communities in exile, including facing foreign captivity and suffering under just judgment because of disloyalty to God.<ref name=":0" /> There is no historical evidence for the Exodus story as written.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.tau.ac.il/news/exodus_history_and_myth|title=Exodus: History and myth, then and now|website=Tel Aviv University|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/03/world/africa/03exodus.html|title=Did the Red Sea Part? No Evidence, Archaeologists Say|last=Slackman|first=Michael|date=2007-04-03|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-05-09|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> | |||
The English name ''Exodus'' comes from the {{langx|grc|ἔξοδος|translit=éxodos|lit=way out}}, from {{langx|grc|ἐξ-|translit=ex-|links=|label=none|lit=out}} and {{langx|grc|ὁδός|translit=hodós|links=|label=none|lit=path', 'road}}. In Hebrew the book's title is שְׁמוֹת, ''shemōt'', "Names", from the ]: "These are the names of the sons of Israel" ({{langx|he|וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמֹות בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל}}).{{sfn|Dozeman|2009|p=1}} | |||
== |
==Historicity == | ||
{{Main|Sources and parallels of the Exodus}} | |||
])]] | |||
] 1075, a 3rd or 4th century CE manuscript showing part of ]]] | |||
The English name ''Exodus'' comes from the {{lang-grc|ἔξοδος}}, ''éxodos'', meaning "going out". In Hebrew the book's title is שְׁמוֹת, ''shemot'', "Names", from the ]: "These are the names of the sons of Israel" ({{lang-he-n|וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמֹות בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל}}).{{sfn|Dozeman|2009|p=1}} | |||
Most mainstream scholars do not accept the biblical Exodus account as historical for a number of reasons. It is generally agreed that the Exodus stories were written centuries after the apparent setting of the stories.{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|p=81}} Archaeologists ] and ] argue that archaeology has not found evidence for even a small band of wandering Israelites living in the Sinai: "The conclusion – that Exodus did not happen at the time and in the manner described in the Bible – seems irrefutable repeated excavations and surveys throughout the entire area have not provided even the slightest evidence".{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=63}} Instead, they argue how modern archaeology suggests continuity between Canaanite and Israelite settlements, indicating a heavily Canaanite origin for Israel, with little suggestion that a group of foreigners from Egypt comprised early Israel.{{sfn|Barmash|2015|p=4}}{{sfn|Shaw|2002|p=313}} They also argue that the exodus narrative perhaps evolved from vague memories of the ] expulsion, spun to encourage resistance to the 7th century domination of Judah by Egypt.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=69}} | |||
However, a majority of scholars believe that the story has an historical core,{{sfn|Faust|2015|p=476}}{{sfn|Redmount|2001|p=87}} though disagreeing widely about what that historical kernel might have been.{{sfn|Geraty|2015|p=55}} Kenton Sparks refers to it as "charter myth" and "mythologized history".{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}} Biblical scholar ] notes that several literary texts from Ancient Egypt document the presence of Semitic peoples working for building projects under the ], suggesting a possible historical basis for the account of Israelite servitude to the Egyptians.{{sfn|Davies|2020|p=152}} However, there is an increasing trend among scholars to see the biblical exodus traditions as the invention of the ] and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis.{{sfn|Russell|2009|p=11}} | |||
== Structure == | == Structure == | ||
Line 14: | Line 21: | ||
== Summary == | == Summary == | ||
{{multiple image | |||
]'' in the ], c. 244]] | |||
| align. = left | |||
]'s sons and their families join their brother, ], in Egypt. Once there, the Israelites begin to grow in number. Egypt's ], fearful that the ] could be a ], forces the Israelites into slavery and orders the throwing of all newborn boys into the ]. A ] woman (], according to other sources) saves her baby by ] on the river Nile in an ]. The ] finds the child, names him ], and brings him up as her own. But Moses is aware of his origins, and one day, when grown, he kills an Egyptian overseer who is beating a ] slave and has to flee into ]. There he marries ], the daughter of Midianite priest ], and encounters God in a ]. Moses asks God for his name: God replies: "]." God tells Moses to return to Egypt and lead the Hebrews into ], the land promised to ]. | |||
| width1 = 150 | |||
| image1 = Exodus map.jpg | |||
| caption1 = 1585 map | |||
| width2 = 168 | |||
| image2 = Wanderings in the desert map.jpg | |||
| caption2 = 1641 map | |||
| footer = Historical representations of the ] | |||
}} | |||
The text of the Book of Exodus begins after the events at the end of the ] where ]'s sons and their families joined their brother ] in ], which Joseph had saved from famine. It is 400 years later and Egypt's new ], who does not remember Joseph, is fearful that the ] and now numerous ] could become a ]. He hardens their labor and orders the killing of all newborn boys. A ] woman named ] saves her baby by ] on the Nile in an ]. ] finds the child, names him ], and brings him up as her own. | |||
]'' in the ], c. 244]] | |||
Moses returns to Egypt and fails to convince the Pharaoh to release the Israelites. God smites the Egyptians with 10 terrible plagues (]) including a river of blood, many frogs, and the death of first-born sons. Moses leads the Israelites out of bondage after a final chase when the Pharaoh reneges on his coerced consent (] and ]). The desert proves arduous, and the Israelites complain and long for Egypt, but God provides ] and miraculous water for them. The Israelites arrive at the mountain of God, where Moses's father-in-law Jethro visits Moses; at his suggestion Moses appoints ] over Israel. God asks whether they will agree to be his people. They accept. The people gather at the foot of the mountain, and with thunder and lightning, fire and clouds of smoke, and the sound of trumpets, and the trembling of the mountain, God appears on the peak, and the people see the cloud and hear the voice of God. God tells Moses to ascend the mountain. God pronounces the ] (the ]) in the hearing of all Israel. Moses goes up the mountain into the presence of God, who pronounces the ] (a detailed code of ritual and civil law), and promises ] to them if they obey. Moses comes down the mountain and writes down God's words and the people agree to keep them. God calls Moses up the mountain where he remains for 40 days and 40 nights. At the conclusion of the 40 days and 40 nights, Moses returns holding the set of stone ]. | |||
Later, a grown Moses goes out to see his kinsmen. He witnesses the abuse of a Hebrew slave by an Egyptian overseer. Angered, Moses kills him and flees into ] to escape punishment. There, he marries ], daughter of ], a Midianite priest. While tending Jethro's flock, Moses encounters God in a ]. Moses asks God for his name, to which God replies with three words, often translated as "]." This is the book's explanation for the origin of the name ], as God is thereafter known. God tells Moses to return to Egypt, free the Hebrews from slavery and lead them into ], the land promised to the seed of ] in Genesis. On the journey back to Egypt, God seeks to kill Moses. Zipporah ] their son and the attack stops. ''(See ].)'' | |||
