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{{Short description|Law-enforcement practice}} | |||
'''Racial profiling''' is the inclusion of ] as a primary determinant in the characterization of a persons considered likely to commit a particular type of crime (see ]). Towards the end of the 20th century in the ], the practice fell into disfavor with the general public as abuses by ] came to light. | |||
'''Racial profiling''' or '''ethnic profiling''' is the act of suspecting, targeting, or discriminating against a person based on their ], ], or ], rather than individual suspicion or evidence. This practice involves discrimination against minority populations and often relies on negative ]s. Racial profiling can include disproportionate stop-and-searches, traffic stops, and the use of surveillance technology for facial identification.<ref name="Racial Profiling">{{cite web|title=Racial Profiling|url=https://www.aclu.org/issues/racial-justice/race-and-criminal-justice/racial-profiling|website=American Civil Liberties Union|access-date=September 12, 2024}}</ref> Racial profiling can occur ] (when state policies target specific racial groups) or ] (when the practice occurs outside official legislation).<ref name="nij.ojp.gov">{{cite web|title=Racial Profiling|url=https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/racial-profiling|website=National Institute of Justice|access-date=September 12, 2024}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Critics argue that racial profiling is discriminatory as it disproportionately targets people of color. Supporters claim it can be an effective tool for preventing crime but acknowledge that it should be closely monitored and used in a way that respects civil rights.<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web|title=Racial Profiling|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/racial-profiling|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=September 12, 2024}}</ref><ref name="plato.stanford.edu">{{cite web|title=Racial Profiling|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/racial-profiling/|website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=September 12, 2024}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="hrw.org">{{cite web|title=Racial Profiling Violates Human Rights|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/05/racial-profiling-violates-human-rights|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=September 12, 2024}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="brookings.edu">{{cite web|title=Racial Profiling in the Age of Terrorism|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/racial-profiling-in-the-age-of-terrorism/|website=Brookings Institution|access-date=September 12, 2024}}</ref> | |||
== Advocacy == | |||
==Academic debate== | |||
Criminal Advocates are against the use of racial profiling tactics by the police. They argue that the disproportionate number of convicted minorities is due to "racial profiling". | |||
The subject of racial profiling has sparked debate between ]s who disagree on its ] status. Some believe that racial profiling is morally permissible under certain circumstances, whereas others argue it is never morally permissible. | |||
===Justifications=== | |||
Countering this, it is argued that including race as one of the several factors in suspect profiling is generally supported by the law enforcement community within the ]. It is claimed that profiling based on "any" characteristic is a time-tested and universal police tool, and that excluding race as a factor is insensible. | |||
Those who argue in favor of racial profiling usually set some conditions for the practice to be justified. The profiling should be fair, evidence-based and non-abusive.<ref name="Lever-2016">{{Cite book |last=Lever |first=Annabelle |title=Oxford Handbook of the Philosophy of Race |publisher=OUP |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190236953 |editor-last=Zack |edition=1st |pages=425–435 |chapter=Race and Racial Profiling}}</ref> Proponents of racial profiling generally argue that, if these conditions are met, it can be an efficient tool for ] because it allows ] to focus their efforts on groups that are statistically more likely to commit crimes.<ref name="Risse and Zeckhauser-2004">{{Cite journal |last=Risse and Zeckhauser |date=2004 |title=Racial Profiling |url=https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.2004.00009.x |journal=Philosophy & Public Affairs |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=131–170 |doi=10.1111/j.1088-4963.2004.00009.x}}</ref> | |||
The most influential defense of racial profiling comes from Mathias Risse and ]. Risse and Zeckhauser provide a ] analysis of racial profiling, weighing the benefits and costs against each other. They conclude that racial profiling is morally permissible because the harms done to the search subjects are fewer than the potential benefits for society in terms of security. Moreover, the (innocent) subjects themselves also benefit because they will live a safer environment overall.<ref name="Risse and Zeckhauser-2004" /> | |||
== Example == | |||
Others believe that Racial Profiling simply fits stereotypes. To illustrate this example: | |||
Risse and Zeckhauser conclude that the objections to racial profiling are not rooted in the practice per se but in background ]. Instead of banning racial profiling, they argue, efforts should be made to remedy ] in our societies.<ref name="Risse and Zeckhauser-2004" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Risse |first=Mathias |date=2007 |title=Racial profiling: A reply to two critics |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0731129X.2007.9992207 |journal=Criminal Justice Ethics |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=4–19|doi=10.1080/0731129X.2007.9992207 |s2cid=144965055 }}</ref> | |||
According to the US Census Bureau: | |||
===Consequences=== | |||
Black or African American: | |||
Opponents of racial profiling have claimed that those who support racial profiling grossly underestimate the harms done by racial profiling and fail to recognize how the practice can exacerbate ].<ref name="Lever-2016" /> | |||
As of July 1st, 2005, the percent of the United States population that is Black or African American was 12.8% | |||
According to the FBI, Black or African Americans (in 2005) were responsible for 30.195% of the total crime in the United States. | |||
Adam Omar Hosein argues that racial profiling may be permissible under certain circumstances, but the present circumstances (in the ]) make it unjust. The costs of racial profiling for black communities in the U.S. are much higher than Risse and Zeckhauer account for. Racial profiling can make targeted individuals assume they have an inferior political status, which can lead to an ] from the state. This can make racial profiling turn into a ] when an individual is more likely to commit a crime because they are perceived as a criminal.<ref name="Hosein-2018">{{Cite journal |last=Hosein |first=Adam Omar |date=2018 |title=Racial Profiling and a Reasonable Sense of Inferior Political Status |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12162 |journal=Journal of Political Philosophy |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1111/jopp.12162 |s2cid=149645353}}</ref> | |||
White or Caucasian: | |||
As of July 1st, 2005, the percent of the United States population that is White or Caucasian was 80.2% | |||
According to the FBI, White or Caucasians (in 2005) were responsible for 67.347% of the total crime in the United States. | |||
Hosein also points to an ] problem. Arguments in favor of racial profiling are based on the premise that there is a ] between belonging to a specific racial group and committing certain crimes. However, should such a correlation exist, it is based on data that is skewed by previous racial profiling. Because more subjects of a certain racial group were targeted, more crime was registered in this group. It is therefore epistemically unjustified to assume that this group commits more crime.<ref name="Hosein-2018" /> | |||
So according to this example, Black or African Americans are 2.8 times more likely to commit crimes than White or Caucasians. Drawing such a conclusion about blacks and crime from these statistics is an example of Racial Profiling. An alternative view is that blacks are simply over-represented because of increased police scrutiny. | |||
==Canada== | |||
Profiling any individual that happens to be represented by a special interest group based on numbers, statistics, or other verifiable facts is taboo in the United States. | |||
Accusations of racial profiling of ] who accuse police of targeting them due to their ethnic background is a growing concern in ]. In 2005, the ] released the first study ever in Canada which pertains to racial profiling. The study focused on the city of ], a small city where most of the inhabitants are white. The study showed that black-skinned people were 3.7 times more likely to be pulled over by police than white-skinned people, while Asian and White people are less likely to be pulled over than Black people.<ref name="cbc_study">{{cite news|title=Police stop more blacks, Ont. study finds|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/police-stop-more-blacks-ont-study-finds-1.565724|publisher=CBC News|access-date=June 8, 2010 | date=May 27, 2005}}</ref> Several police organizations condemned this study and suggested more studies like this would make them hesitant to pull over visible minorities. | |||
