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{{short description|People of Andaman archipelago}} {{short description|People of Andaman archipelago}}
{{other uses}} {{other uses}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
]
The '''Andamanese''' are the various ] of the ], part of ]'s ] ] in the southeastern part of the ] in ]. The Andamanese peoples are among the various groups considered ], owing to their dark skin and diminutive stature. All Andamanese traditionally lived a ] lifestyle, and appear to have lived in substantial isolation for thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/tIsiO3lUJFbVtlo39lIfIP/Getting-to-know-the-Andamanese.html|title=Getting to know the Andamanese|first=Tony|last=Joseph|date=22 December 2018|website=www.livemint.com}}</ref> It is suggested that the Andamanese settled in the Andaman Islands around the ], around 26,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mondal|first1=Mayukh|last2=Bergström|first2=Anders|last3=Xue|first3=Yali|last4=Calafell|first4=Francesc|last5=Laayouni|first5=Hafid|last6=Casals|first6=Ferran|last7=Majumder|first7=Partha P.|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Bertranpetit|first9=Jaume|date=2017-05-01|title=Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese|journal=Human Genetics|language=en|volume=136|issue=5|pages=499–510|doi=10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0|pmid=28444560|issn=1432-1203|quote=In contrast, the Riang (Tibeto-Burman-speaking) and Andamanese have their nearest neighbour lineages in East Asia. The Jarawa and Onge shared haplogroup D lineages with each other within the last ~7000 years, but had diverged from Japanese haplogroup D Y-chromosomes ~53000 years ago, most likely by a split from a shared ancestral population.|hdl=10230/34399|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Chaubey 2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322207974|title=East Asian ancestry in India|last=Chaubey|date=2015|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>


{{Infobox ethnic group
The Andamanese peoples included the ] and ] of the ] archipelago, the ] of Rutland Island, the ] of ], and the ] of ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/when-british-toyed-with-idea-to-unleash-gurkhas-on-sentinelese/articleshow/66802882.cms|title=Sentinel island: When British toyed with idea to unleash Gurkhas on Sentinelese|website=The Times of India}}</ref> At the end of the 18th century, when they first came into sustained contact with outsiders, an estimated 7,000 Andamanese remained. In the next century, they were largely wiped out by diseases, violence, and loss of territory. Today, only roughly 400–450 Andamanese remain, with the Jangil being extinct. Only the Jarawa and the Sentinelese maintain a steadfast independence, refusing most attempts at contact by outsiders.
| group = Andamanese
| native_name_lang =
| image = Group of Andaman Men and Women in Costume, Some Wearing Body Paint And with Bows and Arrows, Catching Turtles from Boat on Water.jpg
| image_caption = Group of Andamanese in {{circa|1903}} or earlier
| population = 548 (2010–11)
| total_year =
| regions = {{flag|India}}<br /> ]
| languages = ]<br/>] (], ])<br/>]{{refn|group=note|Because of their complete isolation, nearly nothing is known about the Sentinelese language, which is therefore ].<ref name=ZAZA>{{Cite journal |last1=Zide |first1=Norman |last2=Pandya |first2=Vishvajit |year=1989 |title=A Bibliographical Introduction to Andamanese Linguistics |journal=] |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=639–651 |doi=10.2307/604090 |jstor=604090}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moseley |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQt6XWloU10C |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages |date=2007 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7007-1197-0 |pages=342 |language=en |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118202917/https://books.google.com/books?id=dQt6XWloU10C |archive-date=18 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2013 |title=Chapter 8: The Tribes |url=http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter8/text8.htm#sentineli |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507061710/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter8/text8.htm#sentineli |archive-date=7 May 2013 |access-date=5 December 2018}}</ref> It has been recorded that the Jarawa language is mutually unintelligible with the Sentinelese language.<ref name=ZAZA /><ref>{{cite report |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Ad_Campaign/drop_in_articles/06-Enumeration_of_Primitive_Tribes_in_A&N_Islands.pdf#page=3 |title=Enumeration of Primitive Tribes in A&N Islands: A Challenge |quote=The first batch could identify 31 Sentinelese. The second batch could count altogether 39 Sentinelese consisting of male and female adults, children and infants. During both the contacts the enumeration team tried to communicate with them through some Jarawa words and gestures, but, Sentinelese could not understand those verbal words. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211011020/http://censusindia.gov.in/Ad_Campaign/drop_in_articles/06-Enumeration_of_Primitive_Tribes_in_A%26N_Islands.pdf#page=3 |archive-date=11 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> There is uncertainty as to the range of overlap with the Onge language, if any.<ref>There {{cite book |last=Pandit |first=T. N. |title=The Sentinelese |publisher=Seagull Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-7046-081-7 |location=Kolkata |pages=21–22 |oclc=24438323}}</ref> The ]'s 2016 handbook on Vulnerable Tribe Groups considers them mutually unintelligible.<ref name="Pilot1887">{{cite book |title=The Bay of Bengal Pilot |date=1887 |publisher=] |series=Admiralty |location=London |page=257 |chapter={{not a typo|North Sentinel}} |oclc=557988334 |ref=Pilot1887 |access-date=5 March 2019 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OuGgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA257 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517164949/https://books.google.com/books?id=OuGgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA257 |archive-date=17 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}<br/>] (as second language by some)
| religions = ]
| related_groups =
}}


The Andamanese are a designated ] in India's constitution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/ST%20Lists.pdf |page=27 |title=List of notified Scheduled Tribes |publisher=Census India |accessdate=15 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107225208/http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/ST%20Lists.pdf |archivedate=7 November 2013 }}</ref> The '''Andamanese''' are the various ] of the ], part of ]'s ], the ] in the southeastern part of the ]. The Andamanese are a designated ] in India's constitution.<ref>{{cite web |title=List of notified Scheduled Tribes |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/ST%20Lists.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107225208/http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/ST%20Lists.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2013 |access-date=15 December 2013 |publisher=Census India |page=27}}</ref><ref name=":2" />
The Andamanese peoples are among the various groups considered ], owing to their dark skin and diminutive stature. All Andamanese traditionally lived a ] lifestyle, and appear to have lived in substantial isolation for thousands of years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2018 |title=Getting to know the Andamanese |url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/tIsiO3lUJFbVtlo39lIfIP/Getting-to-know-the-Andamanese.html |website=www.livemint.com |vauthors=Joseph T}}</ref> It is suggested that the Andamanese settled in the Andaman Islands around the ], around 26,000 years ago.<ref name="Mondal et al 20173">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Mondal M, Bergström A, Xue Y, Calafell F, Laayouni H, Casals F, Majumder PP, Tyler-Smith C, Bertranpetit J |date=May 2017 |title=Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese |journal=Human Genetics |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=499–510 |doi=10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0 |pmid=28444560 |s2cid=3725426 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10230/34399}}</ref><ref name="Chaubey 20152">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaubey G |year=2015 |title=East Asian Ancestry in India |url=https://serialsjournals.com/abstract/78963_2.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physical Anthropology and Human Genetics |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=193–199}}</ref>


The Andamanese peoples included the ] and ] of the ] archipelago, the ] of Rutland Island, the ] of ], and the ] of ].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/when-british-toyed-with-idea-to-unleash-gurkhas-on-sentinelese/articleshow/66802882.cms|title=Sentinel island: When British toyed with idea to unleash Gurkhas on Sentinelese|website=The Times of India|date=29 November 2018 }}</ref> Among the Andamanese, a division of two groups can be made. One is more open to contact with civilization and the other is hostile and resistant to communicate with the outer world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maina |first=Vinod |date=1 December 2015 |title=Antidiabetic Plants Used by the Tribes and Settlers of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.20324/nelumbo/v57/2015/87100 |journal=Nelumbo |volume=57 |doi=10.20324/nelumbo/v57/2015/87100 |issn=0976-5069}}</ref>
==History==
]


At the end of the 18th century, when they first came into sustained contact with outsiders, an estimated 7,000 Andamanese remained. In the next century, they experienced a massive population decline due to epidemics of outside ] and loss of territory. Today, only roughly over 500 Andamanese remain, with the Jangil being extinct. Only the Jarawa and the Sentinelese maintain a steadfast independence, refusing most attempts at contact by outsiders.

==History==
]
Until the late 18th century, the Andamanese culture, language, and genetics were preserved from outside influences by their fierce reaction to visitors, which included killing any shipwrecked foreigners, and by the remoteness of the islands. The various tribes and their mutually unintelligible languages thus are believed to have evolved on their own over millennia. Until the late 18th century, the Andamanese culture, language, and genetics were preserved from outside influences by their fierce reaction to visitors, which included killing any shipwrecked foreigners, and by the remoteness of the islands. The various tribes and their mutually unintelligible languages thus are believed to have evolved on their own over millennia.

Venetian explorer ] wrote of the Andamanese in 1294, in ''The Travels of Marco Polo:''<ref>{{cite wikisource|chapter=Chapter 13|wslink=The Travels of Marco Polo/Book 3|plaintitle=The Travels of Marco Polo| vauthors = Polo M |year=1294}}</ref>
{{blockquote|The people are without a king and are Idolaters, and no better than wild beasts. And I assure you all the men of this Island of Angamanain have heads like dogs, and teeth and eyes likewise; in fact, in the face they are all just like big mastiff dogs! They have a quantity of spices; but they are a most cruel generation, and eat everybody that they can catch, if not of their own race. They live on flesh and rice and milk, and have fruits different from any of ours.}}


===Origins=== ===Origins===
] tribe, taken by ], 1890s]]
], with Key (coloured) indicating periods in numbered thousands of years before the present. Note the route of the mtDNA haplogroup M through the Indian mainland and the Andaman Islands, possibly on to Southeast Asia]]
The oldest archaeological evidence for the habitation of the islands dates to the ]. Genetic evidence suggests that the indigenous Andamanese peoples share a common origin, and that the islands were settled sometime after 26,000 years ago, possibly at the end of the ], when sea levels were much lower reducing the distance between the Andaman Islands and the Asian mainland,<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaubey G, Endicott P |year=2013 |title=The Andaman Islanders in a regional genetic context: reexamining the evidence for an early peopling of the archipelago from South Asia |url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2055&context=humbiol |journal=Human Biology |volume=85 |issue=1–3 |pages=153–72 |doi=10.3378/027.085.0307 |pmid=24297224 |s2cid=7774927}}</ref> with genetic estimates suggesting that the two main linguistic groups (Great Andamanese and Onge/Jarawa) diverged around 16,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sitalaximi |first1=T. |last2=Varghese |first2=N. |last3=Kashyap |first3=V.K. |date=February 2023 |title=Genetic differentiation of Andaman Islanders and their relatedness to Nicobar Islanders |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2773044123000074 |journal=Human Gene |language=en |volume=35 |pages=201148 |doi=10.1016/j.humgen.2023.201148}}</ref>


It was previously assumed that the Andaman ancestors were part of the initial ] (South-Eurasians or Australasians) that was the first expansion of humanity out of Africa, via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the ] towards ], and ].<ref name="wells2002">{{Citation | title=The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey | vauthors = Wells S | year=2002 | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-0-691-11532-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC | quote=... the population of south-east Asia prior to 6000 years ago was composed largely of groups of hunter-gatherers very similar to modern Negritos ... So, both the Y-chromosome and the mtDNA paint a clear picture of a coastal leap from Africa to south-east Asia, and onward to Australia ... DNA has given us a glimpse of the voyage, which almost certainly followed a coastal route va India ...}}</ref><ref name="abbi2006">{{Citation | title=Endangered Languages of the Andaman Islands | vauthors = Abbi A | year=2006 | publisher=Lincom Europa | isbn=9783895868665 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWVkAAAAMAAJ | quote=... to Myanmar by a land bridge during the ice ages, and it is possible that the ancestors of the Andamanese reached the islands without crossing the sea ... The latest figure in 2005 is 50 in all ...| author-link=Anvita Abbi }}</ref> The Andamanese were considered to be a pristine example of a hypothesized ] population, which showed similar physical characteristics, and was supposed to have existed throughout southeast Asia. The existence of a specific Negrito-population is nowadays doubted. Their commonalities could be the result of evolutionary convergence and/or a shared history.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jinam TA, Phipps ME, Saitou N | title = Admixture patterns and genetic differentiation in negrito groups from West Malaysia estimated from genome-wide SNP data | journal = Human Biology | volume = 85 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 173–88 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 24297225 | doi = 10.3378/027.085.0308 | s2cid = 28152734 | url = https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/8 | collaboration = Hugo Pan-Asian SNP Consortium }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stock JT | title = The skeletal phenotype of "negritos" from the Andaman Islands and Philippines relative to global variation among hunter-gatherers | journal = Human Biology | volume = 85 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 67–94 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 24297221 | doi = 10.3378/027.085.0304 | s2cid = 32964023 | url = https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2052&context=humbiol }}</ref> Recent genetic studies conclusively demonstrate Negrito groups do not share a common origin to the exclusion of other Asians.<ref name=":4" />
According to Chaubey and Endicott (2013), the Andaman Islands were settled less than 26,000 years ago, by people who were not direct descendants of the first migrants out of Africa.<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103">{{Cite journal | doi=10.3378/027.085.0307| pmid=24297224| title=The Andaman Islanders in a Regional Genetic Context: Reexamining the Evidence for an Early Peopling of the Archipelago from South Asia| journal=Human Biology| volume=85| issue=1–3| pages=153–172| year=2013| last1=Chaubey| first1=Gyaneshwer| last2=Endicott| first2=Phillip| url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/7}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Chaubey and Endicott (2013):<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103" /><br>* "these estimates suggest that the Andamans were settled less than ~26 ka and that differentiation between the ancestors of the Onge and Great Andamanese commenced in the Terminal Pleistocene." (p.167)<br>* "In conclusion, we find no support for the settlement of the Andaman Islands by a population descending from the initial out-of-Africa migration of humans, or their immediate descendants in South Asia. It is clear that, overall, the Onge are more closely related to Southeast Asians than they are to present-day South Asians." (p.167)}} According to Wang et al. (2011),
{{quote|...the Andaman archipelago was likely settled by modern humans from northeast India via the land-bridge which connected the Andaman archipelago and Myanmar around the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), a scenario in well agreement with the evidence from linguistic and palaeoclimate studies.<ref name="Wang2011">{{Cite journal|title = Mitochondrial DNA evidence supports northeast Indian origin of the aboriginal Andamanese in the Late Paleolithic|journal = Journal of Genetics and Genomics|date = 20 March 2011|pages = 117–122|volume = 38|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.jgg.2011.02.005|pmid = 21477783|first1 = Hua-Wei|last1 = Wang|first2 = Bikash|last2 = Mitra|first3 = Tapas Kumar|last3 = Chaudhuri|first4 = Malliya gounder|last4 = Palanichamy|first5 = Qing-Peng|last5 = Kong|first6 = Ya-Ping|last6 = Zhang}}</ref>}}


===Colonial era===
It was previously assumed that the Andaman ancestors were part of the initial ] that was the first expansion of humanity out of Africa, via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the Indian mainland and toward ], ], and ].<ref name="wells2002">{{Citation | title=The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey | author=Spencer Wells | year=2002 | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-0-691-11532-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC | quote=... the population of south-east Asia prior to 6000 years ago was composed largely of groups of hunter-gatherers very similar to modern Negritos ... So, both the Y-chromosome and the mtDNA paint a clear picture of a coastal leap from Africa to south-east Asia, and onward to Australia ... DNA has given us a glimpse of the voyage, which almost certainly followed a coastal route va India ...}}</ref><ref name="abbi2006">{{Citation | title=Endangered Languages of the Andaman Islands | author=Anvita Abbi | year=2006 | publisher=Lincom Europa | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWVkAAAAMAAJ | quote=... to Myanmar by a land bridge during the ice ages, and it is possible that the ancestors of the Andamanese reached the islands without crossing the sea ... The latest figure in 2005 is 50 in all ...| author-link=Anvita Abbi }}</ref> The Andamanese were considered to be a pristine example of a hypothesized ] population, which showed similar physical characteristics, and was supposed to have existed throughout southeast Asia. The existence of a specific Negrito-population is nowadays doubted. Their commonalities could be the result of evolutionary convergence and/or a shared history.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Admixture Patterns and Genetic Differentiation in Negrito Groups from West Malaysia Estimated from Genome-wide SNP Data|journal = Human Biology|date = 1 June 2013|issn = 0018-7143|pages = 173–188|volume = 85|issue = 1–3|doi = 10.3378/027.085.0308|first1 = Timothy A.|last1 = Jinam|first2 = Maude E.|last2 = Phipps|first3 = Naruya|last3 = Saitou|pmid=24297225|url = https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Skeletal Phenotype of "Negritos" from the Andaman Islands and Philippines Relative to Global Variation among Hunter-Gatherers|url = https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/human_biology/v085/85.1-3.stock.html|journal = Human Biology|date = 1 January 2013|issn = 1534-6617|pages = 67–94|volume = 85|issue = 1|first = Jay T.|last = Stock|doi=10.3378/027.085.0304|pmid=24297221}}</ref>
] to search for shipwrecked sailors from the merchantman ''Assam Valley''.]]


