Misplaced Pages

Loyalty business model: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editContent deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 02:57, 6 December 2006 editFairsing (talk | contribs)4,725 edits added mergefrom tag← Previous edit Latest revision as of 19:47, 17 November 2024 edit undoBobKilcoyne (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users27,093 edits Removed hatnote following change of redirect 
(159 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{short description|Business model in which acquiring customer loyalty is of penultimate importance}}
{{mergefrom|Loyalty Marketing}}
The '''loyalty business model''' is a ] used in ] in which company resources are employed so as to increase the loyalty of customers and other stakeholders in the expectation that corporate objectives will be met or surpassed. A typical example of this type of model is: quality of ] or ] leads to customer satisfaction, which leads to customer loyalty, which leads to profitability. The '''loyalty business model''' is a ] used in ] in which a company's resources are employed so as to increase the ] of ]s and other ]s in the expectation that corporate objectives will be met or surpassed. A typical example of this type of model is where ] or ] leads to ], which leads to customer loyalty, which leads to ].


==The service quality model== ==The service quality model==


A model by Kay Storbacka, Tore Strandvik, and Christian Gronroos (1994), the service quality model, is more detailed than the basic loyalty business model but arrives at the same conclusion. In it, customer satisfaction is first based on a recent experience of the product or service. This assessment depends on prior expectations of overall ] compared to the actual performance received. If the recent experience exceeds prior expectations, customer satisfaction is likely to be high. Customer satisfaction can also be high even with mediocre performance quality if the customer's expectations are low, or if the performance provides value (that is, it is priced low to reflect the mediocre quality). Likewise, a customer can be dissatisfied with the service encounter and still perceive the overall quality to be good. This occurs when a quality service is priced very high and the transaction provides little value. A model by Kaj Storbacka, Tore Strandvik, and Christian Grönroos (1994), the ] ] model, is more detailed than the basic loyalty business model but arrives at the same conclusion.<ref>Storbacka, K. Strandvik, T. and Gronroos, C. (1994) "Managing customer relationships for profit", International Journal of Service Industry Management, vol 5, no 5, 1994, pp 21-28.</ref> In it, ] is first based on a recent experience of the product or service. This assessment depends on prior expectations of overall quality compared to the actual performance received. If the recent experience exceeds prior expectations, customer satisfaction is likely to be high. Customer satisfaction can also be high even with mediocre performance quality if the customer's expectations are low, or if the performance provides value (that is, it is priced low to reflect the mediocre quality). Likewise, a customer can be dissatisfied with the service encounter and still perceive the overall quality to be good. This occurs when a quality service is priced very high and the transaction provides little value.


This model then looks at the strength of the business relationship; it proposes that this strength is determined by the level of satisfaction with recent experience, overall perceptions of quality, customer commitment to the relationship, and bonds between the parties. Customers are said to have a "zone of tolerance" corresponding to a range of service quality between "barely adequate" and "exceptional." A single disappointing experience may not significantly reduce the strength of the business relationship if the customer's overall perception of quality remains high, if ] are high, if there are few satisfactory alternatives, if they are committed to the relationship, and if there are bonds keeping them in the relationship. The existence of these bonds acts as an exit barrier. There are several types of bonds, including: legal bonds (contracts), technological bonds (shared technology), economic bonds (dependence), knowledge bonds, social bonds, cultural or ethnic bonds, idiological bonds, psychological bonds, geographical bonds, time bonds, and planning bonds. This loyalty business model then looks at the strength of the business relationship; it proposes that this strength is determined by the level of satisfaction with recent experience, overall perceptions of quality, customer commitment to the relationship, and bonds between the parties. Customers are said to have a "zone of tolerance" corresponding to a range of service quality between "barely adequate" and "exceptional". A single disappointing experience may not significantly reduce the strength of the business relationship if the customer's overall perception of quality remains high, if ] are high, if there are few satisfactory alternatives, if they are committed to the relationship, and if there are bonds keeping them in the relationship. The existence of these bonds acts as an exit barrier. There are several types of bonds, including: legal bonds (contracts), technological bonds (shared technology), economic bonds (dependence), knowledge bonds, social bonds, cultural or ethnic bonds, ideological bonds, psychological bonds, geographical bonds, time bonds, and planning bonds.


This model then examines the link between relationship strength and customer loyalty. Customer loyalty is determined by three factors: relationship strength, perceived alternatives and critical episodes. The relationship can terminate if: 1) the customer moves away from the company's service area, 2) the customer no longer has a need for the company's products or services, 3) more suitable alternative providers become available, 4) the relationship strength has weakened, or 5) the company handles a critical episode poorly. This model then examines the link between relationship strength and customer loyalty. Customer loyalty is determined by three factors: relationship strength, perceived alternatives and critical episodes. The relationship can terminate if:
# the customer moves away from the company's service area,
# the customer no longer has a need for the company's products or services,
# more suitable alternative providers become available,
# the relationship strength has weakened,
# the company handles a critical episode poorly,
# unexplainable change of price of the service provided.


