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{{Short description|8th–9th-century political relationship}}
] receiving a delegation of ] in ], by Julius Köckert.]]
]
{{Foreign alliances of France}} {{Foreign alliances of France}}
⚫ An '''Abbasid–Carolingian alliance''' was attempted during the 8th to 9th century through a series of embassies, rapprochements and combined military operations between the ] ] and the ] and pro-Abbasid rulers in ] (Islamic Spain and Portugal).<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>


⚫ There was an '''Abbasid–Carolingian alliance''' during the 8th and 9th centuries, effected through a series of embassies, rapprochements and combined military operations between the ] ] and the ].<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>
The alliance is likely to have formed first between Pepin the Short and al-Mansur, and later to have continued under Charlemagne and Harun al-Rashid.

These contacts followed the intense conflict between the Carolingians and the ] of Al Andalus, marked by the ] in 732, and were aimed at establishing a counter-alliance with the 'faraway' Abbasid Empire based in the ]. Slightly later, another Carolingian-Abbasid alliance was attempted in a conflict against the ]. The alliance is likely to have formed first between ] and ], and later to have continued under ] and ]. These contacts followed the intense conflict between the Carolingians and the ], marked by the ] in 732, and were aimed at establishing a counter-alliance with the 'faraway' Abbasid Empire based in the ]. Slightly later, another Carolingian-Abbasid alliance was attempted in a conflict against the ].

==Primary sources==
Direct evidence for Abbasid–Carolingian diplomacy comes almost entirely from Frankish (]) sources. These are mostly contemporary or nearly so. Especially important are the quasi-official '']'', ]'s '']'' and the anonymous '']''. There is also indirect evidence. ] is referenced by ], an Irishman writing around 825. Likewise, the ], a record of a survey of the church in the Holy Land commissioned by Charlemagne, corroborates Einhard's account.<ref name=SOS>{{citation |author=Samuel Ottewill-Soulsby |title=ʿAbbāsid–Carolingian Diplomacy in Early Medieval Arabic Apocalypse |journal=Millennium |volume=16 |issue=1 |year=2019 |pages=213–231 |doi=10.1515/mill-2019-0011|s2cid=207892673 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/293385 }}.</ref>

The absence of references to Abbasid–Carolingian diplomacy in Islamic sources is not peculiar. The major ] history of the period, that of ], routinely records relations only with the Byzantine Empire. Otherwise routine diplomacy that went smoothly goes unreported. There is no reference to diplomatic contacts with ], for example, which is known directly only from Chinese sources. There is only one contemporary source from the Abbasid Caliphate that refers to diplomacy with Charlemagne, versions III and IV of the ], which were redacted in the aftermath of Harun's death.<ref name=SOS/>


==Background== ==Background==
{{main|Umayyad invasion of Gaul}} {{main|Umayyad invasion of Gaul}}
⚫ The ] from 719 to 759 was a period of intense conflict between the Carolingians and the ], marked by the ] in 732. Umayyad forces were finally expelled from Gaul with the conquest of ] in 759 by ], but the ] in the Iberian peninsula continued to represent a challenge to the Carolingians.
] to ], in 759, after 40 years of occupation.]]

⚫ The ] from 719 to 759 was a period of intense conflict between the Carolingians and the ], marked by the ] in 732. Umayyad forces were finally expelled from Gaul with the conquest of ] in 759 by ], but the ] in the Iberian peninsula continued to represent a challenge to the Carolingians.
==Contacts under Pepin the Short and al-Mansur== ==Pepin the Short and al-Mansur==


===Embassies=== ===Embassies===
⚫ Contacts between the Carolingians and the Abbasids started soon after the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate and the concomitant fall of the ] in 751. The Carolingian ruler ] had a powerful enough position in Europe to "make his alliance valuable to the Abbasid ] of ], ]".<ref name="Deanesly, p.294"></ref> Former supporters of the Umayyad Caliphate were established firmly in southern Spain under ], and constituted a strategic threat both to the Carolingians on their southern border, and to the Abbasids at the western end of their dominion.
]
⚫ Embassies were exchanged both ways, with the apparent objective of cooperating against the Umayyads of Cordova (Al-Andalus): a Frankish embassy went to ] in 765, which returned to Europe after three years with numerous presents, and an Abbasid embassy from ] visited France in 768.<ref name="Deanesly, p.294" />
⚫ Contacts between the Carolingians and the Abbasids started soon after the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate and the concommital fall of the ] in 751. The Carolingian ruler ] had a powerful enough position in Europe to "make his alliance valuable to the Abbasid ] of ], ]".<ref name="Deanesly, p.294"></ref> Former supporters of the Umayyad Caliphate were established firmly in southern Spain under ], and constituted a strategic threat both to the Carolingian on their southern border, and to the Abbasid at the western end of their dominion.
]
] from 11th century Spain.]]
⚫ Embassies were exchanged both ways, with the apparent objective of cooperating against the Umayyads of Spain: a Frankish embassy went to ] in 765 which returned to Europe after three years with numerous presents, and an Abbasid embassy from ] visited France in 768.<ref name="Deanesly, p.294" />