Moses reunites with his brother ] and, returning to Egypt, convenes the ] elders, preparing them to go into the wilderness to worship God. Pharaoh refuses to release the Israelites from their work for the festival, and so God curses the Egyptians with ], such as a ], an ], and the ]. Moses is commanded by God to fix the spring month of ] at the head of the ]. The Israelites are to take a lamb on the 10th day of the month, ] on the 14th day, daub its blood on their ] and lintels, and to observe the ] meal that night, during the full moon. The ] comes that night, causing the death of all Egyptian firstborn sons, prompting Pharaoh to expel the Israelites. Regretting his decision, Pharaoh commands his chariot army after the Israelites, who appear trapped at the ]. God ], allowing the Israelites to pass through, before drowning Pharaoh's pursuing forces. | |||
God gives Moses instructions for the construction of the ] so that God could dwell permanently among his chosen people, as well as instructions for the ], the altar and its appurtenances, the procedure for ordaining the priests, and the daily sacrifice offerings. Aaron becomes the first ]. God gives Moses the two tablets of stone containing the words of the ten commandments, written with the ].<ref>{{Bibleref2|Exodus|31:18}}; {{bibleref2|Deuteronomy|9:10|9}}</ref> | |||
], 17th-century]] | |||
] | |||
While Moses is with God, Aaron makes a ], which the people worship. God informs Moses of their ] and threatens to kill them all, but relents when Moses pleads for them. Moses comes down from the mountain, smashes the stone tablets in anger, and commands the ] to massacre the unfaithful Israelites. God commands Moses to make two new tablets on which He will personally write the words that were on the first tablets. Moses ascends the mountain, God dictates the Ten Commandments (the ]), and Moses writes them on the tablets. | |||
As desert life proves arduous, the Israelites complain and long for Egypt, but God miraculously provides ] for them to eat and ] to drink. The Israelites arrive at the mountain of God, where Moses's father-in-law Jethro visits Moses; at his suggestion, Moses appoints ] over Israel. God asks whether they will agree to be his people – They accept. The people gather at the foot of the mountain, and with thunder and lightning, fire and clouds of smoke, the sound of trumpets, and the trembling of the mountain, ] on the peak, and the people see the cloud and hear the voice (or possibly sound) of God. God tells Moses to ascend the mountain. God pronounces the ] (the ]) in the hearing of all Israel. Moses goes up the mountain into the ], who pronounces the ] of ritual and civil law and promises ] to them if they obey. Moses comes down from the mountain and writes down God's words, and the people agree to keep them. God calls Moses up the mountain again, where he remains for forty days and forty nights, after which he returns, bearing the set of stone ]. | |||
God gives Moses instructions for the construction of the ] so that God may dwell permanently among his ], along with instructions for the ], the altar and its appurtenances, procedures for the ] of priests, and the daily ] offerings. Aaron becomes the first ]. God gives Moses the two tablets of stone containing the words of the ten commandments, written with the ].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|31:18}}; {{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|9:10|9}}</ref> | |||
Moses descends from the mountain with a transformed face; from that time onwards he has to hide his face with a veil. Moses assembles the Hebrews and repeats to them the commandments he has received from God, which are to keep the ] and to construct the Tabernacle. "And all the construction of the Tabernacle of the Tent of Meeting was finished, and the children of Israel did according to everything that God had commanded Moses", and from that time God dwelt in the Tabernacle and ordered the travels of the Hebrews. | |||
], 17th century]] | |||
While Moses is with God, Aaron casts a ], which the people worship. God informs Moses of their ] and threatens to kill them all, but relents when Moses pleads for them. Moses comes down from the mountain, smashes the stone tablets in anger, and commands the ] to massacre the unfaithful Israelites. God commands Moses to construct two new tablets. Moses ascends the mountain again, where God dictates the ] for Moses to write on the tablets. | |||
== Composition == | |||
] with the Ten Commandments, by ] (1659)]] | |||
Moses descends from the mountain with a ]; from that time onwards he must hide his face with a ]. Moses assembles the Hebrews and repeats to them the commandments he has received from God, which are to keep the ] and to construct the Tabernacle. The Israelites do as they are commanded. From that time God dwells in the Tabernacle and orders the travels of the Hebrews. | |||
== Composition == | |||
=== Authorship === | === Authorship === | ||
])]] | |||
Jewish and Christian tradition viewed ] and the entire ], but by the end of the 19th century the increasing awareness of discrepancies, inconsistencies, repetitions and other features of the Pentateuch had led scholars to abandon this idea.{{sfn|Meyers|2005|p=16}} In approximate round dates, the process which produced Exodus and the Pentateuch probably began around 600 BCE when existing oral and written traditions were brought together to form books recognisable as those we know, reaching their final form as unchangeable sacred texts around 400 BCE.{{sfn|McEntire|2008|p=8}} | |||
Jewish and Christian tradition viewed ] and the entire ], but by the end of the 19th century the increasing awareness of discrepancies, inconsistencies, repetitions and other features of the Pentateuch had led scholars to abandon this idea.{{sfn|Meyers|2005|p=16}} In approximate round dates, the process which produced Exodus and the Pentateuch probably began around 600 BCE when existing oral and written traditions were brought together to form books recognizable as those we know, reaching their final form as unchangeable sacred texts around 400 BCE.{{sfn|McEntire|2008|p=8}} | |||
=== |
=== Sources === | ||
{{One source section | |||
The story of ] is the ] of Israel, telling of the ] deliverance from slavery by ] which made them his chosen people according to the ].{{sfn|Sparks|2010|p=73}} The Book of Exodus is not a historical narrative in any modern sense:<ref>Fretheim, p. 7.</ref> modern history writing requires the critical evaluation of sources, and does not accept God as a cause of events,<ref name="Dozeman">Dozeman, p. 9.</ref> but in Exodus, everything is presented as the work of God, who appears frequently in person, and the historical setting is only a very hazy sketch.<ref>Houston, p. 68.</ref> The purpose of the book is not to record what really happened, but to reflect the historical experience of the exile community in Babylon and later Jerusalem, facing foreign captivity and the need to come to terms with their understanding of God.<ref name=":0">Fretheim, p. 8.</ref> | |||