The final link in the model is the effect of customer loyalty on profitability. The fundamental assumption of all the loyalty models is that keeping existing customers is less expensive than acquiring new ones. It is claimed by ] and Sasser (1990) that a 5% improvement in customer retention can cause an increase in profitability between 25% and 85% (in terms of ]) depending upon the industry. However, Carrol and Reichheld (1992) dispute these calculations, claiming that they result from faulty cross-sectional analysis. The final link in the model is the effect of customer loyalty on profitability. The fundamental assumption of all the loyalty models is that keeping existing customers is less expensive than acquiring new ones. It is claimed by ] and Sasser (1990) that a 5% improvement in ] can cause an increase in profitability between 25% and 85% (in terms of ]) depending upon the industry. However, Carrol and Reichheld (1992) dispute these calculations, claiming that they result from faulty cross-sectional analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carrol |first1=P. |last2=Reichheld |first2=F. |date=1992 |title=The fallacy of customer retention |journal=Journal of Retail Banking |volume=13 |issue=4 }}</ref>


According to Buchanan and Gilles (1990), the increased profitability associated with customer retention efforts occurs beceause: According to Buchanan and Gilles (1990),{{sfn|Buchanan|1990}} the increased profitability associated with customer retention efforts occurs because:
* The cost of acquisition occurs only at the beginning of a relationship: the longer the relationship, the lower the ]. * The cost of acquisition occurs only at the beginning of a relationship: the longer the relationship, the lower the ].
* Account maintenance costs decline as a percentage of total costs (or as a percentage of revenue). * Account maintenance costs decline as a percentage of total costs (or as a percentage of revenue).
* Long term customers tend to be less inclined to switch and also tend to be less price sensitive. This can result in stable unit sales volume and increases in dollar-sales volume. * Long term customers tend to be less inclined to switch and also tend to be less price sensitive. This can result in stable unit sales volume and increases in sales volume.
* Long term customers may initiate free ] promotions and referrals. * Long term customers may initiate free ] promotions and referrals.
* Long term customers are more likely to purchase ancillary products and high-] supplemental products. * Long term customers are more likely to purchase ancillary products and high-] supplemental products.
* Long term customers tend to be satisfied with their relationship with the company and are less likely to switch to competitors, making market entry or competitors' market share gains difficult. * Long term customers tend to be satisfied with their relationship with the company and are less likely to switch to competitors, making market entry or competitors' market share gains difficult.
* Regular customers tend to be less expensive to service because they are familiar with the processes involved, require less "education," and are consistent in their order placement. * Regular customers tend to be less expensive to service because they are familiar with the processes involved, require less "education," and are consistent in their order placement.
* Increased customer retention and loyalty makes the employees' jobs easier and more satisfying. In turn, happy employees feed back into higher customer satisfaction in a ]. * Increased customer retention and loyalty makes the employees' jobs easier and more satisfying. In turn, happy employees feed back into higher customer satisfaction in a ].


For this final link to hold, the relationship must be profitable. Striving to maintain the loyalty of unprofitable customers is not a viable business model. That is why it is important to for marketers to assess the profitability of each of its clients (or types of clients), and terminate those relationships that are not profitable. In order to do this, each customer's "relationship costs" are compared to their "relationship revenue." A useful calculation for this is the ]. This calculation is hindered by the difficulty in allocating costs to individual relationships and the ambiguity regarding relationship cost drivers. For this final link to hold, the relationship must be profitable. Striving to maintain the loyalty of unprofitable customers is not a viable business model. That is why it is important for marketers to assess the profitability of each of its clients (or types of clients), and terminate those relationships that are not profitable. In order to do this, each customer's "relationship costs" are compared to their "relationship revenue". A useful calculation for this is the ]. This calculation is hindered by the difficulty in allocating costs to individual relationships and the ambiguity regarding relationship cost drivers.


==Expanded models== ==Expanded models==
<div style="float:right;clear:right;width:439px;margin-left:5.5em;text-align:center">]<br>''Virtuous Circle''</div> <div style="float:right;clear:right;width:439px;margin-left:5.5em;text-align:center">]<br>''Virtuous Circle''</div>
Schlesinger and Heskett (1991) added employee loyalty to the basic customer loyalty model. They developed the concepts of "cycle of success" and "cycle of failure". In the cycle of success, an investment in your employees’ ability to provide superior service to customers can be seen as a virtuous circle. Effort spent in selecting and training employees and creating a corporate culture in which they are empowered can lead to increased employee satisfaction and employee competence. This will likely result in superior service delivery and customer satisfaction. This in turn will create customer loyalty, improved sales levels, and higher profit margins. Some of these profits can be reinvested in employee development thereby initiating another iteration of a virtuous cycle. Schlesinger and Heskett (1991) added ''employee loyalty'' to the basic customer loyalty model. They developed the concepts of "cycle of success" and "cycle of failure". In the cycle of success, an investment in your employees’ ability to provide superior service to customers can be seen as a "]". Effort spent in selecting and training employees and creating a ] in which they are empowered can lead to increased ] and ]. This will likely result in superior service delivery and ]. This in turn can create ], improved sales levels, and higher ]s. Some of these profits can be reinvested in ] thereby initiating another iteration of a virtuous cycle.