The Andamanese's ] changed with the establishment of a British colonial presence on the islands. Lacking immunity against common ] of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island experienced a massive population decline due to disease within four years of the establishment of a colonial presence on the island in 1789.<ref name="venkateswar2004">{{Citation | title=Development and Ethnocide: Colonial Practices in the Andaman Islands | vauthors = Venkateswar S | publisher=IWGIA | year=2004 | isbn=978-87-91563-04-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XFETVExNUYgC | quote="As I have suggested previously, it is probable that some disease was introduced among the coastal groups by Lieutenant Colebrooke and Blair's first settlement in 1789, resulting in a marked reduction of their population. The four years that the British occupied their initial site on the south-east of South Andaman were sufficient to have decimated the coastal populations of the groups referred to as Jarawa by the Aka-bea-da."}}</ref> Epidemics of ], measles and ] spread rapidly and exacted heavy tolls, as did alcoholism.<ref name="venkateswar2004" /> In the 19th century, a ] epidemic killed 50% of the Andamanese population.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4987406.stm | title = Measles hits rare Andaman tribe | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110823054811/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4987406.stm | archive-date=23 August 2011 | work = BBC News | date = 16 May 2006 }}</ref> By 1875, the Andamanese were already "perilously close to extinction". In 1888, the ] set in place a policy of "organized gift giving" that continued in varying forms until the islands, as part of the ], gained ] from the ].<ref name="lee1999">{{Citation | title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers | vauthors = Lee RB, Daly RH | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-521-57109-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5eEASHGLg3MC | quote="By 1875, when these peoples were perilously close to extinction, the Andaman cultures came under scientific scrutiny ... In 1888, 'friendly relations' were established with Ongees through organized gift giving contacts ... As recently as 1985—92, government contacts have been initiated with Jarawas and Sentinelese through gift-giving, a contact procedure much like that carried out during British rule."}}</ref>
Bulbeck (2013) shows the Andamanese maternal mtDNA is entirely ].<ref name="Bulbeck"/> Their Y-DNA belong to the D haplogroup which has not been seen outside of the Andamans, a fact that underscores the insularity of these tribes. Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, confirms the above results. All Onge belong to mtDNA haplogroup M, which is unique to Onge people. This haplogroup, which is descended from Africa, represents the entire lineage of the Onge and Adamanese, and is the predominant mtDNA among the Semang in Malaysia. Moreover, haplogroup M is the single most common mtDNA haplogroup in ], where it represents 60% of all maternal lineages.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ghezzi | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup K is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease in Italians | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 13 | issue = 6| pages = 748–752 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201425 | pmid=15827561| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>name="petraglia2007">{{Citation | title=The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia |author1=Michael D. Petraglia |author2=Bridget Allchin | publisher=Springer | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC | quote=... As haplogroup M, except for the African sub-clade M1, is not notably present in regions west of the Indian subcontinent, while it covers the majority of Indian mtDNA variation ...}}</ref>


A 2017 study by Mondal et al. finds that the ] lineage of D1a3 (a Tibeto-Burmese population) and the Andamanese D1a3 have their nearest related lineages in ]. The Jarawa and Onge shared this D1a3 lineages with each other within the last ~7000 years, but had diverged from the Japanese D1a2 lineage ~53000 years ago". They further suggest that: “This strongly suggests that haplogroup D does not indicate a separate ancestry for Andamanese populations. Rather, haplogroup D was part of the standing variation carried by the OOA expansion, and later lost from most of the populations except in Andaman and partially in Japan and Tibet”.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Mondal|first1=Mayukh|last2=Bergström|first2=Anders|last3=Xue|first3=Yali|last4=Calafell|first4=Francesc|last5=Laayouni|first5=Hafid|last6=Casals|first6=Ferran|last7=Majumder|first7=Partha P.|last8=Tyler-Smith|first8=Chris|last9=Bertranpetit|first9=Jaume|date=2017-05-01|title=Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese|journal=Human Genetics|language=en|volume=136|issue=5|pages=499–510|doi=10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0|issn=1432-1203|quote=In contrast, the Riang (Tibeto-Burman-speaking) and Andamanese have their nearest neighbour lineages in East Asia. The Jarawa and Onge shared haplogroup D lineages with each other within the last ~7000 years, but had diverged from Japanese haplogroup D Y-chromosomes ~53000 years ago, most likely by a split from a shared ancestral population.|pmid=28444560|hdl=10230/34399|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

===Population decline===
]]]
The Andamanese's ] changed with the first British colonial presence and subsequent settlements, which proved disastrous for them. Lacking immunity against common ] of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island likely were depopulated by disease within four years (1789–1793) of the initial British colonial settlement in 1789.<ref name="venkateswar2004">{{Citation | title=Development and Ethnocide: Colonial Practices in the Andaman Islands | author=Sita Venkateswar | publisher=IWGIA | year=2004 | isbn=978-87-91563-04-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XFETVExNUYgC | quote="As I have suggested previously, it is probable that some disease was introduced among the coastal groups by Lieutenant Colebrooke and Blair's first settlement in 1789, resulting in a marked reduction of their population. The four years that the British occupied their initial site on the south-east of South Andaman were sufficient to have decimated the coastal populations of the groups referred to as Jarawa by the Aka-bea-da."}}</ref> Epidemics of ], measles and ] spread rapidly and exacted heavy tolls, as did alcoholism.<ref name="venkateswar2004" /> In the 19th century, the ] killed 50% of the Andamanese population.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823054811/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4987406.stm |date=23 August 2011 }}. ''BBC News''. 16 May 2006.</ref> By 1875, the Andamanese were already "perilously close to extinction," yet attempts to contact, subdue and co-opt them continued unrelentingly. In 1888, the British government set in place a policy of "organized gift giving" that continued in varying forms until well into the 20th century.<ref name="lee1999">{{Citation | title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers |author1=Richard B. Lee |author2=Richard Heywood Daly | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-521-57109-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5eEASHGLg3MC | quote="By 1875, when these peoples were perilously close to extinction, the Andaman cultures came under scientific scrutiny ... In 1888, 'friendly relations' were established with Ongees through organized gift giving contacts ... As recently as 1985—92, government contacts have been initiated with Jarawas and Sentinelese through gift-giving, a contact procedure much like that carried out during British rule."}}</ref>
] ]
There is evidence that some sections of the British Indian administration were working deliberately to annihilate the tribes.<ref name="cavalli-sforza1995">{{Citation | title=The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution |author1=Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza |author2=Francesco Cavalli-Sforza | publisher=Basic Books | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-201-44231-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApuuiwUkEZ0C | quote=Contact with whites, and the British in particular, has virtually destroyed them. Illness, alcohol, and the will of the colonials all played their part; the British governor of the time mentions in his diary that he received instructions to destroy them with alcohol and opium. He succeeded completely with one group. The others reacted violently.}}</ref> After the mid-19th century, ] established ] on the islands and an increasing number of mainland Indian and ] settlers arrived, encroaching on former territories of the Andamanese. This accelerated the decline of the tribes.


Tensions between the colonial administration and the Andamanese increased due to British officials introducing ] and ] to the Andamanese.<ref name="cavalli-sforza1995">{{Citation | title=The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution | vauthors = Cavalli-Sforza LL, Cavalli-Sforza F, Betzig L | publisher=Basic Books | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-201-44231-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApuuiwUkEZ0C | quote=Contact with whites, and the British in particular, has virtually destroyed them. Illness, alcohol, and the will of the colonials all played their part; the British governor of the time mentions in his diary that he received instructions to destroy them with alcohol and opium. He succeeded completely with one group. The others reacted violently.}}</ref> During mid-19th century, the ] established ] on the islands and an increasing number of ] and ] arrived, both as settlers and prisoners.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
Many Andamanese succumbed to British expeditions to avenge the killing of shipwrecked sailors. In the 1867 ], dozens of Onge were killed by British naval personnel following the death of shipwrecked sailors, which resulted in four ]es for the British soldiers.<ref name="mukerjee2003">{{Citation | title=The Land of Naked People | author=Madhusree Mukerjee | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-618-19736-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6373dOvGFgC | quote="In 1927 Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt, a German anthropologist, found that around 100 Great Andamanese survived, 'in dirty, half-closed huts, which primarily contain cheap European household effects'."}}</ref><ref name=londongazette1867>{{London Gazette |issue=23333 |date=17 December 1867 |page=6878 }}</ref><ref name="mathur1985">{{Citation | title=Kala Pani: History of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, with a Study of Indiaʼs Freedom Struggle |author=Laxman Prasad Mathur | publisher=Eastern Book Corporation | year=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQ9uAAAAMAAJ | quote=Snippet: "Immediately afterwards in another visit to Little Andaman to trace the sailors of a ship named 'Assam Valley' wrecked on its coast, Homfray's party was attacked by a large group of Onges."}}</ref>


In 1867, the British launched the ] in order to rescue ] sailors from the ''Assam Valley'' on the Andamanese islands. The expedition was attacked by the ] upon their approach to the islands and were forced to withdraw. Four ]es were awarded to members of the expedition.<ref name="mukerjee2003">{{Citation | title=The Land of Naked People | vauthors = Mukerjee M | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-618-19736-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6373dOvGFgC | quote="In 1927 Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt, a German anthropologist, found that around 100 Great Andamanese survived, 'in dirty, half-closed huts, which primarily contain cheap European household effects'."}}</ref><ref name=londongazette1867>{{London Gazette |issue=23333 |date=17 December 1867 |page=6878 }}</ref><ref name="mathur1985">{{Citation | title=Kala Pani: History of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, with a Study of Indiaʼs Freedom Struggle | vauthors = Mathur LP | publisher=Eastern Book Corporation | year=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQ9uAAAAMAAJ | quote=Snippet: "Immediately afterwards in another visit to Little Andaman to trace the sailors of a ship named 'Assam Valley' wrecked on its coast, Homfray's party was attacked by a large group of Onges."}}</ref>
In 1923, the British ornithologist and anthropologist ], who visited the islands in the 1890s, while working for the ], described the Andamanese as "The World's Most Primitive People", writing:<ref name="Finn">{{cite magazine |title=The World's Most Primitive People |first1=Frank |last1=Finn |authorlink1=Frank Finn |magazine=] |date=26 October 1923|title-link=:s:Radio Times/1923/10/26/The World's Most Primitive People }}</ref>


In 1923, the British ornithologist and anthropologist ], who visited the islands in the 1890s while working for the ], described the Andamanese as "The World's Most Primitive People", writing:<ref name="Finn">{{cite magazine |title=The World's Most Primitive People | vauthors = Finn F |author-link1=Frank Finn |magazine=] |date=26 October 1923 }}</ref>
{{quote|I used to envy the pigmies their simple costume, which in the case of the ladies was a wisp and a waistband, and in that of the men, nothing at all. Their interests are looked after by an English Civil Servant, who has to see that no one sells them drink, or interferes with them in any way; but even this officer-in-charge, as he is styled, dares not go among them where he is not known, and considerable tact is required in getting an introduction to the local chief.}}


{{blockquote|I used to envy the ] their simple costume, which in the case of the ladies was a wisp and a waistband, and in that of the men, nothing at all. Their interests are looked after by an English Civil Servant, who has to see that no one sells them drink, or interferes with them in any way; but even this officer-in-charge, as he is styled, dares not go among them where he is not known, and considerable tact is required in getting an introduction to the local chief.}}
In the 1940s, the Jarawa were bombed by ] for their hostility. This attack of the Japanese was criticized as war crime by many observers.<ref name="vanDriem2001" />

In the 1940s, the Jarawa were attacked by ] for their hostility. This Japanese attack was criticized as a ] by many observers.<ref name="vanDriem2001" />


===Recent history=== ===Recent history===
In 1974, a film crew and anthropologist ] attempted friendly contact by leaving a tethered pig, some pots and pans, some fruit, and toys on the beach at North Sentinel Island. One of the islanders shot the film director in the thigh with an arrow. The following year, European visitors were repulsed with arrows.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The Last Island of the Savages|last = Goodheart|first = Adam|date = Autumn 2000|journal = The American Scholar|volume = 69|issue = 4|pages = 13–44|jstor=41213066}}</ref><ref></ref><ref name="McGirk">{{cite news | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/islanders-running-out-of-isolation-tim-mcgirk-in-the-andaman-islands-reports-on-the-fate-of-the-sentinelese-1477566.html | location=London | work=] | title=Islanders running out of isolation: Tim McGirk in the Andaman Islands reports on the fate of the Sentinelese | date=10 January 1993}}</ref> In 1974, a film crew and anthropologist ] attempted friendly contact by leaving a tethered pig, some pots and pans, some fruit, and toys on the beach at North Sentinel Island. One of the islanders shot the film director in the thigh with an arrow. The following year, European visitors were repulsed with arrows.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The Last Island of the Savages| vauthors = Goodheart A |date =Autumn 2000|journal = The American Scholar|volume = 69|issue = 4|pages = 13–44|jstor=41213066}}</ref><ref></ref><ref name="McGirk">{{cite news | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/islanders-running-out-of-isolation-tim-mcgirk-in-the-andaman-islands-reports-on-the-fate-of-the-sentinelese-1477566.html | location=London | work=] | title=Islanders running out of isolation: Tim McGirk in the Andaman Islands reports on the fate of the Sentinelese | date=10 January 1993}}</ref>