===Commercial exchanges=== ===Commercial exchanges===
Commercial exchanges occurred between the Carolingian and Abassid realms, and Arabic coins are known to have spread in Carolingian Europe in that period.<ref>Goody, p.80</ref> Arab gold is reported to have circulated in Europe during the 9th century, apparently in payment of the export of ], ], ] and ] from Europe to Eastern lands.<ref>''Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab roots of capitalism'' by Gene W. Heck p.179-181 </ref> It is noted that Charlemagne made attempts to establish an open market between the Carolingians and Abbasids, possibly as a means for the Carolingians economically benefit from trade with the Abbasids.As a famous example, the 8th century English king ] is known to have minted copies of ] dinars struck in 774 by Caliph ] with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse amid inscriptions in ] script.<ref>British Museum</ref><ref></ref> Commercial exchanges occurred between the Carolingian and Abbasid realms, and Arabic coins are known to have spread in Carolingian Europe in that period.<ref>Goody, p.80</ref> Arab gold is reported to have circulated in Europe during the 9th century, apparently in payment of the export of ], ], ] and ] from Europe to Eastern lands.<ref>''Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab roots of capitalism'' by Gene W. Heck p.179-181 </ref> It is noted that Charlemagne made attempts to establish an open market between the Carolingians and Abbasids, possibly as a means for the Carolingians to economically benefit from trade with the Abbasids. As a famous example, the 8th century English king ] is known to have minted copies of ] dinars struck in 774 by Caliph ] with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse amid inscriptions in ] script.<ref>British Museum</ref><ref></ref>

==Charlemagne and Harun al-Rashid== ==Charlemagne and Harun al-Rashid==


===Military alliance in Spain (777-778)=== ===Strategic interest in Spain (777–778)===
In 777, pro-Abbasid rulers of northern Spain contacted the Carolingian to request help against the powerful ] ] in southern Spain, led by ].<ref name="Lewis, p.244">Lewis, p.244</ref> The "Spanish Abbasids sought support for their cause in Pepin's Francia; he was content to oblige because the Cordoban dynasty posed a constant military threat to southwestern France".<ref>''Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe'' Richard Hodges, p.120 </ref> In 777, pro-Abbasid rulers of northern Spain contacted the Carolingian to request help against the powerful ] ] in southern Spain, led by ].<ref name="Lewis, p.244">Lewis, p.244</ref> The "Spanish Abbasids sought support for their cause in Pepin's Francia; he was content to oblige because the Cordovan dynasty posed a constant military threat to southwestern France".<ref>''Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe'' Richard Hodges, p.120 </ref>


] the pro-Abbasid ] (governor) of ] and ] sent a delegation to ] in ], offering his submission, together with the allegiance of ] and ] in return for military aid.<ref name="Lewis, p.244" /> The three pro-Abbasid rulers also conveyed that the caliph of Baghdad, ], was preparing an invasion force against the Umayyad ruler Abd al-Rhaman I.<ref name="Lewis, p.244" /> ] the pro-Abbasid ] (governor) of ] and ] sent a delegation to ] in ], offering his submission, together with the allegiance of ] and ] in return for military aid.<ref name="Lewis, p.244" /> The three pro-Abbasid rulers also conveyed that the caliph of Baghdad, ], was preparing an invasion force against the Umayyad ruler Abd al-Rhaman I.<ref name="Lewis, p.244" />


] ended Charlemagne's 777-778 campaign against the Umayyads in Spain.]]
Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn,<ref>Lewis, p.245</ref> Charlemagne marched across the ] in 778 "at the head of all the forces he could muster".<ref name="Lewis, p.246">Lewis, p.246</ref> His troops were welcomed in ] and ] by Sulayman al-Arabi.<ref>Lewis, p.253</ref> As he moved towards ], the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by Sulayman.<ref name="Lewis, p.246" /> Husayn of Zaragoza, however, refused to surrender the city, claiming that he had never promised Charlemagne his allegiance. Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped near ].<ref name="Lewis, p.249">Lewis, p.249</ref> After a month of siege at Zaragoza, Charlemagne decided to return to his kingdom.<ref name="Lewis, p.249" /> On his retreat, Charlemagne suffered an attack from the ] in central ]. As a reprisal he attacked ], destroying it.<ref name="Lewis, p.249" /> However, on his retreat north his baggage train was ambushed by the Basques at the ] on August 15, 778.<ref>Lewis, p.251-267</ref> Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn,<ref>Lewis, p.245</ref> Charlemagne marched across the ] in 778 "at the head of all the forces he could muster".<ref name="Lewis, p.246">Lewis, p.246</ref> His troops were welcomed in ] and ] by Sulayman al-Arabi.<ref>Lewis, p.253</ref> As he moved towards ], the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by Sulayman.<ref name="Lewis, p.246" /> Husayn of Zaragoza, however, refused to surrender the city, claiming that he had never promised Charlemagne his allegiance. Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped near ].<ref name="Lewis, p.249">Lewis, p.249</ref> After a month of siege at Zaragoza, Charlemagne decided to return to his kingdom.<ref name="Lewis, p.249" /> On his retreat, Charlemagne suffered an attack from the ] in central ]. As a reprisal he attacked ], destroying it.<ref name="Lewis, p.249" /> However, on his retreat north his baggage train was ambushed by the Basques at the ] on August 15, 778.<ref>Lewis, p.251-267</ref>