| date = August 2022 | |||
}} | |||
Although patent mythical elements are not so prominent in Exodus as in ], ancient legends may have an influence on the book's form or content: for example, the story of the infant Moses's salvation from the Nile is argued to be based on an earlier legend of king ], while the story of the ] may trade on Mesopotamian ]ology. Similarly, the ] (the law code in Exodus 20:22–23:33) has some similarities in both content and structure with the ]. These potential influences serve to reinforce the conclusion that the Book of Exodus originated in the exiled Jewish community of 6th-century BCE ], but not all the potential sources are Mesopotamian: the story of Moses's flight to Midian following the murder of the Egyptian overseer may draw on the Egyptian '']''.{{sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=74}} | |||
=== Textual witnesses === | |||
Although ] are not so prominent in Exodus as in ], ancient ]s have an influence on the book's content: for example, the story of the infant Moses's salvation from the Nile is based on an earlier legend of king ], while the story of the ] trades on Mesopotamian ]ology. Similarly, the ] (the law code in Exodus 20:22–23:33) has some similarities in both content and structure with the ]. These influences serve to reinforce the conclusion that the Book of Exodus originated in the exiled Jewish community of 6th-century BCE ], but not all the sources are Mesopotamian: the story of Moses's flight to Midian following the murder of the Egyptian overseer may draw on the Egyptian '']''.<ref>Kugler, Hartin, p. 74.</ref> | |||
{{Main|Textual variants in the Book of Exodus}} | |||
== Themes == | == Themes == | ||
] |
] (1829)]] | ||
=== Salvation === | === Salvation === | ||
Biblical scholars describe the Bible's theologically |
Biblical scholars describe the Bible's theologically motivated history writing as "]", meaning a history of God's saving actions that give identity to Israel – the promise of offspring and land to the ancestors, ] from Egypt (in which God saves Israel from slavery), the wilderness wandering, the revelation at Sinai, and the hope for the future life in the ].<ref name="Dozeman">Dozeman, p. 9.</ref> | ||
=== Theophany === | === Theophany === | ||
Line 49: | Line 74: | ||
=== Covenant === | === Covenant === | ||
]]] | |||
The heart of Exodus is the ].<ref>Wenham, p. 29.</ref> A covenant is a legal document binding two parties to take on certain obligations towards each other.<ref>Meyers, p. 148.</ref> There are several covenants in the Bible, and in each case they exhibit at least some of the elements in real-life treaties of the ancient Middle East: a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, deposition and reading, list of witnesses, blessings and curses, and ratification by animal sacrifice.<ref>Meyers, pp. 149–150.</ref> Biblical covenants, in contrast to Eastern covenants in general, are between a god, Yahweh, and a people, Israel, instead of between a strong ruler and a weaker vassal.<ref>Meyers, p. 150.</ref> | The heart of Exodus is the ].<ref>Wenham, p. 29.</ref> A covenant is a legal document binding two parties to take on certain obligations towards each other.<ref>Meyers, p. 148.</ref> There are several covenants in the Bible, and in each case they exhibit at least some of the elements in real-life treaties of the ancient Middle East: a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, deposition and reading, list of witnesses, blessings and curses, and ratification by animal sacrifice.<ref>Meyers, pp. 149–150.</ref> Biblical covenants, in contrast to Eastern covenants in general, are between a god, Yahweh, and a people, Israel, instead of between a strong ruler and a weaker vassal.<ref>Meyers, p. 150.</ref> | ||
Line 54: | Line 80: | ||
God elects Israel for salvation because the "sons of Israel" are "the firstborn son" of the God of Israel, descended through Shem and Abraham to the chosen line of ] whose name is changed to Israel. The goal of the divine plan in Exodus is a return to humanity's state in ], so that God can dwell with the Israelites as he had with ] through the Ark and Tabernacle, which together form a model of the universe; in later ]s Israel becomes the guardian of God's plan for humanity, to bring "God's creation blessing to mankind" begun in Adam.<ref>Dempster, p. 100.</ref> | God elects Israel for salvation because the "sons of Israel" are "the firstborn son" of the God of Israel, descended through Shem and Abraham to the chosen line of ] whose name is changed to Israel. The goal of the divine plan in Exodus is a return to humanity's state in ], so that God can dwell with the Israelites as he had with ] through the Ark and Tabernacle, which together form a model of the universe; in later ]s Israel becomes the guardian of God's plan for humanity, to bring "God's creation blessing to mankind" begun in Adam.<ref>Dempster, p. 100.</ref> | ||
== |
== Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Exodus == | ||
{{Main|Weekly Torah portion}} | |||
]]] | |||
]'', by ] (1659)]] | |||
List of Torah portions in the Book of Exodus:<ref>. Alephbeta</ref> | |||
{{main|Weekly Torah portion}} | |||
* ], on Exodus 1–5: Affliction in Egypt, discovery of baby Moses, Pharaoh | |||
* ], on Exodus 6–9: Plagues 1 to 7 of Egypt | |||
* ], on Exodus 10–13: Last plagues of Egypt, first Passover | |||
* ], on Exodus 13–17: Parting the Sea, water, manna, Amalek | |||
* ], on Exodus 18–20: Jethro's advice, The Ten Commandments | |||
* ], on Exodus 21–24: The Covenant Code | |||
* ], on Exodus 25–27: God's instructions on the Tabernacle and furnishings | |||
* ], on Exodus 27–30: God's instructions on the first priests | |||
* ], on Exodus 30–34: Census, anointing oil, golden calf, stone tablets, Moses radiant | |||
* ], on Exodus 35–38: Israelites collect gifts, make the Tabernacle and furnishings | |||
* ], on Exodus 38–40: Setting up and filling of The Tabernacle | |||
:*], on Exodus 38–40: Setting up and filling of The Tabernacle | |||
== See also == | == See also == | ||
{{Portal|Bible}} | {{Portal|Bible}} | ||
* ] | |||
*] | |||
*] | * ] | ||
* ] | * ] | ||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | * ] | ||
== References == | == References == | ||
=== Citations === | === Citations === | ||
{{ |
{{Reflist}} | ||
=== |
=== General bibliography === | ||
{{refbegin}} | {{refbegin}} | ||
* {{cite book | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Childs|first=Brevard S|title=The Book of Exodus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7sKWo7FRAgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Childs+Exodus#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780664229689|ref=harv}} | |||
| last = Barmash | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Dempster|first=Stephen G|author-link=Stephen Dempster|title=Dominion and Dynasty|publisher=InterVarsity Press|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/?id=G329hmhyBa8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dominion+and+dynasty#v=onepage&q=Dominion%20and%20dynasty&f=false|isbn=9780830826155|ref=harv}} | |||
| first = Pamela | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Dozeman|first=Thomas B|title=Commentary on Exodus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRXjfa6RWPwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Exodus#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780802826176|ref=harv}} | |||