] are more likely to be charged with crimes, particularly on ]. The Canadian crime victimization survey does not collect data on the ethnic origin of perpetrators, so comparisons between incidence of victimizations and incidence of charging are impossible.<ref>{{citation|last1=Brzozowski|first1=Jodi-Anne|title=Victimization and offending among the Aboriginal population in Canada|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?lang=eng&catno=85-002-X20060039199|volume=26|issue=3|publisher=Statistics Canada|last2=Taylor-Butts|first2=Andrea|last3=Johnson|first3=Sara|date=6 June 2006}}</ref> Although aboriginal persons make up 3.6% of Canada's population, they account for 20% of Canada's prison population. This may show how racial profiling increases effectiveness of police, or be a result of racial profiling, as they are watched more intensely than others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www41.statcan.ca/2006/2693/ceb2693_002-eng.htm|title=Aboriginal people over-represented in Saskatchewan's prisons|website=Statistics Canada|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227153925/http://www41.statcan.ca/2006/2693/ceb2693_002-eng.htm|archive-date=2009-02-27|url-status=dead|access-date=2010-03-11|df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
== Criticism == | |||
In February 2010, an investigation of the '']'' daily newspaper found that black people across Toronto were three times more likely to be stopped and documented by police than white people. To a lesser extent, the same seemed true for people described by police as having "brown" skin (], ] and ]). This was the result of an analysis of 1.7 million contact cards filled out by ] officers in the period 2003–2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/article/761551--when-good-people-are-swept-up-with-the-bad|title=When good people are swept up with the bad|last=Rankin|first=Jim|date=2010-02-06|work=]|access-date=July 29, 2010|quote=When good people are swept up with the bad - We're not trying to make any excuses for this. We recognize that bias in police decision making is a big, big issue for us, and so we're working really hard on it.}}</ref> | |||
Critics argue that race should: | |||
* never be considered for any reason in a police action (save the exceptions made below). | |||
* never be considered the primary or motivating factor for suspicion. | |||
* only be considered when it is used to describe a specific suspect in a specific crime and only when used in a manner like other physical descriptions (e.g., hair color, weight, distinguishing marks). | |||
* even if race could be helpful, use of race may cause many more errors where the actual offender happened not to fit the race predicted by the model and law enforcement fails to capture the suspect | |||
The ] states that "]s have acknowledged that racial profiling does occur and have taken measures to address , including upgrading training for officers, identifying officers at risk of engaging in racial profiling, and improving community relations".<ref>{{cite book|last=Griffiths|first=Curt|title=Canadian Police Work|year=2008|publisher=Nelson Education|location=Toronto|isbn=978-0176424107|page=|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/canadianpolicewo0000grif/page/311}}</ref> ] addressed this issue and planned on implementing a new policy regarding officer racially profiling persons, "the policy explicitly forbids officers from investigating or detaining anyone based on their race and will force officers to go through training on racial profiling".<ref name="CTV News-2011">{{cite web|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/ottawa-police-introduce-new-racial-profiling-policy-1.684206|title=Ottawa police introduce new racial profiling policy|date=2011-08-16|website=CTV News|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723024712/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Canada/20110816/racial-profiling-policy-110816/|archive-date=2012-07-23|url-status=live}}</ref> This policy was implemented after the 2008 incident where an African Canadian woman was ]ed by members of the Ottawa police. There is a ] showing the strip search where one witnesses the black woman being held to the ground and then having her bra and shirt cut ripped/cut off by a member of the Ottawa Police Force which was released to the viewing of the public in 2010.<ref name="CTV News-2011" /> | |||
It is sometimes necessary to consider racial factors in a way that may not be immediately apparent from the above when dealing with hate crimes and the like, though it is very rare to think of situations where racial profiling would aid police decision making in this context. | |||
==China== | |||
This is often referred to as the "be on the lookout" (BOLO) exception | |||
The Chinese government has been using a ] ], analysing ] output of surveillance cameras to track and control ], a Muslim minority in China's Western province of ]. The extent of the vast system was published in the spring of 2019 by the NYT who called it "automated racism".<ref name="nyt0414">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/14/technology/china-surveillance-artificial-intelligence-racial-profiling.html |title=One Month, 500,000 Face Scans: How China Is Using A.I. to Profile a Minority |last=Mozur |first=Paul |date=2019-04-14 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2019-12-04 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In research projects aided by European institutions it has combined the facial output with people's DNA, to create an ethnic profile. The DNA was collected at the prison camps, which are interning more than one million Uyghurs, as had been corroborated in November 2019 by data leaks, such as the ].<ref name="nyt123">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/03/business/china-dna-uighurs-xinjiang.html |title=China Uses DNA to Map Faces, With Help From the West |last1=Wee |first1=Sui-Lee |date=2019-12-03 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2019-12-04 |last2=Mozur |first2=Paul |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55634388|title = Huawei patent mentions use of Uighur-spotting tech|work = BBC News|date = 13 January 2021}}</ref> | |||
==Germany== | |||
Some groups argue that if a disproportional number of members of a race are, for example, stopped, searched, or arrested, compared to the general population or to other races, it is due to ]. Some also suggest that, in the United States, the government does not have the right to conduct racial profiling. The Fourth Amendment of the ] guarantees the right to be safe from unreasonable search and seizure without probable cause. Since the vast majority of people of all races are law-abiding citizens, merely being of a race which a police officer believes to be more likely to commit a crime than another is not probable cause. In addition, the Fourteenth Amendment of the ] requires that all US citizens be treated equally under the law. It has been argued that this makes it unconstitutional for a representative of the government to make decisions based on race. This view has been upheld by the US ] in ] and several other cases. | |||
In February 2012, the first court ruling concerning racial profiling in German police policy, allowing police to use skin color and "non-German ethnic origin" to select persons who will be asked for identification in spot-checks for illegal immigrants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/german-press-review-on-court-ruling-allowing-police-checks-based-on-skin-color-a-824601.html|title=The World from Berlin: Profiling Ruling 'Sows Seeds of Distrust and Racism'|date=2012-03-29|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=2019-01-08}}</ref> Subsequently, it was decided legal for a person submitted to a spot-check to compare the policy to that of the ] in public.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anwaltskanzlei Sven Adam Polizei-, Ordnungs- und Versammlungsrecht Oberlandesgericht Frankfurt am Main - Az.: 2 Ss 329/11|url=http://www.anwaltskanzlei-adam.de/index.php?id=106,753,0,0,1,0}}</ref> A higher court later overruled the earlier decision declaring the racial profiling unlawful and in violation of anti-discrimination provisions in Art. 3 Basic Law and the General Equal Treatment Act of 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.taz.de/!5080660/|title=Urteil zu Kontrollen nach Hautfarbe: Gericht verbietet Polizei-Rassismus|last=Rath|first=Christian|date=2012-10-30|work=Die Tageszeitung: taz|access-date=2019-01-08|language=de|trans-title=Judgment on checks on skin color: Court bans police racism|issn=0931-9085}}</ref> | |||
The civil rights organisation ''Büro zur Umsetzung von Gleichbehandlung'' (Office for the Implementation of Equal Treatment) makes a distinction between criminal profiling, which is legitimate in Germany, and ethnic profiling, which is not.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bug-ev.org/en/topics/focus-areas/dossiers/ethnic-profiling/what-is-ethnic-profiling.html|title=What is ethnic profiling?|website=www.bug-ev.org|access-date=2019-01-08|archive-date=2018-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017181329/http://www.bug-ev.org/en/topics/focus-areas/dossiers/ethnic-profiling/what-is-ethnic-profiling.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