{{multiple image
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| footer = ] and ] exchanged numerous embassies and lavish presents.<br/>'''Left image''': A coin of ] with the inscription KAROLVS IMP AVG (''Karolus imperator augustus'').<br/> '''Right image''': Persian miniature representing Harun Al-Rashid.
| footer_align = left
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| image2 = Harun Al-Rashid and the World of the Thousand and One Nights.jpg
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<br />

====Strategic interest====
Charlemagne's conflict with the Umayyad Emir of Cordova is one of the possible military conflicts which made him an ally of Harun al-Rashid,<ref></ref> as they found a common enemy to unite against.<ref></ref> Charlemagne's conflict with the Umayyad Emir of Cordova is one of the possible military conflicts which made him an ally of Harun al-Rashid,<ref></ref> as they found a common enemy to unite against.<ref></ref>


For Charlemagne, the alliance may also have functioned as a counterweight against the ], which was opposed to his role in Italy and his claim to the title of Roman Emperor. For Harun al-Rashid, there was an advantage in having a partner against his rivals in Umayyad Spain.<ref></ref> For Charlemagne, the alliance may also have functioned as a counterweight against the ], which was opposed to his role in Italy and his claim to the title of Roman Emperor. For Harun al-Rashid, there was an advantage in having a partner against his rivals in the Emirate of Cordova (Al-Andalus).<ref></ref>


====Embassies==== ===Embassies===
⚫ After these campaigns, there were again numerous embassies between ] and the Abbasid caliph ] from 797,<ref></ref> apparently in view of a Carolingian-Abbasid alliance against ],<ref name="Heck, p. 172">Heck, p. 172</ref> or with a view to gaining an alliance against the Umayyads of Cordova.<ref name="O'Callaghan, p.106">O'Callaghan, p.106</ref>
] of ], with birds dropping balls every hour and ] of musicians, 14th century copy.]]
⚫ After these campaigns, there were again numerous embassies between ] and the Abbasid caliph ] from 797,<ref></ref> apparently in view of a Carolingian-Abbasid alliance against ],<ref name="Heck, p. 172">Heck, p. 172</ref> or with a view to gaining an alliance against the Umayyads of Spain.<ref name="O'Callaghan, p.106">O'Callaghan, p.106</ref>


Three embassies were sent by Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid's court and the latter sent at least two embassies to Charlemagne.<ref name="Heck, p. 172" /> Three embassies were sent by Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid's court and the latter sent at least two embassies to Charlemagne.<ref name="Heck, p. 172" />


The 797 embassy, the first one from Charlemagne, was composed of three men, the Jew Isaac (Isaac Judaeus, probably as interpreter),<ref></ref> Lantfrid and Sigimud, and Harun al-Rashid was described as "Aaron, king of the Persians".<ref></ref> Four years later in 801, an Abassid embassy arrived in ], composed of "a Persian from the East" and one envoy "Emir Abraham, probably Harun al-Rashid's governor in North Africa, ], with news about Jew Isaac that he was returning with numerous presents. They met with Charlemagne who was present in Italy at that time.<ref name="Gil, p.286">Gil, p.286</ref> The 797 embassy, the first one from Charlemagne, was composed of three men, ] (probably as interpreter),<ref></ref> Lantfrid and Sigimud. Four years later in 801, an Abbasid embassy arrived in ]. They met with Charlemagne who was present in Italy at that time.<ref name="Gil, p.286">Gil, p.286</ref> In 799, Charlemagne sent another mission to the ],<ref></ref> with which the Patriarch of Jerusalem sent Charlemagne the keys to the ] and the site of ], as well as a Jerusalem Banner.


In 799, Charlemagne sent another mission to the Patriarch of ],<ref></ref> with which the Patriarch of Jerusalem sent Charlemagne the keys to the Holy Sepulcher and the site of ], as well as a Jerusalem Banner. In 802, a second embassy was sent by Charlemagne, which returned in 806.<ref name="books.google.com">''Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe'' Richard Hodges, p.121 </ref> In 807, Rodbertus, Charlemagne's ambassador died as he returned from ]. In turn, Abdallah, Harun al-Rashid's envoy reached Charlemagne in ] accompanied by two monks from ], George and Felix, who represented of the ].<ref name="Gil, p.286" />


In 802, a second embassy was sent by Charlemagne, which returned in 806.<ref name="books.google.com">''Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe'' Richard Hodges, p.121 </ref> The third and final embassy was sent by Charlemagne in 809, but it arrived after Harun al-Rashid had died.<ref name="Heck, p. 172" /> The embassy returned in 813 with messages of friendship, but little concrete results.<ref name="books.google.com" />


⚫ ===Diplomatic gifts===
In 807, Rodbertus, Charlemagne's ambassador died as he returned from ]. In turn, Abdallah, Harun al-Rashid’s envoy reached Charlemagne in ] accompanied by two monks from ], George and Felix, who represented of the Patriarch Thomas. <ref name="Gil, p.286" />
] B from a copy of ]' ''Commentary on the Psalms'' made at the ] in the first quarter of the ninth century (now Paris, BnF lat. 2195) incorporates an elephant's head.<ref>], ''Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 286.</ref> The realistic portrayal of an Asian elephant suggests that the artist had seen Abul-Abbas.<ref>BnF Expositions, Trésors carolingiens, .</ref>]]


