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{{Short description|Outdated grouping of human beings}}
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'''Australo-Melanesians''' (also known as '''Australasians''' or the '''Australomelanesoid''', '''Australoid''' or '''Australioid race''') is an outdated ] of various people indigenous to ] and ]. Controversially, some groups found in parts of ] and ] were also sometimes included.
| image1 = Femmes_kanak2.jpg
| image2 = Music_show_in_Fiji.jpg
While most authors included ], ] and ] (mainly from ], ], ] and ]), there was controversy about the inclusion of the various Southeast Asian populations grouped as "]", or a number of ] tribal populations of the ].<ref name="p. 26" /><ref name="Kulatilake">{{Cite journal |last=Kulatilake |first=Samanti |title=Cranial Morphology of the Vedda people - the indigenes of Sri Lanka|url= https://www.academia.edu/9637404}}</ref>
| image3 = Vanuatu_blonde.jpg
| image4 = Ati_woman.jpg
| image5 = Friends2.jpg
| image6 = 1981 event Australian aboriginals.jpg
| image7 = Great Andamanese - two men - 1875.jpg
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| footer = '''Left to right''': New Caledonian women; Fijian musicians; a boy from Vanuatu; an Ati girl from the Philippines; Papuan girls; Aboriginal Australian dancers; Andamanese men.
}}


The concept of dividing humankind into three, four or five races (often called ], ], ], and Australoid) was introduced in the 18th century and further developed by Western scholars in the context of "]"<ref name="AAPARace" /> during the age of ].<ref name="AAPARace">{{cite web|author=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|title=AAPA Statement on Race and Racism |website=American Association of Physical Anthropologists|access-date=19 June 2020 |date=27 March 2019 |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/}}</ref> With the rise of modern ], the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the ] stated: "The belief in “races” as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."<ref name="AAPARace" />
{{short description|Group of populations indigenous to Maritime Southeast Asia and Oceania.}}
{{pp-pc1|expiry=December 20, 2019}}

In ], ] and ], '''Australo-Melanesians''' (also '''Australasian, Australomelanesoid''' or '''Australoid''')<ref name="LCS1994">Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza, ''The History and Geography of Human Genes'' (1994), . R. P. Pathak, ''Education in the Emerging India'' (2007), .</ref> form a large group of populations indigenous to ] and ].

The group includes ], ], ] (mainly from ], ] and ]) and the populations grouped as "]" (the ], the ] and ]s, the ], the ], the ], and various other ]).

The ] in ] and a number of ] ] in the interior of the ] (mainly ] groups and some ] peoples, like the ]) are also suggested to belong to the Australoid group,<ref name="p. 26">T. Pullaiah, K. V. Krishnamurthy, Bir Bahadur, ''Ethnobotany of India, Volume 5: The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India'' (2017), names: the tribes of Chota Nagpur, the Baiga, Gond, Bhil, Santal and Oroan tribes; counted as of partial Australoid and partial ] ancestry are certain Munda-speaking groups (Munda, Gadaba, Santals) and certain Dravidian-speaking groups (Maria, Muria, Gond, Oroan).</ref><ref name="Coon 1939 425–431">{{cite book|last=Coon|first=Carleton Stevens|year=1939|location=]|publisher=]|title=The Races of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/racesofeurope031695mbp|authorlink=Carleton S. Coon|pages=425–431}}</ref> but there are controversies about this inclusion. A research involving cranial morphology, made by Indian anthropologists, however, suggests that the South Asian Indian populations have different cranial characteristics from Australoid groups. This difference has possibly been strengthened in recent times due to ] with peoples of different origins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reich|first=David|last2=Pinhasi|first2=Ron|last3=Frachetti|first3=Michael|last4=Kennett|first4=Douglas|last5=Thangaraj|first5=Kumarasmy|last6=Boivin|first6=Nicole|last7=Anthony|first7=David|last8=Meyer|first8=Matthias|last9=Lalueza-Fox|first9=Carles|date=2018-03-31|title=The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2018/03/31/292581|journal=bioRxiv|pages=292581|doi=10.1101/292581}}</ref><ref name="Kulatilake">{{Cite journal|last=Kulatilake|first=Samanti|title=Cranial Morphology of the Vedda people - the indigenes of Sri Lanka|url=https://www.academia.edu/9637404}}</ref><ref name="p. 26"/><ref name="Coon 1939 425–431"/> A genetic study in 1985 suggested connections between tribal peoples of Southern India and Sri Lanka and Negrito populations of the ] and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://hellis.cmb.ac.lk:8180/handle/123456789/7520
|title=A Genetic study of the Veddas of Sri Lanka|author=ELLEPOLA, SB|publisher=Hellis Digital Repository, Sri Lanka|date=1985|accessdate=2019-01-20}}</ref> Nevertheless, a more recent study sustains that the Southern Indian populations are not closely related to the classic Australo-Melanesian groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lertrit|first=Patcharee|last2=Poolsuwan|first2=Samerchai|last3=Hathaichanoke Boonyarit|last4=Win Tun|first4=Aung|last5=Kaewsutthi|first5=Supannee|last6=Ranaweera|first6=Lanka|date=January 2014|title=Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=59|issue=1|pages=28–36|doi=10.1038/jhg.2013.112|pmid=24196378|issn=1435-232X}}</ref>