Fredrick Reichheld (1996) expanded the loyalty business model beyond customers and employees. He looked at the benefits of obtaining the loyalty of suppliers, employees, bankers, customers, distributors, shareholders, and the board of directors. ] (1996) expanded the loyalty business model beyond customers and employees. He looked at the benefits of obtaining the loyalty of suppliers, employees, bankers, customers, distributors, shareholders, and the board of directors.

Duff and Einig (2015) expanded the model to debt issuers and credit ratings agencies to investigate what role commitment plays in issuer-CRA relations.

== Satisfaction-profit-chain (SPC) model==
The satisfaction-profit chain is a model that theoretically develops linkages and then enables researchers to test them statistically for a firm using customer data (both from surveys and other sources). The satisfaction-profit-chain was tested in the context of banking industry showing that product and services improvements indeed were associated with customer perceptions, which led to beneficial customer behaviors such as repurchase, and desirable financial outcomes such as increased sales and profitability <ref>Carr, Nicholas G. 1999. Marketing: The economics of customer satisfaction. Harvard Business Review (March-Apr). 15-18.</ref> The satisfaction-profit-chain, as a methodology for managing customer loyalty and firm profitability, is also applicable in business-to-business markets, irrespective of whether the B2B firm sells goods and/or services.

The satisfaction-profit-chain refers to a chain of effects whereby increased performance on key attributes leads to improvements in overall satisfaction, which in turn affects loyalty intentions and behaviors. The increased customer loyalty is shown to affect short- and long-term financial outcomes including sales, profitability, and stock price. More recently, some studies show that especially in the context of services such as retailing and financial services, employee satisfaction can play a critical role in enhancing customer loyalty. This happens because both customer satisfaction and employee satisfaction can mutually reinforce each other, and promote stronger customer loyalty. More specifically, for a given level of overall satisfaction, customer loyalty is disproportionately stronger when customers perceive that employees are also satisfied.

The SPC model has become the basis of a large body of empirical research showing the strong impact of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty. Research has clearly shown that one of the best ways to increase customer loyalty—measured as repurchase intentions and/or repurchase behavior—is by increasing customer satisfaction (more satisfied customers are more loyal, in general).<ref>Lee, Jonathan, Janghyuk Lee, and Lawrence Feick. "The impact of switching costs on the customer satisfaction-loyalty link: mobile phone service in France." Journal of services marketing 15, no. 1 (2001): 35-48.</ref><ref name="Homburg, Christian 2001">Homburg, Christian, and Annette Giering. "Personal characteristics as moderators of the relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty—an empirical analysis." Psychology & Marketing 18, no. 1 (2001): 43-66.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Gonçalves|first1=Fábio M.R.R.|last2=Cândido|first2=Carlos J.F.|last3=Feliciano|first3=Isabel Maria Pereira Luís|date=2020-06-11|title=Inertia, group conformity and customer loyalty in healthcare in the information age|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JSTP-08-2019-0184/full/html|journal=Journal of Service Theory and Practice|language=en|volume=30|issue=3|pages=307–330|doi=10.1108/JSTP-08-2019-0184|issn=2055-6225|hdl=10400.1/14708|s2cid=219924463 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Though the relationship is positive, research shows there are many differences:

1) The effect of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty can vary based on customer demographics and segments, such that it is stronger for some demographic groups and segments than others.<ref name="Homburg, Christian 2001"/><ref>Danaher, Peter J. "Customer heterogeneity in service management." Journal of Service Research 1, no. 2 (1998): 129-139.</ref>

2) The effect of customer satisfaction and customer loyalty, and subsequent financial outcomes for firms, can vary based on industry. Specifically, factors such as—goods versus services industry, degree of competition or concentration in the industry, the utilitarian or hedonic nature of products, and customers' switching costs can affect the nature (non-linearity) and strength of the link between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty.<ref>Anderson, Eugene W., Claes Fornell, and Roland T. Rust. "Customer satisfaction, productivity, and profitability: Differences between goods and services." Marketing science 16, no. 2 (1997): 129-145.</ref><ref>Gupta, Sunil, and Valarie Zeithaml. "Customer metrics and their impact on financial performance", Marketing Science 25, no. 6 (2006): 718-739.</ref><ref>Keiningham, Timothy L., Bruce Cooil, Tor Wallin Andreassen, and Lerzan Aksoy. "A longitudinal examination of net promoter and firm revenue growth", Journal of Marketing 71, no. 3 (2007): 39-51.</ref><ref name=":0" />