⚫ The embassies sent by Charlemagne possessed sundry royal red fabrics, a textile noted to be of value within the Abbasid realm. In addition, Charlemagne sponsored the construction of the Church of St. Mary in Jerusalem and its library and sent sums of money with all of his envoys.<ref>{{Cite book|title=De administrando imperio|last=Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Emperor of the East, 905-959.|date=2008|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies|isbn=978-0-88402-343-2|oclc=1062030419}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Dall'anno 601 dell'era volgare fino all'anno 840|last=Muratori, Lodovico Antonio|date=1762|publisher=Olzati|oclc=258143787}}</ref>
The third and final embassy was sent by Charlemagne in 809, but it arrived after Harun al-Rashid had died.<ref name="Heck, p. 172" /> The embassy returned in 813 with messages of friendship, but little concrete results.<ref name="books.google.com" />


⚫ Harun al-Rashid is reported to have sent numerous presents to Charlemagne, including silks, a brass candelabra, perfume, balsam, a tent with multi-colored curtains, ivory chessmen, and an elephant named ]. The 802 '']'' briefly describes the arrival of the emissary referred to as Isaac the Jew, who brought with him the elephant Abul al-Abbas.<ref name="ARF801-1312">''Annales regni Francorum'' Anno 810 ({{Harvnb|Kurze|1895|p=131}}, ] edition)</ref> Abul al-Abbas is reported to have died suddenly in 810, while Charlemagne was on campaign in a town called "Lippeham".<ref name="Scholz0912">{{Harvnb|Scholz|1970|pp=91}} (Eng. tr. of ''ARB'' = ''Royal Frankish Annals'')</ref>
⚫ ====Diplomatic Gifts====
⚫ The embassies sent by Charlemagne possessed sundry royal red fabrics, a textile noted to be of value within the Abbasid realm. In addition, Charlemagne sponsored the construction of the Church of St. Mary in Jerusalem and its library and sent sums of money with all of his envoys.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1062030419|title=De administrando imperio|last=Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Emperor of the East, 905-959.|date=2008|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies|isbn=978-0-88402-343-2|oclc=1062030419}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/258143787|title=Dall'anno 601 dell'era volgare fino all'anno 840|last=Muratori, Lodovico Antonio|date=1762|publisher=Olzati|oclc=258143787}}</ref>


⚫ The automatic water-clock made of brass, described in the 807 ''Royal Frankish Annals,'' and had spherical decorations which would strike cymbals below to create a chiming sound for each hour. There were also twelve figurines of horsemen that would animate at the end of each hour.<ref></ref><ref>''Legends of Charlemagne; or Romance of the middle ages'' Thomas Bulfinch p. xix </ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Carolingian chronicles : Royal Frankish annals and Nithard's Histories|last=Scholz, Bernhard Walther (1931- ). Rogers, Barbara (1945- ). Nithardus (ca 790-ca 845). Histories (ang.)|date=2000|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-06186-0|oclc=867938000}}</ref> Harun al-Rashid is also reported to have offered the custody of the Holy places in ] to Charlemagne.<ref name="Heck, p. 172" />
⚫ Harun al-Rashid is reported to have sent numerous presents to Charlemagne, including silks, a brass candelabra, perfume, balsam, a tent with multi-colored curtains, ivory chessmen, and an elephant named ]. The 802 '']'' briefly describes the arrival of the emissary referred to as Issac the Jew, who brought with him the elephant Abul al-Abbas.<ref name="ARF801-1312">''Annales regni Francorum'' Anno 810 ({{Harvnb|Kurze|1895|p=131}}, ] edition)</ref> Abul al-Abbas is reported to have died suddenly in 810, while Charlemagne was on campaign in a town called "Lippeham".<ref name="Scholz0912">{{Harvnb|Scholz|1970|pp=91}} (Eng. tr. of ''ARB'' = ''Royal Frankish Annals'')</ref>


The ivory elephant known as the ] was traditionally held to have been a gift from Harun to Charlemagne. Although this is consistent with its dating, the earliest reference to the carved piece is from Paris in 1505.<ref>{{citation |author=Mathilde Avisseau-Broustet |title=L'éléphant de Charlemagne |year=2022 |website=Le Blog Gallica: La Bibliothèque numérique de la BnF et de ses partenaires |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/blog/09092022/lelephant-de-charlemagne}}.</ref>
⚫ The automatic water-clock made of brass, described in the 807 ''Royal Frankish Annals,'' and had spherical decorations which would strike cymbals below to create a chiming sound for each hour. There were also several twelve figurines of horsemen that would animate at the end of each hour.<ref></ref><ref>''Legends of Charlemagne; or Romance of the middle ages'' Thomas Bulfinch p. xix </ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/867938000|title=Carolingian chronicles : Royal Frankish annals and Nithard's Histories|last=Scholz, Bernhard Walther (1931- ). Rogers, Barbara (1945- ). Nithardus (ca 790-ca 845). Histories (ang.)|date=2000|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-06186-0|oclc=867938000}}</ref> Harun al-Rashid is also reported to have offered the custody of the Holy places in ] to Charlemagne.<ref name="Heck, p. 172" />