Some groups also argue that police who focus their limited attention on one racial group allow criminals from other racial groups to go free. In the days immediately following the 1995 ], law enforcement spent a disproportionate amount of time and resources on two men of middle eastern descent. It turned out that this terrorist attack was perpetrated by a white male; if the terrorist had planned more than one attack, the waste of limited resources investigating men of middle eastern descent could have cost lives. | |||
According to a 2016 report by the Interior ministry in Germany, there had been an increase in ] in Germany.<ref name="BBC News-2017">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39096833|title=Germany hate crime: Nearly 10 attacks a day on migrants in 2016|date=2017-02-26|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-03-06|language=en-GB}}</ref> The reports concluded that there were more than 10 attacks per day against migrants in Germany in 2016.<ref name="BBC News-2017" /> This report from Germany garnered the attention of the United Nations, which alleged that people of African descent face widespread discrimination in Germany.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.politico.eu/article/un-says-racial-profiling-widespread-in-germany/|title=UN says racial profiling widespread in Germany|last=Saeed|first=Saim|date=2017-02-28|work=POLITICO|access-date=2017-03-06|language=en-US}}</ref> | |||
In ] in December of 2001, a man of Middle Eastern descent named Assem Bayaa cleared all the security checks in the airport. He was an American citizen and he got on a plane to New York. He had barely gotten settled in his seat when he was told that he made the crew uncomfortable by being on board the plane. Once Bayaa got off the plane, he wasn't searched or questioned any further. The only consolation he was given was a boarding pass for the next flight to New York. The luggage he had checked wasn't even taken off the plane he was originally on. He filed a lawsuit on the basis of discrimination against ], who filed a motion that said that because of national security, they don't have to obey civil rights protection laws. The motion was dismissed on October 11, 2002. The district judge ruled that a pilot's discretion "does not grant them a license to discriminate," (The Advocate, Santa Clara University School of Law Newsletter). | |||
A 2017 statement by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Rights after a visit to Germany states: "While the Basic Law guarantees equality, prohibits racial discrimination, and states that human dignity is inviolable, it is not being enforced." and calls racial profiling by police officials endemic. Recommendations include legal reform, establishing an independent complaint system, training and continuing education for the police, and investigations to promote accountability and remedy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=21233|title=Statement to the media by the United Nations' Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent, on the conclusion of its official visit to Germany, 20-27 February 2017|date=27 February 2017|access-date=4 November 2021|website=Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights}}</ref> | |||
Racial profiling involves police use of race as a key factor in decisions to stop and interrogate people. More specifically, it can be defined as "the practice of constructing a set of characteristics or behaviors based on race and using that set of characteristics to decide whether an individual might be guilty of some crime and therefore worthy of investigation or arrest," (McGraw Hill Online Learning Center). In airports, racial profiling is sometimes used to pick who to search more carefully and extensively than everyone else. If a person's physical features look like those specific to someone of Middle Eastern descent, then they're generally more likely to be stopped and searched thoroughly than someone who has the physical features of a European person. It has also been pointed out that many Arabs and South Asians resemble South (and occasionally even North) Europeans. Racial profiling has raised a lot of controversy over whether it's constitutional. | |||
==Ethiopia== | |||
==United States debate on racial profiling== | |||
{{main|Ethnic discrimination in Ethiopia#Tigray War}} | |||
Ethnic profiling against Tigrayans occurred during the ] that started in November 2020, with Ethiopians of Tigrayan ethnicity being put on indefinite leave from ] or refused permission to board,<ref name="Telegraph_ETAirlines_ethnic_profiling" /> prevented from overseas travel,<ref name="TheNewHumanitarian_ethnic_profiling" /> and an "order of identifying ethnic Tigrayans from all government agencies and NGOs" being used by federal police to request a list of ethnic Tigrayans from an office of the ].<ref name="Reuters_seeking_lists" /> Tigrayans' houses were arbitrarily searched and Tigrayan bank accounts were suspended.<ref name="TheNewHumanitarian_ethnic_profiling" /> Ethnic Tigrayan members of Ethiopian components of United Nations ] missions were disarmed and some forcibly flown back to Ethiopia, at the risk of torture or execution, according to United Nations officials.<ref name="Reuters_peacekeepers_disarmed" /><ref name="ForeignPolicy_purge" /> | |||
==Israel== | |||
In the United States, the term "racial profiling" has often been paired with accusations of racial discrimination against ] and ]s, particularly by police. It is one type of racially biased policing. Racially biased policing includes other practices such as discriminatory treatment of racial and ethnic minorities not based on profiling, and differential police practices in neighborhoods populated by minorities compared to neighborhoods populated by whites (Weitzer and Tuch 2006). | |||
{{main|Racial profiling in Israel}} | |||
In 1972, ] from the ] launched an ] that led to the deaths of at least 24 people at ]. Since then, security at the airport has relied on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalized as "the inescapable fact that ] are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://securitysolutions.com/news/security_exposing_hostile_intent/|title=What can we learn from Ben Gurion Airport in Israel to help push aviation security in the U.S. to the next level?|website=SecuritySolutions.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151108172211/http://securitysolutions.com/news/security_exposing_hostile_intent/|archive-date=2015-11-08|url-status=dead|access-date=2017-01-08}}</ref> As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor", Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using racial profiling, singling out those who appear to be ] based on name or physical appearance.<ref>], , September 9, 2008</ref> Additionally, all passengers, including those who do not appear to be of Arab descent, are questioned as to why they are traveling to Israel, followed by several general questions about the trip in order to search for inconsistencies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://volokh.com/posts/1196146293.shtml|title=Airport Security in Israel|last=Somin|first=Ilya|date=2007-11-27|website=The Volokh Conspiracy|access-date=2019-01-08}}</ref> Although numerous ] groups{{which|date=September 2016}} have demanded an end to the profiling, the Israeli government maintains that it is both effective and unavoidable.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hasisi|first1=Badi|last2=Margalioth|first2=Yoram|last3=Orgad|first3=Liav|date=2012|title=Ethnic Profiling In Airport Screening: Lessons From Israel, 1968-2010|journal=American Law and Economics Review|volume=14|issue=2|pages=517–560|jstor=42705624|doi=10.1093/aler/ahs009}}</ref> According to ], an Israeli terrorism expert,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-11770842|title=New study delves inside a suicide bomber's mind|last=Lee|first=Dave|date=2010-11-17|work=BBC News|access-date=2016-09-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> "it would be foolish not to use profiling when everyone knows that most terrorists come from certain ethnic groups. They are likely to be ] and young, and the potential threat justifies inconveniencing a certain ]."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna23714853|title=Rights group challenges Israel's airport security|date=March 19, 2008|newspaper=Associated Press|access-date=October 26, 2011}}</ref> | |||
According to some advocates, only the non-racial factors are justified in suspect profiling; police should ignore any ethnic or racial information they have on people involved in the ]. These advocates regard the inclusion of racial characteristics, even as one of several factors as "racial profiling" and oppose it. Most Americans oppose domestic (non airline) racial profiling. In a 2002 poll, for instance, 73 percent of whites, 77 percent of Hispanics, and 91 percent of African Americans disapproved of racial profiling by the police (Weitzer and Tuch 2006). | |||
==Mexico== | |||
Organizations such as ] and the ] are staunchly opposed to "racial profiling". Most crime is committed by whites, they say, and profiling based exclusively on race singles out minorities such as African-Americans and those of Hispanic descent. They also dispute the claim that more crime is committed by minorities, because, they say, it has been statistically proven to not be the case{{fact}}. Some also take issue with the police having the prerogative to use race as a factor, as this leaves minorities little recourse if unfairly harassed by police.{{citeneeded}} | |||