On 2 August 1981, the Hong Kong freighter ship ''Primrose'' grounded on the North Sentinel Island reef. A few days later, crewmen on the immobile vessel observed that small black men were carrying spears and arrows and building boats on the beach. The captain of the Primrose radioed for an urgent airdrop of firearms so the crew could defend themselves, but did not receive them. Heavy seas kept the islanders away from the ship. After a week, the crew were rescued by an Indian navy helicopter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neatorama.com/2013/07/08/The-Forbidden-Island/|title=Grounding|work=neatorama.com}}</ref> On 2 August 1981, the Hong Kong freighter ship ''Primrose'' grounded on the North Sentinel Island reef. A few days later, crewmen on the immobile vessel observed that small black men were carrying spears and arrows and building boats on the beach. The captain of the Primrose radioed for an urgent airdrop of firearms so the crew could defend themselves, but did not receive them. Heavy seas kept the islanders away from the ship. After a week, the crew were rescued by an Indian navy helicopter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neatorama.com/2013/07/08/The-Forbidden-Island/|title=Grounding|work=neatorama.com|date=8 July 2013 }}</ref>


On 4 January 1991, Triloknath Pandit made the first known friendly contact with the Sentinelese.<ref name="McGirk"/> On 4 January 1991, Triloknath Pandit made the first known friendly contact with the Sentinelese.<ref name="McGirk"/>


Until 1996, the Jarawa met most visitors with flying arrows. From time to time, they attacked and killed poachers on the lands reserved to them by the Indian government. They also killed some workers building the ] (ATR), which traverses Jarawa lands. One of the earliest peaceful contacts with the Jarawa occurred in 1996. Settlers found a teenaged Jarawa boy named Enmei near Kadamtala town. The boy was immobilized with a broken foot. They took Enmei to a hospital, where he received good care. Over several weeks, Enmei learned a few words of Hindi before returning to his jungle home. The following year, Jarawa individuals and small groups began appearing along roadsides and occasionally venturing into settlements to steal food. The ATR may have interfered with traditional Jarawa food sources.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Seksharia|first1=Pankaj|title=Jarawa excursions|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1514/15140660.htm|website=frontline.in|publisher=Front Line|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Valley|first1=Paul|title=Under threat: an ancient tribe emerging from the forests|url=http://listserv.linguistlist.org/pipermail/ilat/2003-December/000546.html|website=listserv.linguist.org|publisher=The Independent UK|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Grig|first1=Sophie|title=Remote Jarawa tribe kill poacher – exclusive interview shows Jarawa denouncing poaching on their land|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/3950%20Survival|website=survivalinternational.org|publisher=Survival International|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> Until 1996, the Jarawa met most visitors with flying arrows. From time to time, they attacked and killed poachers on the lands reserved to them by the Indian government. They also killed some workers building the ] (ATR), which traverses Jarawa lands. One of the earliest peaceful contacts with the Jarawa occurred in 1996. Settlers found a teenaged Jarawa boy named Enmei near Kadamtala town. The boy was immobilized with a broken foot. They took Enmei to a hospital, where he received good care. Over several weeks, Enmei learned a few words of Hindi before returning to his jungle home. The following year, Jarawa individuals and small groups began appearing along roadsides and occasionally venturing into settlements to steal food. The ATR may have interfered with traditional Jarawa food sources.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Seksharia P |title=Jarawa excursions|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1514/15140660.htm|website=frontline.in|publisher=Front Line|access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Valley P |title=Under threat: an ancient tribe emerging from the forests|url=https://listserv.linguistlist.org/pipermail/ilat/2003-December/000546.html|website=listserv.linguist.org|date=4 December 2003 |publisher=The Independent UK|access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Grig S |title=Remote Jarawa tribe kill poacher – exclusive interview shows Jarawa denouncing poaching on their land |url= http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/3950%20Survival |website=survivalinternational.org|publisher=Survival International|access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>


On 17 November 2018, a ] ], John Allen Chau, was killed when he tried to introduce ] to the ] tribe. The Sentinelese have been protected from contact with the outside world. Trips to the Island are prohibited by ]n law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/john-allen-chau-us-missionary-north-sentinel-killed-latest-india-a8659021.html|title=US man killed on remote island prepared for years for mission and 'may not have acted alone'|date=29 November 2018|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> Chau was brought near the island by local fishermen, who were later arrested during the investigation into his death.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/latest/904603/american-missionary-killed-by-sentinelese-was-on-a-planned-adventure-says-scheduled-tribes-panel|title=American missionary killed by Sentinelese was on a 'planned adventure', says scheduled tribes panel|last=Staff|first=Scroll|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> Indian authorities attempted to retrieve Chau's remains without success.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/on-religion/john-chaus-death-roils-the-missionary-world|title=John Chau's Death on North Sentinel Island Roils the Missionary World|last=Griswold|first=Eliza|date=8 December 2018|work=The New Yorker|access-date=11 December 2018}}</ref> On 17 November 2018, a ] ], ], was killed when he tried to introduce ] to the ] tribe. The Sentinelese have been protected from contact with the outside world. Trips to the Island are prohibited by ]n law.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/john-allen-chau-us-missionary-north-sentinel-killed-latest-india-a8659021.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129205734/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/john-allen-chau-us-missionary-north-sentinel-killed-latest-india-a8659021.html |archive-date=29 November 2018 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|title=US man killed on remote island prepared for years for mission and 'may not have acted alone'|date=29 November 2018|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> Chau was brought near the island by local fishermen, who were later arrested during the investigation into his death.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/latest/904603/american-missionary-killed-by-sentinelese-was-on-a-planned-adventure-says-scheduled-tribes-panel|title=American missionary killed by Sentinelese was on a 'planned adventure', says scheduled tribes panel|author=Scroll Staff|website=Scroll.in|date=5 December 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref> Indian authorities attempted to retrieve Chau's remains without success.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/on-religion/john-chaus-death-roils-the-missionary-world|title=John Chau's Death on North Sentinel Island Roils the Missionary World| vauthors = Griswold E |date=8 December 2018|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=11 December 2018}}</ref>


==Tribes== ==Tribes==
] — early 1800s versus present-day (2004).]] ] — early 1800s versus present-day (2004).]]
The five major groups of Andamanese are: The four major groups of Andamanese are:


* ]: 380 individuals as of the ].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Table A-11 (Appendix) DISTRICT WISE SCHEDULED TRIBE POPULATION (FOR EACH TRIBE SEPARATELY) |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/SC_ST/PCA-A11_Appendix/ST-35-PCA-A11-APPENDIX.xlsx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112010546/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/SC_ST/PCA-A11_Appendix/ST-35-PCA-A11-APPENDIX.xlsx |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-format=XLSX |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |format=XLSX}}</ref> They live in the ex-Great Andamanese homeland in the West Coast and central parts of ] and ]s.{{refn|group=note|They originally lived in the southern part of ] in the Great Andaman archipelago.}}
* ], traditionally of the ] archipelago but now living on ]. Their population was 52 as of 2010.<ref name=telegraph> (5 February 2010). ''The Daily Telegraph'', London. Accessed 3 January 2017.</ref>
* ]: 101 individuals as of the 2011 Indian census.<ref name=":2" /> They live on ].
* ] traditionally of the southern part of ] in the ] archipelago but now living in the ex-] homeland in the West Coast and central parts of ] and ]s. Their population was 380 as of 2011.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/SC_ST/PCA-A11_Appendix/ST-35-PCA-A11-APPENDIX.xlsx</ref>
* ]: 52 individuals in 2010.<ref name="telegraph3">{{cite web |date=5 February 2010 |title=Language lost as last member of Andaman tribe dies |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7161422/Language-lost-as-last-member-of-Andaman-tribe-dies.html |access-date=3 January 2017 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}</ref><ref name="telegraph22">{{cite news |date=10 February 2010 |title=Lives Remembered: Boa Sr |newspaper=] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/7207731/Lives-Remembered.html |url-status=dead |access-date=22 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213125406/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/7207731/Lives-Remembered.html |archive-date=13 February 2010}}</ref> The tribal and linguistic distinctions have largely disappeared, many Great Andamanese were forced to learn ].<ref name="telegraph22"/><ref name="abbiweb2">{{cite web |last=Abbi |first=Anvita |date=2006 |title=Great Andamanese Community |url=http://www.andamanese.net/generalia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101023084412/http://www.andamanese.net/generalia.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=23 October 2010 |access-date=12 July 2012 |website=Vanishing Voices of the Great Andamanese}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=VOGA |url=http://www.andamanese.net/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017094120/http://andamanese.net/index.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=17 October 2007 |website=Vanishing Voices of the Great Andamanese}}</ref> According to a 1995 report, all of the 37 persons identifying as Great Andamanese were of mixed Andamanese, Burmese and Indian ancestry.<ref name="weber72">{{cite book |last=Weber |first=George |title=The Andamanese |date=2009 |chapter=7. Numbers |access-date=12 July 2012 |chapter-url=http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter7/text7.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531230544/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter7/text7.htm |archive-date=31 May 2012 |url-status=dead|quote=The 37 persons said to be of Great Andamanese extraction in 1995 were in fact all of mixed Burmese/Indian/Andamanese ancestry}}</ref> They live on ].{{refn|group=note|They originally lived in the ] archipelago.}}
* ] or Rutland Jarawa of ], extinct by 1921<ref name="vanDriem2001"/>
* ] of ], at 101 individuals as of 2011.<ref name="censusindia.gov.in"/> * ]: estimated to be 15 individuals in 2011 Indian census.<ref name=":2" /> They live in the ].
] island in 2006.]]
* ] of ], estimated to be 100 to 200 individuals.


By the end of the eighteenth century, there were an estimated 5,000 Great Andamanese living on ]. Altogether they comprised ten distinct tribes with different languages. The population quickly dwindled to 600 in 1901 and to 19 by 1961.<ref name="asi1990">{{Citation | title=The Jarawa | author=Jayanta Sarkar | publisher=Anthropological Survey of India | year=1990 | isbn=978-81-7046-080-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxBuAAAAMAAJ | quote=The Great Andamanese population was large till 1858 when it started declining ... In 1901, their number was reduced to only 600 and in 1961 to a mere 19.}}</ref> It has increased slowly after that, following their move to a reservation on ]. As of 2010, the population was 52, representing a mix of the former tribes.<ref name=telegraph/> By the end of the eighteenth century, there were an estimated 5,000 Great Andamanese living on ]. Altogether they comprised ten distinct tribes with different languages. The population quickly dwindled to 600 in 1901 and to 19 by 1961.<ref name="asi1990">{{Citation | title=The Jarawa | vauthors = Sarkar J | publisher=Anthropological Survey of India | year=1990 | isbn=978-81-7046-080-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxBuAAAAMAAJ | quote=The Great Andamanese population was large till 1858 when it started declining ... In 1901, their number was reduced to only 600 and in 1961 to a mere 19.}}</ref> It has increased slowly after that, following their move to a reservation on ]. As of 2010, the population was 52, representing a mix of the former tribes.<ref name="telegraph3"/>


The Jarawa originally inhabited southeastern ] and have migrated to the west coast of Great Andaman in the wake of the Great Andamanese. The Onge once lived throughout ] and now are confined to two reservations on the island. The ], who originally inhabited ], were extinct by 1931; the last individual was sighted in 1907.<ref name="vanDriem2001">{{Citation | title=Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region: Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language | author=George van Driem | year=2001 | publisher=BRILL | isbn=978-90-04-12062-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiavPYCz4dYC | quote=''... The Aka-Kol tribe of Middle Andaman became extinct by 1921. The Oko-Juwoi of Middle Andaman and the Aka-Bea of South Andaman and Rutland Island were extinct by 1931. The Akar-Bale of Ritchie's Archipelago, the Aka-Kede of Middle Andaman and the A-Pucikwar of South Andaman Island soon followed. By 1951, the census counted a total of only 23 Greater Andamanese and 10 Sentinelese. That means that just ten men, twelve women and one child remained of the Aka-Kora, Aka-Cari and Aka-Jeru tribes of Greater Andaman and only ten natives of North Sentinel Island ...''}}</ref> Only the ] are still living in their original homeland on ], largely undisturbed, and have fiercely resisted all attempts at contact. The Jarawa originally inhabited southeastern ] and have migrated to the west coast of Great Andaman in the wake of the Great Andamanese. The Onge once lived throughout ] and now are confined to two reservations on the island. The ], who originally inhabited ], were extinct by 1931;<ref name="vanDriem20012">{{Citation |title=Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region: Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiavPYCz4dYC |year=2001 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-12062-4 |quote=''... The Aka-Kol tribe of Middle Andaman became extinct by 1921. The Oko-Juwoi of Middle Andaman and the Aka-Bea of South Andaman and Rutland Island were extinct by 1931. The Akar-Bale of Ritchie's Archipelago, the Aka-Kede of Middle Andaman and the A-Pucikwar of South Andaman Island soon followed. By 1951, the census counted a total of only 23 Greater Andamanese and 10 Sentinelese. That means that just ten men, twelve women and one child remained of the Aka-Kora, Aka-Cari and Aka-Jeru tribes of Greater Andaman and only ten natives of North Sentinel Island ...'' |vauthors=van Driem G}}</ref> the last individual was sighted in 1907.<ref name="vanDriem2001">{{Citation | title=Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region: Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language | vauthors = van Driem G | year=2001 | publisher=BRILL | isbn=978-90-04-12062-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiavPYCz4dYC | quote=''... The Aka-Kol tribe of Middle Andaman became extinct by 1921. The Oko-Juwoi of Middle Andaman and the Aka-Bea of South Andaman and Rutland Island were extinct by 1931. The Akar-Bale of Ritchie's Archipelago, the Aka-Kede of Middle Andaman and the A-Pucikwar of South Andaman Island soon followed. By 1951, the census counted a total of only 23 Greater Andamanese and 10 Sentinelese. That means that just ten men, twelve women and one child remained of the Aka-Kora, Aka-Cari and Aka-Jeru tribes of Greater Andaman and only ten natives of North Sentinel Island ...''}}</ref> Only the ] are still living in their original homeland on ], largely undisturbed, and have fiercely resisted all attempts at contact.