====Artistic influences==== ===Artistic influences===
Various Islamic influences seem to appear in Christian religious architecture such as the multi-colored tile designs which may have been inspired by Islamic ] in the 800 CE gatehouse at ].<ref></ref> Various Islamic influences seem to appear in Christian religious architecture such as the multi-colored tile designs which may have been inspired by Islamic ] in the 800 CE gatehouse at ].<ref></ref>


Early Carolingian architecture generally combines ], ], ], ] and ] designs.<ref name="HrzPlqLjR1MC p.195"></ref> Early Carolingian architecture generally combines ], ], ], ] and ] designs.<ref name="HrzPlqLjR1MC p.195"></ref>


⚫ The “]” that occurred in the ] from 732 to 842, influenced a Christian movement that destroyed idols, icons, amongst other images. ] has postulated that the successes of the Islamic Military throughout the 8th centuries motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the notion of Islam that does not favor the imagery of idols. Charlemagne has been recorded as following the iconoclastic fervor of the East Roman Emperor ], however, Charlemagne's attempts were ultimately stopped by ].<ref name="Toynbee">''A Study of History: Abridgement of volumes VII-X'' by Arnold Joseph Toynbee p.259 </ref>
] received an embassy from Harun al-Rashid's son ] in 831.]]

⚫ The “]”that occurred in the ] from 732 to 842, influenced a Christian movement that destroyed idols, icons, amongst other images. ] has postulated that the successes of the Islamic Military throughout the -8th centuries motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the notion of Islam that does not favor the imagery of idols. Charlemagne has been recorded as following the iconoclastic fervor of the East Roman Emperor ], however, Charlemagne's attempts  were ultimately stopped by ]. <ref name="Toynbee">''A Study of History: Abridgement of volumes VII-X'' by Arnold Joseph Toynbee p.259 </ref>
⚫ ==Lasting impacts==
]


⚫ ==Lasting Impacts==
It seems that in 831, Harun al-Rashid's son ] also sent an embassy to ].<ref name="Heck, p. 173">Heck, p. 173</ref> These embassies also seem to have had the objective of promoting commerce between the two realms.<ref name="Heck, p. 173" /> It seems that in 831, Harun al-Rashid's son ] also sent an embassy to ].<ref name="Heck, p. 173">Heck, p. 173</ref> These embassies also seem to have had the objective of promoting commerce between the two realms.<ref name="Heck, p. 173" />


Line 90: Line 76:
Almost a century later ], daughter of ] and mother of several tenth-century Italian kings, is reported to have sent an embassy to the Abbasid caliph ], requesting friendship and a marital alliance.<ref>M. Hamidullah, "An Embassy of Queen Bertha to Caliph al-Muktafi billah in Baghdad Almost a century later ], daughter of ] and mother of several tenth-century Italian kings, is reported to have sent an embassy to the Abbasid caliph ], requesting friendship and a marital alliance.<ref>M. Hamidullah, "An Embassy of Queen Bertha to Caliph al-Muktafi billah in Baghdad
293/906", ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'', I, 1953, pp 272-300.</ref> 293/906", ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'', I, 1953, pp 272-300.</ref>

==See also==
* ]


==Notes== ==Notes==
Line 98: Line 81:


==References== ==References==
* Margaret Deanesly ''A History of Early Medieval Europe'' Taylor & Francis, London Methuen & Co, Ltd * ] ''A History of Early Medieval Europe'' Taylor & Francis, London ]
* David Levering Lewis ''God's Crucible Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215'' W.W. Norton, 2008 {{ISBN|978-0-393-06472-8}} * ] ''God's Crucible Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215'' ], 2008 {{ISBN|978-0-393-06472-8}}
* Gene W. Heck ''When worlds collide: exploring the ideological and political foundations of the clash of civilizations'' Rowman & Littlefield, 2007 {{ISBN|0-7425-5856-8}} * Gene W. Heck ''When worlds collide: exploring the ideological and political foundations of the clash of civilizations'' ], 2007 {{ISBN|0-7425-5856-8}}
* Jack Goody ''Islam in Europe'', Polity Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-0-7456-3193-6}} * ] ''Islam in Europe'', ], 2004, {{ISBN|978-0-7456-3193-6}}
* Joseph F. O'Callaghan ''A History of Medieval Spain'' Cornell University Press, 1983 {{ISBN|0-8014-9264-5}} * Joseph F. O'Callaghan ''A History of Medieval Spain'' ], 1983 {{ISBN|0-8014-9264-5}}
*{{A History of Palestine, 634–1099}} *{{A History of Palestine, 634–1099}}
*Constantine VII Prophyrogentius, Emperor of the East. ''De Administrando Imperio'', pp. 905-959. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-88402-343-2}}. *Constantine VII Prophyrogentius, Emperor of the East. ''De Administrando Imperio'', pp.&nbsp;905–959. ], 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-88402-343-2}}.
*Scholz, Bernhard Walther (1931- ). Rogers, Barbara (1945- ). Nithardus (ca 790-ca 845). Histories (ang.) (2000). ''Carolingian chronicles : Royal Frankish annals and Nithard's Histories''. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-472-06186-0}}. ] 867938000 *Scholz, Bernhard Walther (1931- ). Rogers, Barbara (1945- ). ] (ca 790-ca 845). Histories (ang.) (2000). ''Carolingian chronicles : Royal Frankish annals and Nithard's Histories''. ]. {{ISBN|0-472-06186-0}}. ] 867938000
*Kennedy, H. (1986). The early Abbasid Caliphate a political history. London: Croom Helm. ] 0709900929 *] (1986). The early Abbasid Caliphate a political history. London: ]. ] 0709900929
*Muratori, Lodovico Antonio (1762). Dell'anno 601 dell'era volgare fino all'anno 840, pp. 465. Olzati. ] 258143787. *] (1762). Dell'anno 601 dell'era volgare fino all'anno 840, pp.&nbsp;465. Olzati. ] 258143787.
*Kurze, Friedrich, ed. (1895). ''Annales regni Francorum (741–829) qui dicuntur Annales Laurissenses maiores et Einhardi. Post editionem G. H. Pertzii''. Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum. Hannover. pp. 116–117 * {{cite book | editor1-last =Kurze | editor1-first =Friedrich | title =Annales regni Francorum (741–829) qui dicuntur Annales Laurissenses maiores et Einhardi. Post editionem G. H. Pertzii | year =1895 | publisher =Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum | location =Hannover | pages = 116–117 }}
*Scholz, Bernhard Walter (1970). ''Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories. Barbara Rogers (co-translator). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 81–2. {{ISBN|9780472061860}}. ] 77083456'' * {{cite book | last =Scholz | first =Bernhard Walter | author-link = | title =Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories | year =1970 | publisher =University of Michigan Press | location =Ann Arbor | isbn =9780472061860 |lccn =77083456 |pages=81–2}}