The General Law on Population (Reglamento de la Ley General de Poblacion) of 2000 in Mexico has been cited as being used to racially profile and abuse immigrants to Mexico.<ref name="Seper-2010">{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2010/may/3/mexicos-illegals-laws-tougher-than-arizonas/|title=Mexico's illegals laws tougher than Arizona's|last=Seper|first=Jerry|date=2010-05-03|work=The Washington Times|access-date=2017-03-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Mexican law makes illegal immigration punishable by law and allows law officials great discretion in identifying and questioning illegal immigrants.<ref name="Seper-2010" /> Mexico has been criticized for its immigration policy. Chris Hawley of '']'' stated that "Mexico has a law that is no different from Arizona's", referring to legislation which gives local police forces the power to check documents of people suspected of being in the country illegally.<ref name="usa-mex-law">{{cite news | url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2010-05-25-mexico-migrants_N.htm | title=Activists blast Mexico's immigration law | author=Hawley, Chris | newspaper=] | date=May 25, 2010}}</ref> Immigration and human rights activists have also noted that Mexican authorities frequently engage in racial profiling, harassment, and shakedowns against migrants from Central America.<ref name="usa-mex-law"/> | |||
==Sri Lanka== | |||
Many people blamed racial profiling for the shooting of ] by the ]. The officers involved claimed they had mistaken Diallo for a wanted rapist. Critics feel that the police were suspicious of Diallo simply because he was a black man walking down the street after midnight. | |||
Ethnic ] traveling from the ] and ] in ] have to compulsory register with the Police and mandatory carry a police certificate as per the ] and emergency regulations if found not living in the house in the certificate they could be arrested.<ref name="Pieris2018">{{cite book|author=Anoma Pieris|title=Sovereignty, Space and Civil War in Sri Lanka: Porous Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfl0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT93|accessdate=9 July 2021|date=25 October 2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-24632-3|pages=93–}}</ref><ref name="Thiranagama2011">{{cite book|author=Sharika Thiranagama|title=In My Mother's House: Civil War in Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1b053j2-PYC&pg=PA250|accessdate=9 July 2021|date=16 August 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0511-4|pages=250–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=39075 | title=SL State reinforces stringent police registration of residents in Colombo | publisher=Tamilnet | date=22 May 2018 | accessdate=9 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/03/06/LKA102016.E.pdf | title=RESPONSES TO INFORMATION REQUESTS (RIRs) | publisher=Justice Government | date=11 December 2006 | accessdate=9 July 2021 | archive-date=9 July 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709213139/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/03/06/LKA102016.E.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4f4f38972.html | title=Sri Lanka: Treatment of Tamils in Colombo by members of the Sri Lankan security forces and police; registration requirements in Colombo for Tamil citizens | publisher=RefWorld | date=9 February 2012 | accessdate=9 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tamilguardian.com/content/tamils-must-register-police | title=Tamils must register with Police | publisher=Tamil Guardian | date=15 July 2006 | accessdate=9 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Affairs2013">{{cite book|author=Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and House Committee on Foreign Affairs|title=Country reports on human rights practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j39VnkS4VwYC&pg=PA2613|accessdate=9 July 2021|date=20 February 2013|publisher=Government Printing Office|pages=2613–|id=GGKEY:NN89UP1JS4T}}</ref> In 2007 Tamils ]. The move to expel these people drew wide criticism of the government. The ] Embassy in Sri Lanka condemned the act, asking the government of Sri Lanka to ensure the constitutional rights of all the citizens of the country.<ref>{{cite news|title=The United States condemns the forced removal of Tamils |date=2007-06-08 |publisher=U.S. Department of State. |url=http://srilanka.usembassy.gov/pr-08june2007.html |work=press release June 2007 |access-date=2007-06-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105131731/http://srilanka.usembassy.gov/pr-08june2007.html |archive-date=November 5, 2009 }}</ref> ] also condemned the act, describing it as a clear violation of international human rights law. Their press release urged government of Sri Lanka to desist from any further enforced removals.<ref>{{cite news|title=Norway condemns enforced removal of Tamils from Colombo |date=2007-06-08 |publisher=Norway - the official site in Sri Lanka. |url=http://www.norway.lk/press/press+releases/press+releases.htm |work=press release June 2007 |access-date=2007-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318202614/http://www.norway.lk/press/press+releases/press+releases.htm |archive-date=2007-03-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ] has also condemned the action.<ref>{{cite news|title=Canada condemns 'dislodging' of Tamils |date=2007-06-08 |publisher=Dailymirrir |url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/2007/06/11/news/7.asp |access-date=2007-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930225250/http://www.dailymirror.lk/2007/06/11/news/7.asp |archive-date=2007-09-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Human rights groups, Local think tank and other observers have termed this act as "]".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6729555.stm | work=BBC News | title=Police evict Tamils from Colombo | date=2007-06-07 | access-date=2010-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1631473,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615003452/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1631473,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 15, 2007 | magazine=Time | date=2007-06-11 | access-date=2010-05-02 | title="Ethnic Cleansing" in Sri Lanka?}}</ref><ref></ref><ref>{{dead link|date=December 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2097984,00.html | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Ethnic cleansing claim after police move Tamils at gunpoint | first=Randeep | last=Ramesh | date=2007-06-08 | access-date=2010-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSCOL6048 | title=Sri Lanka court blocks state deportation of Tamils | date=2007-06-08 | work=Reuters | first=Simon | last=Gardner}}</ref> The media group said that this type of act reminds people of what "] did to the Jews",<ref name=AFP>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20070607/wl_sthasia_afp/srilankapoliticsunrestrights_070607124831| title= Sri Lanka police evict ethnic Tamils from capital | date= 2007-06-07 | publisher = ] | first = Jayasinghe | last = Amal | access-date = 2007-06-07}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> and the Asian Center of Human Rights urged India to intervene.<ref name=ACHR>{{cite news|url=http://www.achrweb.org/press/2007/SLK0307.htm|title=Deportation of Tamils from Colombo is reminiscent of The Holocaust|date=2007-06-08|access-date=2007-06-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610124824/http://www.achrweb.org/press/2007/SLK0307.htm|archive-date=2007-06-10|url-status=dead}}</ref> | |||
==Spain== | |||
In the wake of the ] the issue of "racial profiling" has become political, as the urgency of preventing terrorists from boarding aircraft has again risen. | |||
Racial profiling by police forces in Spain is a common practice.<ref>{{cite web|title=The police have arrested me 160 times just because of my appearance|date=7 January 2014 |url=http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/01/07/inenglish/1389099066_776750.html}}</ref> A study by the ], found that people of non-white aspect are up to ten times more likely to be stopped by the police on the street.<ref>{{cite web|title=Identificación policial por perfil étnico en españa|url=http://www.uv.es/garciaj/pub/2013_perfil_etnico.pdf}}</ref> ] accused Spanish authorities of using racial and ethnic profiling, with police singling out people who are not ] in the street and public places.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/spain-police-accused-of-racial-profiling-6276849.html|title=Spain police accused of racial profiling|last1=Giles|first1=Ciaran|date=2011-12-14|work=The Independent|access-date=2019-01-08|agency=Associated Press|last2=Clendenning|first2=Alan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2012/05/29/153901342/spanish-police-accused-of-racially-profiling|title=Spanish Police Accused Of Racially Profiling|last=Frayer|first=Lauren|date=2012-05-29|website=NPR|language=en|access-date=2019-01-08}}</ref> | |||