3) The measurement of loyalty—especially for customers is multi-faceted. Customer loyalty includes a variety of outcomes—intentions and behaviors associated with repurchase including word-of-mouth,<ref>Kowalski, Robin M. (1996), "Complaints and Complaining: Functions, Antecedents, and Consequences," Psychological Bulletin, 119 (2), 179–196.</ref><ref>Anderson, Eugene W. "Customer satisfaction and word of mouth." Journal of service research 1, no. 1 (1998): 5-17.</ref> complaint behaviors,<ref>Fornell, Claes, and Birger Wernerfelt. "Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management: a theoretical analysis." Journal of Marketing research (1987): 337-346.</ref> share-of-wallet or the relative proportion of purchasing from a single firm relative to customer's total purchasing,<ref>Cooil, Bruce, et al. "A longitudinal analysis of customer satisfaction and share of wallet: Investigating the moderating effect of customer characteristics." Journal of Marketing 71.1 (2007): 67-83.</ref> and likelihood to recommend.<ref>Ryu, Gangseog, and Lawrence Feick. "A penny for your thoughts: Referral reward programs and referral likelihood." Journal of Marketing 71, no. 1 (2007): 84-94.</ref>

4) Customer loyalty is influenced, not only by customer satisfaction but also employee satisfaction. Customer loyalty is a function of customer satisfaction. In many firms, especially service-oriented industries such as retailing, health-care, financial services, education, and hospitality the level of satisfaction experienced by front-line employees is a critical component. The level of employee satisfaction influences customer satisfaction as shown in a large-scale study of managers, front-line employees, and customers of a DIY retailer in Europe:<ref>Brickley, James A., Frederick Dark, and Michael S. Weisbach (1991),‘‘An Agency Perspective on Franchising,’’Financial Manage-ment, 20 (1), 27-35.</ref> results showed that managers affected overall job-satisfaction of front-line employees, which in turn affected the satisfaction of customers they interacted with. Most surprisingly, the level of customer loyalty was much higher among those customers who were themselves more satisfied, but also interacted with more satisfied employees. Highly satisfied customers who dealt with relatively less satisfied employees were relatively less loyal.

== Commitment-loyalty model==
The customer commitment approach to loyalty is based on the idea that customers with higher commitment toward the brand are also more likely to be ]. Earlier models of customer commitment conceptualized it as a unidimensional construct (e.g., Garbarino and Johnson 1999; Moorman et al. 1992).<ref>Moorman, Christine, Gerald Zaltman, and Rohit Deshpandé (1992), "Relationships Between Providers and Users of Market Research: The Dynamics of Trust Within and Between Organizations," Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (August), 314-328.</ref><ref>Garbarino, Ellen, and Mark S. Johnson (1999), "The Different Roles of Satisfaction, Trust, and Commitment in Customer Relationships," Journal of Marketing, 63 (April), 70-87.</ref> More recently, scholars have developed a five dimensional scale to measure customer commitment and relate it to customer loyalty. The five commitment dimensions include:
* ] commitment
* Normative commitment
* Economic commitment
* Forced commitment
* ]ual commitment


==Data collection== ==Data collection==
Typically, loyalty data is being collected by multi-item measurement scales administered in questionnaires. However, other approaches sometimes seem more viable if managers want to know the extent of loyalty for an entire data warehouse. This approach is described in Verstraeten & Van den Poel (2006). Typically, loyalty data is being collected by multi-item measurement scales administered in questionnaires by software providers such as ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://searchbusinessanalytics.techtarget.com/feature/Seeking-treasure-from-social-media-tracking-Follow-the-customer |title=Seeking treasure from social media tracking? Follow the customer |publisher=SearchBusinessAnalytics |date=2013-04-23 |accessdate=2013-10-01 | first=Aaron | last=Lester}}</ref> However, other approaches sometimes seem more viable if managers want to know the extent of loyalty for an entire data warehouse. This approach is described in Buckinx, Verstraeten & Van den Poel (2006).


All historical trends for different segmentations and their standard of living may also be very helpful in developing customer retention strategy. ] is also a very powerful tool, can be used for better customer retention and to know his/her needs in better way.
==Loyalty and ]==
The loyalty business model assumes the philosophical validity of pursuit of self-interest. However, much work in ethics assumes the validity of ] (seeking the best interest of others). "Clearing Up the Egoist Difficulty with Loyalty" (Stieb 2006), attempts to show that when interests are shared there becomes no difference between seeking one's interest and that of others. This is also called the "Aristotelian" model based on ]'s related analysis of friendship in his '']''.