{{Abbasid Caliphate topics}}


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Latest revision as of 22:11, 17 December 2024

8th–9th-century political relationship
Map of the Abbasid and Carolingian empires around 814
Foreign alliances of France
Frankish–Abbasid alliance 777–800s
Franco-Mongol alliance 1220–1316
Franco-Scottish alliance 1295–1560
Franco-Polish alliance 1524–1526
Franco-Hungarian alliance 1528–1552
Franco-Ottoman alliance 1536–1798
Franco-English alliance 1657–1660
Franco-Indian alliance 1603–1763
Franco-British alliance 1716–1731
Franco-Spanish alliance 1733–1792
Franco-Prussian alliance 1741–1756
Franco-Austrian alliance 1756–1792
Franco-Indian Alliances 1700s
Franco-Vietnamese
alliance 		1777–1820
Franco-American alliance 1778–1794
Franco-Persian alliance 1807–1809
Franco-Prussian alliance 1812–1813
Franco-Austrian alliance 1812–1813
Franco-Russian alliance 1892–1917
Entente Cordiale 1904–present
Franco-Polish alliance 1921–1940
Franco-Italian alliance 1935
Franco-Soviet alliance 1936–1939
Treaty of Dunkirk 1947–1997
Western Union 1948–1954
North Atlantic Alliance 1949–present
Western European Union 1954–2011
European Defence Union 1993–present
Regional relations

There was an Abbasid–Carolingian alliance during the 8th and 9th centuries, effected through a series of embassies, rapprochements and combined military operations between the Frankish Carolingian Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate.

The alliance is likely to have formed first between Pepin the Short and al-Mansur, and later to have continued under Charlemagne and Harun al-Rashid. These contacts followed the intense conflict between the Carolingians and the Emirate of Córdoba, marked by the Battle of Tours in 732, and were aimed at establishing a counter-alliance with the 'faraway' Abbasid Empire based in the Near East. Slightly later, another Carolingian-Abbasid alliance was attempted in a conflict against the Byzantine Empire.

Primary sources

Direct evidence for Abbasid–Carolingian diplomacy comes almost entirely from Frankish (Latin) sources. These are mostly contemporary or nearly so. Especially important are the quasi-official Royal Frankish Annals, Einhard's Vita Karoli magni and the anonymous Vita Hludowici imperatoris. There is also indirect evidence. Charlemagne's elephant is referenced by Dicuil, an Irishman writing around 825. Likewise, the Basel roll, a record of a survey of the church in the Holy Land commissioned by Charlemagne, corroborates Einhard's account.

The absence of references to Abbasid–Carolingian diplomacy in Islamic sources is not peculiar. The major Arabic history of the period, that of al-Ṭabarī, routinely records relations only with the Byzantine Empire. Otherwise routine diplomacy that went smoothly goes unreported. There is no reference to diplomatic contacts with Tang China, for example, which is known directly only from Chinese sources. There is only one contemporary source from the Abbasid Caliphate that refers to diplomacy with Charlemagne, versions III and IV of the Arabic Sibylline prophecy, which were redacted in the aftermath of Harun's death.

Background

Main article: Umayyad invasion of Gaul

The Umayyad invasion of Gaul from 719 to 759 was a period of intense conflict between the Carolingians and the Umayyads, marked by the Battle of Tours in 732. Umayyad forces were finally expelled from Gaul with the conquest of Narbonne in 759 by Pepin the Short, but the Umayyad presence in the Iberian peninsula continued to represent a challenge to the Carolingians.