== Languages == == Languages ==
{{main|Andamanese languages}} {{main|Andamanese languages}}
The ] are considered to be the fifth language family of India, following the Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Sino-Tibetan.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Zide |first1=Norman |last2=Pandya |first2=Vishvajit |title=A Bibliographical Introduction to Andamanese Linguistics |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1989 |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=639–651 |doi=10.2307/604090 |jstor=604090}}</ref> The ] are considered to be the fifth language family of India, following the ], ], ], and ].<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zide N, Pandya V |title=A Bibliographical Introduction to Andamanese Linguistics |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1989 |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=639–651 |doi=10.2307/604090 |jstor=604090}}</ref>


While some connections have been tentatively proposed with other language families,<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian?: Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands.|last = Blevins|first = Juliette|date = 2007|journal = Oceanic Linguistics|doi = 10.1353/ol.2007.0015|volume=46|pages=154–198}}</ref> the consensus view is currently that Andamanese languages form a separate language family – or rather, two unrelated linguistic families: ''Greater Andamanese''<ref>{{Cite web|title = A Grammar of the Great Andamanese Language : An Ethnolinguistic Study|url = http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzYzNTAyNF9fQU41?sid=184082ff-25b6-4cb0-94ec-18b6ab2a3056@sessionmgr114&vid=3&format=EB&rid=1|website = eds.b.ebscohost.com|accessdate = 29 October 2015}}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and ''Ongan''. While some connections have been tentatively proposed with other language families, such as ],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Blevins J |title=A Long Lost Sister of Proto-Austronesian?: Proto-Ongan, Mother of Jarawa and Onge of the Andaman Islands |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=2007 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=154–198 |id={{Project MUSE|218676}} {{ProQuest|2440008920}} |doi=10.1353/ol.2007.0015 |s2cid=143141296 }}</ref> or the controversial ], the consensus view is currently that Andamanese languages form a separate language family – or rather, two unrelated linguistic families: ''Greater Andamanese''<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Abbi A |title=A Grammar of the Great Andamanese Language: An Ethnolinguistic Study |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-24612-6 |doi=10.1163/9789004246126 |url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/32556/1/32556%20Abbi%202013%20Front%20Pages.pdf }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> and ''Ongan''.


==Culture== ==Culture==
] with bows and arrows.]] ]
Until contact, the Andamanese were strict ]s. They did not practice ], and lived off hunting indigenous pigs, fishing, and gathering. Their only weapons were the ], ]s, and wooden ]s. With the ], the Andamanese were one of only two peoples who in the nineteenth century knew of no method for ].<ref name ="Bordes">{{cite book|author= François Bordes|title=Leçons sur le Paléolithique|page=229|publisher=CNRS Éditions|year=2003|isbn=978-2-271-05836-2|quotation=Récemment encore les Indigènes des îles Andaman ne savaient pas allumer le feu, et le conservaient dans des caches, qu'ils rallumaient à l'occasion avec des brandons empruntés aux peuples voisins.|author-link=François Bordes}}</ref>{{rp|229}} They instead carefully preserved embers<ref name = "Bordes" />{{rp|229}} in hollowed-out trees from fires caused by lightning strikes. Until contact, the Andamanese were strict ]s. They did not practice ], and lived off hunting indigenous ], fishing, and gathering. Their only weapons were the ], ]s, and wooden ]s. The Andamanese knew of no method for ] in the nineteenth century.<ref name ="Bordes">{{cite book| vauthors = Bordes F |title=Leçons sur le Paléolithique|page=229|publisher=CNRS Éditions|year=2003|isbn=978-2-271-05836-2|quotation=Récemment encore les Indigènes des îles Andaman ne savaient pas allumer le feu, et le conservaient dans des caches, qu'ils rallumaient à l'occasion avec des brandons empruntés aux peuples voisins.|author-link=François Bordes}}</ref>{{rp|229}} They instead carefully preserved embers<ref name = "Bordes" />{{rp|229}} in hollowed-out trees from fires caused by lightning strikes.


The men wore girdles made of hibiscus fiber which carried useful tools and weapons for when they went hunting. The women on the other hand wore a tribal dress containing leaves that were held by a belt. A majority of them had painted bodies as well. They usually slept on leaves or mats and had either permanent or temporary habitation among the tribes. All habitations were man made.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NnBAiQnFLpgC|publisher = Mittal Publications|date = 1 January 1932|first1 = Edward Horace|last1 = Man|first2 = Alexander John|last2 = Ellis}}</ref> The men wore girdles made of hibiscus fiber which carried useful tools and weapons for when they went hunting. The women on the other hand wore a tribal dress containing leaves that were held by a belt. A majority of them had painted bodies as well. They usually slept on leaves or mats and had either permanent or temporary habitation among the tribes. All habitations were man made.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NnBAiQnFLpgC|publisher = Mittal Publications|date = 1 January 1932 | vauthors = Man EH, Ellis AJ }}</ref>


Some of the tribe members were credited to having supernatural powers. They were called oko-pai-ad, which meant dreamer. They were thought to have an influence on the members of the tribe and would bring misfortune to those who did not believe in their abilities. Traditional knowledge practitioners were the ones who helped with healthcare. The medicine that was used to cure illnesses were herbal most of the time. Various types of medicinal plants were used by the islanders. 77 total traditional knowledge practitioners were identified and 132 medicinal plants were used. The members of the tribes found various ways to use leaves in their everyday lives including clothing, medicine, and to sleep on.<ref>{{Cite web|title = EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page|url = http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=9&sid=94a7606d-170c-4266-ab58-49cc3cebd14f%2540sessionmgr112&hid=112|website = eds.b.ebscohost.com|accessdate = 30 October 2015}}{{Dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Some of the tribe members were credited with having supernatural powers. They were called oko-pai-ad, which meant dreamer. They were thought to have an influence on the members of the tribe and would bring misfortune to those who did not believe in their abilities. Traditional knowledge practitioners were the ones who helped with healthcare. The medicine that was used to cure illnesses were herbal most of the time. Various types of medicinal plants were used by the islanders. 77 total traditional knowledge practitioners were identified and 132 medicinal plants were used.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Herbal medicine & healthcare practices among Nicobarese of Nancowry group of Islands - an indigenous tribe of Andaman & Nicobar Islands |date=2015 |pmc=4510773 |last1=Chander |first1=M. P. |last2=Kartick |first2=C. |last3=Vijayachari |first3=P. |journal=The Indian Journal of Medical Research |volume=141 |issue=5 |pages=720–744 |doi=10.4103/0971-5916.159599 |doi-broken-date=13 November 2024 |doi-access=free |pmid=26139792 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Tvrs |last2=Abirami |first2=K |last3=Chander |first3=M Punnam |title=Medicinal plants used by tribes of andaman and nicobar Islands: A conservation appraisal |journal=Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resources |date=2018 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=125 |doi=10.5958/0976-1926.2018.00015.3 |url=https://ispgr.in/index.php/ijpgr/article/download/287/220}}</ref> The members of the tribes found various ways to use leaves in their everyday lives including clothing, medicine, and to sleep on.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}


Anthropologist ] argued that the Andamanese had no government and made decisions by group ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Andaman Islanders|last=Brown|first=A.R. Radcliffe|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1933|location=Cambridge|pages=44}}</ref> Anthropologist ] argued that the Andamanese had no government and made decisions by group ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Andaman Islanders| vauthors = Brown AR |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1933|location=Cambridge|pages=44}}</ref>


=== Religion === === Religion ===
The native Andamanese religion and belief system is a form of ]. ] is an important element in the religious traditions of the Andaman islands.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bxown AK |title=The Religion of the Andaman Islanders |journal=Folklore |date=30 September 1909 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=257–371 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1909.9719883 }}</ref> Andamanese Mythology held that humans emerged from split bamboo, whereas the women were fashioned from clay.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology . 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 . p. 192</ref> One version found by ] held that the first man died and went to heaven, a pleasurable world, but this blissful period ended due to breaking a food taboo, specifically eating the forbidden vegetables in the ]'s garden.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology . 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 . p. 220</ref> Thus Catastrophe ensued, and eventually the people grew overpopulated and didn't follow ]'s laws, and hence there was a ] that left four survivors, who lost their fire.<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald. The Andaman Islanders: A study in social anthropology . 2nd printing (enlarged). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933 . p. 216</ref><ref>Witzel, Michael E.J. (2012). The Origin of The World's Mythologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 309-312</ref>
The native Andamanese religion and belief system is a form of ]. ] is an important element in the religious traditions of the Andaman islands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=A. R.|date=1909|title=The Religion of the Andaman Islanders|journal=Folklore|volume=20|issue=3|pages=257–271|issn=0015-587X|jstor=1254079|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1909.9719883}}</ref>


==Physical appearance== ==Physical appearance==
{{see|Negrito|Australo-Melanesian}} {{further|Negrito|Australo-Melanesian}}


=== Phenotype === === Phenotype ===
] mother with her baby, Andaman Islands, ], 1905.]] ] men in 1875.]]
Negritos, specifically Andamanese, are grouped together by phenotype and anthropological features. Three physical features that distinguish the Andaman islanders include: skin colour, hair, and stature. Those of the Andaman islands have dark skin, are short in stature, and have "frizzy" hair.<ref name="Bulbeck" /> Negritos, specifically Andamanese, are grouped together by phenotype and anthropological features. Three physical features that distinguish the Andaman islanders include: skin colour, hair, and stature. Those of the Andaman islands have dark skin, are short in stature, and have "frizzy" hair, while displaying "Asiatic facial features".<ref name="Bulbeck2">{{cite journal|vauthors=Bulbeck D|date=June 2013|title=Craniodental affinities of Southeast Asia's "negritos" and the concordance with their genetic affinities|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/5|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=1–3|pages=95–133|doi=10.3378/027.085.0305|pmid=24297222|s2cid=19981437}}</ref>


=== Dental morphology === === Dental morphology ===
Dental characteristics also group the Andamanese between Negrito and East-Asian samples.<ref name=":1" /> Dental characteristics also group the Andamanese between Negrito and East-Asian samples.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Moorjani P, Thangaraj K, Patterson N, Lipson M, Loh PR, Govindaraj P, Berger B, Reich D, Singh L|date=September 2013|title=Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=93|issue=3|pages=422–38|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006|pmc=3769933|pmid=23932107}}</ref>


When comparing dental morphology the focus is on overall size and tooth shape. To measure the size and shape, Penrose's size and shape statistic is used. To calculate tooth size, the sum of the tooth area is taken. Factor analysis is applied to tooth size to achieve tooth shape. Results have shown that the dental morphology of Andaman Islanders resembles that of South Asians, whereas Philippine Negrito groups more closely resemble southeast Asians in their dental morphology. Therefore, the dental morphology of the Andamanese indicates a retention of dental morphology from early South Asians in the early-mid Holocene. Overall the dental morphology of the Andamanese is found to be distant from that of modern East Asians. However it is noted that the tooth size of the Andamanese is similar to that of the ] and Japanese.<ref name="Bulbeck" /> When comparing dental morphology the focus is on overall size and tooth shape. To measure the size and shape, Penrose's size and shape statistic is used. To calculate tooth size, the sum of the tooth area is taken. Factor analysis is applied to tooth size to achieve tooth shape. Results have shown that the dental morphology of Andaman Islanders resembles that of tribal populations of South Asia (]) the most, followed by Philippine Negrito groups, contemporary Southeast Asians, and East Asians. The tooth size of the Andamanese was found to be most similar to that of ] and ].<ref name="Bulbeck2"/>


==Genetics== ==Genetics==
{{Multiple image
]
| image1 = Great Andamanese RIALA 1890.jpg
], both of nuclear DNA<ref name="wells2002" /><ref name="kashyap2003j">{{Citation | title=Molecular Relatedness of The Aboriginal Groups of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Similar Ethnic Populations | author=V. K. Kashyap |author2=Sitalaximi T. |author3=B. N. Sarkar |author4=R. Trivedi1 | journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 | year=2003 | accessdate = 8 June 2009 | url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJHG/IJHG-03-0-000-000-2003-Web/IJHG-03-1-001-067-2003-Abst-PDF/IJHG-03-1-005-011-2003-Kashyap/IJHG-03-1-005-011-2003-Kashyap.pdf | quote=... the Negrito populations of Andaman Islands have remained in isolation ... the Andamanese are more closely related to other Asians than to modern day Africans ... the Nicobarese exhibiting a close affinity with geographically proximate Indo-Mongoloid populations of Northeast India ...| doi=10.1080/09723757.2003.11885820 }}</ref> and ]<ref name="endicott2003">{{Citation | title=The Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders | author1=M. Phillip Endicott | author2=Thomas P. Gilbert | author3=Chris Stringer | author4-link=Carles Lalueza-Fox | author4=Carles Lalueza-Fox | author5=Eske Willerslev | author6=Anders J. Hansen | author7=Alan Cooper | year=2003 | accessdate=21 April 2009 | url=http://www.dna.gfy.ku.dk/course/papers/B2.endicott.pdf | journal=American Journal of Human Genetics | volume=72 | issue=1 | pages=178–184 | quote=... The HVR-1 data separate them into two lineages, identified on the Indian mainland (Bamshad et al. 2001) as M4 and M2 ... The Andamanese M2 contains two haplotypes ... developed in situ, after an early colonization ... Alternatively, it is possible that the haplotypes have become extinct in India or are present at a low frequency and have not yet been sampled, but, in each case, an early settlement of the Andaman Islands by an M2-bearing population is implied ... The Andaman M4 haplotype ... is still present among populations in India, suggesting it was subject to the late Pleistocene population expansions ... | pmid=12478481 | doi=10.1086/345487 | pmc=378623 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> provide information about the origins of the Andamanese. The Andamanese are most genetically similar to the Malaysian Negrito tribes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aghakhanian|first1=F.|last2=Yunus|first2=Y.|last3=Naidu|first3=R.|last4=Jinam|first4=T.|last5=Manica|first5=A.|last6=Hoh|first6=B. P.|last7=Phipps|first7=M. E.|title=Unravelling the Genetic History of Negritos and Indigenous Populations of Southeast Asia|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|date=14 April 2015|volume=7|issue=5|pages=1206–1215|doi=10.1093/gbe/evv065|pmid=25877615|pmc=4453060|url=http://gbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/5/1206.full.pdf|accessdate=1 November 2015}}</ref>
| caption1 = Riala, an interpreter for the British from the Aka-Kede tribe of ] from ], in 1890
| caption2 = "Scarification pattern among the Great Andamanese in the late 19th century. Nothing is known of the origins or antiquity of this custom among the Andamanese."
– ], 1901
| image2 = Great Andamanese scarification pattern - 1901.jpg
| footer =
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 330px
}}
{{Main|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia}}
], both of nuclear DNA<ref name="wells2002" /><ref name="kashyap2003j">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kashyap VK, Sarkar BN, Trivedi R | title=Molecular Relatedness of The Aboriginal Groups of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Similar Ethnic Populations | journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 | year=2003 | access-date = 8 June 2009 | url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJHG/IJHG-03-0-000-000-2003-Web/IJHG-03-1-001-067-2003-Abst-PDF/IJHG-03-1-005-011-2003-Kashyap/IJHG-03-1-005-011-2003-Kashyap.pdf | quote=... the Negrito populations of Andaman Islands have remained in isolation ... the Andamanese are more closely related to other Asians than to modern day Africans ... the Nicobarese exhibiting a close affinity with geographically proximate Indo-Mongoloid populations of Northeast India ...| doi=10.1080/09723757.2003.11885820 | s2cid=31992842 }}</ref> and ]<ref name="endicott20032">{{Citation|author1=M. Phillip Endicott|title=The Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=72|issue=1|pages=178–184|year=2003|doi=10.1086/345487|pmc=378623|pmid=12478481|author2=Thomas P. Gilbert|author3=Chris Stringer|author4=Carles Lalueza-Fox|author5=Eske Willerslev|author6=Anders J. Hansen|author7=Alan Cooper}}</ref> provide information about the origins of the Andamanese. Genetic studies agree that Great Andamanese as well as Onge and Jawara, share a common origin to the exclusion of other Asians,<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103"/> and that they are highly genetically divergent from other Asian populations.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Jinam |first1=Timothy A. |last2=Phipps |first2=Maude E. |last3=Aghakhanian |first3=Farhang |last4=Majumder |first4=Partha P. |last5=Datar |first5=Francisco |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |last7=Sawai |first7=Hiromi |last8=Nishida |first8=Nao |last9=Tokunaga |first9=Katsushi |last10=Kawamura |first10=Shoji |last11=Omoto |first11=Keiichi |last12=Saitou |first12=Naruya |date=11 July 2017 |title=Discerning the Origins of the Negritos, First Sundaland People: Deep Divergence and Archaic Admixture |url=http://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/9/8/2013/3952725/Discerning-the-Origins-of-the-Negritos-First |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |language=en |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=2013–2022 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evx118 |issn=1759-6653 |pmc=5597900 |pmid=28854687}}</ref>


===Nuclear DNA=== ===Genetic variation===
The Andamanese show a very small genetic variation, which is indicative of populations that have experienced a ] and then developed in isolation for a long period. The Andamanese show a very small genetic variation, which is indicative of populations that have experienced a ] and then developed in isolation for a long period.