| chapter = Out of the Mists of History: The Exaltation of the Exodus in the Bible | |||
*{{Cite book | |||
| editor1-last = Barmash | |||
| editor1-first = Pamela | |||
| editor2-last = Nelson | |||
| editor2-first = W. David | |||
| title = Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations | |||
| year = 2015 | |||
| publisher = Lexington Books | |||
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jKYlCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | |||
| isbn = 9781498502931 | |||
| pages = 1–22 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last=Childs|first=Brevard S|title=The Book of Exodus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7sKWo7FRAgC |isbn=9780664229689}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| last = Collins | |||
| first = John J. | |||
| title = The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age | |||
| year = 2005 | |||
| publisher = Eerdmans | |||
| isbn = 9780802828927 | |||
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yqClWOhqso0C&q=%22collective+memory%22&pg=PA45 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| last = Davies | |||
| first = Graham | |||
| editor1-last = Day | |||
| editor1-first = John | |||
| title = In Search of Pre-exilic Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar | |||
| chapter = Was There an Exodus? | |||
| year = 2004 | |||
| publisher = Continuum | |||
| isbn = 9780567082060 | |||
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&pg=PA23 | |||
| pages=23–40}} | |||
* {{Cite book |title=Exodus 1-18: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 1: Chapters 1-10 |last=Davies |first=Graham I. |publisher=] |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-567-68869-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mkzODwAAQBAJ |series=]}} | |||
* {{Cite book |title=Exodus 1-18: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 2: Chapters 11-18 |last=Davies |first=Graham I. |publisher=] |year=2020b |isbn=978-0-567-68872-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-zJDwAAQBAJ |series=]}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last=Dempster|first=Stephen G|author-link=Stephen Dempster|title=Dominion and Dynasty|publisher=InterVarsity Press|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G329hmhyBa8C |isbn=9780830826155}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last=Dozeman|first=Thomas B|title=Commentary on Exodus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRXjfa6RWPwC |isbn=9780802826176}} | |||
* {{Cite book | |||
|last = Dozeman | |last = Dozeman | ||
|first = Thomas B | |first = Thomas B | ||
Line 100: | Line 162: | ||
|publisher = Eerdmans | |publisher = Eerdmans | ||
|year = 2000 | |year = 2000 | ||
|chapter-url |
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC | ||
|isbn = | |isbn = 9789053565032 | ||
|ref = harv | |||
}} | }} | ||
*{{Cite book | * {{Cite book | ||
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CiqF7sVqDQcC&pg=PA73 | |||
|title = Methods for Exodus | |||
|last = Dozeman | |||
|first = Thomas B. | |||
|year = 2010 | |||
|publisher = Cambridge University Press | |||
|isbn = 9781139487382 | |||
|language = en | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|last=Faust | |||
|first=Avraham | |||
|author-link =Avraham Faust | |||
|chapter=The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus | |||
|title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience | |||
|editor1=Thomas E. Levy | |||
|editor2=Thomas Schneider | |||
|editor3=William H.C. Propp | |||
|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/11906343 | |||
|date=2015 | |||
|publisher=Springer | |||
|isbn=978-3-319-04768-3 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book | |||
|last1 = Finkelstein | |last1 = Finkelstein | ||
|first1 = Israel | |first1 = Israel | ||
|author-link1 =Israel Finkelstein | |||
|last2 = Silberman | |last2 = Silberman | ||
|first2 = Neil Asher | |first2 = Neil Asher | ||
|author-link2 = Neil Asher Silberman | |||
|title = The Bible Unearthed | |title = The Bible Unearthed | ||
|publisher = Simon and Schuster | |publisher = Simon and Schuster | ||
|year = 2002 | |year = 2002 | ||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC |
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC | ||
|isbn = 9780743223386 | |isbn = 9780743223386 | ||
|ref = harv | |||
}} | }} | ||
*{{Cite book|last=Fretheim|first=Terence E|title=Exodus|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1991|url=https:// |
* {{Cite book|last=Fretheim|first=Terence E|title=Exodus|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1991|url=https://archive.org/details/exodus0000fret |url-access=registration|isbn=9780664237349}} | ||
* {{cite book | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Houston|first=Walter J|chapter=Exodus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA67&dq=5.+Exodus+walter+houston#v=onepage&q=5.%20Exodus%20walter%20houston&f=false|editor=John Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780198755005|ref=harv}} | |||
|last= Geraty | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Johnstone|first=William D|chapter=Exodus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA72&dq=Exodus+William+D.+Johnstone#v=onepage&q=Exodus%20William%20D.%20Johnstone&f=false|editor=James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson|title=Eerdmans Bible Commentary|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn=9780802837110|ref=harv}} | |||
|first= Lawrence T. | |||
*{{Cite book|last1=Kugler|first1=Robert|last2=Hartin|first2=Patrick|title=An Introduction to the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8WbXbPjxpoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Robert+Kugler,+Patrick+Hartin#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780802846365|ref=harv}} | |||
| author-link =Larry Geraty | |||
*{{Cite book|last=McEntire|first=Mark|title=Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch|publisher=Mercer University Press|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&pg=PA87&dq=william+propp+exodus+1-18#v=onepage&q=william%20propp%20exodus%201-18&f=false|isbn=9780881461015|ref=harv}} | |||
|chapter= Exodus Dates and Theories | |||
*{{Cite book|last=Meyers|first=Carol|author-link=Carol Meyers|title=Exodus|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/?id=0QHHITXsyskC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Carol+Meyers+Exodus#v=onepage&q=Carol%20Meyers%20Exodus&f=false|isbn=9780521002912|ref=harv}} | |||
|title=Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience | |||
*Newman, Murray L (2000) Forward Movement Publications | |||
|editor1=Thomas E. Levy | |||
*]. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' (1981), {{ISBN|0-8074-0055-6}} | |||
|editor2=Thomas Schneider | |||
*{{cite book | |||
|editor3=William H.C. Propp | |||
|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xpe1BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 | |||
| pages = 55–64 | |||
|date=2015 | |||
|publisher=Springer | |||
|isbn=978-3-319-04768-3 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|last1 = Grabbe | |||
|first1 = Lester | |||
|title = Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? | |||
|year = 2017 | |||