The term "Australioid race" was introduced by ] in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to ] and ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pearson|first1=Roger|title=Anthropological Glossary|date=1985|publisher=Krieger Publishing Company|pages=20, 128, 267|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=HjANAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=2 February 2018}}</ref>
Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive<ref name="Black2011">{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Sue|last2=Ferguson|first2=Eilidh|title=Forensic Anthropology: 2000 to 2010|date=2011|publisher=Taylor and Francis Group|page=127|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=306ruTniZmcC&pg=PA127|accessdate=3 July 2018|isbn=9781439845899}} "There are considered to be four basic ancestry groups into which an individual can be placed by physical appearance, not accounting for admixture: the sub-Saharan African group ("Negroid"), the European group ("Caucasoid"), the Central Asian group ("Mongoloid"), and the Australasian group ("Australoid"). The rather outdated names of all but one of these groups were originally derived from geography"</ref>
and related to ].<ref name="Fluehr-Lobban2011">{{cite book |last=Fluehr-Lobban |first=C. |title=Race and racism : an Introduction |publisher=Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield |date=2005 |pages=131–133 |url= https://books.google.it/books?id=3lq3XDz39pIC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA131|isbn=9780759107953 }}</ref><ref name="oxford">{{cite web| title = Ask Oxford – Definition of Australoid| publisher = ]|year=2018| url = https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/australoid| accessdate = 2018-06-28}}</ref><!-- The term Australoid belongs to a set of terms introduced by 19th-century anthropologists attempting to categorize human races. Such terms are associated with outdated notions of racial types, and so are now potentially offensive and best avoided.Indian are 80% Australoid(Negroid) and 15% Caucasian.-->

According to a large craniometric study (Raghavan and Bulbeck et al. 2013) the native populations of South Asia (] and ]) have distinct craniometric and anthropologic ancestry. Both southern and northern groups are most similar to each other and have generally closer affinities to various "]" groups. The study further showed that the native South Asians (including the ]) form a distinct group and are not related to the "]" group.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Indian Craniometric Variability and Affinities|volume=2013|pages=836738|last=Rathee|first=Suresh Kanta|last2=Pathmanathan|first2=Gayathiri|date=2013|journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology|language=en|pmid=24455409|pmc=3886603|last3=Bulbeck|first3=David|last4=Raghavan|first4=Pathmanathan|doi=10.1155/2013/836738}}</ref>{{Quote|text=If there were an Australoid “substratum” component to Indians’ ancestry, we would expect some degree of craniometric similarity between Howells’ Southwest Pacific series and Indians. But in fact, the Southwest Pacific and Indian are craniometrically very distinct, falsifying any claim for an Australoid substratum in India.|sign=Pathmanathan Raghavan, David Bulbeck, Gayathiri Pathmanathan and Suresh Kanta Rathee|source=Indian Craniometric Variability and Affinities (2013)}}


==Terminological history== ==Terminological history==
]'' (1885-90)]]
{{anchor|Australoid race}}
The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians".<ref>J.R. Logan (ed.), ''The Journal of the Indian archipelago and eastern Asia'' (1859),
.</ref> In ], ''Australoid'' is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by ] in his ''Text-book of Anatomy'' (1902).

An ''Australioid'' (''sic'', with an additional ''-i-'') racial group was first proposed by ] in an essay ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, ], ], and Australioid).<ref></ref>
Huxley's original model included the native inhabitants of ] under the Australoid category.
Huxley further classified the ] (Peoples of the ]) as a mixture of the ] (northern Europeans) and Australioids.<ref>Huxley, Thomas. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006. <http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html></ref>
Huxley (1870) described Australioids as ]; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and ], with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black.<ref name="aleph0.clarku.edu">] "" (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''</ref>

The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by ] in his ''Racial History of Man'' (1923).
In a 1962 publication, Australoid was described as one of the five major human races alongside ], ], Congoid and Capoid.<ref>Moore, Ruth ''Evolution'' (Life Nature Library) New York:1962 Time, Inc. Chapter 8: "The Emergence of Modern ''Homo sapiens''" Page 173 – First page of picture section "Man and His Genes": "The ''Australoid'' race is identified as one of the five major races of mankind, along with the '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'' races (pictures of a person typical of each race are shown)"</ref>

In ''The Origin of Races'' (1962), ] attempted to refine such ] by introducing a system of five races with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and ] or his use of ] for a ] agenda."
<ref name="Fluehr-Lobban2011"/>

Bellwood (1985) uses the terms "Australoid", "Australomelanesoid" and "Australo-Melanesians" to describe the genetic heritage of "the Southern ] populations of ] and ]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Bellwood|first=Peter|title=Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago|publisher=Australian National University|year=1985|isbn=978-1-921313-11-0|url=https://books.google.com/?id=4obAfGBGKY0C&pg=RA1-PA346&lpg=RA1-PA346&dq=australomelanesoid}}</ref>

Since the 1980s, anthropological terms in "-oid" have come to be avoided in some disciplines, especially in the United States, where the term Australo-Melanesian is now preferred.{{year needed|date=October 2018}}
In other areas, specifically in anthropological literature in India, the term Australoid continues to be preferred.<ref>
], ], ''Anthropology'' (1997), .</ref>