An ] has been discovered among the Jarawas that is found nowhere else in the world. Blood samples of 116 Jarawas were collected and tested for Duffy blood group and malarial parasite infectivity. Results showed a total absence of both in two areas (Kadamtala and R.K Nallah) and low prevalence of both Fya antigen in another two areas (Jirkatang and Tirur). There was an absence of malarial parasite infection though ] was present in 27·59% of cases. A very high frequency of Fy (a–b–) in the Jarawa tribe from all the four jungle areas of Andaman Islands along with total absence of ''P. vivax'' infections suggests the selective advantage offered to Fy (a–b–) individuals against ''P. vivax'' infection.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7798109|title=The Duffy blood groups of Jarawas - The primitive and vanishing tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India {{!}} Request PDF|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=23 November 2018}}</ref> An ] has been discovered among the Jarawas that is found nowhere else in the world. Blood samples of 116 Jarawas were collected and tested for Duffy blood group and malarial parasite infectivity. Results showed a total absence of both in two areas (Kadamtala and R.K Nallah) and low prevalence of both Fya antigen in another two areas (Jirkatang and Tirur). There was an absence of malarial parasite infection though ] was present in 27·59% of cases. A very high frequency of Fy (a–b–) in the Jarawa tribe from all the four jungle areas of Andaman Islands along with total absence of ''P. vivax'' infections suggests the selective advantage offered to Fy (a–b–) individuals against ''P. vivax'' infection.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Das MK, Singh SS, Adak T, Vasantha K, Mohanty D | title = The Duffy blood groups of Jarawas - the primitive and vanishing tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India | journal = Transfusion Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 237–40 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15943709 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3148.2005.00583.x | s2cid = 19301986 }}</ref>

Overall, the Andamanese showed closest relations with other Oceanic populations. The Nicobarese in contrast were observed to share close genetic relations with adjacent Indo-Mongoloid populations of Northeast India and Myanmar.<ref name="kashyap2003j" /> Bulbeck (2013) likewise noted that the Andamanese's nuclear DNA clusters with that of other Andamanese Islanders, as they carry a unique branch of ] (D1a3) and maternal ].<ref name="Bulbeck">{{cite journal|last=Bulbeck|first=David|date=November 2013|title=Craniodental Affinities of Southeast Asia's "Negritos" and the Concordance with Their Genetic Affinities|url=http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2053&context=humbiol|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=1|pages=95–134|doi=10.3378/027.085.0305|pmid=24297222|accessdate=17 December 2013}}</ref>

===Genomic===
The use of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) shows that the genome of Andamanese people is closest to those of other Oceanic Negrito groups and distinct from South Asians and East Asians.<ref name="Bulbeck" /> Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, confirms the above results. All Onge belong to M32 mtDNA, a ] which is unique to Onge people.<ref name="endicott2003" />

According to Reich et al. (2009). ] populations of the ] are composed, to significantly varying degrees, of mixtures of ancestry from: a group (known as "ASI" or "Ancestral South Indian") closest to but distinct from Andaman islanders, and populations from Western Eurasia (comprising a component termed "ANI" or "Ancestral North Indian").{{sfn|Reich|2009a|p=40}} Reich et al. speculate that the Andamanese split from mainland Asia 1,700 generations ago.<ref name="Reich"/> Andamanese are the only South Asian population in the study that lacked any Ancestral North Indian admixture.<ref name="Reich">{{cite journal|last=Reich|first=David|author2=Kumarasamy Thangaraj|author3=Nick Patterson|author4=Alkes L. Price|author5=Lalji Singh|date=24 September 2009|title=Reconstructing Indian Population History|journal=Nature|volume=461|issue=7263|pages=489–494|doi=10.1038/nature08365|pmc=2842210|pmid=19779445|bibcode=2009Natur.461..489R}}</ref> According to Basu et al. (2016), the populations of the ] archipelago form a distinct ancestry, which is "coancestral to ] populations and not close to South Asians (India)." They conclude that the Andamanese, though they may be the closest existing group to the ancient "ASI" ancestral component in modern South Asians, have a distinct ancestry and are not closely related to other South Asians but are closer to Southeast Asian Negritos.{{sfn|Basu|2016|p=1594}}

Moorjani et al. 2013 state that the "ASI" component in South Asians, though not closely related to any living group, is "related (distantly) to indigenous Andaman Islanders." Moorjani et al. also suggest possible gene flow into the Andamanese from a population related to the ASI. The study concluded that “almost all groups speaking Indo-European or Dravidian languages lie along a gradient of varying relatedness to West Eurasians in PCA (referred to as “Indian cline”)”.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moorjani P, Thangaraj K, Patterson N, Lipson M, Loh PR, Govindaraj P, Berger B, Reich D, Singh L | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 93 | issue = 3 | pages = 422–38 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23932107 | pmc = 3769933 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006 }}</ref>

A genetic analysis from Chaubey et al. 2015 found evidence of East Asian (]-related) ancestry in Andamanese people. They estimated 32% East Asian ancestry in the ] and 31% in the ], but suggest that this finding also may reflect the genetic affinity of the Andamanese to Melanesian and Southeast Asian Negrito populations (stating that "The Han ancestry measured in Andaman Negrito is probably partially capturing both Melanesian and Malaysian Negrito ancestry"),<ref name="Chaubey 2015"/> as a previous study by Chaubey et al. suggested "a deep common ancestry" between Andamanese, Melanesians and other Negrito groups (as well as South Asians), and an affinity between Southeast Asian Negritos and Melanesians with East Asians.<ref name="Chaubey_and_Endicott">{{Cite journal|last1=Chaubey|first1=Gyaneshwer|last2=Endicott|first2=Phillip|date=2013-02-01|title=The Andaman Islanders in a regional genetic context: reexamining the evidence for an early peopling of the archipelago from South Asia|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=1–3|pages=153–172|doi=10.3378/027.085.0307|issn=1534-6617|pmid=24297224|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2055&context=humbiol}}</ref>


===External genetic affinity===
McColl et al. (2018) Analysed 26 ancient samples from Southeast Asia and Japan spanning from the late Neolithic to the Iron Age, along with an ancient Ikawazu ] sample from southeast ].The Jomon female skeleton which was analyzed shows typical Jōmon morphology.<ref>https://www.kanazawa-u.ac.jp/latest-research/59409</ref> However this Jōmon individual partially shares some ancestry with prehistoric ]s, which in turn also share some ancestry with the ], Jehai (Peninsular Malaysia) in mainland Southeast Asia along with ] groups and ]ns, which represents possible gene flow from that group into the Jōmon population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Willerslev|first1=Eske|last2=Lambert|first2=David M.|last3=Higham|first3=Charles|last4=Oota|first4=Hiroki|last5=Phipps|first5=Maude E.|last6=Sikora|first6=Martin|last7=Orlando|first7=Ludovic|last8=Lahr|first8=Marta Mirazón|last9=Foley|first9=Robert A.|date=2018-07-06|title=The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia|journal=Science|language=en|volume=361|issue=6397|pages=88–92|doi=10.1126/science.aat3628|issn=0036-8075|pmid=29976827|quote=“Finally, the Jōmon individual is best-modeled as a mix between a population related to group 1/Önge and a population related to East Asians (Amis)” and “The oldest layer consists of mainland Hòabìnhians (group 1), who share ancestry with present-day Andamanese Önge, Malaysian Jehai, and the ancient Japanese Ikawazu Jōmon. Consistent with the two-layer hypothesis in MSEA, we observe a change in ancestry by ~4 ka ago, supporting a demographic expansion from EA into SEA during the Neolithic transition to farming.” and “Group 1 individuals differ from the other Southeast Asian ancient samples in containing components shared with the supposed descendants of the Hòabìnhians: the Önge and the Jehai (Peninsular Malaysia), along with groups from India and Papua New Guinea.”|bibcode=2018Sci...361...88M|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Jōmon individual is best modeled as a mix of Hòabìnhian (La368) and East Asian ancestry while present-day East Asians can be modeled as a mixture of an Önge-like population and a population related to the Tiányuán individual.<ref></ref><ref>https://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6397/88</ref> However, there is still lack of ancient genome data to understand the peopling history of East Eurasians. It is required to analyze more ancient genome data, if there found appropriate skeletons, in order to fill the gap and to prove the speculation.<ref name="biorxiv.org">https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2019/03/15/579177.full.pdf</ref>
].]]Genetic studies have revealed that the Andamanese people display affinity to the indigenous South Asian hunter-gatherers, often termed "Ancient Ancestral South Indians" (AASI), as well as to ]n populations (AA), such as ], and contemporary ] (ESEA). While the Andamanese are occasionally used as an imperfect proxy for the AASI component, they are genetically closer to the 'Basal East Asian' ].<ref name="Yelmen_2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Yelmen |first1=Burak |last2=Mondal |first2=Mayukh |last3=Marnetto |first3=Davide |last4=Pathak |first4=Ajai K |last5=Montinaro |first5=Francesco |last6=Gallego Romero |first6=Irene |last7=Kivisild |first7=Toomas |last8=Metspalu |first8=Mait |last9=Pagani |first9=Luca |date=5 April 2019 |title=Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msz037 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=36 |issue=8 |pages=1628–1642 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msz037 |issn=0737-4038 |pmc=6657728 |pmid=30952160}}</ref><ref name="Kusuma_2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Kusuma |first1=Pradiptajati |last2=Cox |first2=Murray P. |last3=Barker |first3=Graeme |last4=Sudoyo |first4=Herawati |last5=Lansing |first5=J. Stephen |last6=Jacobs |first6=Guy S. |date=1 November 2023 |title=Deep ancestry of Bornean hunter-gatherers supports long-term local ancestry dynamics |journal=Cell Reports |volume=42 |issue=11 |pages=113346 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113346 |issn=2211-1247|doi-access=free |pmid=37917587 }}</ref>


Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage trifurcated, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), the AASI, Andamanese, as well as East/Southeast Asians,<ref name="LipsonReich20172">{{cite journal|vauthors=Lipson M, Reich D|date=April 2017|title=A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=34|issue=4|pages=889–902|doi=10.1093/molbev/msw293|pmc=5400393|pmid=28074030}}</ref> although Papuans may have also received some geneflow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Almost all living people outside of Africa trace back to a single migration more than 50,000 years ago |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/almost-all-living-people-outside-africa-trace-back-single-migration-more-50000-years |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=www.science.org |language=en}}</ref> next to additional archaic admixture in the ] region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Melinda A. |date=6 January 2022 |title=A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia |url=http://www.pivotscipub.com/hpgg/2/1/0001/html |journal=Human Population Genetics and Genomics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |doi=10.47248/hpgg2202010001 |issn=2770-5005|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/gbe/evac045|title=Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Africa|last1=Vallini|first1=Leonardo|last2=Marciani|first2=Giulia|last3=Aneli|first3=Serena|last4=Bortolini|first4=Eugenio|last5=Benazzi|first5=Stefano|last6=Pievani|first6=Telmo|last7=Pagani|first7=Luca|journal=]|volume=14|date=4 April 2022|issue=4 |pmid=35445261 |pmc=9021735 |quote=Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 ka , it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45 and 38 ka, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities.}}</ref> Concerning the use of Andamanese as proxy for AASI ancestry, Yelmen et al. (2019) deduced that the non West Eurasian component, termed ''S-component'', extracted from South Asian samples would serve as a much better proxy for AASI ancestry, especially those extracted from ] samples, than the Andamanese.<ref name="Yelmen_2019"/> Overall, the Malaysian Negritos (]), such as the ], ], and ], are the closest modern living relatives of the Andamanese people.<ref name="IVCDNA3">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Shinde V, Narasimhan VM, Rohland N, Mallick S, Mah M, Lipson M, Nakatsuka N, Adamski N, Broomandkhoshbacht N, Ferry M, Lawson AM, Michel M, Oppenheimer J, Stewardson K, Jadhav N, Kim YJ, Chatterjee M, Munshi A, Panyam A, Waghmare P, Yadav Y, Patel H, Kaushik A, Thangaraj K, Meyer M, Patterson N, Rai N, Reich D|date=October 2019|title=An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers|journal=Cell|volume=179|issue=3|pages=729–735.e10|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048|pmc=6800651|pmid=31495572}}</ref><ref name="IVCDNA22">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Narasimhan VM, Patterson N, Moorjani P, Rohland N, Bernardos R, Mallick S, Lazaridis I, Nakatsuka N, Olalde I, Lipson M, Kim AM, Olivieri LM, Coppa A, Vidale M, Mallory J, Moiseyev V, Kitov E, Monge J, Adamski N, Alex N, Broomandkhoshbacht N, Candilio F, Callan K, Cheronet O, Culleton BJ, Ferry M, Fernandes D, Freilich S, Gamarra B, Gaudio D, Hajdinjak M, Harney É, Harper TK, Keating D, Lawson AM, Mah M, Mandl K, Michel M, Novak M, Oppenheimer J, Rai N, Sirak K, Slon V, Stewardson K, Zalzala F, Zhang Z, Akhatov G, Bagashev AN, Bagnera A, Baitanayev B, Bendezu-Sarmiento J, Bissembaev AA, Bonora GL, Chargynov TT, Chikisheva T, Dashkovskiy PK, Derevianko A, Dobeš M, Douka K, Dubova N, Duisengali MN, Enshin D, Epimakhov A, Fribus AV, Fuller D, Goryachev A, Gromov A, Grushin SP, Hanks B, Judd M, Kazizov E, Khokhlov A, Krygin AP, Kupriyanova E, Kuznetsov P, Luiselli D, Maksudov F, Mamedov AM, Mamirov TB, Meiklejohn C, Merrett DC, Micheli R, Mochalov O, Mustafokulov S, Nayak A, Pettener D, Potts R, Razhev D, Rykun M, Sarno S, Savenkova TM, Sikhymbaeva K, Slepchenko SM, Soltobaev OA, Stepanova N, Svyatko S, Tabaldiev K, Teschler-Nicola M, Tishkin AA, Tkachev VV, Vasilyev S, Velemínský P, Voyakin D, Yermolayeva A, Zahir M, Zubkov VS, Zubova A, Shinde VS, Lalueza-Fox C, Meyer M, Anthony D, Boivin N, Thangaraj K, Kennett DJ, Frachetti M, Pinhasi R, Reich D|date=September 2019|title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia|journal=Science|volume=365|issue=6457|pages=eaat7487|doi=10.1126/science.aat7487|pmc=6822619|pmid=31488661}}</ref><ref name="Chaubey 2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chaubey G |year=2015 |title=East Asian Ancestry in India |url=https://serialsjournals.com/abstract/78963_2.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physical Anthropology and Human Genetics |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=193–199}}</ref><ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103"/>
A study by {{harvtxt|Narasimhan et al.|2018}} concludes that ANI and ASI were formed in the 2nd millennium BCE, and were preceded by a mixture of AASI (Ancient Ancestral South Indian, i.e. hunter-gatherers sharing a common root with the Andamanese); and Iranian agriculturalists who arrived in India ca. 4700–3000 BCE, and "must have reached the Indus Valley by the 4th millennium BCE".{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} Narasimhan et al. observe that samples from the Indus periphery population are always mixes of the same two proximal sources of AASI and Iranian agriculturalist-related ancestry; with "one of the Indus Periphery individuals having ~42% AASI ancestry and the other two individuals having ~14-18% AASI ancestry" (with the remainder of their ancestry being from the Iranian agriculturalist-related population). According Narasimhan the genetic makeup of the ASI population consisted of about 73% AASI and about 27% from Iran-related peoples.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}}
]
When compared with ancient DNA samples, Andamanese peoples are closest to the pre-Neolithic ]s in Mainland Southeast Asia (covered by two samples from Malaysia and Laos), and display high genetic affinity to the ] in Northern China, with both being basal to contemporary East Asians, forming a "deep Asian" ancestral lineage. Deep Asian ancestry (Tianyuan/Onge) contributed to the ].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McColl H, Racimo F, Vinner L, Demeter F, Gakuhari T, Moreno-Mayar JV, van Driem G, Gram Wilken U, Seguin-Orlando A, de la Fuente Castro C, Wasef S, Shoocongdej R, Souksavatdy V, Sayavongkhamdy T, Saidin MM, Allentoft ME, Sato T, Malaspinas AS, Aghakhanian FA, Korneliussen T, Prohaska A, Margaryan A, de Barros Damgaard P, Kaewsutthi S, Lertrit P, Nguyen TM, Hung HC, Minh Tran T, Nghia Truong H, Nguyen GH, Shahidan S, Wiradnyana K, Matsumae H, Shigehara N, Yoneda M, Ishida H, Masuyama T, Yamada Y, Tajima A, Shibata H, Toyoda A, Hanihara T, Nakagome S, Deviese T, Bacon AM, Duringer P, Ponche JL, Shackelford L, Patole-Edoumba E, Nguyen AT, Bellina-Pryce B, Galipaud JC, Kinaston R, Buckley H, Pottier C, Rasmussen S, Higham T, Foley RA, Lahr MM, Orlando L, Sikora M, Phipps ME, Oota H, Higham C, Lambert DM, Willerslev E | display-authors = 6 | title = The prehistoric peopling of Southeast Asia | journal = Science | volume = 361 | issue = 6397 | pages = 88–92 | date = July 2018 | pmid = 29976827 | doi = 10.1126/science.aat3628 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2018Sci...361...88M | hdl = 10072/383365 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Göllner |first=Tobias |date=10 February 2022 |title=Unveiling the Genetic History of the Maniq, a Primary Hunter-Gatherer Society |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/14/4/evac021/6526392?login=false |access-date=8 May 2022 |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|volume=14 |issue=4 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evac021 |pmid=35143674 |pmc=9005329 }}</ref><ref name="Kusuma_2023"/>