In 2011, the ] urged the Spanish government to take "effective measures" to ethnic profiling, including the modification of existing laws and regulations which permit its practice.<ref>{{cite web|title=Examen de los informes presentados por los Estados partes de conformidad con el artículo 9 de la Convención: España|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/co/Spain_AUV_sp.pdf}}</ref> In 2013, the ], Mutuma Ruteere, described the practice of ethnic profiling by Spanish law enforcement officers "a persisting and pervasive problem".<ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Mutuma Ruteere|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session23/A.HRC.23.56.Add.3_ENG.pdf | |||
According to a Gallup poll conducted shortly after the ], 71 percent of blacks, and 57 percent of whites, supported racial profiling of Arabs and South Asians at airport security checkpoints.Another poll conducted in 2002 by the survey group Public Agenda found that in the post-9/11 world the public rejected some forms of racial profiling more strongly than others. The survey found 52 percent said there was "no excuse" for profiling of blacks, but two-thirds said profiling of Arabs and South Asians was "understandable, but you wish it didn't happen." Even so, the survey found most people were uncomfortable with blatant profiling of Arabs or South Asian airline passengers.. Racial profiling has become an oversimplified focus of discussion; more recently, productive alternatives including passport profiling, behaviour profiling and age profiling have become topics of consideration. | |||
}}</ref> In 2014, the Spanish government approved a law which prohibited racial profiling by police forces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20140711/inerior-prohibe-por-ley-las-identificaciones-por-razones-etnicas-3372691|title=Interior prohíbe por ley las identificaciones por razones étnicas|last=Navarro|first=Mayka|date=2014-07-11|website=elPeriodico|language=es|access-date=2019-01-08}}</ref> | |||
==United Kingdom== | |||
Some statistics from the US and Canada indicate that ] are among the least arrested by police, proportionally. {{citation needed}} The numbers of course differ depending on how one defines Asian. | |||
Racial issues have been prevalent in the UK for a long time. For example, following the arrival of Windrush migrants from the Caribbean and West Indies after the Second World War, racial tensions began to flare up in the country - see the ]. The most recent statistics from the ] in 2019 show that people born outside of the UK made up 14% of the UK's population or 9.5 million people. Black Britons make up 3% of the population and Indian Britons occupy 2.3% of the population with the remainder being largely EU or North American migrants.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vargas-Silva |first1=Carlos |title=Dr |url=https://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/migrants-in-the-uk-an-overview/ |website=migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk |publisher=The Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford |access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref> | |||
An increase in knife crime in the capital in recent decades has led to an increase in police ] powers. However, there are concerns that these powers lead to discrimination and racial profiling with statistics showing that there were 54 stop and searches for every 1000 black people compared to just 6 for every 1000 white people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/crime-justice-and-the-law/policing/stop-and-search/latest |website=gov.uk |publisher=UK Home Office |access-date=10 June 2021|title=Stop and search }}</ref> Following social dissatisfaction and claims of ], the ] published ''The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities'' in 2021, finding overall that there was no institutional ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities |website=gov.uk |publisher=Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities |access-date=10 June 2021|title=The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities |date=28 April 2021 }}</ref> The report and its findings were criticised by many including the United Nations working group who argued that the report 'attempts to normalise white supremacy' and could 'fuel racism'.<ref>{{cite news |title=Race report: UN experts say conclusions could 'fuel racism' |work=BBC News |date=19 April 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-56800763 |access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref> | |||
In the late 1990's, the New Jersey State Police was rocked by a racial profiling scandal. Allegations were made that black motorists were being pulled over disproportionately on the New Jersey Turnpike, for no reason other than race alone. Many rank-and-file troopers testified that their supervisors had ordered them to engage in this practice. A nationwide scandal erupted, which ultimately resulted in a federal monitor watching over the department. In a "consent decree," the State Police agreed to adopt a new policy that no individual may be detained based on race, unless said individual matches the description of a specific suspect. | |||
==United |
==United States== | ||
{{Main|Racial profiling in the United States}} | |||
{{see also|Airport racial profiling in the United States}} | |||
In the United States, racial profiling is mainly used when referring to the disproportionate searching of ], and ], along with other visible minorities. | |||
According to an American College of Physicians study, 92% of Blacks, 78% of Latino Americans, 75% of Native Americans, and 61% of Asian Americans have “reported experiencing racial discrimination in the form of racial slurs, violence, threats, and harassment.”<ref name="Racial Profiling"/> | |||
In the UK in the early ] evidence showed that black people were as much as five times more likely to be stopped by the police{{citeneeded}}, hence the colloquial term, ]. This is possibly an example of racial profiling. | |||
Racial profiling has roots in slavery and has grown with the rise of ], conflated with ]. The US harbors a sense of fear and danger in people of color through the uncontested use of racial profiling in day-to-day interactions - from personal implicit biases, overt and covert racist laws and practices, and discriminatory law enforcement agencies.<ref name="nij.ojp.gov"/> | |||
On ], ], ] ] shot and killed ], a suspected suicide bomber. Some critics remarked that the situation was aggravated by the fact that Menezes looked like a Middle Eastern; in fact he was found to be an innocent Brazilian electrician, who ran to catch a train. | |||
Sociologist Robert Staples said that racial profiling in the U.S. is “not merely a collection of individual offenses”, but rather a systemic phenomenon across American society, dating back to the era of slavery.<ref name="britannica.com"/> | |||
“At the root of the emergence of the modern Anglo-American police was the problem of changing social relations and conditions arising from industrialization and urbanization,” says sociologist Dr. Tia Dafnos.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/> | |||
This is exemplified in the large wage and generational wealth gaps and workplace and housing discrimination that exists between the White and non-White populations.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Racial profiling in policing institutions is not new, either. The modern American police force has taken inspiration and structure from slave patrols<ref name="brookings.edu"/> and as a result people in minority populations report high rates of unfair treatment by courts, unreasonable arrests and ], and hesitancy to call the police in times of need out of fear of discrimination.<ref name="Racial Profiling"/> | |||
The US Constitution's ], which protects citizens from unreasonable search and seizure, was extended after a run of controversial court cases in the 1960s in which people of color were facing higher rates of frisking and intimidation. This extension says that police must obey the law while enforcing it.<ref name="nij.ojp.gov"/> Although the Supreme Court has claimed continued adherence to objectivity in the face of ] cases,<ref name="britannica.com"/> American police employ racial profiling with harmful consequences. | |||
Recent incidents of racial profiling, often in mundane situations like traffic stops, have resulted in unnecessary violence and deaths. Data suggest that “African American and American Indian/Alaska Native women and men are killed by the police at higher rates” than their White counterparts, and Latinx men are killed at higher rates than White men. African American men are 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police than White men.<ref name="hrw.org"/> | |||
Unlawful and wrongful death in the cases of George Floyd and Sonya Massey have been attributed to extreme racial profiling and met with social media outburst and growing attention towards the ] and ] movements. The '']'' court case of 1968 has also led to countless incidents of racial profiling in the US, as it allows police officers to stop an individual or vehicle without probable cause if they think an individual is committing a crime or about to commit a crime, although they must have a reasonable suspicion based on "specific and articulable facts". The ] phenomenon draws from data that supports that people of color disproportionately experience police shootings, traffic stops, searches, and arrests.<ref name="Racial Profiling"/> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|refs= | |||