==Distribution==
{{see|Aboriginal Australians|Melanesians|Papuans|Negrito}}
] according to ] (1962).
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Besides the ], ], ], and ], the "Australoid" category is often taken to include various ].
The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group is not well-defined, and is closely related to the question of the original ], and the possible shared ancestry between Indian and Australian populations of the Upper Paleolithic.
The ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology'' (1996, p.&nbsp;382) by American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza in their text, ''The History and Geography of Human Genes'' (1994, P. 241) all use the term.{{clarify|date=October 2018}}<!--sure, they use the term "Australoid", but in what definition exactly?-->

Tee suggested Australoid ancestry of the original South Asian populations has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasizing the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australoid hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the ] described in the ]. ] (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognizes a Pre-Dravidian ''Australo-Veddaic'' stratum in India.<ref>P. Mitra, ''Prehistoric India'' (1923), p. 48.</ref>
Alternatively, the ] themselves have been claimed as originally of Australoid stock,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sarat Chandra Roy (Ral Bahadur)|title=Man in India - Volume 80|date=2000|publisher=A. K. Bose|page=59|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=wPhEAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=21 May 2018}}</ref>
a view held by ] among others.<ref>R. R. Bhattacharya et al. (eds., ''Anthropology of B.S. Guha: a centenary tribute'' (1996), p. 50.</ref>

South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australoid affinities include the ], ], ], ], ], the ] of Kerala, the ] and ] of the ],
the ] of Malabar, the ], ], ] and ].<ref>Mhaiske, Vinod M., Patil, Vinayak K., Narkhede, S. S., ''Forest Tribology And Anthropology'' (2016), .
Bhuban Mohan Das, ''The Peoples of Assam'' (1987), .</ref>
but other Indian anthropologists of the post-colonial period, such as S. P. Sharma (1971) and D. N. Majumdar (1946, 1965),<!--Dhirendra Nath Majumdar, also spelled Majumder--> have gone as far as claiming Australoid ancestry, to a greater or lesser extent, for almost all the castes and tribes of India.<ref>cited after Bhuban Mohan Das, ''The Peoples of Assam'' (1987), 77f. "Majumder also subscribes to this view by saying that 'the Australoid features are found throughout the length and breadth of Indian subcontinent 90% of Indian racial genetics population.</ref> Newer Indian anthropology studies about cranial morphology do not support an Australoid ancestry in South Asian populations.<ref name="Kulatilake"/>

==Physical features==
{{see|Sinodonty and Sundadonty}}
] man from ], ]. According to archaeologist ], the vast majority of people in Indonesia and Malaysia, the region he calls the "clinal ]-Australoid zone", are "Southern Mongoloids" but have a high degree of Australoid admixture.<!--p.89,92--><ref>Bellwood, Peter. ''Pre-History of the Indo-malaysian Archipelago.'' Australian National University:1985. {{ISBN|978-1-921313-11-0}}</ref>]]

In physical anthropology, the Australo-Melanesian group is characterized primarily by its characteristic dental morphology.<ref>G. Richard Scott, Christy G. Turner II, Grant C. Townsend, María Martinón-Torres, "The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent and Fossil Homo Sapiens", Cambridge University Press (2018), p. 260.</ref>
In Java, "Australo-Melanesian dentitions" are found in fossils until the mid-Holocene (c. 5,000 years ago), but are replaced by
modern "Southern Mongoloid dentitions" (Sundadonty) in the Neolithic, suggesting the displacement of the aboriginal Australo-Melanesian population by the ].<ref>
S. Noerwidi, "Using Dental Metrical Analysis to Determine the Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene Population History of Java", in: Philip J. Piper, Hirofumi Matsumura, David Bulbeck (eds.), New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory (2017), .</ref>