Pepin the Short and al-Mansur

Embassies

Contacts between the Carolingians and the Abbasids started soon after the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate and the concomitant fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 751. The Carolingian ruler Pepin the Short had a powerful enough position in Europe to "make his alliance valuable to the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, al-Mansur". Former supporters of the Umayyad Caliphate were established firmly in southern Spain under Abd ar-Rahman I, and constituted a strategic threat both to the Carolingians on their southern border, and to the Abbasids at the western end of their dominion. Embassies were exchanged both ways, with the apparent objective of cooperating against the Umayyads of Cordova (Al-Andalus): a Frankish embassy went to Baghdad in 765, which returned to Europe after three years with numerous presents, and an Abbasid embassy from al-Mansur visited France in 768.

Commercial exchanges

Commercial exchanges occurred between the Carolingian and Abbasid realms, and Arabic coins are known to have spread in Carolingian Europe in that period. Arab gold is reported to have circulated in Europe during the 9th century, apparently in payment of the export of slaves, timber, iron and weapons from Europe to Eastern lands. It is noted that Charlemagne made attempts to establish an open market between the Carolingians and Abbasids, possibly as a means for the Carolingians to economically benefit from trade with the Abbasids. As a famous example, the 8th century English king Offa of Mercia is known to have minted copies of Abbasid dinars struck in 774 by Caliph Al-Mansur with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse amid inscriptions in Pseudo-Kufic script.

Charlemagne and Harun al-Rashid

Strategic interest in Spain (777–778)

In 777, pro-Abbasid rulers of northern Spain contacted the Carolingian to request help against the powerful Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in southern Spain, led by Abd ar-Rahman I. The "Spanish Abbasids sought support for their cause in Pepin's Francia; he was content to oblige because the Cordovan dynasty posed a constant military threat to southwestern France".

Sulayman al-Arabi the pro-Abbasid Wali (governor) of Barcelona and Girona sent a delegation to Charlemagne in Paderborn, offering his submission, together with the allegiance of Husayn of Zaragoza and Abu Taur of Huesca in return for military aid. The three pro-Abbasid rulers also conveyed that the caliph of Baghdad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was preparing an invasion force against the Umayyad ruler Abd al-Rhaman I.

Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn, Charlemagne marched across the Pyrenees in 778 "at the head of all the forces he could muster". His troops were welcomed in Barcelona and Girona by Sulayman al-Arabi. As he moved towards Zaragoza, the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by Sulayman. Husayn of Zaragoza, however, refused to surrender the city, claiming that he had never promised Charlemagne his allegiance. Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped near Barcelona. After a month of siege at Zaragoza, Charlemagne decided to return to his kingdom. On his retreat, Charlemagne suffered an attack from the Basques in central Navarra. As a reprisal he attacked Pamplona, destroying it. However, on his retreat north his baggage train was ambushed by the Basques at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass on August 15, 778.

Charlemagne's conflict with the Umayyad Emir of Cordova is one of the possible military conflicts which made him an ally of Harun al-Rashid, as they found a common enemy to unite against.

For Charlemagne, the alliance may also have functioned as a counterweight against the Byzantine Empire, which was opposed to his role in Italy and his claim to the title of Roman Emperor. For Harun al-Rashid, there was an advantage in having a partner against his rivals in the Emirate of Cordova (Al-Andalus).

Embassies

After these campaigns, there were again numerous embassies between Charlemagne and the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid from 797, apparently in view of a Carolingian-Abbasid alliance against Byzantium, or with a view to gaining an alliance against the Umayyads of Cordova.

Three embassies were sent by Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid's court and the latter sent at least two embassies to Charlemagne.

The 797 embassy, the first one from Charlemagne, was composed of three men, Isaac the Jew (probably as interpreter), Lantfrid and Sigimud. Four years later in 801, an Abbasid embassy arrived in Pisa. They met with Charlemagne who was present in Italy at that time. In 799, Charlemagne sent another mission to the Patriarch of Jerusalem, with which the Patriarch of Jerusalem sent Charlemagne the keys to the Holy Sepulcher and the site of Calvary, as well as a Jerusalem Banner.

In 802, a second embassy was sent by Charlemagne, which returned in 806. In 807, Rodbertus, Charlemagne's ambassador died as he returned from Persia. In turn, Abdallah, Harun al-Rashid's envoy reached Charlemagne in Aachen accompanied by two monks from Jerusalem, George and Felix, who represented of the Patriarch Thomas.

The third and final embassy was sent by Charlemagne in 809, but it arrived after Harun al-Rashid had died. The embassy returned in 813 with messages of friendship, but little concrete results.

Diplomatic gifts

An inhabited initial B from a copy of Cassiodorus' Commentary on the Psalms made at the Abbey of Saint-Denis in the first quarter of the ninth century (now Paris, BnF lat. 2195) incorporates an elephant's head. The realistic portrayal of an Asian elephant suggests that the artist had seen Abul-Abbas.

The embassies sent by Charlemagne possessed sundry royal red fabrics, a textile noted to be of value within the Abbasid realm. In addition, Charlemagne sponsored the construction of the Church of St. Mary in Jerusalem and its library and sent sums of money with all of his envoys.

Harun al-Rashid is reported to have sent numerous presents to Charlemagne, including silks, a brass candelabra, perfume, balsam, a tent with multi-colored curtains, ivory chessmen, and an elephant named Abul al-Abbas. The 802 Royal Frankish Annals briefly describes the arrival of the emissary referred to as Isaac the Jew, who brought with him the elephant Abul al-Abbas. Abul al-Abbas is reported to have died suddenly in 810, while Charlemagne was on campaign in a town called "Lippeham".