|publisher = Bloomsbury | |||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4lzyDQAAQBAJ | |||
|isbn = 978-0-567-67043-4 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last=Houston|first=Walter J|chapter=Exodus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA67|editor=John Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780198755005|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbiblecomme0000unse}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last=Johnstone|first=William D.|chapter=Exodus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA72 |editor=James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson|title=Eerdmans Bible Commentary|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn=9780802837110}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last1=Kugler|first1=Robert|last2=Hartin|first2=Patrick|title=An Introduction to the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L8WbXbPjxpoC |isbn=9780802846365}} | |||
* Levy, Thomas E., Thomas Schneider, William H.C. Propp. (2015). . Springer International Publishing. | |||
* {{Cite book|last=McEntire|first=Mark|title=Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch|publisher=Mercer University Press|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&pg=PA87 |isbn=9780881461015}} | |||
* {{Cite book|last=Meyers|first=Carol|author-link=Carol Meyers|title=Exodus|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0QHHITXsyskC |isbn=9780521002912}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
|last1 = Moore | |||
|first1 = Megan Bishop | |||
|last2 = Kelle | |||
|first2 = Brad E. | |||
|title = Biblical History and Israel's Past | |||
|year = 2011 | |||
|publisher = Eerdmans | |||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA81 | |||
|isbn = 9780802862600 | |||
}} | |||
* {{Cite book |title="Did I Not Bring Israel Out of Egypt?": Biblical, Archaeological, and Egyptological Perspectives on the Exodus Narratives |last=Noonan |first=Benjamin J. |publisher=Penn State Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-57506-430-7 |pages=49–67 |editor-last=Hoffmeier |editor-first=James K. |chapter=Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions |editor-last2=Millard |editor-first2=Alan R. |editor-last3=Rendsburg |editor-first3=Gary A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1DULEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA49}} | |||
* ]. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' (1981), {{ISBN|0-8074-0055-6}} | |||
* {{cite book |last= Redmount| first= Carol A.| title= The Oxford History of the Biblical World| chapter= Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt| editor-last = Coogan | editor-first = Michael D. | year = 2001 | orig-year = 1998 | publisher = OUP| isbn= 9780199881482 | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA59 |pages=58–89 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| last = Russell | |||
| first = Stephen C. | |||
| title = Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature | |||
| year = 2009 | |||
| publisher = Walter de Gruyter | |||
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C | |||
| isbn = 9783110221718 | |||
}} | |||
* {{cite book| last1 = Shaw | first1 = Ian| editor1-last = Shaw |editor1-first = Ian| editor2-last = Jameson | editor2-first = Robert| title = A Dictionary of Archaeology| chapter = Israel, Israelites| year = 2002| publisher = Wiley Blackwell| isbn =9780631235835| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&pg=PA313}} | |||
* {{cite book | |||
| last = Sparks | | last = Sparks | ||
| first = Kenton L. | | first = Kenton L. | ||
Line 133: | Line 267: | ||
| year = 2010 | | year = 2010 | ||
| publisher = Cambridge University Press | | publisher = Cambridge University Press | ||
| chapter-url |
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CiqF7sVqDQcC&pg=PA73 | ||
| |
| isbn = 9781139487382 | ||
}} | }} | ||
*{{Cite book|last=Stuart|first=Douglas K|title=Exodus|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8H9E00e5PSwC |
* {{Cite book|last=Stuart|first=Douglas K|title=Exodus|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8H9E00e5PSwC |isbn=9780805401028}} | ||
*{{Cite book|last=Wenham|first=Gordon|title=The Book of Leviticus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1979|url=https:// |
* {{Cite book|last=Wenham|first=Gordon|title=The Book of Leviticus|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1979|url=https://archive.org/details/newinternational0000unse_y8f6 |url-access=registration|isbn=9780802825223}} | ||
{{refend}} | {{refend}} | ||
Line 143: | Line 277: | ||
{{wikiquote}} | {{wikiquote}} | ||
{{Wikisource|Exodus (Bible)}} | {{Wikisource|Exodus (Bible)}} | ||
{{ |
{{Commons category|Book of Exodus}} | ||
* at ] | * at ] | ||
* at |
* (Jewish Publication Society translation) | ||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610052209/http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=2&CHAPTER=1 |date=2011-06-10 }}—Rabbi ]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org | |||
* (Jewish Publication Society translation) | |||
* |
* translation (with ]'s commentary) at Chabad.org | ||
* translation ] |
* (Original ]—English at Mechon-Mamre.org) | ||
* {{librivox book | title=Exodus}}—Various versions | |||
* (Original ] – English at Mechon-Mamre.org) | |||
* {{librivox book | title=Exodus}} Various versions | |||
{{s-start}} | {{s-start}} | ||
Line 160: | Line 293: | ||
{{s-end}} | {{s-end}} | ||
{{Books of the Bible}} | {{Books of the Bible}} | ||
{{ |
{{Ten Commandments}} | ||
{{Book of Exodus}} | {{Book of Exodus}} | ||
{{Authority control}} | {{Authority control}} | ||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Book Of Exodus}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:Book Of Exodus}} | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] |
Latest revision as of 00:55, 5 December 2024
Second book of the Bible This article is about the second book of the Torah and the Old Testament. For the Israelite migration narrative, see The Exodus. For other uses, see Exodus. "Exodus 4" redirects here. For the single, see Exodus '04.Tanakh (Judaism) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Old Testament (Christianity) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Bible portal | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Book of Exodus (from Ancient Greek: Ἔξοδος, romanized: Éxodos; Biblical Hebrew: שְׁמוֹת Šəmōṯ, 'Names'; Latin: Liber Exodus) is the second book of the Bible. It is a narrative of the Exodus, the origin myth of the Israelites leaving slavery in Biblical Egypt through the strength of their deity named Yahweh, who according to the story chose them as his people. The Israelites then journey with the legendary prophet Moses to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh gives the Ten Commandments and they enter into a covenant with Yahweh, who promises to make them a "holy nation, and a kingdom of priests" on condition of their faithfulness. He gives them their laws and instructions to build the Tabernacle, the means by which he will come from heaven and dwell with them and lead them in a holy war to conquer Canaan (the "Promised Land"), which has earlier, according to the myth of Genesis, been promised to the "seed" of Abraham, the legendary patriarch of the Israelites.