==Genetics==
{{see|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia|Genetic history of Southeast Asia}}
]
Numerous studies of ] performed during 2009&ndash;2016 have suggested that Eurasian populations can be derived from an early division of the ] lineage into an eastern and a western clade lineage before around 40,000 years ago.<ref>"The former includes present-day East Asians and had differentiated as early as the ∼40 kya Tianyuan individual (Fu et al. 2013), while early members of the latter include ancient European hunter-gatherers (Lazaridis et al. 2014; Seguin-Orlando et al. 2014; Fu et al. 2016) and the ancient northern Eurasian ] (MA1, a ∼24 kya Upper Paleolithic individual from south-central Siberia) (Raghavan et al. 2014). More recent (Neolithic and later) western Eurasians, such as Europeans, are mostly descended from the western clade but with an additional component of “]” ancestry (via the Near East) splitting more deeply than any other known non-African lineage (Lazaridis et al. 2014, 2016). The timing of the eastern/western split is uncertain, but several papers (Gutenkunst et al. 2009; Laval et al. 2010; Gravel et al. 2011) have used present-day European and East Asian populations to infer dates of initial separation of 40–45 kya (adjusted for a mutation rate of 0.5 × 10−9 per year; Scally 2016)."</ref>
It has been argued, however, that this model of a primary split between eastern and western Eurasians is
invalid for Oceania and Southeast Asia.<ref>Rasmussen, M., et al., "An Aboriginal Australian genome reveals separate human dispersals into Asia", ''Science'' 334(6052) (2011), 94-98, {{DOI|10.1126/science.1211177}}.
"We show that Aboriginal Australians are descendants of an early human dispersal into eastern Asia, possibly 62,000 to 75,000 years ago. This dispersal is separate from the one that gave rise to modern Asians 25,000 to 38,000 years ago."</ref>
The so-called "southern-route hypothesis" derives an Australasian lineage, comprising Australians, New Guineans, and possibly Southeast Asian Negritos, from an early out-of-Africa dispersal, forming an ancestral lineage which split off the other non-African lineages prior to the Eastern Eurasian vs. Western Eurasian split.<ref name="LipsonReich2017">Mark Lipson and David Reich,
"A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa",
''Mol Biol Evol'' 34.4 (2017), 889–902, {{DOI|10.1093/molbev/msw293}}.</ref>
A number of 2016 studies have presented a refined model of Australasian ancestry.<ref>
Mondal M, Casals F, Xu T, Dall’Olio GM, Pybus M, Netea MG, Comas D, Laayouni H, Li Q, Majumder PP., et al. 2016. "Genomic analysis of Andamanese provides insights into ancient human migration into Asia and adaptation", Nat Genet. 48(9): 1066–1070.
Mallick S, Li H, Lipson M, Mathieson I, Gymrek M, Racimo F, Zhao M, Chennagiri N, Nordenfelt S, Tandon A., et al. 2016. "The Simons Genome Diversity Project: 300 genomes from 142 diverse populations", Nature 538(7624): 201–206.
Malaspinas AS, Westaway MC, Muller C, Sousa VC, Lao O, Alves I, Bergström A, Athanasiadis G, Cheng JY, Crawford JE., et al. 2016. "A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia", Nature 538(7624): 207–214.
Pagani L, Lawson DJ, Jagoda E, Mörseburg A, Eriksson A, Mitt M, Clemente F, Hudjashov G, DeGiorgio M, Saag L., et al. 2016. "Genomic analyses inform on migration events during the peopling of Eurasia", Nature 538(7624): 238–242.</ref>
Reviewing the evidence, Lipson and Reich (2017) present as best-fitting model a derivation of the Australasian clade from the Eastern Eurasian clade at an early time, with substantial ] (of the order of 4%) before the Australasian clade split into the Australian and the New Guinean lineages.<ref name="LipsonReich2017"/>

Pugach et al. (2013) find an ancestral association between Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans and the Mamanwa Negritos, with an estimated divergence time of at least 35,000 years, in support of the "southern migration route" scenario.
In addition, the study finds evidence of gene flow between India and Australia at a later time, an estimated 141 generations ago (i.e. roughly 3,000 to 4,000 years ago), suggesting a possible late migration wave to Australia.<ref>Irina Pugach, Frederick Delfin, Ellen Gunnarsdóttir, Manfred Kayser, and Mark Stoneking,
"Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia", PNAS January 29, 2013 110 (5) 1803-1808;{{DOI|10.1073/pnas.1211927110}}.</ref>

For Australo-Melanesian populations within ] (the ]s, ], and ]), they underwent fairly extensive population admixture with the incoming ] migrants.<ref name="Lipson2014">{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Loh |first2=Po-Ru |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Moorjani |first4=Priya |last5=Ko |first5=Ying-Chin |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |last7=Berger |first7=Bonnie |last8=Reich |first8=David |title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia |journal=Nature Communications |date=2014 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=4689 |doi=10.1038/ncomms5689 |pmid=25137359 |pmc=4143916 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2014/05/27/005603.full.pdf}}</ref>


The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians".<ref>J.R. Logan (ed.), ''The Journal of the Indian archipelago and eastern Asia'' (1859), .</ref> The term "Australioid race" was introduced by ] in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to ] and ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pearson|first1=Roger|title=Anthropological Glossary|date=1985|publisher=Krieger Publishing Company|pages=20, 128, 267|isbn=9780898745108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjANAAAAYAAJ|access-date=2 February 2018}}</ref> In ], ''Australoid'' is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by ] in his ''Text-book of Anatomy'' (1902). An ''Australioid'' (''sic'', with an additional ''-i-'') racial group was first proposed by ] in an essay ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, ], ], and Australioid).<ref></ref> His original model included the native inhabitants of ] in ] under the Australoid category, specifically "in a well-marked form" among the hill tribes of the Deccan Plateau. Huxley further classified the ] (Peoples of the ]) as a mixture of the ] (northern Europeans) and Australioids.<ref>Huxley, Thomas. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. 14 August 2006. </ref>
A 2006 ] research article which assessed "3522 individuals belonging to 54 (23 belonging to the ], 18 to ], 7 to ] and 24 to ] linguistic groups) endogamous Indian populations, representing all major ethnic, linguistic and geographic groups" for genetic variations to support such classifications found no conclusive evidence. It further summed that "the absence of genetic markers to support the general clustering of population groups based on ethnic, linguistic, geographic or socio-cultural affiliations" undermines the broad groupings based on such affiliations that exist in population genetic studies and forensic databases.<ref name="kashyap2006bg">{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2156-7-28|title=Genetic structure of Indian populations based on fifteen autosomal microsatellite loci|author=Kashyap, VK|author2=Guha, S.|author3=Sitalaximi, T.|author4=Bindu, G.H.|author5=Hasnain, S.E.|author6=Trivedi, R.|last-author-amp=yes|journal=BMC Genetics|volume=7|pages=28|year=2006|url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2156-7-28.pdf|pmid=16707019|pmc=1513393}}</ref>