The automatic water-clock made of brass, described in the 807 Royal Frankish Annals, and had spherical decorations which would strike cymbals below to create a chiming sound for each hour. There were also twelve figurines of horsemen that would animate at the end of each hour. Harun al-Rashid is also reported to have offered the custody of the Holy places in Jerusalem to Charlemagne.

The ivory elephant known as the Chessman of Charlemagne was traditionally held to have been a gift from Harun to Charlemagne. Although this is consistent with its dating, the earliest reference to the carved piece is from Paris in 1505.

Artistic influences

Various Islamic influences seem to appear in Christian religious architecture such as the multi-colored tile designs which may have been inspired by Islamic polychromy in the 800 CE gatehouse at Lorsch Abbey.

Early Carolingian architecture generally combines Roman, Early Christian, Byzantine, Islamic and Northern European designs.

The “Iconoclasm” that occurred in the Byzantine Empire from 732 to 842, influenced a Christian movement that destroyed idols, icons, amongst other images. Arnold Toynbee has postulated that the successes of the Islamic Military throughout the 8th centuries motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the notion of Islam that does not favor the imagery of idols. Charlemagne has been recorded as following the iconoclastic fervor of the East Roman Emperor Leo Syrus, however, Charlemagne's attempts were ultimately stopped by Pope Adrian I.

Lasting impacts

Romantic depiction of Harun receiving a Frankish delegation

It seems that in 831, Harun al-Rashid's son al-Ma'mun also sent an embassy to Louis the Pious. These embassies also seem to have had the objective of promoting commerce between the two realms.

After 814 and the accession of Louis the Pious to the throne, internal dissensions prevented the Carolingians from further ventures into Spain.

Almost a century later Bertha, daughter of Lothar II and mother of several tenth-century Italian kings, is reported to have sent an embassy to the Abbasid caliph Al-Muktafi, requesting friendship and a marital alliance.

Notes

  1. Heck, p.172
  2. Shalem, p.94-95
  3. Carolingian Chronicles by Bernhard Walter Scholz, p.16
  4. ^ Samuel Ottewill-Soulsby (2019), "ʿAbbāsid–Carolingian Diplomacy in Early Medieval Arabic Apocalypse", Millennium, 16 (1): 213–231, doi:10.1515/mill-2019-0011, S2CID 207892673.
  5. ^ Deanesly, p.294
  6. Goody, p.80
  7. Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab roots of capitalism by Gene W. Heck p.179-181
  8. British Museum
  9. Medieval European Coinage By Philip Grierson p.330
  10. ^ Lewis, p.244
  11. Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe Richard Hodges, p.120
  12. Lewis, p.245
  13. ^ Lewis, p.246
  14. Lewis, p.253
  15. ^ Lewis, p.249
  16. Lewis, p.251-267
  17. Carolingian Chronicles by Bernhard Walter Scholz p.16
  18. Beyond the Arab disease by Riad Nourallah p.51
  19. Creating East and West by Nancy Bisaha p.207
  20. Heck, p. 172
  21. ^ Heck, p. 172
  22. ^ O'Callaghan, p.106
  23. Charlemagne and the Early Middle Ages by Miriam Greenblatt, p.29
  24. ^ Gil, p.286
  25. War And Peace in the Law of Islam by Majid Khadduri, p.247
  26. ^ Mohammed, Charlemagne, and the Origins of Europe Richard Hodges, p.121
  27. Rosamond McKitterick, Charlemagne: The Formation of a European Identity (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 286.
  28. BnF Expositions, Trésors carolingiens, Cassiodore, Commentaire sur les psaumes I-L, Initiale B ornée zoomorphe.
  29. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, Emperor of the East, 905-959. (2008). De administrando imperio. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 978-0-88402-343-2. OCLC 1062030419.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  30. Muratori, Lodovico Antonio (1762). Dall'anno 601 dell'era volgare fino all'anno 840. Olzati. OCLC 258143787.
  31. Annales regni Francorum Anno 810 (Kurze 1895, p. 131, Monumenta Germaniae Historica edition)
  32. Scholz 1970, pp. 91 (Eng. tr. of ARB = Royal Frankish Annals)
  33. Daily life in the age of Charlemagne by John J. Butt p.146
  34. Legends of Charlemagne; or Romance of the middle ages Thomas Bulfinch p. xix
  35. Scholz, Bernhard Walther (1931- ). Rogers, Barbara (1945- ). Nithardus (ca 790-ca 845). Histories (ang.) (2000). Carolingian chronicles : Royal Frankish annals and Nithard's Histories. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06186-0. OCLC 867938000.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  36. Mathilde Avisseau-Broustet (2022), "L'éléphant de Charlemagne", Le Blog Gallica: La Bibliothèque numérique de la BnF et de ses partenaires.
  37. A world history of architecture Marian Moffett p.194
  38. A world history of architecture Marian Moffett p.195
  39. A Study of History: Abridgement of volumes VII-X by Arnold Joseph Toynbee p.259
  40. ^ Heck, p. 173
  41. M. Hamidullah, "An Embassy of Queen Bertha to Caliph al-Muktafi billah in Baghdad 293/906", Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, I, 1953, pp 272-300.

References

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