Traditionally ascribed to Moses himself, modern scholars see its initial composition as a product of the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), based on earlier written sources and oral traditions, with final revisions in the Persian post-exilic period (5th century BCE). American biblical scholar Carol Meyers, in her commentary on Exodus, suggests that it is arguably the most important book in the Bible, as it presents the defining features of Israel's identity—memories of a past marked by hardship and escape, a binding covenant with their God, who chooses Israel, and the establishment of the life of the community and the guidelines for sustaining it. The consensus of modern scholars is that the Pentateuch does not give an accurate account of the origins of the Israelites, who appear instead to have formed as an entity in the central highlands of Canaan in the late second millennium BCE (around the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse) from the indigenous Canaanite culture.
Title
The English name Exodus comes from the Ancient Greek: ἔξοδος, romanized: éxodos, lit. 'way out', from ἐξ-, ex-, 'out' and ὁδός, hodós, 'path', 'road'. In Hebrew the book's title is שְׁמוֹת, shemōt, "Names", from the beginning words of the text: "These are the names of the sons of Israel" (Hebrew: וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמֹות בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל).
Historicity
Main article: Sources and parallels of the ExodusMost mainstream scholars do not accept the biblical Exodus account as historical for a number of reasons. It is generally agreed that the Exodus stories were written centuries after the apparent setting of the stories. Archaeologists Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that archaeology has not found evidence for even a small band of wandering Israelites living in the Sinai: "The conclusion – that Exodus did not happen at the time and in the manner described in the Bible – seems irrefutable repeated excavations and surveys throughout the entire area have not provided even the slightest evidence". Instead, they argue how modern archaeology suggests continuity between Canaanite and Israelite settlements, indicating a heavily Canaanite origin for Israel, with little suggestion that a group of foreigners from Egypt comprised early Israel. They also argue that the exodus narrative perhaps evolved from vague memories of the Hyksos expulsion, spun to encourage resistance to the 7th century domination of Judah by Egypt.
However, a majority of scholars believe that the story has an historical core, though disagreeing widely about what that historical kernel might have been. Kenton Sparks refers to it as "charter myth" and "mythologized history". Biblical scholar Graham I. Davies notes that several literary texts from Ancient Egypt document the presence of Semitic peoples working for building projects under the 19th Dynasty of Egypt, suggesting a possible historical basis for the account of Israelite servitude to the Egyptians. However, there is an increasing trend among scholars to see the biblical exodus traditions as the invention of the exilic and post-exilic Jewish community, with little to no historical basis.
Structure
There is no unanimous agreement among scholars on the structure of Exodus. One strong possibility is that it is a diptych (i.e., divided into two parts), with the division between parts 1 and 2 at the crossing of the Red Sea or at the beginning of the theophany (appearance of God) in chapter 19. On this plan, the first part tells of God's rescue of his people from Egypt and their journey under his care to Sinai (chapters 1–19) and the second tells of the covenant between them (chapters 20–40).
Summary
1585 map1641 mapHistorical representations of the Stations of the ExodusThe text of the Book of Exodus begins after the events at the end of the Book of Genesis where Jacob's sons and their families joined their brother Joseph in Egypt, which Joseph had saved from famine. It is 400 years later and Egypt's new Pharaoh, who does not remember Joseph, is fearful that the enslaved and now numerous Israelites could become a fifth column. He hardens their labor and orders the killing of all newborn boys. A Levite woman named Jochebed saves her baby by setting him adrift on the Nile in an ark of bulrushes. Pharaoh's daughter finds the child, names him Moses, and brings him up as her own.
Later, a grown Moses goes out to see his kinsmen. He witnesses the abuse of a Hebrew slave by an Egyptian overseer. Angered, Moses kills him and flees into Midian to escape punishment. There, he marries Zipporah, daughter of Jethro, a Midianite priest. While tending Jethro's flock, Moses encounters God in a burning bush. Moses asks God for his name, to which God replies with three words, often translated as "I Am that I Am." This is the book's explanation for the origin of the name Yahweh, as God is thereafter known. God tells Moses to return to Egypt, free the Hebrews from slavery and lead them into Canaan, the land promised to the seed of Abraham in Genesis. On the journey back to Egypt, God seeks to kill Moses. Zipporah circumcises their son and the attack stops. (See Zipporah at the inn.)