<ref name="Telegraph_ETAirlines_ethnic_profiling">{{cite news | last1= Zelalem | first1= Zecharias | title= Ethiopia Airlines accused of ethnic profiling over civil war with Tigray | date= 2020-12-04 |newspaper= ] | url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/12/04/ethiopia-airlines-accused-ethnic-profiling-civil-war-tigray/ |access-date=2021-01-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210123030421/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/12/04/ethiopia-airlines-accused-ethnic-profiling-civil-war-tigray/ |archive-date= 2021-01-23 |url-status=live }} </ref> | |||
<ref name="TheNewHumanitarian_ethnic_profiling">{{cite web |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2020/12/16/Ethnic-profiling-Tigray-tensions-Ethiopia |title=Ethnic profiling of Tigrayans heightens tensions in Ethiopia | website=] |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Emmanuel |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210116025606/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2020/12/16/Ethnic-profiling-Tigray-tensions-Ethiopia |archive-date=2021-01-16 |url-status=live |date=17 December 2020}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Reuters_seeking_lists">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/ethiopia-conflict-tigrayans/ethiopian-police-seeking-lists-of-ethnic-tigrayans-u-n-report-idINKBN27T1B7 |title=Ethiopian police seeking lists of ethnic Tigrayans – U.N. report |quote = Ethiopian police visited a U.N. World Food Programme (WFP) office in Amhara region to request a list of ethnic Tigrayan staff, according to an internal U.N. security report seen by Reuters on Friday. ... The U.N. report said that the local police chief informed the WFP office of "the order of identifying ethnic Tigrayans from all government agencies and NGOs". |agency=] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210116034322/https://www.reuters.com/article/ethiopia-conflict-tigrayans/ethiopian-police-seeking-lists-of-ethnic-tigrayans-u-n-report-idINKBN27T1B7 |archive-date=2021-01-16 |url-status=live |date=13 November 2020}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="Reuters_peacekeepers_disarmed">{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/ethiopia-conflict-somalia-exclusive/exclusive-tigrayan-peacekeepers-in-somalia-disarmed-by-ethiopian-colleagues-sources-say-idUSKBN27Y1HF |title=Exclusive: Ethiopia says disarms Tigrayan peacekeepers in Somalia over security |last1=Houreld |first1=Katharine | website=] |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210116031719/https://www.reuters.com/article/ethiopia-conflict-somalia-exclusive/exclusive-tigrayan-peacekeepers-in-somalia-disarmed-by-ethiopian-colleagues-sources-say-idUSKBN27Y1HF |archive-date=2021-01-16 |url-status=live |date=17 December 2020}}</ref> | |||
<ref name="ForeignPolicy_purge">{{cite news | url= https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/23/un-ethiopia-purging-tigrayan-officers-peacekeeping-missions/ |title=U.N. Fears Ethiopia Purging Ethnic Tigrayan Officers From Its Peacekeeping Missions | quote= The Ethiopian government has been rounding up ethnic Tigrayan security forces deployed in United Nations and African peacekeeping missions abroad and forcing them onto flights to the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, where it is feared they may face torture or even execution, according to an internal U.N. account. |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210116033152/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/23/un-ethiopia-purging-tigrayan-officers-peacekeeping-missions/ |archive-date=2021-01-16 |url-status=live | newspaper=] |date=23 November 2020}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
Ronald Weitzer and Steven Tuch. 2006. ''Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform'' (New York: Cambridge University Press). | |||
==Further reading== | |||
* Baker, Al. "Judge Declines to Dismiss Case Alleging Racial Profiling by City Police in Street Stops." The New York Times. Nytimes.com, 31 August 2011. Web. 26 April 2012 | |||
* {{cite book |last1=Baumgartner |first1=Frank R. |last2=Epp |first2=Derek A. |last3=Shoub |first3=Kelsey |date=July 10, 2018 |title=Suspect Citizens: What 20 Million Traffic Stops Tell Us About Policing and Race}} | |||
* Glaser, Jack. 2014. Suspect Race: Causes and Consequences of Racial Profiling (Oxford University Press) | |||
* Hadden, Sally. 2021. “Police and Slave Patrols,” in Jones, Ben, and Eduardo Mendieta, eds. ''The Ethics of Policing.'' New York University Press. 205–221. | |||
* {{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Mareile |title=Ethnic profiling and counter-terrorism : examples of European practice and possible repercussions |date=2010 |publisher=LIT Verlag |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-64-310447-2}} | |||
* {{cite news |last=Kocieniewski |first=David |date=2000-11-29 |title=New Jersey Argues That the U.S. Wrote the Book on Race Profiling |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/29/nyregion/new-jersey-argues-that-the-us-wrote-the-book-on-race-profiling.html |work=New York Times |access-date=30 September 2018}} | |||
* ], "Racial Profiling – Who is the Executioner and Does he have a Face?" 15 Texas Hispanic Journal of Law and Policy (2009) 71–9. | |||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ruiz | first1 = James | last2 = Julseth | first2 = Jason W. | last3 = Winters | first3 = Kathleen H. | year = 2010 | title = Profiling, Cajun Style: The FBI Investigation?. | journal = International Journal of Police Science & Management | volume = 12 | issue = 3| pages = 401–425 | doi=10.1350/ijps.2010.12.3.173| s2cid = 143646245 }} | |||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ryberg | first1 = Jesper | year = 2011 | title = Racial Profiling And Criminal Justice | journal = Journal of Ethics | volume = 15 | issue = 1/2| pages = 79–88 | doi=10.1007/s10892-010-9098-3| s2cid = 143762533 }} | |||
* Shantz, Jeff. 2010. ''Racial Profiling and Borders: International, Interdisciplinary Perspectives'' (Lake Mary: Vandeplas). | |||
* Weitzer, Ronald; Tuch, Steven. 2006. ''Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform'' (New York: Cambridge University Press). | |||
* Wotherspoon, Terry, and John Hansen. 2019. '''' Appearance Bias and Crime. Retrieved 30 July 2024. | |||
* Wortley, Scot and Julian Tanner. 2004. ''Our Diverse Cities''. p. 197-201. Retrieved 30 July 2024. | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{wiktionary}} | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125074613/http://www.aclunc.org/discrimination/webb-report.html |date=2005-11-25 }} | |||
* and | |||
* (Law Review Article) | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801003439/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/racial_profiling |date=2018-08-01 }} | |||
* , by ] (], October 2, 2001) | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108104744/https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/more/resources/racial-profiling-in-an-age-of-terrorism/ |date=2019-01-08 }}, By Peter Siggins (], March 12, 2002) | |||
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Latest revision as of 06:14, 2 November 2024
Law-enforcement practiceRacial profiling or ethnic profiling is the act of suspecting, targeting, or discriminating against a person based on their ethnicity, religion, or nationality, rather than individual suspicion or evidence. This practice involves discrimination against minority populations and often relies on negative stereotypes. Racial profiling can include disproportionate stop-and-searches, traffic stops, and the use of surveillance technology for facial identification. Racial profiling can occur de jure (when state policies target specific racial groups) or de facto (when the practice occurs outside official legislation). Critics argue that racial profiling is discriminatory as it disproportionately targets people of color. Supporters claim it can be an effective tool for preventing crime but acknowledge that it should be closely monitored and used in a way that respects civil rights.
Academic debate
The subject of racial profiling has sparked debate between philosophers who disagree on its moral status. Some believe that racial profiling is morally permissible under certain circumstances, whereas others argue it is never morally permissible.
Justifications
Those who argue in favor of racial profiling usually set some conditions for the practice to be justified. The profiling should be fair, evidence-based and non-abusive. Proponents of racial profiling generally argue that, if these conditions are met, it can be an efficient tool for crime prevention because it allows law enforcement to focus their efforts on groups that are statistically more likely to commit crimes.
The most influential defense of racial profiling comes from Mathias Risse and Richard Zeckhauser. Risse and Zeckhauser provide a consequentialist analysis of racial profiling, weighing the benefits and costs against each other. They conclude that racial profiling is morally permissible because the harms done to the search subjects are fewer than the potential benefits for society in terms of security. Moreover, the (innocent) subjects themselves also benefit because they will live a safer environment overall.
Risse and Zeckhauser conclude that the objections to racial profiling are not rooted in the practice per se but in background injustice in our societies. Instead of banning racial profiling, they argue, efforts should be made to remedy racial injustice in our societies.