==See also== ==See also==
*{{annotated link|Brand loyalty}}
⚫ *]
*{{annotated link|Loyalty marketing}}
⚫ *{{annotated link|Business model}}
⚫ *{{annotated link|Strategic management}}
*{{annotated link|Brand engagement}}
⚫ *{{annotated link|Relationship marketing}}
*{{annotated link|Net Promoter|Net Promoter Score}}
*{{annotated link|American Customer Satisfaction Index}}
*{{annotated link|Service–profit chain}}
*] *]
⚫ *]
⚫ *]



==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}}
⚫ * Buchanan, R. and Gilles, C. (1990) "Value managed relationship: The key to customer retention and profitability", ''European Management Journal'', vol 8, no 4, 1990.

==Further reading==
⚫ * {{cite journal|author1=Buchanan, R. |author2=Gilles, C. |year=1990|title=Value managed relationship: The key to customer retention and profitability|journal=European Management Journal|volume=8|issue=4|ref={{sfnref|Buchanan|1990}}}}
* Buckinx W., Geert Verstraeten, and Dirk Van den Poel (2007), "," ''Expert Systems with Applications'', 32 (1). * Buckinx W., Geert Verstraeten, and Dirk Van den Poel (2007), "," ''Expert Systems with Applications'', 32 (1).
* Carrol, P. and Reichheld, F. (1992) "The fallacy of customer retention", ''Journal of Retail Banking'', vol 13, no 4, 1992. * Carrol, P. and Reichheld, F. (1992) "The fallacy of customer retention", ''Journal of Retail Banking'', vol 13, no 4, 1992.
* Dawkins, P. and Reichheld, F. (1990) "Customer retention as a competitive weapon", ''Directors and Boards'', vol 14, no 4, 1990. * Dawkins, P. and Reichheld, F. (1990) "Customer retention as a competitive weapon", ''Directors and Boards'', vol 14, no 4, 1990.
* Duff and Einig (2015) "Debt Issuer - Credit Rating Agency Relations and the Trinity of Solicitude: An Empirical Study of the Role of Commitment", ''Journal of Business Ethics'', vol 129, no 3, pp.&nbsp;553–569.
* Fornell, C. and Wernerfet, B. (1987) "Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management : a theoretical analysis", ''Journal of Marketing'' * Fornell, C. and Wernerfet, B. (1987) "Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management : a theoretical analysis", ''Journal of Marketing''
* Meili, Alexander. (2022) "Loyalty Program Assessment: KPI-Based Evaluation of Customer Loyalty Programs", https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6521984 ''HWZ Working Paper Series'', Zurich, 2022.
* Moloney, Chris X. (2006) "Winning Your Customer’s Loyalty: The Best Tools, Techniques and Practices" AMA Workshop Event(s). Misc. materials distributed related to event(s). San Diego, 2006. ] * Moloney, Chris X. (2006) "Winning Your Customer’s Loyalty: The Best Tools, Techniques and Practices" AMA Workshop Event(s). Misc. materials distributed related to event(s). San Diego, 2006.
* Reichheld, F. (1996) ''The Loyalty Effect'', Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1996.
* Reichheld, F. and Sasser, W. (1990)"Zero defects: quality comes to services", ''Harvard Business Review'', Sept-Oct, 1990, pp 105-111. * Reichheld, F. (1996) ''The Loyalty Effect'', Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1996.
* Schlesinger, L. and Heskett, J. (1991) "Breaking the cycle of failure in service", ''Sloan Management Review'', spring, 1991, pp. 17-28. * Reichheld, F. and Sasser, W. (1990), "Zero defection: quality comes to services", http://hbr.org/1990/09/zero-defections-quality-comes-to-services/ar/1 ''Harvard Business Review'', Sept-Oct, 1990, pp 105–111.
* Schlesinger, L. and Heskett, J. (1991) "Breaking the cycle of failure in service", ''Sloan Management Review'', spring, 1991, pp.&nbsp;17–28.
* Stieb, James A. (2006) "Clearing Up the Egoist Difficulty with Loyalty", ''Journal of Business Ethics'', vol 63, no 1. * Stieb, James A. (2006) "Clearing Up the Egoist Difficulty with Loyalty", ''Journal of Business Ethics'', vol 63, no 1.

* Storbacka, K. Strandvik, T. and Gronroos, C. (1994) "Managing customer relationships for profit", ''International Journal of Service Industry Management'', vol 5, no 5, 1994, pp 21-28.
{{Authority control}}


] ]
] ]


]
]
]

Latest revision as of 19:47, 17 November 2024

Business model in which acquiring customer loyalty is of penultimate importance

The loyalty business model is a business model used in strategic management in which a company's resources are employed so as to increase the loyalty of customers and other stakeholders in the expectation that corporate objectives will be met or surpassed. A typical example of this type of model is where quality of product or service leads to customer satisfaction, which leads to customer loyalty, which leads to profitability.