Another genetic study by Yelmen et al. (2019) shows that the native South Asian genetic component is distinct from the Andamanese and thus that the Andamanese (Onge) are an imperfect and imprecise proxy for "ASI" ancestry in South Asians (there is difficulty detecting ASI ancestry in the North Indian Gujarati when the Andamanese Onge are used). Yemen et al. suggest that the South Indian tribal ] people would serve as a better proxy than the Andamanese (Onge) for the "native South Asian" component in modern South Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yelmen|first1=Burak|last2=Mondal|first2=Mayukh|last3=Marnetto|first3=Davide|last4=Pathak|first4=Ajai K.|last5=Montinaro|first5=Francesco|last6=Gallego Romero|first6=Irene|last7=Kivisild|first7=Toomas|last8=Metspalu|first8=Mait|last9=Pagani|first9=Luca|date=2019-08-01|title=Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|language=en|volume=36|issue=8|pages=1628–1642|doi=10.1093/molbev/msz037|pmid=30952160|pmc=6657728|issn=0737-4038}}</ref> ]
]


===Y-DNA===
Two more recent genetic studies (Shinde et al. 2019 and Narasimhan et al. 2019) on remains from the ] (of parts of Bronze Age northwest India and east Pakistan) found them to have a mixed ancestry: The samples analyzed by Shinde et al. had about 50-98% of their genome from Iranian ] peoples, which were also ancestral to Iranian farmers, and from 2-50% from South-east Asian hunter-gatherers sharing a common ancestry with the Andamanese, with the Iranian ancestry being on average predominant. The samples analyzed by Narasimhan et al. had 45–82% Iranian-related ancestry and 11–50% AASI (or Andamanese-related hunter-gatherer ancestry). The analysed samples of both studies have little to none of the "]" component associated with later Indo-European migrations into India. The authors found that the respective amounts of those ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and concluded that more samples are needed to get the full picture of Indian population history. Further Narasimhan et al. 2019 notes that the high correlation between Dravidian and ASI ancestry may suggest that the Dravidians originated from the AASI component and are native to peninsular South Asia (south and east India).<ref name="IVCDNA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shinde V, Narasimhan VM, Rohland N, Mallick S, Mah M, Lipson M, Nakatsuka N, Adamski N, Broomandkhoshbacht N, Ferry M, Lawson AM, Michel M, Oppenheimer J, Stewardson K, Jadhav N, Kim YJ, Chatterjee M, Munshi A, Panyam A, Waghmare P, Yadav Y, Patel H, Kaushik A, Thangaraj K, Meyer M, Patterson N, Rai N, Reich D | title = An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers | journal = Cell | volume = 179 | issue = 3 | pages = 729–735.e10 |date = September 2019 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048 | pmid = 31495572 | pmc = 6800651 }}</ref><ref name="IVCDNA2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Narasomhan VM et al.| title = The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia | journal = Science | volume = 365 | issue = 6457 | pages = eaat7487|date = September 2019 | pmid = 31488661| pmc = 6822619 | doi = 10.1126/science.aat7487 }}</ref>
] branches and its branches. Andamanese displays a high frequency of D1a2b (previously known as D1a3).]]
The male ] in humans is inherited exclusively through paternal descent. All sampled males of Onges (23/23) and Jarawas (4/4) belong to ](D1a3).<ref name="thangaraj2002">{{Citation|author=Kumarasamy Thangaraj, ], Alla G. Reddy, V. Raghavendra Rao, Subhash C. Sehgal, Peter A. Underhill, Melanie Pierson, Ian G. Frame, and Erika Hagelberg|title=Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population|url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf|year=2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029071336/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf|access-date=16 November 2008|archive-date=29 October 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ISOGG">{{cite web|url=http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpD08.html |title=Y-DNA Haplogroup D and its Subclades – 2008 |publisher=Isogg.org |access-date=14 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Tajima2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tajima A, Hayami M, Tokunaga K, Juji T, Matsuo M, Marzuki S, Omoto K, Horai S | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic origins of the Ainu inferred from combined DNA analyses of maternal and paternal lineages | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 187–193 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 14997363 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-004-0131-x | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.yfull.com/tree/D/ |title=D YTree |access-date=3 September 2019 |archive-date=31 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831121238/https://www.yfull.com/tree/D/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, male Great Andamanese do not appear to carry these clades. A low resolution study suggests that they belong to haplogroups ], ], ] and ] (P-M45).<ref name="thangaraj2002" />


A 2017 study by Mondal et al. finds that the Y-chromosome of the ] (a Tibeto-Burmese population), sublineage D1a3 (D-M174*) and the Andamanese D1a3 (*D-Y34637) have their nearest related lineages in ], splitting about 23,000 years ago from an East Asian-related population. The Jarawa and Onge shared this D1a3 lineage with each other within the last ~7,000 years, suggesting a bottleneck event. They further suggest that: “This strongly suggests that haplogroup D does not indicate a separate ancestry for Andamanese populations. Rather, haplogroup D was part of the standing variation carried by the OOA expansion, and later lost from most of the populations except in Andaman and partially in Japan and Tibet”. Other haplogroups found among Andamanese include haplogroup ], and ].<ref name="Mondal et al 20172">{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Mondal M, Bergström A, Xue Y, Calafell F, Laayouni H, Casals F, Majumder PP, Tyler-Smith C, Bertranpetit J|date=May 2017|title=Y-chromosomal sequences of diverse Indian populations and the ancestry of the Andamanese|journal=Human Genetics|volume=136|issue=5|pages=499–510|doi=10.1007/s00439-017-1800-0|pmid=28444560|hdl-access=free|s2cid=3725426|hdl=10230/34399}}</ref>
===Y DNA===
] branches.]]
The male ] in humans is inherited exclusively through paternal descent. All sampled males of Onges (23/23) and Jarawas (4/4) belong to ](D1a3).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kumarasamy | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population | journal = Current Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 2| pages = 86–93 | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2 | pmid = 12546781 }}</ref><ref name="ISOGG">{{cite web|url=http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpD08.html |title=Y-DNA Haplogroup D and its Subclades – 2008 |publisher=Isogg.org |accessdate=14 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Tajima2004">{{Citation | last = Tajima | first = Atsushi | year = 2004 | title = Genetic origins of the Ainu inferred from combined DNA analyses of maternal and paternal lineages | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 187–193 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-004-0131-x | pmid = 14997363 |display-authors=etal| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref></ref> However, male Great Andamanese do not appear to carry these clades. A low resolution study suggests that they belong to haplogroups ], ], ] and ] (P-M45).<ref name="thangaraj2002">{{Citation|author=Kumarasamy Thangaraj|title=Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population|url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf|year=2002|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029071336/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf|url-status=dead|quote=... Our data indicate that the Andamanese have closer affinities to Asian than to African populations and suggest that they are the descendants of the early Palaeolithic colonizers of Southeast Asia ... All Onge and Jarawa had the same binary haplotype D ... Great Andaman males had five different binary haplotypes, found previously in Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Melanesia ...|accessdate=16 November 2008|archivedate=29 October 2008|author2=Lalji Singh|author3=Alla G. Reddy|author4=V. Raghavendra Rao|author5=Subhash C. Sehgal|author6=Peter A. Underhill|author7=Melanie Pierson|author8=Ian G. Frame|author9=Erika Hagelberg|authorlink2=Lalji Singh|authorlink9=Erika Hagelberg}}</ref>


Several studies (Hammer et al. 2006, Shinoda 2008, Matsumoto 2009, Cabrera et al. 2018) suggest that the paternal haplogroup D-M174 originated somewhere in ]. According to Hammer et al., haplogroup D-M174 originated between Tibet and the Altai mountains. He suggests that there were multiple waves into Eastern Eurasia.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Matsumoto H|date=February 2009|title=The origin of the Japanese race based on genetic markers of immunoglobulin G|journal=Proceedings of the Japan Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences|volume=85|issue=2|pages=69–82|bibcode=2009PJAB...85...69M|doi=10.2183/pjab.85.69|pmc=3524296|pmid=19212099}}</ref> In a 2019 study by Haber et al. showed that Haplogroup D-M174 originated in Central Asia and evolved as it migrated to different directions of the continent. One group of population migrated to Siberia, others to Japan and Tibet, and another group migrated to the Andaman islands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hallast |first1=Pille |last2=Agdzhoyan |first2=Anastasia |last3=Balanovsky |first3=Oleg |last4=Xue |first4=Yali |last5=Tyler-Smith |first5=Chris |date=1 February 2021 |title=A Southeast Asian origin for present-day non-African human Y chromosomes |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-020-02204-9 |journal=Human Genetics |language=en |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=299–307 |doi=10.1007/s00439-020-02204-9 |issn=1432-1203 |pmc=7864842 |pmid=32666166}}</ref>
A 2017 study by Mondal et al. finds that Andamanese D lineages diverged from Japanese D lineages lineage ~53000 years ago" and that Andamanese D lineages and those of the ] (a Tibeto-Burmese population) have their nearest related lineages in ], also finding that the D lineages of the Jarawa and Onge (both Andamanese groups) share a common ancestry more recently, within the last ~7000 years. They further suggest that: “This strongly suggests that haplogroup D does not indicate a separate ancestry for Andamanese populations. Rather, haplogroup D was part of the standing variation carried by the OOA expansion, and later lost from most of the populations except in Andaman and partially in Japan and Tibet”.<ref name=":2" />