Huxley (1870) described Australioids as ]; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and ], with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black.<ref name="aleph0.clarku.edu">] "" (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''</ref>
Another study (Rosenberg et al., 2005), analysing the whole genome of worldwide populations, grouped the South Asians as own distinct group. The study results suggest that there are 5 major human groups:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosenberg|first=Noah A|last2=Mahajan|first2=Saurabh|last3=Ramachandran|first3=Sohini|last4=Zhao|first4=Chengfeng|last5=Pritchard|first5=Jonathan K|last6=Feldman|first6=Marcus W|date=December 2005|title=Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure|journal=PLoS Genetics|volume=1|issue=6|pages=e70|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010070|issn=1553-7390|pmc=1310579|pmid=16355252}}</ref>


The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by ] in his ''Racial History of Man'' (1923). In ''The Origin of Races'' (1962), ] expounded his system of five races (Australoid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid and Capoid) with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and ] or his use of ] for a racialist agenda."<ref name="Fluehr-Lobban2011">{{cite book |last=Fluehr-Lobban |first=C. |title=Race and racism : an Introduction |publisher=Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield |date=2005 |pages=131–133 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3lq3XDz39pIC&pg=PA132|isbn=9780759107953 }}</ref>
* Subsaharan-African (Negroid)
* West-Eurasian (Caucasoid)
* South-Asian ("Dravidoid")
* East-Asian (Mongoloid)
* Melanesian (Australoid)


Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive<ref name="Black2011">{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Sue|last2=Ferguson|first2=Eilidh|title=Forensic Anthropology: 2000 to 2010|date=2011|publisher=Taylor and Francis Group|page=127|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=306ruTniZmcC&pg=PA127|access-date=3 July 2018|isbn=9781439845899}} "There are considered to be four basic ancestry groups into which an individual can be placed by physical appearance, not accounting for admixture: the sub-Saharan African group ("Negroid"), the European group ("Caucasoid"), the Central Asian group ("Mongoloid"), and the Australasian group ("Australoid"). The rather outdated names of all but one of these groups were originally derived from geography"</ref> and related to ].<ref name="Fluehr-Lobban2011"/><ref name="oxford">{{cite web| title = Ask Oxford – Definition of Australoid| publisher = ]|year=2018| url = https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/australoid| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180627202220/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/australoid| url-status = dead| archive-date = 27 June 2018| access-date = 28 June 2018}}</ref>


== Controversies ==
== Possible early presence in the Americas ==
{{MeyersLexikonEthnographicMap}}
{{main|Pleistocene peopling of the Americas}}
The populations grouped as "]", such as the ] (from the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean), the ] and ] peoples (from Malaysia), the ] (from Thailand), the ], the ], and certain other ], the ] of Sri Lanka and a number of ] tribal populations in the interior of the ] (some ] tribes and ] ]) were also suggested by some to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group,<ref name="p. 26">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ErE0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP26 |first1=T |last1=Pullaiah |first2=KV |last2=Krishnamurthy |first3=Bir |last3=Bahadur |title=Ethnobotany of India, Volume 5: The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India |year=2017 |page=26|publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781351741316 }} names the tribes of Chota Nagpur, the Baiga, Gond, Bhil, Santal and Oroan tribes; counted as of partial Australoid and partial ] ancestry are certain Munda-speaking groups (Munda, Bonda, Gadaba, Santals) and certain Dravidian-speaking groups (Maria, Muria, Gond, Oroan).</ref><ref name="Coon 1939 425–431">{{cite book |last=Coon |first=Carleton Stevens |year=1939 |location=] |publisher=] |title=The Races of Europe|url= https://archive.org/details/racesofeurope031695mbp |author-link=Carleton S. Coon |pages=–431}}</ref> but there were controversies about this inclusion.
{{see also|Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#Paleoamericans|Fuegians|Pericúes}}
]'s skull]]


The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group was not well-defined, and was closely related to the question of the original ], and the possible shared ancestry between Indian, Andamanese, and ] populations of the Upper Paleolithic.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}
A speculative theory of ] in the 1990s proposes that an early Australoid population may have been the earliest occupants of the New World. The theory was based on an analysis of the ] fossil found in Brazil, and found tentative academic support.<ref></ref>


The suggested Australo-Melanesian ancestry of the original South Asian populations has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasising the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australo-Melanesian hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the ] described in the ]. ] (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognises a Pre-Dravidian ''Australo-Veddaic'' stratum in India.<ref>P. Mitra, ''Prehistoric India'' (1923), p. 48.</ref>
If this hypothesis is correct, it would mean that some Australoid groups continued the ] beyond ], along the continental shelf north in ] and across the ], reaching the ] by about 50,000 years ago.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}