The service quality model

A model by Kaj Storbacka, Tore Strandvik, and Christian Grönroos (1994), the service quality model, is more detailed than the basic loyalty business model but arrives at the same conclusion. In it, customer satisfaction is first based on a recent experience of the product or service. This assessment depends on prior expectations of overall quality compared to the actual performance received. If the recent experience exceeds prior expectations, customer satisfaction is likely to be high. Customer satisfaction can also be high even with mediocre performance quality if the customer's expectations are low, or if the performance provides value (that is, it is priced low to reflect the mediocre quality). Likewise, a customer can be dissatisfied with the service encounter and still perceive the overall quality to be good. This occurs when a quality service is priced very high and the transaction provides little value.

This loyalty business model then looks at the strength of the business relationship; it proposes that this strength is determined by the level of satisfaction with recent experience, overall perceptions of quality, customer commitment to the relationship, and bonds between the parties. Customers are said to have a "zone of tolerance" corresponding to a range of service quality between "barely adequate" and "exceptional". A single disappointing experience may not significantly reduce the strength of the business relationship if the customer's overall perception of quality remains high, if switching costs are high, if there are few satisfactory alternatives, if they are committed to the relationship, and if there are bonds keeping them in the relationship. The existence of these bonds acts as an exit barrier. There are several types of bonds, including: legal bonds (contracts), technological bonds (shared technology), economic bonds (dependence), knowledge bonds, social bonds, cultural or ethnic bonds, ideological bonds, psychological bonds, geographical bonds, time bonds, and planning bonds.

This model then examines the link between relationship strength and customer loyalty. Customer loyalty is determined by three factors: relationship strength, perceived alternatives and critical episodes. The relationship can terminate if:

  1. the customer moves away from the company's service area,
  2. the customer no longer has a need for the company's products or services,
  3. more suitable alternative providers become available,
  4. the relationship strength has weakened,
  5. the company handles a critical episode poorly,
  6. unexplainable change of price of the service provided.

The final link in the model is the effect of customer loyalty on profitability. The fundamental assumption of all the loyalty models is that keeping existing customers is less expensive than acquiring new ones. It is claimed by Reichheld and Sasser (1990) that a 5% improvement in customer retention can cause an increase in profitability between 25% and 85% (in terms of net present value) depending upon the industry. However, Carrol and Reichheld (1992) dispute these calculations, claiming that they result from faulty cross-sectional analysis.

According to Buchanan and Gilles (1990), the increased profitability associated with customer retention efforts occurs because:

  • The cost of acquisition occurs only at the beginning of a relationship: the longer the relationship, the lower the amortized cost.
  • Account maintenance costs decline as a percentage of total costs (or as a percentage of revenue).
  • Long term customers tend to be less inclined to switch and also tend to be less price sensitive. This can result in stable unit sales volume and increases in sales volume.
  • Long term customers may initiate free word of mouth promotions and referrals.
  • Long term customers are more likely to purchase ancillary products and high-margin supplemental products.
  • Long term customers tend to be satisfied with their relationship with the company and are less likely to switch to competitors, making market entry or competitors' market share gains difficult.
  • Regular customers tend to be less expensive to service because they are familiar with the processes involved, require less "education," and are consistent in their order placement.
  • Increased customer retention and loyalty makes the employees' jobs easier and more satisfying. In turn, happy employees feed back into higher customer satisfaction in a virtuous circle.

For this final link to hold, the relationship must be profitable. Striving to maintain the loyalty of unprofitable customers is not a viable business model. That is why it is important for marketers to assess the profitability of each of its clients (or types of clients), and terminate those relationships that are not profitable. In order to do this, each customer's "relationship costs" are compared to their "relationship revenue". A useful calculation for this is the patronage concentration ratio. This calculation is hindered by the difficulty in allocating costs to individual relationships and the ambiguity regarding relationship cost drivers.

Expanded models

alt text
Virtuous Circle

Schlesinger and Heskett (1991) added employee loyalty to the basic customer loyalty model. They developed the concepts of "cycle of success" and "cycle of failure". In the cycle of success, an investment in your employees’ ability to provide superior service to customers can be seen as a "virtuous circle". Effort spent in selecting and training employees and creating a corporate culture in which they are empowered can lead to increased employee satisfaction and employee competence. This will likely result in superior service delivery and customer satisfaction. This in turn can create customer loyalty, improved sales levels, and higher profit margins. Some of these profits can be reinvested in employee development thereby initiating another iteration of a virtuous cycle.

Fred Reichheld (1996) expanded the loyalty business model beyond customers and employees. He looked at the benefits of obtaining the loyalty of suppliers, employees, bankers, customers, distributors, shareholders, and the board of directors.

Duff and Einig (2015) expanded the model to debt issuers and credit ratings agencies to investigate what role commitment plays in issuer-CRA relations.