Consequences
Opponents of racial profiling have claimed that those who support racial profiling grossly underestimate the harms done by racial profiling and fail to recognize how the practice can exacerbate racism.
Adam Omar Hosein argues that racial profiling may be permissible under certain circumstances, but the present circumstances (in the United States) make it unjust. The costs of racial profiling for black communities in the U.S. are much higher than Risse and Zeckhauer account for. Racial profiling can make targeted individuals assume they have an inferior political status, which can lead to an alienation from the state. This can make racial profiling turn into a self-fulfilling prophecy when an individual is more likely to commit a crime because they are perceived as a criminal.
Hosein also points to an epistemic problem. Arguments in favor of racial profiling are based on the premise that there is a correlation between belonging to a specific racial group and committing certain crimes. However, should such a correlation exist, it is based on data that is skewed by previous racial profiling. Because more subjects of a certain racial group were targeted, more crime was registered in this group. It is therefore epistemically unjustified to assume that this group commits more crime.
Canada
Accusations of racial profiling of visible minorities who accuse police of targeting them due to their ethnic background is a growing concern in Canada. In 2005, the Kingston Police released the first study ever in Canada which pertains to racial profiling. The study focused on the city of Kingston, Ontario, a small city where most of the inhabitants are white. The study showed that black-skinned people were 3.7 times more likely to be pulled over by police than white-skinned people, while Asian and White people are less likely to be pulled over than Black people. Several police organizations condemned this study and suggested more studies like this would make them hesitant to pull over visible minorities.
Canadian Aboriginals are more likely to be charged with crimes, particularly on reserves. The Canadian crime victimization survey does not collect data on the ethnic origin of perpetrators, so comparisons between incidence of victimizations and incidence of charging are impossible. Although aboriginal persons make up 3.6% of Canada's population, they account for 20% of Canada's prison population. This may show how racial profiling increases effectiveness of police, or be a result of racial profiling, as they are watched more intensely than others.
In February 2010, an investigation of the Toronto Star daily newspaper found that black people across Toronto were three times more likely to be stopped and documented by police than white people. To a lesser extent, the same seemed true for people described by police as having "brown" skin (South Asians, Arabs and Latinos). This was the result of an analysis of 1.7 million contact cards filled out by Toronto Police officers in the period 2003–2008.
The Ontario Human Rights Commission states that "police services have acknowledged that racial profiling does occur and have taken measures to address , including upgrading training for officers, identifying officers at risk of engaging in racial profiling, and improving community relations". Ottawa Police addressed this issue and planned on implementing a new policy regarding officer racially profiling persons, "the policy explicitly forbids officers from investigating or detaining anyone based on their race and will force officers to go through training on racial profiling". This policy was implemented after the 2008 incident where an African Canadian woman was strip searched by members of the Ottawa police. There is a video showing the strip search where one witnesses the black woman being held to the ground and then having her bra and shirt cut ripped/cut off by a member of the Ottawa Police Force which was released to the viewing of the public in 2010.
China
The Chinese government has been using a facial recognition surveillance technology, analysing physiognomical output of surveillance cameras to track and control Uyghurs, a Muslim minority in China's Western province of Xinjiang. The extent of the vast system was published in the spring of 2019 by the NYT who called it "automated racism". In research projects aided by European institutions it has combined the facial output with people's DNA, to create an ethnic profile. The DNA was collected at the prison camps, which are interning more than one million Uyghurs, as had been corroborated in November 2019 by data leaks, such as the China Cables.
Germany
In February 2012, the first court ruling concerning racial profiling in German police policy, allowing police to use skin color and "non-German ethnic origin" to select persons who will be asked for identification in spot-checks for illegal immigrants. Subsequently, it was decided legal for a person submitted to a spot-check to compare the policy to that of the SS in public. A higher court later overruled the earlier decision declaring the racial profiling unlawful and in violation of anti-discrimination provisions in Art. 3 Basic Law and the General Equal Treatment Act of 2006.
The civil rights organisation Büro zur Umsetzung von Gleichbehandlung (Office for the Implementation of Equal Treatment) makes a distinction between criminal profiling, which is legitimate in Germany, and ethnic profiling, which is not.
According to a 2016 report by the Interior ministry in Germany, there had been an increase in hate crimes and violence against migrant groups in Germany. The reports concluded that there were more than 10 attacks per day against migrants in Germany in 2016. This report from Germany garnered the attention of the United Nations, which alleged that people of African descent face widespread discrimination in Germany.
A 2017 statement by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Rights after a visit to Germany states: "While the Basic Law guarantees equality, prohibits racial discrimination, and states that human dignity is inviolable, it is not being enforced." and calls racial profiling by police officials endemic. Recommendations include legal reform, establishing an independent complaint system, training and continuing education for the police, and investigations to promote accountability and remedy.
Ethiopia
Main article: Ethnic discrimination in Ethiopia § Tigray WarEthnic profiling against Tigrayans occurred during the Tigray War that started in November 2020, with Ethiopians of Tigrayan ethnicity being put on indefinite leave from Ethiopian Airlines or refused permission to board, prevented from overseas travel, and an "order of identifying ethnic Tigrayans from all government agencies and NGOs" being used by federal police to request a list of ethnic Tigrayans from an office of the World Food Programme. Tigrayans' houses were arbitrarily searched and Tigrayan bank accounts were suspended. Ethnic Tigrayan members of Ethiopian components of United Nations peacekeeping missions were disarmed and some forcibly flown back to Ethiopia, at the risk of torture or execution, according to United Nations officials.
Israel
Main article: Racial profiling in IsraelIn 1972, terrorists from the Japanese Red Army launched an attack that led to the deaths of at least 24 people at Ben Gurion Airport. Since then, security at the airport has relied on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalized as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology." As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor", Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using racial profiling, singling out those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance. Additionally, all passengers, including those who do not appear to be of Arab descent, are questioned as to why they are traveling to Israel, followed by several general questions about the trip in order to search for inconsistencies. Although numerous civil rights groups have demanded an end to the profiling, the Israeli government maintains that it is both effective and unavoidable. According to Ariel Merari, an Israeli terrorism expert, "it would be foolish not to use profiling when everyone knows that most terrorists come from certain ethnic groups. They are likely to be Muslim and young, and the potential threat justifies inconveniencing a certain ethnic group."
Mexico
The General Law on Population (Reglamento de la Ley General de Poblacion) of 2000 in Mexico has been cited as being used to racially profile and abuse immigrants to Mexico. Mexican law makes illegal immigration punishable by law and allows law officials great discretion in identifying and questioning illegal immigrants. Mexico has been criticized for its immigration policy. Chris Hawley of USA Today stated that "Mexico has a law that is no different from Arizona's", referring to legislation which gives local police forces the power to check documents of people suspected of being in the country illegally. Immigration and human rights activists have also noted that Mexican authorities frequently engage in racial profiling, harassment, and shakedowns against migrants from Central America.
Sri Lanka
Ethnic Sri Lankan Tamils traveling from the Northern Province and Eastern Province in Sri Lanka have to compulsory register with the Police and mandatory carry a police certificate as per the Prevention of Terrorism Act and emergency regulations if found not living in the house in the certificate they could be arrested. In 2007 Tamils were expelled from Colombo. The move to expel these people drew wide criticism of the government. The United States Embassy in Sri Lanka condemned the act, asking the government of Sri Lanka to ensure the constitutional rights of all the citizens of the country. Norway also condemned the act, describing it as a clear violation of international human rights law. Their press release urged government of Sri Lanka to desist from any further enforced removals. Canada has also condemned the action. Human rights groups, Local think tank and other observers have termed this act as "ethnic cleansing". The media group said that this type of act reminds people of what "Hitler did to the Jews", and the Asian Center of Human Rights urged India to intervene.