Alternatively, the ] themselves have been claimed as originally of Australo-Melanesian stock,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sarat Chandra Roy (Ral Bahadur)|title=Man in India - Volume 80|date=2000|publisher=A. K. Bose|page=59|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPhEAQAAIAAJ|access-date=21 May 2018}}</ref> a view held by ] among others.<ref>R. R. Bhattacharya et al. (eds., ''Anthropology of B.S. Guha: a centenary tribute'' (1996), p. 50.</ref>
=== Australasian genetic evidence in Native Americans ===
In 2015, two major studies{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} of the DNA of living and ancient people detect in modern Native Americans a trace of DNA related to that of native people from ] and ]. Australasian admixture in some living Native Americans, including those of the ] and the ] of Amazonian Brazil.
Evidence of Australasian admixture in Amazonian populations was found by Skoglund and Reich (2016).<ref name=Skoglund2016>P. Skoglund, D. Reich, "A genomic view of the peopling of the Americas", ''Curr Opin Genet Dev.'' 2016 Dec; 41: 27–35, doi: 10.1016/j.gde.2016.06.016.
"Recently, we carried out a stringent test of the null hypothesis of a single founding population of Central and South Americans using genome-wide data from diverse Native Americans. We detected a statistically clear signal linking Native Americans in the Amazonian region of Brazil to present-day Australo-Melanesians and Andaman Islanders (‘Australasians’). Specifically, we found that Australasians share significantly more genetic variants with some Amazonian populations—including ones speaking Tupi languages—than they do with other Native Americans. We called this putative ancient Native American lineage “Population Y” after Ypykuéra, which means ‘ancestor’ in the Tupi language family."</ref>


South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australo-Melanesian affinities include the ], ], ], ], ], the ] of Kerala, the ] and ] of the ], the ] of Malabar, the ], ], ] and ].<ref>Mhaiske, Vinod M., Patil, Vinayak K., Narkhede, S. S., ''Forest Tribology And Anthropology'' (2016), . Bhuban Mohan Das, ''The Peoples of Assam'' (1987), .</ref>
Walter Neves and Mark Hubbe argue that these people descended from an early wave of migration that was separate from the one that gave rise to today’s Native Americans, and drew on a different source population in Asia.<ref> by Michael Balter published in the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" on July 21, 2015</ref>


In 1953, the Australoid race were believed to be part of the "Archaic Caucasoid race", along with ], Dravidians and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Beals |first1=Ralph L. |title=An Introduction to Anthropology |last2=Hoijer |first2=Harry |publisher=The Macmillan Company |year=1953 |place=New York}}</ref>
=== Australasian morphology in Native Americans ===
] states that "cranial analyses of some South American crania have suggested that there might have been some early migration of "Australoids."<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RI32r548fUwC|last=Turner|first=Christy|chapter=Teeth, Needles, Dogs and Siberia: Bioarchaeological Evidence for the Colonization of the New World|title=The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World'|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|page=138 | isbn=978-0-940228-50-4}}</ref>
However, Turner argues that cranial morphology suggests ], a dental pattern seen in people from eastern and northern Asia in the Native American populations she has studied.


== Criticism based on modern genetics ==
One of the earliest skulls discovered in the Americas by archaeologists is an Upper Paleolithic specimen named the ] in 1974 by archaeologist Annette Laming-Emperaire. Anthropologists variously described Luzia's features as resembling those of Negroids, Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and the Negritos of Southeast Asia. Walter Neves, an anthropologist at the University of São Paulo, suggested that Luzia's features most strongly resembled those of Australian Aboriginal peoples. Richard Neave of Manchester University, who undertook a forensic facial reconstruction of Luzia, described it as negroid.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/26/science/an-ancient-skull-challenges-long-held-theories.html</ref> According to ] a Brazilian anthropologist, archaeologist and biologist from the University of São Paulo ( Luzia's ] predecessors lived in South East Asia for tens of thousands of years, after ] from ], and began arriving in the ], as early as 15,000 years ago. Some anthropologists have hypothesized that Paleo-Indians migrated along the coast of ] and ] in small watercraft, before or during the LGM.
{{See also|Genetic studies on Indigenous Australians|Race and genetics}}
Neves' conclusions have been challenged researchers who argued that the cranio-facial variability could just be due to genetic drift and other factors affecting cranio-facial plasticity in Native Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/Doc?docid=0AVJyLBsGC0mKZGZucHhrNTRfMTRjd20zbnBkOQ&hl=en|title=THE KENNEWICK FOLLIES: "New" Theories about the Peopling of the Americas|author=Stuart J. Fiedel|year=2004|accessdate=2008-02-15}}</ref>
After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, ] concludes in 2016: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."<ref name="Templeton2016"> {{cite book |last1= Templeton |first1= A. |chapter= Evolution and Notions of Human Race |editor1-last= Losos |editor1-first= J. |editor2-last= Lenski |editor2-first= R. |title= How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society |date=2016 |pages=346–361 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv7h0s6j.26 |access-date= |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, Oxford |jstor= j.ctv7h0s6j.26 |isbn=978-1-4008-8138-3}}</ref>{{rp|360}}<ref>That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: {{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Jennifer K. |last2=Yu |first2=Joon-Ho |last3=Ifekwunigwe |first3=Jayne O. |last4=Harrell |first4=Tanya M. |last5=Bamshad |first5=Michael J. |last6=Royal |first6=Charmaine D. |date=February 2017 |title=Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=162 |issue=2 |pages=318–327 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23120 |issn=0002-9483 |pmc=5299519 |pmid=27874171}} See also: {{cite web |author=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |author-link=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |date=27 March 2019 |title=AAPA Statement on Race and Racism |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |access-date=19 June 2020 |website=American Association of Physical Anthropologists}}</ref>