===Mitochondrial DNA=== ===mt-DNA ===
Bulbeck (2013) shows the Andamanese maternal mtDNA is entirely ].<ref name="Bulbeck2"/> Haplogroup M (mtDNA) is a descendant of ], typically found in Eurasia and parts of Africa. The mtDNA M is found in all ] and most of the ] samples.<ref name="thangaraj20022">{{Citation|author=Kumarasamy Thangaraj, ], Alla G. Reddy, V. Raghavendra Rao, Subhash C. Sehgal, Peter A. Underhill, Melanie Pierson, Ian G. Frame, and Erika Hagelberg|title=Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population|url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf|year=2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029071336/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf|access-date=16 November 2008|archive-date=29 October 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, confirms the above results.<ref name="endicott20032"/> Haplogroup M is however also the single most common mtDNA haplogroup in ], where it represents 60% of all maternal lineages.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=6|vauthors=Ghezzi D, Marelli C, Achilli A, Goldwurm S, Pezzoli G, Barone P, Pellecchia MT, Stanzione P, Brusa L, Bentivoglio AR, Bonuccelli U, Petrozzi L, Abbruzzese G, Marchese R, Cortelli P, Grimaldi D, Martinelli P, Ferrarese C, Garavaglia B, Sangiorgi S, Carelli V, Torroni A, Albanese A, Zeviani M|date=June 2005|title=Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup K is associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease in Italians|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=13|issue=6|pages=748–52|doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201425|pmid=15827561|doi-access=free|hdl=2434/781361|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="petraglia20072">{{Citation|title=The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC|year=2007|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4|quote=... As haplogroup M, except for the African sub-clade M1, is not notably present in regions west of the Indian subcontinent, while it covers the majority of Indian mtDNA variation ...|vauthors=Petraglia MD, Allchin B}}</ref> Haplogroup M is also relatively common in ] of ], ] at over 20%.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Non|first1=Amy|title=ANALYSES OF GENETIC DATA WITHIN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FRAMEWORK TO INVESTIGATE RECENT HUMAN EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY AND COMPLEX DISEASE|url=http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0041981/non_a.pdf|access-date=12 April 2016|publisher=University of Florida|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013000218/http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0041981/non_a.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Holden|title=MtDNA variation in North, East, and Central African populations gives clues to a possible back-migration from the Middle East|url=http://konig.la.utk.edu/AJPA_Suppl_40_web.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212239/http://konig.la.utk.edu/AJPA_Suppl_40_web.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016|access-date=13 April 2016|publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists}}</ref> Also in the ] in Mali and Burkina Faso at 18.42%.<ref name="Pereira20102">{{cite journal|author1=Luísa Pereira|author2=Viktor Černý|author3=María Cerezo|author4=Nuno M Silva|author5=Martin Hájek|author6=Alžběta Vašíková|author7=Martina Kujanová|author8=Radim Brdička|author9=Antonio Salas|date=17 March 2010|title=Linking the sub-Saharan and West Eurasian gene pools: maternal and paternal heritage of the Tuareg nomads from the African Sahel|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=18|issue=8|pages=915–923|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2010.21|pmc=2987384|pmid=20234393}}</ref>
Analysis of ], which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, confirms the above results. The ] and all the Adamanan Islanders belong strictly to the ]. All Andamanese belong to M31 and M32 mtDNA, a ] which is unique to Andamanese people.<ref name="Bulbeck" /><ref name="endicott2003" /> The analysis of 20 coding regions in 20 samples of ancient Andamanese people and 12 samples of modern Indian populations changed the topology of the two lineages in South Asians. The data received suggests an M31a lineage in South Asians and in East Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Multiplexed SNP Typing of Ancient DNA Clarifies the Origin of Andaman mtDNA Haplogroups amongst South Asian Tribal Populations|journal = PLOS ONE|date = 20 December 2006|pmc = 1766372|pmid = 17218991|pages = e81|volume = 1|issue = 1|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000081|first1 = Phillip|last1 = Endicott|first2 = Mait|last2 = Metspalu|first3 = Chris|last3 = Stringer|first4 = Vincent|last4 = Macaulay|first5 = Alan|last5 = Cooper|first6 = Juan J.|last6 = Sanchez|bibcode = 2006PLoSO...1...81E}}</ref> Other mainland specific ] are distributed in ], where they represent 60% of all maternal lineages.<ref name="thangaraj2002" /><ref name="petraglia2007">{{Citation | title=The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia |author1=Michael D. Petraglia |author2=Bridget Allchin | publisher=Springer | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC | quote=... As haplogroup M, except for the African sub-clade M1, is not notably present in regions west of the Indian subcontinent, while it covers the majority of Indian mtDNA variation ...}}</ref><ref name="Rajkumar et al.">{{cite journal | last1 = Rajkumar | first1 = Revathi | display-authors = etal | year = 2005 | title = Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 5 | issue = | page = 26 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-5-26 | pmid = 15804362 | pmc = 1079809 }}</ref> According to Endicott et al. (2002), this haplogroup originated with the earliest settlers of India during the coastal migration that may have brought the ancestors of the Andamanese to the Indian mainland, the Andaman Islands, and farther afield to Southeast Asia.<ref name="endicott2002">{{Citation | title=The Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders |author1=Phillip Endicott |author2=M. Thomas P. Gilbert |author3=Chris Stringer |author4=Carles Lalueza-Fox |author5=Eske Willerslev |author6=Anders J. Hansen |author7=Alan Cooper | date= 1 January 2002| publisher=The American Society of Human Genetics | quote=... The high frequency of M2 is consistent with its greater age, and its distribution suggests that many of the populations viewed as the ]s of India because of their cultural inheritance may also be genetic descendants of the early settlers of southern Asia ... | pmid=12478481 | journal=American Journal of Human Genetics | issue=1 | volume=72 | doi=10.1086/345487 | pmc=378623 | pages=178–84 }}</ref>


===Archaic Admixture=== ===Archaic Admixture===
Unlike some Negrito populations of Southeast Asia, Andaman Islanders have not been found to have ] ancestry.<ref name="Choi.">{{Citation |url=http://www.livescience.com/16171-denisovans-humans-widespread-sex-asia.html |title=Now-Extinct Relative Had Sex with Humans Far and Wide |publisher=] |date=22 September 2011 |first=Charles |last=Choi}}</ref> However, they are estimated, like all other non-African populations, to possess approximately 1-2% ] ancestry.<ref name="Mondal, Bertranpetit & Lao.">{{Citation |title= Approximate Bayesian computation with deep learning supports a third archaic introgression in Asia and Oceania |journal=] |volume= 10 |issue= 1 |pages= 246 |date=16 January 2019 |first=Mayukh |last=Mondal|doi= 10.1038/s41467-018-08089-7 |pmid= 30651539 |pmc= 6335398 |bibcode= 2019NatCo..10..246M }}</ref> A study suggests that all Asian and Australo-Papuan populations, including Andaman Islanders, also share between 2.6 and 3.4% of the genetic profile of a previously unknown hominin that was genetically roughly equidistant to Denisovans and Neandertals.<ref name="Teixeira & Cooper">{{Citation |title= Using hominin introgression to trace modern human dispersals |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume= 116 |issue= 31 |pages= 15327–15332 |publisher=] |date=17 June 2019 |first=Joao |last=Teixeira|doi= 10.1073/pnas.1904824116 |pmid= 31300536 |pmc= 6681743 }}</ref><ref name="Mondal, Bertranpetit & Lao."/> However, a 2018 study by Skoglund et al. lead by the Harvard Reich lab team did not replicate that result and did not find evidence for admixture from an unknown hominin in the Andamanese or other Asians.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 6433599 | pmid=29700470 | doi=10.1038/s41588-018-0097-9 | volume=50 | title=No evidence for unknown archaic ancestry in South Asia | year=2018 | journal=Nat Genet | pages=632–633 | last1 = Skoglund | first1 = P | last2 = Mallick | first2 = S | last3 = Patterson | first3 = N | last4 = Reich | first4 = D| issue=5 }}</ref> Wall et al. 2019 also did not find evidence of unknown archaic hominin admixture in Andamanese.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2019.11.005 | volume=105 | title=Identification of African-Specific Admixture between Modern and Archaic Humans | year=2019 | journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics | pages=1254–1261 | last1 = Wall | first1 = Jeffrey D. | last2 = Ratan | first2 = Aakrosh | last3 = Stawiski | first3 = Eric | last4 = Wall | first4 = Jeffrey D. | last5 = Stawiski | first5 = Eric | last6 = Ratan | first6 = Aakrosh | last7 = Lim Kim | first7 = Hie | last8 = Kim | first8 = Changhoon | last9 = Gupta | first9 = Ravi | last10 = Suryamohan | first10 = Kushal | last11 = Gusareva | first11 = Elena S. | last12 = Wenang Purbojati | first12 = Rikky | last13 = Bhangale | first13 = Tushar | last14 = Stepanov | first14 = Vadim | last15 = Kharkov | first15 = Vladimir | last16 = Schrӧder | first16 = Markus S. | last17 = Ramprasad | first17 = Vedam | last18 = Tom | first18 = Jennifer | last19 = Durinck | first19 = Steffen | last20 = Bei | first20 = Qixin | last21 = Li | first21 = Jiani | last22 = Guillory | first22 = Joseph | last23 = Phalke | first23 = Samir | last24 = Basu | first24 = Analabha | last25 = Stinson | first25 = Jeremy | last26 = Nair | first26 = Sandhya | last27 = Malaichamy | first27 = Sivasankar | last28 = Biswas | first28 = Nidhan K. | last29 = Chambers | first29 = John C. | last30 = Cheng | first30 = Keith C. | last31 = George | first31 = Joyner T. | last32 = Soon Khor | first32 = Seik | last33 = Kim | first33 = Jong-Il | last34 = Cho | first34 = Belong | last35 = Menon | first35 = Ramesh | last36 = Sattibabu | first36 = Thiramsetti | last37 = Bassi | first37 = Akshi | last38 = Deshmukh | first38 = Manjari | last39 = Verma | first39 = Anjali | last40 = Gopalan | first40 = Vivek | last41 = Shin | first41 = Jong-Yeon | last42 = Pratapneni | first42 = Mahesh | last43 = Santhosh | first43 = Sam | last44 = Tokunaga | first44 = Katsushi | last45 = Md-Zain | first45 = Badrul M. | last46 = Gan Chan | first46 = Kok | last47 = Parani | first47 = Madasamy | last48 = Natarajan | first48 = Purushothaman | last49 = Hauser | first49 = Michael | last50 = Allingham | first50 = R. Rand | last51 = Santiago-Turla | first51 = Cecilia | last52 = Ghosh | first52 = Arkasubhra | last53 = Gopi Krishna Gadde | first53 = Santosh | last54 = Fuchsberger | first54 = Christian | last55 = Forer | first55 = Lukas | last56 = Shoenherr | first56 = Sebastian | last57 = Sudoyo | first57 = Herawati | last58 = Lansing | first58 = J. Stephen | last59 = Friedlaender | first59 = Jonathan | last60 = Koki | first60 = George | last61 = Cox | first61 = Murray P. | last62 = Hammer | first62 = Michael | last63 = Karafet | first63 = Tatiana | last64 = Ang | first64 = Khai C. | last65 = Mehdi | first65 = Syed Q. | last66 = Radha | first66 = Venkatesan | last67 = Mohan | first67 = Viswanathan | last68 = Majumder | first68 = Partha P. | last69 = Seshagiri | first69 = Sekar | last70 = Seo | first70 = Jeong-Sun | last71 = Schuster | first71 = Stephan | last72 = Peterson | first72 = Andrew S.| issue=6 | pmid=31809748 | pmc=6904834 }}</ref> Unlike some Negrito populations of Southeast Asia, Andaman Islanders have not been found to have ] ancestry.<ref name="Choi.">{{Citation |url=http://www.livescience.com/16171-denisovans-humans-widespread-sex-asia.html |title=Now-Extinct Relative Had Sex with Humans Far and Wide |publisher=] |date=22 September 2011 | vauthors = Choi C }}</ref> However, they are estimated, like all other non-African populations, to possess approximately 1-2% ] ancestry.<ref name="Mondal, Bertranpetit & Lao.">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mondal M, Bertranpetit J, Lao O | title = Approximate Bayesian computation with deep learning supports a third archaic introgression in Asia and Oceania | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 246 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30651539 | pmc = 6335398 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-018-08089-7 | bibcode = 2019NatCo..10..246M }}</ref> A 2019 study concluded that all Asian and Australo-Papuan populations, including Andaman Islanders, also share between 2.6 and 3.4% of the genetic profile of a previously unknown hominin that was genetically roughly equidistant to Denisovans and Neanderthals.<ref name="Teixeira & Cooper">{{cite journal | vauthors = Teixeira JC, Cooper A | title = Using hominin introgression to trace modern human dispersals | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 116 | issue = 31 | pages = 15327–15332 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31300536 | pmc = 6681743 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1904824116 | bibcode = 2019PNAS..11615327T | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Mondal, Bertranpetit & Lao."/>


==See also== == See also ==
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==Notes== ==Notes==
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==References== == References ==
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==External links== == External links ==
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*{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

Latest revision as of 21:56, 20 December 2024

People of Andaman archipelago For other uses, see Andamanese (disambiguation).

Ethnic group
Andamanese
Group of Andamanese in c. 1903 or earlier
Total population
548 (2010–11)
Regions with significant populations
 India
Andaman Islands
Languages
Great Andamanese languages
Ongan languages (Onge, Jarawa)
Sentinelese
Hindi (as second language by some)
Religion
Andamanese animism

The Andamanese are the various indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, part of India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the union territory in the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The Andamanese are a designated Scheduled Tribe in India's constitution.

The Andamanese peoples are among the various groups considered Negrito, owing to their dark skin and diminutive stature. All Andamanese traditionally lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, and appear to have lived in substantial isolation for thousands of years. It is suggested that the Andamanese settled in the Andaman Islands around the latest glacial maximum, around 26,000 years ago.

The Andamanese peoples included the Great Andamanese and Jarawas of the Great Andaman archipelago, the Jangil of Rutland Island, the Onge of Little Andaman, and the Sentinelese of North Sentinel Island. Among the Andamanese, a division of two groups can be made. One is more open to contact with civilization and the other is hostile and resistant to communicate with the outer world.

At the end of the 18th century, when they first came into sustained contact with outsiders, an estimated 7,000 Andamanese remained. In the next century, they experienced a massive population decline due to epidemics of outside diseases and loss of territory. Today, only roughly over 500 Andamanese remain, with the Jangil being extinct. Only the Jarawa and the Sentinelese maintain a steadfast independence, refusing most attempts at contact by outsiders.

History

Members of an unspecified Andamanese tribe at fishing in c. 1870.

Until the late 18th century, the Andamanese culture, language, and genetics were preserved from outside influences by their fierce reaction to visitors, which included killing any shipwrecked foreigners, and by the remoteness of the islands. The various tribes and their mutually unintelligible languages thus are believed to have evolved on their own over millennia.

Venetian explorer Marco Polo wrote of the Andamanese in 1294, in The Travels of Marco Polo:

The people are without a king and are Idolaters, and no better than wild beasts. And I assure you all the men of this Island of Angamanain have heads like dogs, and teeth and eyes likewise; in fact, in the face they are all just like big mastiff dogs! They have a quantity of spices; but they are a most cruel generation, and eat everybody that they can catch, if not of their own race. They live on flesh and rice and milk, and have fruits different from any of ours.

Origins

Huts of Jangil tribe, taken by Maurice Vidal Portman, 1890s

The oldest archaeological evidence for the habitation of the islands dates to the 1st millennium BC. Genetic evidence suggests that the indigenous Andamanese peoples share a common origin, and that the islands were settled sometime after 26,000 years ago, possibly at the end of the Last Glacial Period, when sea levels were much lower reducing the distance between the Andaman Islands and the Asian mainland, with genetic estimates suggesting that the two main linguistic groups (Great Andamanese and Onge/Jarawa) diverged around 16,000 years ago.

It was previously assumed that the Andaman ancestors were part of the initial Great Coastal Migration (South-Eurasians or Australasians) that was the first expansion of humanity out of Africa, via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the South Asia towards Insular Southeast Asia, and Oceania. The Andamanese were considered to be a pristine example of a hypothesized Negrito population, which showed similar physical characteristics, and was supposed to have existed throughout southeast Asia. The existence of a specific Negrito-population is nowadays doubted. Their commonalities could be the result of evolutionary convergence and/or a shared history. Recent genetic studies conclusively demonstrate Negrito groups do not share a common origin to the exclusion of other Asians.

Colonial era

An official 1867 British government communication requesting the formation of an expeditionary party to search for shipwrecked sailors from the merchantman Assam Valley.

The Andamanese's protective isolation changed with the establishment of a British colonial presence on the islands. Lacking immunity against common infectious diseases of the Eurasian mainland, the large Jarawa habitats on the southeastern regions of South Andaman Island experienced a massive population decline due to disease within four years of the establishment of a colonial presence on the island in 1789. Epidemics of pneumonia, measles and influenza spread rapidly and exacted heavy tolls, as did alcoholism. In the 19th century, a measles epidemic killed 50% of the Andamanese population. By 1875, the Andamanese were already "perilously close to extinction". In 1888, the British government set in place a policy of "organized gift giving" that continued in varying forms until the islands, as part of the British Raj, gained independence from the British Empire.