Moses reunites with his brother Aaron and, returning to Egypt, convenes the Israelite elders, preparing them to go into the wilderness to worship God. Pharaoh refuses to release the Israelites from their work for the festival, and so God curses the Egyptians with ten terrible plagues, such as a river of blood, an outbreak of frogs, and the thick darkness. Moses is commanded by God to fix the spring month of Aviv at the head of the Hebrew calendar. The Israelites are to take a lamb on the 10th day of the month, sacrifice the lamb on the 14th day, daub its blood on their mezuzot—doorposts and lintels, and to observe the Passover meal that night, during the full moon. The 10th plague comes that night, causing the death of all Egyptian firstborn sons, prompting Pharaoh to expel the Israelites. Regretting his decision, Pharaoh commands his chariot army after the Israelites, who appear trapped at the Red Sea. God parts the sea, allowing the Israelites to pass through, before drowning Pharaoh's pursuing forces.
As desert life proves arduous, the Israelites complain and long for Egypt, but God miraculously provides manna for them to eat and water to drink. The Israelites arrive at the mountain of God, where Moses's father-in-law Jethro visits Moses; at his suggestion, Moses appoints judges over Israel. God asks whether they will agree to be his people – They accept. The people gather at the foot of the mountain, and with thunder and lightning, fire and clouds of smoke, the sound of trumpets, and the trembling of the mountain, God appears on the peak, and the people see the cloud and hear the voice (or possibly sound) of God. God tells Moses to ascend the mountain. God pronounces the Ten Commandments (the Ethical Decalogue) in the hearing of all Israel. Moses goes up the mountain into the presence of God, who pronounces the Covenant Code of ritual and civil law and promises Canaan to them if they obey. Moses comes down from the mountain and writes down God's words, and the people agree to keep them. God calls Moses up the mountain again, where he remains for forty days and forty nights, after which he returns, bearing the set of stone tablets.
God gives Moses instructions for the construction of the tabernacle so that God may dwell permanently among his chosen people, along with instructions for the priestly vestments, the altar and its appurtenances, procedures for the ordination of priests, and the daily sacrifice offerings. Aaron becomes the first hereditary high priest. God gives Moses the two tablets of stone containing the words of the ten commandments, written with the "finger of God".
While Moses is with God, Aaron casts a golden calf, which the people worship. God informs Moses of their apostasy and threatens to kill them all, but relents when Moses pleads for them. Moses comes down from the mountain, smashes the stone tablets in anger, and commands the Levites to massacre the unfaithful Israelites. God commands Moses to construct two new tablets. Moses ascends the mountain again, where God dictates the Ten Commandments for Moses to write on the tablets.
Moses descends from the mountain with a transformed face; from that time onwards he must hide his face with a veil. Moses assembles the Hebrews and repeats to them the commandments he has received from God, which are to keep the Sabbath and to construct the Tabernacle. The Israelites do as they are commanded. From that time God dwells in the Tabernacle and orders the travels of the Hebrews.
Composition
Authorship
Jewish and Christian tradition viewed Moses as the author of Exodus and the entire Torah, but by the end of the 19th century the increasing awareness of discrepancies, inconsistencies, repetitions and other features of the Pentateuch had led scholars to abandon this idea. In approximate round dates, the process which produced Exodus and the Pentateuch probably began around 600 BCE when existing oral and written traditions were brought together to form books recognizable as those we know, reaching their final form as unchangeable sacred texts around 400 BCE.
Sources
This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. (August 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Although patent mythical elements are not so prominent in Exodus as in Genesis, ancient legends may have an influence on the book's form or content: for example, the story of the infant Moses's salvation from the Nile is argued to be based on an earlier legend of king Sargon of Akkad, while the story of the parting of the Red Sea may trade on Mesopotamian creation mythology. Similarly, the Covenant Code (the law code in Exodus 20:22–23:33) has some similarities in both content and structure with the Laws of Hammurabi. These potential influences serve to reinforce the conclusion that the Book of Exodus originated in the exiled Jewish community of 6th-century BCE Babylon, but not all the potential sources are Mesopotamian: the story of Moses's flight to Midian following the murder of the Egyptian overseer may draw on the Egyptian Story of Sinuhe.
Textual witnesses
Main article: Textual variants in the Book of ExodusThemes
Salvation
Biblical scholars describe the Bible's theologically motivated history writing as "salvation history", meaning a history of God's saving actions that give identity to Israel – the promise of offspring and land to the ancestors, the Exodus from Egypt (in which God saves Israel from slavery), the wilderness wandering, the revelation at Sinai, and the hope for the future life in the Promised Land.
Theophany
A theophany is a manifestation (appearance) of a god – in the Bible, an appearance of the God of Israel, accompanied by storms – the earth trembles, the mountains quake, the heavens pour rain, thunder peals and lightning flashes. The theophany in Exodus begins "the third day" from their arrival at Sinai in chapter 19: Yahweh and the people meet at the mountain, God appears in the storm and converses with Moses, giving him the Ten Commandments while the people listen. The theophany is therefore a public experience of divine law.
The second half of Exodus marks the point at which, and describes the process through which, God's theophany becomes a permanent presence for Israel via the Tabernacle. That so much of the book (chapters 25–31, 35–40) describes the plans of the Tabernacle demonstrates the importance it played in the perception of Second Temple Judaism at the time of the text's redaction by the Priestly writers: the Tabernacle is the place where God is physically present, where, through the priesthood, Israel could be in direct, literal communion with him.
Covenant
The heart of Exodus is the Sinaitic covenant. A covenant is a legal document binding two parties to take on certain obligations towards each other. There are several covenants in the Bible, and in each case they exhibit at least some of the elements in real-life treaties of the ancient Middle East: a preamble, historical prologue, stipulations, deposition and reading, list of witnesses, blessings and curses, and ratification by animal sacrifice. Biblical covenants, in contrast to Eastern covenants in general, are between a god, Yahweh, and a people, Israel, instead of between a strong ruler and a weaker vassal.
Election of Israel
God elects Israel for salvation because the "sons of Israel" are "the firstborn son" of the God of Israel, descended through Shem and Abraham to the chosen line of Jacob whose name is changed to Israel. The goal of the divine plan in Exodus is a return to humanity's state in Eden, so that God can dwell with the Israelites as he had with Adam and Eve through the Ark and Tabernacle, which together form a model of the universe; in later Abrahamic religions Israel becomes the guardian of God's plan for humanity, to bring "God's creation blessing to mankind" begun in Adam.