The Pan-Asian genome project concluded that Negrito populations in Malaysia and the Negrito populations in the Philippines were more closely related to non-Negrito local populations, rather than to each other, highlighting the non-existence of a distinct Australo-Melanesian grouping.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stoneking |first1=Mark |last2=Delfin |first2=Frederick |date=23 February 2010 |title=The Human Genetic History of East Asia: Weaving a Complex Tapestry |journal=Current Biology |language=English |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=R188–R193 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.052 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=20178766|s2cid=18777315 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2010CBio...20.R188S }}</ref>
In November 2018, scientists of the ] and ] released a study that contradicts the alleged Australo-Melanesian origin of Luzia. The results showed that Luzia was entirely Amerindian, genetically.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://g1.globo.com/ciencia-e-saude/noticia/2018/11/08/estudo-contradiz-teoria-de-povoamento-da-america-e-sugere-que-rosto-de-luzia-era-diferente-do-que-se-pensava.ghtml|title=Estudo contradiz teoria de povoamento da América e sugere que rosto de Luzia era diferente do que se pensava (Research contradicts the theory of the occupation of the Americas and suggests that the Luzia's face was different from what was previously thought)|author=César Menezes|publisher=G1|date=8 Nov 2018|accessdate=2018-11-09|language=pt-br}}</ref> It was published in the journal Cell article (November 8, 2018)<ref>https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(18)31380-1</ref>, a paper in the journal Science from an affiliated team also reported new findings on fossil DNA from the first migrants to the Americas.<ref>https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6419/eaav2621.abstract</ref> Using ], the results showed that Lagoa Santa remains from a site nearby to the Luzia remains carry DNA regarded as Native American. Two of the Lagoa Santa individuals carry the same mtDNA haplogroup (D4h3a) also carried by older 12,000+ remains ] found in Montana and three of the Lagoa Santa individuals harbor the same Y chromosome haplogroup Q-M848 as found in the Spirit Cave genome of Nevada. The bust of Luzia displaying Australo-Melanesian/African features was created in 1999. André Strauss of the Max Planck Institute, one of the authors of the Journal Science article remarked "However, skull shape isn't a reliable marker of ancestrality or geographic origin. Genetics is the best basis for this type of inference," Strauss explained."The genetic results of the new study show categorically that there was no significant connection between the Lagoa Santa people and groups from Africa or Australia. So the hypothesis that Luzia's people derived from a migratory wave prior to the ancestors of today's Amerindians has been disproved. On the contrary, the DNA shows that Luzia's people were entirely Amerindian."<ref>https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/fda-tnf110918.php</ref>


==See also== ==See also==
*]
*]
*] *]
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*]
*]
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*]


==References== ==References==
{{reflist|30em}} {{Reflist|30em}}


{{Human genetics}}
{{Historical definitions of race}} {{Historical definitions of race}}


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Latest revision as of 12:25, 19 December 2024

Outdated grouping of human beings

Australo-Melanesians (also known as Australasians or the Australomelanesoid, Australoid or Australioid race) is an outdated historical grouping of various people indigenous to Melanesia and Australia. Controversially, some groups found in parts of Southeast Asia and South Asia were also sometimes included.

While most authors included Papuans, Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians (mainly from Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu), there was controversy about the inclusion of the various Southeast Asian populations grouped as "Negrito", or a number of dark-skinned tribal populations of the Indian subcontinent.

The concept of dividing humankind into three, four or five races (often called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australoid) was introduced in the 18th century and further developed by Western scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in “races” as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."

Terminological history

The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians". The term "Australioid race" was introduced by Thomas Huxley in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to South and Southeast Asia and Oceania. In physical anthropology, Australoid is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by Daniel John Cunningham in his Text-book of Anatomy (1902). An Australioid (sic, with an additional -i-) racial group was first proposed by Thomas Huxley in an essay On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australioid). His original model included the native inhabitants of Deccan in India under the Australoid category, specifically "in a well-marked form" among the hill tribes of the Deccan Plateau. Huxley further classified the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race) as a mixture of the Xanthochroi (northern Europeans) and Australioids.

Huxley (1870) described Australioids as dolichocephalic; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and prognathism, with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black.

The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by Roland Burrage Dixon in his Racial History of Man (1923). In The Origin of Races (1962), Carleton Coon expounded his system of five races (Australoid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid and Capoid) with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and evolution or his use of ethnology for a racialist agenda."

Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive and related to scientific racism.

Controversies

Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–1890) ethnographic map
Caucasoid:  Aryans  Semitic  Hamitic
Negroid:  African Negro  Khoikhoi  Melanesian  Negrito  Australoid
Uncertain:  Dravida & Sinhalese		 Mongoloid:  North Mongol  Chinese & Indochinese  Korean & Japanese  Tibetan & Burmese  Malay  Polynesian  Maori  Micronesian  Eskimo & Inuit  American

The populations grouped as "Negrito", such as the Andamanese (from the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean), the Semang and Batek peoples (from Malaysia), the Maniq people (from Thailand), the Aeta people, the Ati people, and certain other ethnic groups in the Philippines, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking tribes and Austroasiatic-speaking Munda peoples) were also suggested by some to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group, but there were controversies about this inclusion.