Great Andamanese men, women and children, 1876

Tensions between the colonial administration and the Andamanese increased due to British officials introducing alcohol and opium to the Andamanese. During mid-19th century, the British government in India established penal colonies on the islands and an increasing number of Indian and Karen arrived, both as settlers and prisoners.

In 1867, the British launched the Andaman Islands expedition in order to rescue shipwrecked sailors from the Assam Valley on the Andamanese islands. The expedition was attacked by the Onge people upon their approach to the islands and were forced to withdraw. Four Victoria Crosses were awarded to members of the expedition.

In 1923, the British ornithologist and anthropologist Frank Finn, who visited the islands in the 1890s while working for the Indian Museum, described the Andamanese as "The World's Most Primitive People", writing:

I used to envy the pigmies their simple costume, which in the case of the ladies was a wisp and a waistband, and in that of the men, nothing at all. Their interests are looked after by an English Civil Servant, who has to see that no one sells them drink, or interferes with them in any way; but even this officer-in-charge, as he is styled, dares not go among them where he is not known, and considerable tact is required in getting an introduction to the local chief.

In the 1940s, the Jarawa were attacked by imperial Japanese forces for their hostility. This Japanese attack was criticized as a war crime by many observers.

Recent history

In 1974, a film crew and anthropologist Triloknath Pandit attempted friendly contact by leaving a tethered pig, some pots and pans, some fruit, and toys on the beach at North Sentinel Island. One of the islanders shot the film director in the thigh with an arrow. The following year, European visitors were repulsed with arrows.

On 2 August 1981, the Hong Kong freighter ship Primrose grounded on the North Sentinel Island reef. A few days later, crewmen on the immobile vessel observed that small black men were carrying spears and arrows and building boats on the beach. The captain of the Primrose radioed for an urgent airdrop of firearms so the crew could defend themselves, but did not receive them. Heavy seas kept the islanders away from the ship. After a week, the crew were rescued by an Indian navy helicopter.

On 4 January 1991, Triloknath Pandit made the first known friendly contact with the Sentinelese.

Until 1996, the Jarawa met most visitors with flying arrows. From time to time, they attacked and killed poachers on the lands reserved to them by the Indian government. They also killed some workers building the Andaman Trunk Road (ATR), which traverses Jarawa lands. One of the earliest peaceful contacts with the Jarawa occurred in 1996. Settlers found a teenaged Jarawa boy named Enmei near Kadamtala town. The boy was immobilized with a broken foot. They took Enmei to a hospital, where he received good care. Over several weeks, Enmei learned a few words of Hindi before returning to his jungle home. The following year, Jarawa individuals and small groups began appearing along roadsides and occasionally venturing into settlements to steal food. The ATR may have interfered with traditional Jarawa food sources.

On 17 November 2018, a United States missionary, John Allen Chau, was killed when he tried to introduce Christianity to the Sentinelese tribe. The Sentinelese have been protected from contact with the outside world. Trips to the Island are prohibited by Indian law. Chau was brought near the island by local fishermen, who were later arrested during the investigation into his death. Indian authorities attempted to retrieve Chau's remains without success.

Tribes

Distribution of Andamanese tribes in the Andaman Islands — early 1800s versus present-day (2004).

The four major groups of Andamanese are:

  • Jarawa: 380 individuals as of the 2011 Indian census. They live in the ex-Great Andamanese homeland in the West Coast and central parts of South and Middle Andaman Islands.
  • Onge: 101 individuals as of the 2011 Indian census. They live on Little Andaman.
  • Great Andamanese: 52 individuals in 2010. The tribal and linguistic distinctions have largely disappeared, many Great Andamanese were forced to learn Hindi. According to a 1995 report, all of the 37 persons identifying as Great Andamanese were of mixed Andamanese, Burmese and Indian ancestry. They live on Strait Island.
  • Sentinelese: estimated to be 15 individuals in 2011 Indian census. They live in the North Sentinel Island.
An Andamanese family on the Great Andaman island in 2006.

By the end of the eighteenth century, there were an estimated 5,000 Great Andamanese living on Great Andaman. Altogether they comprised ten distinct tribes with different languages. The population quickly dwindled to 600 in 1901 and to 19 by 1961. It has increased slowly after that, following their move to a reservation on Strait Island. As of 2010, the population was 52, representing a mix of the former tribes.

The Jarawa originally inhabited southeastern Jarawa Island and have migrated to the west coast of Great Andaman in the wake of the Great Andamanese. The Onge once lived throughout Little Andaman and now are confined to two reservations on the island. The Jangil, who originally inhabited Rutland Island, were extinct by 1931; the last individual was sighted in 1907. Only the Sentinelese are still living in their original homeland on North Sentinel Island, largely undisturbed, and have fiercely resisted all attempts at contact.

Languages

Main article: Andamanese languages

The Andamanese languages are considered to be the fifth language family of India, following the Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Sino-Tibetan.

While some connections have been tentatively proposed with other language families, such as Austronesian, or the controversial Indo-Pacific family, the consensus view is currently that Andamanese languages form a separate language family – or rather, two unrelated linguistic families: Greater Andamanese and Ongan.

Culture

Group of Andamanese hunting, early 20th century

Until contact, the Andamanese were strict hunter-gatherers. They did not practice cultivation, and lived off hunting indigenous pigs, fishing, and gathering. Their only weapons were the bow, adzes, and wooden harpoons. The Andamanese knew of no method for making fire in the nineteenth century. They instead carefully preserved embers in hollowed-out trees from fires caused by lightning strikes.

The men wore girdles made of hibiscus fiber which carried useful tools and weapons for when they went hunting. The women on the other hand wore a tribal dress containing leaves that were held by a belt. A majority of them had painted bodies as well. They usually slept on leaves or mats and had either permanent or temporary habitation among the tribes. All habitations were man made.

Some of the tribe members were credited with having supernatural powers. They were called oko-pai-ad, which meant dreamer. They were thought to have an influence on the members of the tribe and would bring misfortune to those who did not believe in their abilities. Traditional knowledge practitioners were the ones who helped with healthcare. The medicine that was used to cure illnesses were herbal most of the time. Various types of medicinal plants were used by the islanders. 77 total traditional knowledge practitioners were identified and 132 medicinal plants were used. The members of the tribes found various ways to use leaves in their everyday lives including clothing, medicine, and to sleep on.

Anthropologist A.R. Radcliffe Brown argued that the Andamanese had no government and made decisions by group consensus.

Religion

The native Andamanese religion and belief system is a form of animism. Ancestor worship is an important element in the religious traditions of the Andaman islands. Andamanese Mythology held that humans emerged from split bamboo, whereas the women were fashioned from clay. One version found by Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown held that the first man died and went to heaven, a pleasurable world, but this blissful period ended due to breaking a food taboo, specifically eating the forbidden vegetables in the Puluga's garden. Thus Catastrophe ensued, and eventually the people grew overpopulated and didn't follow Puluga's laws, and hence there was a Great Flood that left four survivors, who lost their fire.

Physical appearance

Further information: Negrito and Australo-Melanesian

Phenotype

Two Great Andamanese men in 1875.

Negritos, specifically Andamanese, are grouped together by phenotype and anthropological features. Three physical features that distinguish the Andaman islanders include: skin colour, hair, and stature. Those of the Andaman islands have dark skin, are short in stature, and have "frizzy" hair, while displaying "Asiatic facial features".

Dental morphology

Dental characteristics also group the Andamanese between Negrito and East-Asian samples.

When comparing dental morphology the focus is on overall size and tooth shape. To measure the size and shape, Penrose's size and shape statistic is used. To calculate tooth size, the sum of the tooth area is taken. Factor analysis is applied to tooth size to achieve tooth shape. Results have shown that the dental morphology of Andaman Islanders resembles that of tribal populations of South Asia (Adivasi) the most, followed by Philippine Negrito groups, contemporary Southeast Asians, and East Asians. The tooth size of the Andamanese was found to be most similar to that of Han Chinese and Japanese.

Genetics

Riala, an interpreter for the British from the Aka-Kede tribe of Great Andamanese from Middle Andaman, in 1890"Scarification pattern among the Great Andamanese in the late 19th century. Nothing is known of the origins or antiquity of this custom among the Andamanese." – Edward Horace Man, 1901 Main article: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia

Genetic analysis, both of nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA provide information about the origins of the Andamanese. Genetic studies agree that Great Andamanese as well as Onge and Jawara, share a common origin to the exclusion of other Asians, and that they are highly genetically divergent from other Asian populations.

Genetic variation

The Andamanese show a very small genetic variation, which is indicative of populations that have experienced a population bottleneck and then developed in isolation for a long period.

An allele has been discovered among the Jarawas that is found nowhere else in the world. Blood samples of 116 Jarawas were collected and tested for Duffy blood group and malarial parasite infectivity. Results showed a total absence of both Fya and Fyb antigens in two areas (Kadamtala and R.K Nallah) and low prevalence of both Fya antigen in another two areas (Jirkatang and Tirur). There was an absence of malarial parasite Plasmodium vivax infection though Plasmodium falciparum infection was present in 27·59% of cases. A very high frequency of Fy (a–b–) in the Jarawa tribe from all the four jungle areas of Andaman Islands along with total absence of P. vivax infections suggests the selective advantage offered to Fy (a–b–) individuals against P. vivax infection.

External genetic affinity

Phylogenetic position of the Andamanese lineage among other East Eurasians.

Genetic studies have revealed that the Andamanese people display affinity to the indigenous South Asian hunter-gatherers, often termed "Ancient Ancestral South Indians" (AASI), as well as to Australasian populations (AA), such as Melanesians, and contemporary East/Southeast Asian peoples (ESEA). While the Andamanese are occasionally used as an imperfect proxy for the AASI component, they are genetically closer to the 'Basal East Asian' Tianyuan man.

Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial eastern lineage trifurcated, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), the AASI, Andamanese, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Papuans may have also received some geneflow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%, next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region. Concerning the use of Andamanese as proxy for AASI ancestry, Yelmen et al. (2019) deduced that the non West Eurasian component, termed S-component, extracted from South Asian samples would serve as a much better proxy for AASI ancestry, especially those extracted from Irula samples, than the Andamanese. Overall, the Malaysian Negritos (Semang), such as the Maniq people, Jahai people, and Batek people, are the closest modern living relatives of the Andamanese people.

Schematic summary of population settlement in Insular Southeast Asia, involving several East Eurasian lineages: (A) Initial occupation of Sunda and Sahul by ancestry related to modern New Guinean and Australian Aboriginal populations, followed by deep mainland Asian (Tianyuan- or Onge-related) ancestry. (B) Dispersals of ancestries associated with ancient Mainland Southeast Asian and ancestral Punan-related components predating the coastal South Chinese, and hence Austronesian-related, ancestries. (C) Austronesian expansion leading to Austronesian (Ami- and Kankanaey-related) ancestry observed in NE and SE Borneans and subsequent specific Papuan ancestry admixture observed in the Lebbo population in East Borneo.

When compared with ancient DNA samples, Andamanese peoples are closest to the pre-Neolithic Hoabinhians in Mainland Southeast Asia (covered by two samples from Malaysia and Laos), and display high genetic affinity to the Tianyuan man in Northern China, with both being basal to contemporary East Asians, forming a "deep Asian" ancestral lineage. Deep Asian ancestry (Tianyuan/Onge) contributed to the Peopling of Southeast Asia.

Principal component analysis of ancient and present-day individuals from Eurasian populations.
PCA of Orang Asli (Semang) and Andamanese, with worldwide populations in HGDP.

Y-DNA

Proposed migration routes of East Asian paternal lineages, including haplogroup D branches and its branches. Andamanese displays a high frequency of D1a2b (previously known as D1a3).

The male Y-chromosome in humans is inherited exclusively through paternal descent. All sampled males of Onges (23/23) and Jarawas (4/4) belong to a sublineage of D-M174(D1a3). However, male Great Andamanese do not appear to carry these clades. A low resolution study suggests that they belong to haplogroups K, L, O and P1 (P-M45).

A 2017 study by Mondal et al. finds that the Y-chromosome of the Riang people (a Tibeto-Burmese population), sublineage D1a3 (D-M174*) and the Andamanese D1a3 (*D-Y34637) have their nearest related lineages in East Asia, splitting about 23,000 years ago from an East Asian-related population. The Jarawa and Onge shared this D1a3 lineage with each other within the last ~7,000 years, suggesting a bottleneck event. They further suggest that: “This strongly suggests that haplogroup D does not indicate a separate ancestry for Andamanese populations. Rather, haplogroup D was part of the standing variation carried by the OOA expansion, and later lost from most of the populations except in Andaman and partially in Japan and Tibet”. Other haplogroups found among Andamanese include haplogroup P, and L-M20.

Several studies (Hammer et al. 2006, Shinoda 2008, Matsumoto 2009, Cabrera et al. 2018) suggest that the paternal haplogroup D-M174 originated somewhere in Central Asia. According to Hammer et al., haplogroup D-M174 originated between Tibet and the Altai mountains. He suggests that there were multiple waves into Eastern Eurasia. In a 2019 study by Haber et al. showed that Haplogroup D-M174 originated in Central Asia and evolved as it migrated to different directions of the continent. One group of population migrated to Siberia, others to Japan and Tibet, and another group migrated to the Andaman islands.

mt-DNA

Bulbeck (2013) shows the Andamanese maternal mtDNA is entirely mitochondrial Haplogroup M. Haplogroup M (mtDNA) is a descendant of haplogroup L3, typically found in Eurasia and parts of Africa. The mtDNA M is found in all Onge and most of the Great Andamanese samples. Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, confirms the above results. Haplogroup M is however also the single most common mtDNA haplogroup in Asia, where it represents 60% of all maternal lineages. Haplogroup M is also relatively common in Northeast Africa of Somalis, Oromo at over 20%. Also in the Tuareg in Mali and Burkina Faso at 18.42%.

Archaic Admixture

Unlike some Negrito populations of Southeast Asia, Andaman Islanders have not been found to have Denisovan ancestry. However, they are estimated, like all other non-African populations, to possess approximately 1-2% Neanderthal ancestry. A 2019 study concluded that all Asian and Australo-Papuan populations, including Andaman Islanders, also share between 2.6 and 3.4% of the genetic profile of a previously unknown hominin that was genetically roughly equidistant to Denisovans and Neanderthals.

See also

Notes

  1. Because of their complete isolation, nearly nothing is known about the Sentinelese language, which is therefore unclassified. It has been recorded that the Jarawa language is mutually unintelligible with the Sentinelese language. There is uncertainty as to the range of overlap with the Onge language, if any. The Anthropological Survey of India's 2016 handbook on Vulnerable Tribe Groups considers them mutually unintelligible.
  2. They originally lived in the southern part of South Andaman Island in the Great Andaman archipelago.
  3. They originally lived in the Great Andaman archipelago.

References

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External links

Negritos
Andaman Islands
Andamanese
Malaysia
Philippines
Thailand
Italics indicate extinct groups
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