Spain
Racial profiling by police forces in Spain is a common practice. A study by the University of Valencia, found that people of non-white aspect are up to ten times more likely to be stopped by the police on the street. Amnesty International accused Spanish authorities of using racial and ethnic profiling, with police singling out people who are not white in the street and public places.
In 2011, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) urged the Spanish government to take "effective measures" to ethnic profiling, including the modification of existing laws and regulations which permit its practice. In 2013, the UN Special Rapporteur, Mutuma Ruteere, described the practice of ethnic profiling by Spanish law enforcement officers "a persisting and pervasive problem". In 2014, the Spanish government approved a law which prohibited racial profiling by police forces.
United Kingdom
Racial issues have been prevalent in the UK for a long time. For example, following the arrival of Windrush migrants from the Caribbean and West Indies after the Second World War, racial tensions began to flare up in the country - see the Notting Hill Race Riot. The most recent statistics from the Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford in 2019 show that people born outside of the UK made up 14% of the UK's population or 9.5 million people. Black Britons make up 3% of the population and Indian Britons occupy 2.3% of the population with the remainder being largely EU or North American migrants.
An increase in knife crime in the capital in recent decades has led to an increase in police stop and search powers. However, there are concerns that these powers lead to discrimination and racial profiling with statistics showing that there were 54 stop and searches for every 1000 black people compared to just 6 for every 1000 white people. Following social dissatisfaction and claims of institutional racism, the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities published The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities in 2021, finding overall that there was no institutional racism in the UK. The report and its findings were criticised by many including the United Nations working group who argued that the report 'attempts to normalise white supremacy' and could 'fuel racism'.
United States
Main article: Racial profiling in the United States See also: Airport racial profiling in the United StatesIn the United States, racial profiling is mainly used when referring to the disproportionate searching of African Americans, and Hispanic, along with other visible minorities.
According to an American College of Physicians study, 92% of Blacks, 78% of Latino Americans, 75% of Native Americans, and 61% of Asian Americans have “reported experiencing racial discrimination in the form of racial slurs, violence, threats, and harassment.”
Racial profiling has roots in slavery and has grown with the rise of urbanization, conflated with gentrification. The US harbors a sense of fear and danger in people of color through the uncontested use of racial profiling in day-to-day interactions - from personal implicit biases, overt and covert racist laws and practices, and discriminatory law enforcement agencies.
Sociologist Robert Staples said that racial profiling in the U.S. is “not merely a collection of individual offenses”, but rather a systemic phenomenon across American society, dating back to the era of slavery.
“At the root of the emergence of the modern Anglo-American police was the problem of changing social relations and conditions arising from industrialization and urbanization,” says sociologist Dr. Tia Dafnos.
This is exemplified in the large wage and generational wealth gaps and workplace and housing discrimination that exists between the White and non-White populations. Racial profiling in policing institutions is not new, either. The modern American police force has taken inspiration and structure from slave patrols and as a result people in minority populations report high rates of unfair treatment by courts, unreasonable arrests and frisking, and hesitancy to call the police in times of need out of fear of discrimination.
The US Constitution's Fourth Amendment, which protects citizens from unreasonable search and seizure, was extended after a run of controversial court cases in the 1960s in which people of color were facing higher rates of frisking and intimidation. This extension says that police must obey the law while enforcing it. Although the Supreme Court has claimed continued adherence to objectivity in the face of Fourth Amendment cases, American police employ racial profiling with harmful consequences.
Recent incidents of racial profiling, often in mundane situations like traffic stops, have resulted in unnecessary violence and deaths. Data suggest that “African American and American Indian/Alaska Native women and men are killed by the police at higher rates” than their White counterparts, and Latinx men are killed at higher rates than White men. African American men are 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police than White men.
Unlawful and wrongful death in the cases of George Floyd and Sonya Massey have been attributed to extreme racial profiling and met with social media outburst and growing attention towards the Black Lives Matter and Say Her Name movements. The Terry v. Ohio court case of 1968 has also led to countless incidents of racial profiling in the US, as it allows police officers to stop an individual or vehicle without probable cause if they think an individual is committing a crime or about to commit a crime, although they must have a reasonable suspicion based on "specific and articulable facts". The driving while black phenomenon draws from data that supports that people of color disproportionately experience police shootings, traffic stops, searches, and arrests.
See also
- Affirmative action
- Institutional racism
- Contempt of cop
- De-policing
- Driving while black
- Police misconduct
- Presumption of guilt
- Race and crime in the United States
- Henry Louis Gates arrest controversy
- Edward C. Lawson
- Social profiling
- Police harassment
- Selective enforcement
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Further reading
- Baker, Al. "Judge Declines to Dismiss Case Alleging Racial Profiling by City Police in Street Stops." The New York Times. Nytimes.com, 31 August 2011. Web. 26 April 2012
- Baumgartner, Frank R.; Epp, Derek A.; Shoub, Kelsey (July 10, 2018). Suspect Citizens: What 20 Million Traffic Stops Tell Us About Policing and Race.
- Glaser, Jack. 2014. Suspect Race: Causes and Consequences of Racial Profiling (Oxford University Press)
- Hadden, Sally. 2021. “Police and Slave Patrols,” in Jones, Ben, and Eduardo Mendieta, eds. The Ethics of Policing. New York University Press. 205–221.
- Kaufmann, Mareile (2010). Ethnic profiling and counter-terrorism : examples of European practice and possible repercussions. Berlin: LIT Verlag. ISBN 978-3-64-310447-2.
- Kocieniewski, David (2000-11-29). "New Jersey Argues That the U.S. Wrote the Book on Race Profiling". New York Times. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
- Michal Tamir, "Racial Profiling – Who is the Executioner and Does he have a Face?" 15 Texas Hispanic Journal of Law and Policy (2009) 71–9.
- Ruiz, James; Julseth, Jason W.; Winters, Kathleen H. (2010). "Profiling, Cajun Style: The FBI Investigation?". International Journal of Police Science & Management. 12 (3): 401–425. doi:10.1350/ijps.2010.12.3.173. S2CID 143646245.
- Ryberg, Jesper (2011). "Racial Profiling And Criminal Justice". Journal of Ethics. 15 (1/2): 79–88. doi:10.1007/s10892-010-9098-3. S2CID 143762533.
- Shantz, Jeff. 2010. Racial Profiling and Borders: International, Interdisciplinary Perspectives (Lake Mary: Vandeplas).
- Weitzer, Ronald; Tuch, Steven. 2006. Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform (New York: Cambridge University Press).
- Wotherspoon, Terry, and John Hansen. 2019. Racial Profiling and Reconciliation. Appearance Bias and Crime. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
- Wortley, Scot and Julian Tanner. 2004. "Discrimination or 'good' policing? The racial profiling debate in Canada." Our Diverse Cities. p. 197-201. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
External links
- An Investigation by the Joint Legislative Task Force on Government Oversight into Racial Profiling Practices by the California Highway Patrol as part of a program known as Operation Pipeline Archived 2005-11-25 at the Wayback Machine
- Bureau of Justice Criminal Offender Statistics and here
- Rational Profiling in America's Airports (Law Review Article)
- CBC backgrounder on racial profiling in Canada. Archived 2018-08-01 at the Wayback Machine
- "Ethnic Profiling: A Rational and Moral Framework", by Robert A. Levy (Cato Institute, October 2, 2001)
- "Racial Profiling in an Age of Terrorism" Archived 2019-01-08 at the Wayback Machine, By Peter Siggins (Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, March 12, 2002)
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