The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group was not well-defined, and was closely related to the question of the original peopling of India, and the possible shared ancestry between Indian, Andamanese, and Sahulian populations of the Upper Paleolithic.

The suggested Australo-Melanesian ancestry of the original South Asian populations has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasising the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australo-Melanesian hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the Nishada Kingdom described in the Mahabharata. Panchanan Mitra (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognises a Pre-Dravidian Australo-Veddaic stratum in India.

Alternatively, the Dravidians themselves have been claimed as originally of Australo-Melanesian stock, a view held by Biraja Sankar Guha among others.

South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australo-Melanesian affinities include the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Bhil, Gondi, the Kadars of Kerala, the Kurumba and Irula of the Nilgiris, the Paniyans of Malabar, the Uralis, Kannikars, Muthuvan and Chenchus.

In 1953, the Australoid race were believed to be part of the "Archaic Caucasoid race", along with Ainus, Dravidians and Veddas.

Criticism based on modern genetics

See also: Genetic studies on Indigenous Australians and Race and genetics

After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."

The Pan-Asian genome project concluded that Negrito populations in Malaysia and the Negrito populations in the Philippines were more closely related to non-Negrito local populations, rather than to each other, highlighting the non-existence of a distinct Australo-Melanesian grouping.

See also

References

  1. ^ Pullaiah, T; Krishnamurthy, KV; Bahadur, Bir (2017). Ethnobotany of India, Volume 5: The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India. CRC Press. p. 26. ISBN 9781351741316. names the tribes of Chota Nagpur, the Baiga, Gond, Bhil, Santal and Oroan tribes; counted as of partial Australoid and partial Mongoloid ancestry are certain Munda-speaking groups (Munda, Bonda, Gadaba, Santals) and certain Dravidian-speaking groups (Maria, Muria, Gond, Oroan).
  2. Kulatilake, Samanti. "Cranial Morphology of the Vedda people - the indigenes of Sri Lanka". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ American Association of Physical Anthropologists (27 March 2019). "AAPA Statement on Race and Racism". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  4. J.R. Logan (ed.), The Journal of the Indian archipelago and eastern Asia (1859), p. 68.
  5. Pearson, Roger (1985). Anthropological Glossary. Krieger Publishing Company. pp. 20, 128, 267. ISBN 9780898745108. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
  6. Huxley, Thomas On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006
  7. Huxley, Thomas. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. 14 August 2006.
  8. Huxley, T. H. "On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind" (1870) Journal of the Ethnological Society of London
  9. ^ Fluehr-Lobban, C. (2005). Race and racism : an Introduction. Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 131–133. ISBN 9780759107953.
  10. Black, Sue; Ferguson, Eilidh (2011). Forensic Anthropology: 2000 to 2010. Taylor and Francis Group. p. 127. ISBN 9781439845899. Retrieved 3 July 2018. "There are considered to be four basic ancestry groups into which an individual can be placed by physical appearance, not accounting for admixture: the sub-Saharan African group ("Negroid"), the European group ("Caucasoid"), the Central Asian group ("Mongoloid"), and the Australasian group ("Australoid"). The rather outdated names of all but one of these groups were originally derived from geography"
  11. "Ask Oxford – Definition of Australoid". Oxford Dictionary of English. 2018. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
  12. Coon, Carleton Stevens (1939). The Races of Europe. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 425–431.
  13. P. Mitra, Prehistoric India (1923), p. 48.
  14. Sarat Chandra Roy (Ral Bahadur) (2000). Man in India - Volume 80. A. K. Bose. p. 59. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  15. R. R. Bhattacharya et al. (eds., Anthropology of B.S. Guha: a centenary tribute (1996), p. 50.
  16. Mhaiske, Vinod M., Patil, Vinayak K., Narkhede, S. S., Forest Tribology And Anthropology (2016), p. 5. Bhuban Mohan Das, The Peoples of Assam (1987), p. 78.
  17. Beals, Ralph L.; Hoijer, Harry (1953). An Introduction to Anthropology. New York: The Macmillan Company.
  18. Templeton, A. (2016). "Evolution and Notions of Human Race". In Losos, J.; Lenski, R. (eds.). How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society. Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 346–361. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26. ISBN 978-1-4008-8138-3. JSTOR j.ctv7h0s6j.26.
  19. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: Wagner, Jennifer K.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya M.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Royal, Charmaine D. (February 2017). "Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (2): 318–327. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23120. ISSN 0002-9483. PMC 5299519. PMID 27874171. See also: American Association of Physical Anthropologists (27 March 2019). "AAPA Statement on Race and Racism". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  20. Stoneking, Mark; Delfin, Frederick (23 February 2010). "The Human Genetic History of East Asia: Weaving a Complex Tapestry". Current Biology. 20 (4): R188–R193. Bibcode:2010CBio...20.R188S. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.052. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 20178766. S2CID 18777315.
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