Satisfaction-profit-chain (SPC) model

The satisfaction-profit chain is a model that theoretically develops linkages and then enables researchers to test them statistically for a firm using customer data (both from surveys and other sources). The satisfaction-profit-chain was tested in the context of banking industry showing that product and services improvements indeed were associated with customer perceptions, which led to beneficial customer behaviors such as repurchase, and desirable financial outcomes such as increased sales and profitability The satisfaction-profit-chain, as a methodology for managing customer loyalty and firm profitability, is also applicable in business-to-business markets, irrespective of whether the B2B firm sells goods and/or services.

The satisfaction-profit-chain refers to a chain of effects whereby increased performance on key attributes leads to improvements in overall satisfaction, which in turn affects loyalty intentions and behaviors. The increased customer loyalty is shown to affect short- and long-term financial outcomes including sales, profitability, and stock price. More recently, some studies show that especially in the context of services such as retailing and financial services, employee satisfaction can play a critical role in enhancing customer loyalty. This happens because both customer satisfaction and employee satisfaction can mutually reinforce each other, and promote stronger customer loyalty. More specifically, for a given level of overall satisfaction, customer loyalty is disproportionately stronger when customers perceive that employees are also satisfied.

The SPC model has become the basis of a large body of empirical research showing the strong impact of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty. Research has clearly shown that one of the best ways to increase customer loyalty—measured as repurchase intentions and/or repurchase behavior—is by increasing customer satisfaction (more satisfied customers are more loyal, in general). Though the relationship is positive, research shows there are many differences:

1) The effect of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty can vary based on customer demographics and segments, such that it is stronger for some demographic groups and segments than others.

2) The effect of customer satisfaction and customer loyalty, and subsequent financial outcomes for firms, can vary based on industry. Specifically, factors such as—goods versus services industry, degree of competition or concentration in the industry, the utilitarian or hedonic nature of products, and customers' switching costs can affect the nature (non-linearity) and strength of the link between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty.

3) The measurement of loyalty—especially for customers is multi-faceted. Customer loyalty includes a variety of outcomes—intentions and behaviors associated with repurchase including word-of-mouth, complaint behaviors, share-of-wallet or the relative proportion of purchasing from a single firm relative to customer's total purchasing, and likelihood to recommend.

4) Customer loyalty is influenced, not only by customer satisfaction but also employee satisfaction. Customer loyalty is a function of customer satisfaction. In many firms, especially service-oriented industries such as retailing, health-care, financial services, education, and hospitality the level of satisfaction experienced by front-line employees is a critical component. The level of employee satisfaction influences customer satisfaction as shown in a large-scale study of managers, front-line employees, and customers of a DIY retailer in Europe: results showed that managers affected overall job-satisfaction of front-line employees, which in turn affected the satisfaction of customers they interacted with. Most surprisingly, the level of customer loyalty was much higher among those customers who were themselves more satisfied, but also interacted with more satisfied employees. Highly satisfied customers who dealt with relatively less satisfied employees were relatively less loyal.

Commitment-loyalty model

The customer commitment approach to loyalty is based on the idea that customers with higher commitment toward the brand are also more likely to be loyal toward the brand. Earlier models of customer commitment conceptualized it as a unidimensional construct (e.g., Garbarino and Johnson 1999; Moorman et al. 1992). More recently, scholars have developed a five dimensional scale to measure customer commitment and relate it to customer loyalty. The five commitment dimensions include:

  • Affective commitment
  • Normative commitment
  • Economic commitment
  • Forced commitment
  • Habitual commitment

Data collection

Typically, loyalty data is being collected by multi-item measurement scales administered in questionnaires by software providers such as Confirmit, Medallia, and Satmetrix. However, other approaches sometimes seem more viable if managers want to know the extent of loyalty for an entire data warehouse. This approach is described in Buckinx, Verstraeten & Van den Poel (2006).

All historical trends for different segmentations and their standard of living may also be very helpful in developing customer retention strategy. Lifestyle is also a very powerful tool, can be used for better customer retention and to know his/her needs in better way.