Judaism's weekly Torah portions in the Book of Exodus
Main article: Weekly Torah portionList of Torah portions in the Book of Exodus:
- Shemot, on Exodus 1–5: Affliction in Egypt, discovery of baby Moses, Pharaoh
- Va'eira, on Exodus 6–9: Plagues 1 to 7 of Egypt
- Bo, on Exodus 10–13: Last plagues of Egypt, first Passover
- Beshalach, on Exodus 13–17: Parting the Sea, water, manna, Amalek
- Yitro, on Exodus 18–20: Jethro's advice, The Ten Commandments
- Mishpatim, on Exodus 21–24: The Covenant Code
- Terumah, on Exodus 25–27: God's instructions on the Tabernacle and furnishings
- Tetzaveh, on Exodus 27–30: God's instructions on the first priests
- Ki Tissa, on Exodus 30–34: Census, anointing oil, golden calf, stone tablets, Moses radiant
- Vayakhel, on Exodus 35–38: Israelites collect gifts, make the Tabernacle and furnishings
- Pekudei, on Exodus 38–40: Setting up and filling of The Tabernacle
See also
- Film adaptations of the Book of Exodus
- History of the Jews in Ancient Egypt
- Ketef Hinnom
- Song of the Sea
- List of individuals from the Book of Exodus
References
Citations
- Johnstone 2003, p. 72.
- Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 68.
- Meyers, p. xv.
- Grabbe 2017, p. 36.
- Meyers 2005, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 81.
- Dozeman 2009, p. 1.
- Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 63.
- Barmash 2015, p. 4.
- Shaw 2002, p. 313.
- Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 69.
- Faust 2015, p. 476.
- Redmount 2001, p. 87.
- Geraty 2015, p. 55.
- Sparks 2010, p. 73.
- Davies 2020, p. 152.
- Russell 2009, p. 11.
- Meyers, p. 17.
- Stuart, p. 19.
- Exodus 31:18; Deuteronomy 9:10
- Meyers 2005, p. 16.
- McEntire 2008, p. 8.
- Kugler & Hartin 2009, p. 74.
- Dozeman, p. 9.
- Dozeman, p. 4.
- Dozeman, p. 427.
- Dempster, p. 107.
- Wenham, p. 29.
- Meyers, p. 148.
- Meyers, pp. 149–150.
- Meyers, p. 150.
- Dempster, p. 100.
- Weekly Torah Portions. Alephbeta
General bibliography
- Barmash, Pamela (2015). "Out of the Mists of History: The Exaltation of the Exodus in the Bible". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations. Lexington Books. pp. 1–22. ISBN 9781498502931.
- Childs, Brevard S (1979). The Book of Exodus. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780664229689.
- Collins, John J. (2005). The Bible After Babel: Historical Criticism in a Postmodern Age. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802828927.
- Davies, Graham (2004). "Was There an Exodus?". In Day, John (ed.). In Search of Pre-exilic Israel: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar. Continuum. pp. 23–40. ISBN 9780567082060.
- Davies, Graham I. (2020). Exodus 1-18: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 1: Chapters 1-10. International Critical Commentary. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-68869-9.
- Davies, Graham I. (2020b). Exodus 1-18: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 2: Chapters 11-18. International Critical Commentary. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-68872-9.
- Dempster, Stephen G (2006). Dominion and Dynasty. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830826155.
- Dozeman, Thomas B (2009). Commentary on Exodus. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802826176.
- Dozeman, Thomas B (2000). "Exodus, Book of". In David Noel, Freedman; Allen C., Myers (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9789053565032.
- Dozeman, Thomas B. (2010). Methods for Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139487382.
- Faust, Avraham (2015). "The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus". In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-04768-3.
- Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780743223386.
- Fretheim, Terence E (1991). Exodus. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664237349.
- Geraty, Lawrence T. (2015). "Exodus Dates and Theories". In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. pp. 55–64. ISBN 978-3-319-04768-3.
- Grabbe, Lester (2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-67043-4.
- Houston, Walter J (1998). "Exodus". In John Barton (ed.). Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005.
- Johnstone, William D. (2003). "Exodus". In James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson (ed.). Eerdmans Bible Commentary. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110.
- Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). An Introduction to the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365.
- Levy, Thomas E., Thomas Schneider, William H.C. Propp. (2015). "Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience". Springer International Publishing.
- McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881461015.
- Meyers, Carol (2005). Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521002912.
- Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802862600.
- Noonan, Benjamin J. (2016). "Egyptian Loanwords as Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus and Wilderness Traditions". In Hoffmeier, James K.; Millard, Alan R.; Rendsburg, Gary A. (eds.). "Did I Not Bring Israel Out of Egypt?": Biblical, Archaeological, and Egyptological Perspectives on the Exodus Narratives. Penn State Press. pp. 49–67. ISBN 978-1-57506-430-7.
- Plaut, Gunther. The Torah: A Modern Commentary (1981), ISBN 0-8074-0055-6
- Redmount, Carol A. (2001) . "Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. OUP. pp. 58–89. ISBN 9780199881482.
- Russell, Stephen C. (2009). Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110221718.
- Shaw, Ian (2002). "Israel, Israelites". In Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (eds.). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9780631235835.
- Sparks, Kenton L. (2010). "Genre Criticism". In Dozeman, Thomas B. (ed.). Methods for Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139487382.
- Stuart, Douglas K (2006). Exodus. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 9780805401028.
- Wenham, Gordon (1979). The Book of Leviticus. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802825223.
External links
- Exodus at BibleGateway.com
- Exodus at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)
- Exodus (The Living Torah) Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine—Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org
- Shemot—Exodus (Judaica Press) translation (with Rashi's commentary) at Chabad.org
- Shmot (Original Hebrew—English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
- Exodus public domain audiobook at LibriVox—Various versions
Book of Exodus Pentateuch | ||
Preceded byGenesis | Hebrew Bible | Succeeded byLeviticus |
Christian Old Testament |
Books of the Bible | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old Testament |
| ||||||||||||||
New Testament |
| ||||||||||||||
Subdivisions | |||||||||||||||
Development | |||||||||||||||
Manuscripts | |||||||||||||||
Related | |||||||||||||||