See also

References

  1. Storbacka, K. Strandvik, T. and Gronroos, C. (1994) "Managing customer relationships for profit", International Journal of Service Industry Management, vol 5, no 5, 1994, pp 21-28.
  2. Carrol, P.; Reichheld, F. (1992). "The fallacy of customer retention". Journal of Retail Banking. 13 (4).
  3. Buchanan 1990.
  4. Carr, Nicholas G. 1999. Marketing: The economics of customer satisfaction. Harvard Business Review (March-Apr). 15-18.
  5. Lee, Jonathan, Janghyuk Lee, and Lawrence Feick. "The impact of switching costs on the customer satisfaction-loyalty link: mobile phone service in France." Journal of services marketing 15, no. 1 (2001): 35-48.
  6. ^ Homburg, Christian, and Annette Giering. "Personal characteristics as moderators of the relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty—an empirical analysis." Psychology & Marketing 18, no. 1 (2001): 43-66.
  7. ^ Gonçalves, Fábio M.R.R.; Cândido, Carlos J.F.; Feliciano, Isabel Maria Pereira Luís (2020-06-11). "Inertia, group conformity and customer loyalty in healthcare in the information age". Journal of Service Theory and Practice. 30 (3): 307–330. doi:10.1108/JSTP-08-2019-0184. hdl:10400.1/14708. ISSN 2055-6225. S2CID 219924463.
  8. Danaher, Peter J. "Customer heterogeneity in service management." Journal of Service Research 1, no. 2 (1998): 129-139.
  9. Anderson, Eugene W., Claes Fornell, and Roland T. Rust. "Customer satisfaction, productivity, and profitability: Differences between goods and services." Marketing science 16, no. 2 (1997): 129-145.
  10. Gupta, Sunil, and Valarie Zeithaml. "Customer metrics and their impact on financial performance", Marketing Science 25, no. 6 (2006): 718-739.
  11. Keiningham, Timothy L., Bruce Cooil, Tor Wallin Andreassen, and Lerzan Aksoy. "A longitudinal examination of net promoter and firm revenue growth", Journal of Marketing 71, no. 3 (2007): 39-51.
  12. Kowalski, Robin M. (1996), "Complaints and Complaining: Functions, Antecedents, and Consequences," Psychological Bulletin, 119 (2), 179–196.
  13. Anderson, Eugene W. "Customer satisfaction and word of mouth." Journal of service research 1, no. 1 (1998): 5-17.
  14. Fornell, Claes, and Birger Wernerfelt. "Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management: a theoretical analysis." Journal of Marketing research (1987): 337-346.
  15. Cooil, Bruce, et al. "A longitudinal analysis of customer satisfaction and share of wallet: Investigating the moderating effect of customer characteristics." Journal of Marketing 71.1 (2007): 67-83.
  16. Ryu, Gangseog, and Lawrence Feick. "A penny for your thoughts: Referral reward programs and referral likelihood." Journal of Marketing 71, no. 1 (2007): 84-94.
  17. Brickley, James A., Frederick Dark, and Michael S. Weisbach (1991),‘‘An Agency Perspective on Franchising,’’Financial Manage-ment, 20 (1), 27-35.
  18. Moorman, Christine, Gerald Zaltman, and Rohit Deshpandé (1992), "Relationships Between Providers and Users of Market Research: The Dynamics of Trust Within and Between Organizations," Journal of Marketing Research, 29 (August), 314-328.
  19. Garbarino, Ellen, and Mark S. Johnson (1999), "The Different Roles of Satisfaction, Trust, and Commitment in Customer Relationships," Journal of Marketing, 63 (April), 70-87.
  20. Lester, Aaron (2013-04-23). "Seeking treasure from social media tracking? Follow the customer". SearchBusinessAnalytics. Retrieved 2013-10-01.

Further reading

  • Buchanan, R.; Gilles, C. (1990). "Value managed relationship: The key to customer retention and profitability". European Management Journal. 8 (4).
  • Buckinx W., Geert Verstraeten, and Dirk Van den Poel (2007), "Predicting customer loyalty using the internal transactional database," Expert Systems with Applications, 32 (1).
  • Carrol, P. and Reichheld, F. (1992) "The fallacy of customer retention", Journal of Retail Banking, vol 13, no 4, 1992.
  • Dawkins, P. and Reichheld, F. (1990) "Customer retention as a competitive weapon", Directors and Boards, vol 14, no 4, 1990.
  • Duff and Einig (2015) "Debt Issuer - Credit Rating Agency Relations and the Trinity of Solicitude: An Empirical Study of the Role of Commitment", Journal of Business Ethics, vol 129, no 3, pp. 553–569.
  • Fornell, C. and Wernerfet, B. (1987) "Defensive marketing strategy by customer complaint management : a theoretical analysis", Journal of Marketing
  • Meili, Alexander. (2022) "Loyalty Program Assessment: KPI-Based Evaluation of Customer Loyalty Programs", https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6521984 HWZ Working Paper Series, Zurich, 2022.
  • Moloney, Chris X. (2006) "Winning Your Customer’s Loyalty: The Best Tools, Techniques and Practices" AMA Workshop Event(s). Misc. materials distributed related to event(s). San Diego, 2006.
  • Reichheld, F. (1996) The Loyalty Effect, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1996.
  • Reichheld, F. and Sasser, W. (1990), "Zero defection: quality comes to services", http://hbr.org/1990/09/zero-defections-quality-comes-to-services/ar/1 Harvard Business Review, Sept-Oct, 1990, pp 105–111.
  • Schlesinger, L. and Heskett, J. (1991) "Breaking the cycle of failure in service", Sloan Management Review, spring, 1991, pp. 17–28.
  • Stieb, James A. (2006) "Clearing Up the Egoist Difficulty with Loyalty", Journal of Business Ethics, vol 63, no 1.
Categories: