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{{Short description|Type of rechargeable battery}}
The '''sodium-ion battery''' ('''NIB''') is a type of ] analogous to the ] but using ] ]s (Na<sup>+</sup>) as the ] carriers. Its ] and ] are identical with that of the commercially widespread lithium-ion battery with the only difference being that the lithium compounds are swapped with sodium compounds: in essence, it consists of a cathode based on a sodium containing material, an anode (not necessarily a sodium-based material) and a liquid electrolyte containing dissociated sodium salts in ] ] or aprotic ]s. During charging, Na<sup>+</sup> are extracted from the cathode and inserted into the anode while the electrons travel through the external circuit; during discharging, the reverse process occurs where the Na<sup>+</sup> are extracted from the anode and re-inserted in the cathode with the electrons travelling through the external circuit doing useful work. Ideally, the anode and cathode materials should be able to withstand repeated cycles of sodium storage without degradation.
{{Infobox battery
| image = Sodium-ion battery (size 18650).jpg
| caption = A sodium-ion cell (size ])
| EtoW = 0.27-0.72 ]/] (75–200 ]·]/kg)
| EtoS = 250–375 W·h/]
| PtoW =
| CtoDE =
| EtoCP =
| SDR =
| TD =
| CD = "thousands"<ref name="faradion" /> of ]
| NomV = 3.0-3.1 V
}}


'''Sodium-ion batteries''' ('''NIBs''', '''SIBs''', or '''Na-ion batteries''') are several types of ], which use ] ]s (Na<sup>+</sup>) as their ] carriers. In some cases, its ] and ] are similar to those of ] (LIB) types, but it replaces ] with ] as the ] ]. Sodium belongs to the same ] in the ] as lithium and thus has similar ]. However, in some cases, such as aqueous batteries, SIBs can be quite different from LIBs.
== Research progress ==
Development of the sodium-ion battery took place side-by-side with that of the lithium-ion battery in the 1970s and early 1980s, however, its development was superseded by that of the lithium-ion battery in 1990s and 2000s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sun|first=Yang-Kook|last2=Myung|first2=Seung-Taek|last3=Hwang|first3=Jang-Yeon|date=2017-06-19|title=Sodium-ion batteries: present and future|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|volume=46|issue=12|pages=3529–3614|doi=10.1039/C6CS00776G|pmid=28349134|issn=1460-4744|doi-access=free}}</ref><sup>[</sup><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yabuuchi|first=Naoaki|last2=Kubota|first2=Kei|last3=Dahbi|first3=Mouad|last4=Komaba|first4=Shinichi|date=2014-12-10|title=Research Development on Sodium-Ion Batteries|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=114|issue=23|pages=11636–11682|doi=10.1021/cr500192f|pmid=25390643|issn=0009-2665}}</ref> From 2011, research interest in sodium-ion batteries has been revived. The major advancements made in the field have been outlined below.


]
'''Anodes:''' The dominant anode used in commercial lithium-ion batteries, ], cannot be used in sodium-ion batteries as it cannot store the larger sodium ion in appreciable quantities. Instead, a disordered carbon material consisting of a non-graphitizable, non-crystalline and amorphous carbon structure (called ‘hard carbon’) is the current preferred sodium-ion anode of choice. Hard carbon's sodium storage was discovered by Stevens and Dahn in 2000.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dahn|first=J. R.|last2=Stevens|first2=D. A.|date=2000-04-01|title=High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium‐Ion Batteries|journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|volume=147|issue=4|pages=1271–1273|doi=10.1149/1.1393348|issn=0013-4651}}</ref> This anode was shown to deliver 300 mAh/g with a sloping potential profile above ⁓0.15 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup> roughly accounting for half of the capacity and a flat potential profile (a potential plateau) below ⁓0.15 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>. Such a storage performance is similar to that seen for lithium storage in graphite anode for lithium-ion batteries where capacities of 300 – 360 mAh/g are typical. The first sodium-ion cell using hard carbon was hence demonstrated in 2003 which showed a high 3.7 V average voltage during discharge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=J.|last2=Saidi|first2=M. Y.|last3=Swoyer|first3=J. L.|date=2003-01-01|title=A Sodium-Ion Cell Based on the Fluorophosphate Compound NaVPO4 F|journal=Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters|volume=6|issue=1|pages=A1–A4|doi=10.1149/1.1523691|issn=1099-0062}}</ref> There are now several companies offering hard carbon commercially for sodium-ion applications.
SIBs received academic and commercial interest in the 2010s and early 2020s, largely due to lithium's high cost, uneven geographic distribution, and environmentally-damaging extraction process. An obvious advantage of sodium is its natural abundance,<ref name="Abraham How Comparable Are Sodium-Ion Batteries">{{cite journal |last1=Abraham |first1=K. M. |title=How Comparable Are Sodium-Ion Batteries to Lithium-Ion Counterparts? |journal=ACS Energy Letters |date=13 November 2020 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=3544–3547 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.0c02181 |doi-access=free }}</ref> particularly in ]. Another factor is that ], ] and ] are not required for many types of sodium-ion batteries, and more abundant ]-based materials (such as NaFeO2 with the Fe3+/Fe4+ redox pair) <ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1515/9783110749069 | title=Sodium-Ion Batteries | date=2022 | last1=Xie | first1=Man | last2=Wu | first2=Feng | last3=Huang | first3=Yongxin | isbn=978-3-11-074906-9 }}</ref> work well in Na+ batteries. This is because the ] of Na<sup>+</sup> (116 pm) is substantially larger than that of Fe<sup>2+</sup> and Fe<sup>3+</sup> (69–92 pm depending on the ]), whereas the ionic radius of Li<sup>+</sup> is similar (90 pm). Similar ionic radii of lithium and iron result in their mixing in the cathode material during battery cycling, and a resultant loss of cyclable charge. A downside of the larger ionic radius of Na<sup>+</sup> is a slower ] kinetics of sodium-ion electrode materials.<ref name="auto1">{{cite book | doi=10.1201/9781003308744 | title=Handbook of Sodium-Ion Batteries | date=2023 | last1=Gaddam | first1=Rohit R. | last2=Zhao | first2=George | isbn=978-1-003-30874-4 }}</ref>


]
While hard carbon is clearly the most preferred anode due to its excellent combination of high capacity, lower working potentials and good cycling stability, there have been a few other notable developments in lower-performing anodes. Incidentally, it was discovered that graphite could store sodium through solvent co-intercalation in ether-based electrolytes in 2015: low capacities around 100 mAh/g were obtained with the working potentials being relatively high between 0 – 1.2 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jache|first=Birte|last2=Adelhelm|first2=Philipp|date=2014|title=Use of Graphite as a Highly Reversible Electrode with Superior Cycle Life for Sodium-Ion Batteries by Making Use of Co-Intercalation Phenomena|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|volume=53|issue=38|pages=10169–10173|doi=10.1002/anie.201403734|pmid=25056756|issn=1521-3773}}</ref> Some sodium ] phases such as Na<sub>2</sub>Ti<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Senguttuvan|first=Premkumar|last2=Rousse|first2=Gwenaëlle|last3=Seznec|first3=Vincent|last4=Tarascon|first4=Jean-Marie|last5=Palacín|first5=M.Rosa|date=2011-09-27|title=Na2Ti3O7: Lowest Voltage Ever Reported Oxide Insertion Electrode for Sodium Ion Batteries|journal=Chemistry of Materials|volume=23|issue=18|pages=4109–4111|doi=10.1021/cm202076g|issn=0897-4756}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rudola|first=Ashish|last2=Saravanan|first2=Kuppan|last3=Mason|first3=Chad W.|last4=Balaya|first4=Palani|date=2013-01-23|title=Na2Ti3O7: an intercalation based anode for sodium-ion battery applications|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A|volume=1|issue=7|pages=2653–2662|doi=10.1039/C2TA01057G|issn=2050-7496}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rudola|first=Ashish|last2=Sharma|first2=Neeraj|last3=Balaya|first3=Palani|date=2015-12-01|title=Introducing a 0.2V sodium-ion battery anode: The Na2Ti3O7 to Na3−xTi3O7 pathway|journal=Electrochemistry Communications|volume=61|pages=10–13|doi=10.1016/j.elecom.2015.09.016|issn=1388-2481|url=https://doaj.org/article/cd7215070b2b4543b2ed192c6bdb1113}}</ref> or NaTiO<sub>2</sub>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ceder|first=Gerbrand|last2=Liu|first2=Lei|last3=Twu|first3=Nancy|last4=Xu|first4=Bo|last5=Li|first5=Xin|last6=Wu|first6=Di|date=2014-12-18|title=NaTiO2: a layered anode material for sodium-ion batteries|journal=Energy & Environmental Science|volume=8|issue=1|pages=195–202|doi=10.1039/C4EE03045A|issn=1754-5706}}</ref> can deliver capacities around 90 - 180 mAh/g at low working potentials (< 1 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>), though cycling stability is currently limited to a few hundred cycles. There have been numerous reports of anode materials storing sodium via an alloy reaction mechanism and/or conversion reaction mechanism,<ref name=":0" /> however, the severe stress-strain experienced on the material in the course of repeated storage cycles severely limits their cycling stability, especially in large-format cells, and is a major technical challenge that needs to be overcome by a cost-effective approach. 


The development of Na+ batteries started in the 1990s.
'''Cathodes:''' Significant progress has been achieved in devising high energy density sodium-ion cathodes since 2011. Similar to all lithium-ion cathodes, sodium-ion cathodes also store sodium via ] reaction mechanism. Owing to their high ], high operating potentials and high capacities, cathodes based on sodium transition metal oxides have received the greatest attention. Furthermore, from a desire to keep costs low, significant research has been geared towards avoiding or reducing costly elements such as ], ], ] or ] in the oxides. A P2-type Na<sub>2/3</sub>Fe<sub>1/2</sub>Mn<sub>1/2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> oxide from earth-abundant Fe and Mn resources was demonstrated to reversibly store 190 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 2.75 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup> utilising the Fe<sup>3+/4+</sup> ] in 2012 – such energy density was on par or better than commercial lithium-ion cathodes such as LiFePO<sub>4</sub> or LiMn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Komaba|first=Shinichi|last2=Yamada|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Usui|first3=Ryo|last4=Okuyama|first4=Ryoichi|last5=Hitomi|first5=Shuji|last6=Nishikawa|first6=Heisuke|last7=Iwatate|first7=Junichi|last8=Kajiyama|first8=Masataka|last9=Yabuuchi|first9=Naoaki|date=June 2012|title=P2-type NaxO2 made from earth-abundant elements for rechargeable Na batteries|journal=Nature Materials|volume=11|issue=6|pages=512–517|doi=10.1038/nmat3309|pmid=22543301|issn=1476-4660}}</ref> However, its sodium deficient nature meant sacrifices in energy density in practical full cells. To overcome sodium deficiency inherent in P2 oxides, significant efforts were expended in developing Na richer oxides. A mixed P3/P2/O3-type Na<sub>0.76</sub>Mn<sub>0.5</sub>Ni<sub>0.3</sub>Fe<sub>0.1</sub>Mg<sub>0.1</sub>O<sub>2</sub> was demonstrated to deliver 140 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup> in 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keller|first=Marlou|last2=Buchholz|first2=Daniel|last3=Passerini|first3=Stefano|date=2016|title=Layered Na-Ion Cathodes with Outstanding Performance Resulting from the Synergetic Effect of Mixed P- and O-Type Phases|journal=Advanced Energy Materials|volume=6|issue=3|pages=1501555|doi=10.1002/aenm.201501555|issn=1614-6840|pmc=4845635|pmid=27134617}}</ref> , a sodium-ion company based in the UK, has patented the highest energy density oxide-based cathodes currently known for sodium-ion applications. In particular, the O3-type NaNi<sub>1/4</sub>Na<sub>1/6</sub>Mn<sub>2/12</sub>Ti<sub>4/12</sub>Sn<sub>1/12</sub>O<sub>2</sub> oxide can deliver 160 mAh/g at average voltage of 3.22 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>,<ref>Kendrick, E.; Gruar, R.; Nishijima, M.; Mizuhata, H.; Otani, T.; Asako, I.; Kamimura, Y. “Tin-Containing Compounds”. ''''. Issued April 16, 2019; Filed by Faradion Limited and Sharp Kabushiki Kaisha on May 22, 2014.</ref> while a series of doped Ni-based oxides of the stoichiometry Na<sub>a</sub>Ni<sub>(1−x−y−z)</sub>Mn<sub>x</sub>Mg<sub>y</sub>Ti<sub>z</sub>O<sub>2</sub> can deliver 157 mAh/g in a sodium-ion “full cell” with the anode being hard carbon (contrast with the “]” terminology used when the anode is sodium metal) at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V utilising the Ni<sup>2+/4+</sup> redox couple.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bauer|first=Alexander|last2=Song|first2=Jie|last3=Vail|first3=Sean|last4=Pan|first4=Wei|last5=Barker|first5=Jerry|last6=Lu|first6=Yuhao|date=2018|title=The Scale-up and Commercialization of Nonaqueous Na-Ion Battery Technologies|journal=Advanced Energy Materials|volume=8|issue=17|pages=1702869|doi=10.1002/aenm.201702869|issn=1614-6840|doi-access=free}}</ref> Such performance in full cell configuration is better or on par with commercial lithium-ion systems currently.
After three decades of development, NIBs are at a critical moment of commercialization. Several companies such as HiNa and CATL in China, Faradion in the United Kingdom, Tiamat in France, ] in Sweden,<ref name=Lawson>{{cite news |last1=Lawson |first1=Alex |title='Breakthrough battery' from Sweden may cut dependency on China |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/nov/21/breakthrough-battery-from-sweden-may-cut-dependency-on-china |access-date=22 November 2023 |work=]}}</ref> and ] in the US, are close to achieving the commercialization of NIBs, with the aim of employing sodium layered transition metal oxides (NaxTMO2), Prussian white (a ] analogue<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maddar |first1=F. M. |last2=Walker |first2=D. |last3=Chamberlain |first3=T. W. |last4=Compton |first4=J. |last5=Menon |first5=A. S. |last6=Copley |first6=M. |last7=Hasa |first7=I. |title=Understanding dehydration of Prussian white: from material to aqueous processed composite electrodes for sodium-ion battery application |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |date=2023 |volume=11 |issue=29 |pages=15778–15791 |doi=10.1039/D3TA02570E |doi-access=free }}</ref>) or vanadium phosphate as cathode materials.{{syn|date=December 2024}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/oxfmat/itac019 |title=Sodium-based batteries: Development, commercialization journey and new emerging chemistries |date=2023 |last1=Yadav |first1=Poonam |last2=Shelke |first2=Vilas |last3=Patrike |first3=Apurva |last4=Shelke |first4=Manjusha |journal=Oxford Open Materials Science |volume=3 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.mtsust.2023.100385 |title=Strategies and practical approaches for stable and high energy density sodium-ion battery: A step closer to commercialization |date=2023 |last1=Yadav |first1=P. |last2=Patrike |first2=A. |last3=Wasnik |first3=K. |last4=Shelke |first4=V. |last5=Shelke |first5=M. |journal=Materials Today Sustainability |volume=22 |bibcode=2023MTSus..2200385Y }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110749069-006 |chapter=Chapter 6 the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries |title=Sodium-Ion Batteries |date=2022 |pages=306–362 |isbn=978-3-11-074906-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9781119818069.ch8 |chapter=The Design, Performance and Commercialization of Faradion's Non-aqueous Na-ion Battery Technology |title=Na-ion Batteries |date=2021 |last1=Rudola |first1=Ashish |last2=Coowar |first2=Fazlil |last3=Heap |first3=Richard |last4=Barker |first4=Jerry |pages=313–344 |isbn=978-1-78945-013-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/batt.202000277 |title=Non-Aqueous Electrolytes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Prospects Towards Commercialization |date=2021 |last1=Hijazi |first1=Hussein |last2=Desai |first2=Parth |last3=Mariyappan |first3=Sathiya |journal=Batteries & Supercaps |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=881–896 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03286753/file/Manuscript-%20Final-HAL.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1149/ma2019-03/1/64 |title=(Invited) the Scale-up and Commercialization of a High Energy Density Na-Ion Battery Technology |date=2019 |last1=Barker |first1=Jerry |journal=ECS Meeting Abstracts |page=64 }}
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/aenm.201701428 |title=Sodium-Ion Batteries: From Academic Research to Practical Commercialization |date=2018 |last1=Deng |first1=Jianqiu |last2=Luo |first2=Wen-Bin |last3=Chou |first3=Shu-Lei |last4=Liu |first4=Hua-Kun |last5=Dou |first5=Shi-Xue |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |volume=8 |issue=4 |bibcode=2018AdEnM...801428D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/aenm.201702869 |title=The Scale-up and Commercialization of Nonaqueous Na-Ion Battery Technologies |date=2018 |last1=Bauer |first1=Alexander |last2=Song |first2=Jie |last3=Vail |first3=Sean |last4=Pan |first4=Wei |last5=Barker |first5=Jerry |last6=Lu |first6=Yuhao |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |volume=8 |issue=17 |bibcode=2018AdEnM...802869B }}</ref>


Sodium-ion accumulators are operational for fixed electrical ], but ] using sodium-ion ]s are not yet commercially available. However, ], the world's biggest lithium-ion battery manufacturer, announced in 2022 the start of mass production of SIBs. In February 2023, the Chinese ], Ltd. placed a 140 Wh/kg sodium-ion battery in an electric test car for the first time,<ref>, CnEVPost, 23 February 2023</ref> and energy storage manufacturer Pylontech obtained the first sodium-ion battery certificate{{clarify|why is a "certificate" relevant here? what is it?|date=December 2023}} from ].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://batteriesnews.com/pylontech-obtains-worlds-first-sodium-ion-battery-certificate-tuv-rheinland/ | title=Pylontech Obtains the World's First Sodium Ion Battery Certificate from TÜV Rheinland | date=8 March 2023 }}</ref>
Apart from oxide cathodes, there has been tremendous research interest in developing cathodes based on polyanions. While these cathodes would be expected to have lower tap density than oxide-based cathodes (which would negatively impact energy density of the resulting sodium-ion battery) on account of the bulky anion, for many of such cathodes, the stronger ]ing of the polyanion translates to a more robust cathode which positively impacts cycle life and safety. Among such polyanion-based cathodes, sodium vanadium phosphate<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Uebou|first=Yasushi|last2=Kiyabu|first2=Toshiyasu|last3=Okada|first3=Shigeto|last4=Yamaki|first4=Jun-Ichi|date=|title=Electrochemical Sodium Insertion into the 3D-framework of Na3M2(PO4)3 (M=Fe, V)|journal=The Reports of Institute of Advanced Material Study, Kyushu University|language=ja|volume=16|pages=1–5|hdl=2324/7951}}</ref> and fluorophosphate<ref>Barker, J.; Saidi, Y.; Swoyer, J. L. “Sodium ion Batteries”. ''.'' Issued March 29, 2005; Filed by Valence Technology, Inc. on April 6, 2001.</ref> have demonstrated excellent cycling stability and in the case of the latter, an acceptably high capacity (⁓120 mAh/g) at high average discharge voltages (⁓3.6 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kang|first=Kisuk|last2=Lee|first2=Seongsu|last3=Gwon|first3=Hyeokjo|last4=Kim|first4=Sung-Wook|last5=Kim|first5=Jongsoon|last6=Park|first6=Young-Uk|last7=Kim|first7=Hyungsub|last8=Seo|first8=Dong-Hwa|last9=Shakoor|first9=R. A.|date=2012-09-11|title=A combined first principles and experimental study on Na3V2(PO4)2F3 for rechargeable Na batteries|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry|volume=22|issue=38|pages=20535–20541|doi=10.1039/C2JM33862A|issn=1364-5501}}</ref> There have also been several promising reports on the use of various ] (PBAs) as sodium-ion cathodes, with the patented rhombohedral Na<sub>2</sub>MnFe(CN)<sub>6</sub> particularly attractive displaying 150 –160 mAh/g in capacity and a 3.4 V average discharge voltage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goodenough|first=John B.|last2=Cheng|first2=Jinguang|last3=Wang|first3=Long|last4=Lu|first4=Yuhao|date=2012-06-06|title=Prussian blue: a new framework of electrode materials for sodium batteries|journal=Chemical Communications|volume=48|issue=52|pages=6544–6546|doi=10.1039/C2CC31777J|pmid=22622269|issn=1364-548X|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/6558bf7938b38507446f8670baeaf7b674f6278e}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Song|first=Jie|last2=Wang|first2=Long|last3=Lu|first3=Yuhao|last4=Liu|first4=Jue|last5=Guo|first5=Bingkun|last6=Xiao|first6=Penghao|last7=Lee|first7=Jong-Jan|last8=Yang|first8=Xiao-Qing|last9=Henkelman|first9=Graeme|date=2015-02-25|title=Removal of Interstitial H2O in Hexacyanometallates for a Superior Cathode of a Sodium-Ion Battery|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=137|issue=7|pages=2658–2664|doi=10.1021/ja512383b|pmid=25679040|issn=0002-7863}}</ref><ref>Lu, Y.; Kisdarjono, H.; Lee, J. -J.; Evans, D. “Transition metal hexacyanoferrate battery cathode with single plateau charge/discharge curve”. ''''. Issued August 4, 2015; Filed by Sharp Laboratories of America, Inc. on October 3, 2013.</ref> are currently working to commercialise sodium-ion batteries based on this material and hard carbon anode.


{{Toclimit}}
'''Electrolytes:''' Sodium-ion batteries can use aqueous as well as non-aqueous electrolytes. Aqueous electrolytes, owing to the limited ] of water, result in sodium-ion batteries of lower voltages and hence, limited energy densities. To extend the voltage range of sodium-ion batteries, the same non-aqueous ] polar aprotic solvents used in lithium-ion electrolytes, such as ], ], ], ] etc. can be used. The current most widely used non-aqueous electrolyte utilises ] as the salt dissolved in a mixture of the aforementioned solvents. Additionally, electrolyte additives can be used which can beneficially affect a host of performance metrics of the battery.


== Advantages == == History ==
Sodium-ion battery development took place in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, by the 1990s, lithium-ion batteries had demonstrated more commercial promise, causing interest in sodium-ion batteries to decline.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Hwang |first1=Jang-Yeon |last2=Myung |first2=Seung-Taek |last3=Sun |first3=Yang-Kook |title=Sodium-ion batteries: present and future |journal=Chemical Society Reviews |date=2017 |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=3529–3614 |doi=10.1039/c6cs00776g |pmid=28349134 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yabuuchi |first1=Naoaki |last2=Kubota |first2=Kei |last3=Dahbi |first3=Mouad |last4=Komaba |first4=Shinichi |title=Research Development on Sodium-Ion Batteries |journal=Chemical Reviews |date=10 December 2014 |volume=114 |issue=23 |pages=11636–11682 |doi=10.1021/cr500192f |pmid=25390643 }}</ref> In the early 2010s, sodium-ion batteries experienced a resurgence, driven largely by the increasing cost of lithium-ion battery raw materials.<ref name=":0" /> Also, the number of patent families reached the number of non-patent publication after ca. 2020, which usually signify the fact, that the technology reached the commercialization stage.
{{More citations needed|date=July 2020}}

Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. The table below compares how NIBs in general fare against the two established rechargeable battery technology in the market currently: the lithium-ion battery and the rechargeable ].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=Zhenguo|last2=Zhang|first2=Jianlu|last3=Kintner-Meyer|first3=Michael C. W.|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaochuan|last5=Choi|first5=Daiwon|last6=Lemmon|first6=John P.|last7=Liu|first7=Jun|date=2011-05-11|title=Electrochemical Energy Storage for Green Grid|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=111|issue=5|pages=3577–3613|doi=10.1021/cr100290v|pmid=21375330|issn=0009-2665}}</ref>
== Operating principle ==
SIB cells consist of a ] based on a sodium-based material, an ] (not necessarily a sodium-based material) and a liquid ] containing dissociated sodium salts in ] ] or ] solvents. During charging, sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode while electrons travel through the external circuit. During discharge, the reverse process occurs.{{fact|date=December 2024}}

== Materials ==
]
Due to the physical and electrochemical properties of sodium, SIBs require different materials from those used for LIBs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nayak |first1=Prasant Kumar |last2=Yang |first2=Liangtao |last3=Brehm |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Adelhelm |first4=Philipp |date=2018 |title=From Lithium-Ion to Sodium-Ion Batteries: Advantages, Challenges, and Surprises |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=102–120 |doi=10.1002/anie.201703772 |pmid=28627780 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Anodes ===

==== Carbons ====
SIBs can use ], a disordered carbon material consisting of a non-graphitizable, non-crystalline and amorphous carbon. Hard carbon's ability to absorb sodium was discovered in 2000.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stevens |first1=D. A. |last2=Dahn |first2=J. R. |title=High Capacity Anode Materials for Rechargeable Sodium-Ion Batteries |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |date=2000 |volume=147 |issue=4 |pages=1271 |doi=10.1149/1.1393348 |bibcode=2000JElS..147.1271S }}</ref> This anode was shown to deliver 300 mAh/g with a sloping potential profile above ⁓0.15 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>. It accounts for roughly half of the capacity and a flat potential profile (a potential plateau) below ⁓0.15 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>. Such capacities are comparable to 300–360 mAh/g of ] anodes in ]. The first sodium-ion cell using hard carbon was demonstrated in 2003 and showed a 3.7 V average voltage during discharge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barker |first1=J. |last2=Saidi |first2=M. Y. |last3=Swoyer |first3=J. L. |title=A Sodium-Ion Cell Based on the Fluorophosphate Compound NaVPOF |journal=Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters |date=2003 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=A1 |doi=10.1149/1.1523691 }}</ref> Hard carbon was the preferred choice of ] due to its excellent combination of capacity, (lower) working potentials, and cycling stability.<ref name="Rudola Commercialisation of high energy">{{cite journal |last1=Rudola |first1=Ashish |last2=Rennie |first2=Anthony J. R. |last3=Heap |first3=Richard |last4=Meysami |first4=Seyyed Shayan |last5=Lowbridge |first5=Alex |last6=Mazzali |first6=Francesco |last7=Sayers |first7=Ruth |last8=Wright |first8=Christopher J. |last9=Barker |first9=Jerry |title=Commercialisation of high energy density sodium-ion batteries: Faradion's journey and outlook |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |date=2021 |volume=9 |issue=13 |pages=8279–8302 |doi=10.1039/d1ta00376c }}</ref> Notably, nitrogen-doped hard carbons display even larger specific capacity of 520 mAh/g at 20 mA/g with stability over 1000 cycles.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1039/C7TA06754B | title=Capacitance-enhanced sodium-ion storage in nitrogen-rich hard carbon | date=2017 | last1=Gaddam | first1=Rohit Ranganathan | last2=Farokh Niaei | first2=Amir H. | last3=Hankel | first3=Marlies | last4=Searles | first4=Debra J. | last5=Kumar | first5=Nanjundan Ashok | last6=Zhao | first6=X. S. | journal=J. Mater. Chem. A | volume=5 | issue=42 | pages=22186–22192 }}</ref>

In 2015, researchers demonstrated that graphite could co-intercalate sodium in ether-based electrolytes. Low capacities around 100 mAh/g were obtained with relatively high working potentials between 0 – 1.2 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jache|first1=Birte|last2=Adelhelm|first2=Philipp|date=2014|title=Use of Graphite as a Highly Reversible Electrode with Superior Cycle Life for Sodium-Ion Batteries by Making Use of Co-Intercalation Phenomena|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |volume=53 |issue=38|pages=10169–10173 |doi=10.1002/anie.201403734|pmid=25056756 }}</ref>

One drawback of carbonaceous materials is that, because their intercalation potentials are fairly negative, they are limited to non-aqueous systems.

===== Graphene =====
] ] have been used in experimental sodium-ion batteries to increase ]. One side provides interaction sites while the other provides inter-layer separation. Energy density reached 337 mAh/g.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavars |first=Nick |date=2021-08-26|title=Two-faced graphene offers sodium-ion battery a tenfold boost in capacity |url=https://newatlas.com/energy/janus-graphene-sodium-battery-capacity/|access-date=2021-08-26|website=New Atlas}}</ref>

===== Carbon arsenide =====
Carbon arsenide (AsC<sub>5</sub>) mono/bilayer has been explored as an anode material due to high specific gravity (794/596 mAh/g), low expansion (1.2%), and ultra low diffusion barrier (0.16/0.09 eV), indicating rapid charge/discharge cycle capability, during sodium intercalation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Qiang |last2=Zhang |first2=Lian-Lian |last3=Gong |first3=Wei-Jiang |title=Monolayer and bilayer AsC5 as promising anode materials for Na-ion batteries |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=October 2023 |volume=580 |pages=233439 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233439 |bibcode=2023JPS...58033439L }}</ref> After sodium adsorption, a carbon arsenide anode maintains structural stability at 300 K, indicating long cycle life.

==== Metal alloys====
Numerous reports described anode materials storing sodium via alloy reaction and/or conversion reaction.<ref name=":0" /> Alloying sodium metal brings the benefits of regulating sodium-ion transport and shielding the accumulation of electric field at the tip of sodium ].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Northwestern SSO|url=https://prd-nusso.it.northwestern.edu/nusso/XUI/?realm=%2Fnorthwestern&goto=https%3A%2F%2Fprd-nusso.it.northwestern.edu%3A443%2Fnusso%2Foauth2%2Fauthorize%3Fresponse_mode%3Dform_post%26state%3Df4f22a20-9ef0-07e1-1a1e-5f09ec276bf4%26redirect_uri%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fsesame1.library.northwestern.edu%253A443%252Fagent%252Fcdsso-oauth2%26response_type%3Did_token%26scope%3Dopenid%26client_id%3Dlibrary-sesame%26agent_provider%3Dtrue%26agent_realm%3D%252Fnorthwestern%26nonce%3D1BC51FF02A496948034C9B594C5D59D1#login/|access-date=2021-11-19|website=prd-nusso.it.northwestern.edu}}</ref> Wang, ''et al.'' reported that a self-regulating alloy interface of nickel antimony (NiSb) was chemically deposited on Na metal during discharge. This thin layer of NiSb regulates the uniform electrochemical plating of Na metal, lowering overpotential and offering dendrite-free plating/stripping of Na metal over 100 h at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm<sup>−2</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Lei |last2=Shang |first2=Jian |last3=Huang |first3=Qiyao |last4=Hu |first4=Hong |last5=Zhang |first5=Yuqi |last6=Xie |first6=Chuan |last7=Luo |first7=Yufeng |last8=Gao |first8=Yuan |last9=Wang |first9=Huixin |last10=Zheng |first10=Zijian |title=Smoothing the Sodium-Metal Anode with a Self-Regulating Alloy Interface for High-Energy and Sustainable Sodium-Metal Batteries |journal=Advanced Materials |date=October 2021 |volume=33 |issue=41 |pages=e2102802 |doi=10.1002/adma.202102802 |pmid=34432922 |hdl=10397/99229 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===== Metals =====
Many metals and semi-metals (Pb, P, Sn, Ge, etc.) form stable alloys with sodium at room temperature. Unfortunately, the formation of such alloys is usually accompanied by a large volume change, which in turn results in the pulverization (crumbling) of the material after a few cycles. For example, with ] sodium forms an alloy {{Chem|Na|15|Sn|4}}, which is equivalent to 847 mAh/g specific capacity, with a resulting enormous volume change up to 420%.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/ijch.201400118 | title=Recent Development on Anodes for Na-Ion Batteries | date=2015 | last1=Bommier | first1=Clement | last2=Ji | first2=Xiulei | journal=Israel Journal of Chemistry | volume=55 | issue=5 | pages=486–507 }}</ref>

In one study, Li et al. prepared sodium and metallic tin {{Chem|Na|15|Sn|4}}/Na through a spontaneous reaction.{{fact|date=December 2024}} This anode could operate at a high temperature of {{Convert|90|C}} in a carbonate solvent at 1 mA cm<sup>−2</sup> with 1 mA h cm<sup>−2</sup> loading, and the full cell exhibited a stable charge-discharge cycling for 100 cycles at a current density of 2C.{{fact|date=December 2024}} (2C means that full charge or discharge was achieved in 0.5 hour). Despite sodium alloy's ability to operate at extreme temperatures and regulate dendritic growth, the severe stress-strain experienced on the material in the course of repeated storage cycles limits cycling stability, especially in large-format cells.

Researchers from ] achieved 478 mAh/g with nano-sized ] particles, announced in December 2020.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |first1=Azusa |last1=Kamiyama |first2=Kei |last2=Kubota |first3=Daisuke |last3=Igarashi |first4=Yong |last4=Youn |first5=Yoshitaka |last5=Tateyama |first6=Hideka |last6=Ando |first7=Kazuma |last7=Gotoh |first8=Shinichi |last8=Komaba |doi=10.1002/anie.202013951 |title=MgO-Template Synthesis of Extremely High Capacity Hard Carbon for Na-Ion Battery |date=December 2020 |volume=60 |issue=10 |pages=5114–5120 |pmid=33300173 |pmc=7986697 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2024, ] researchers enhanced sodium-ion battery performance by replacing hard carbon in the negative electrode with lead (Pb) and single wall ] (SWCNTs). This combination significantly increased volumetric energy density and eliminated capacity fade in half cells. SWCNTs endured active material connectivity, boosting capacity to 475 mAh/g and reducing losses, compared to 430 mAh/g in Pb cell without SWCNTs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garayt |first1=Matthew D. L. |last2=Obialor |first2=Martins C. |last3=Monchesky |first3=Ian L. |last4=George |first4=Andrew E. |last5=Yu |first5=Svena |last6=Rutherford |first6=Bailey A. |last7=Metzger |first7=Michael |last8=Dahn |first8=J. R. |date=December 2024 |title=Restructuring of Sodium-Lead Alloys during Charge-Discharge Cycling in Sodium-Ion Batteries |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |volume=171 |issue=12 |pages=120521 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/ad9bf0 }}</ref>

==== Oxides ====
Some sodium ] phases such as Na<sub>2</sub>Ti<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Senguttuvan|first1=Premkumar|last2=Rousse|first2=Gwenaëlle|last3=Seznec|first3=Vincent|last4=Tarascon|first4=Jean-Marie|last5=Palacín|first5=M.Rosa|date=2011-09-27|title=Na<sub>2</sub>Ti<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub>: Lowest Voltage Ever Reported Oxide Insertion Electrode for Sodium Ion Batteries|journal=Chemistry of Materials|volume=23|issue=18|pages=4109–4111|doi=10.1021/cm202076g }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rudola|first1=Ashish|last2=Saravanan|first2=Kuppan|last3=Mason|first3=Chad W.|last4=Balaya|first4=Palani|date=2013-01-23|title=Na<sub>2</sub>Ti<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub>: An intercalation based anode for sodium-ion battery applications|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A|volume=1|issue=7|pages=2653–2662|doi=10.1039/C2TA01057G }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rudola|first1=Ashish|last2=Sharma|first2=Neeraj|last3=Balaya|first3=Palani|date=2015-12-01|title=Introducing a 0.2V sodium-ion battery anode: The Na<sub>2</sub>Ti<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub> to Na<sub>3−x</sub>Ti<sub>3</sub>O<sub>7</sub> pathway|journal=Electrochemistry Communications|volume=61|pages=10–13|doi=10.1016/j.elecom.2015.09.016 }}</ref> or NaTiO<sub>2</sub>,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ceder|first1=Gerbrand|last2=Liu|first2=Lei|last3=Twu|first3=Nancy|last4=Xu|first4=Bo|last5=Li|first5=Xin|last6=Wu|first6=Di|date=2014-12-18|title=NaTiO<sub>2</sub>: a layered anode material for sodium-ion batteries|journal=Energy & Environmental Science|volume=8|issue=1|pages=195–202|doi=10.1039/C4EE03045A }}</ref> delivered capacities around 90–180 mAh/g at low working potentials (< 1 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>), though cycling stability was limited to a few hundred cycles.

==== Molybdenum disulphide ====
In 2021, researchers from China tried layered structure {{Chem2|MoS2}} as a new type of anode for sodium-ion batteries. A dissolution-recrystallization process densely assembled carbon layer-coated {{Chem2|MoS2}} nanosheets onto the surface of ]-derived N-doped ]. This kind of C-{{Chem2|MoS2}}/NCNTs anode can store 348&nbsp;mAh/g at 2&nbsp;A/g, with a cycling stability of 82% capacity after 400 cycles at 1&nbsp;A/g.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Yadong |last2=Tang |first2=Cheng |last3=Sun |first3=Weiwei |last4=Zhu |first4=Guanjia |last5=Du |first5=Aijun |last6=Zhang |first6=Haijiao |title=In-situ conversion growth of carbon-coated MoS2/N-doped carbon nanotubes as anodes with superior capacity retention for sodium-ion batteries |journal=Journal of Materials Science & Technology |date=March 2022 |volume=102 |pages=8–15 |doi=10.1016/j.jmst.2021.06.036 }}</ref> {{Chem2|TiS2}} is another potential material for SIBs because of its layered structure, but has yet to overcome the problem of capacity fade, since {{Chem2|TiS2}} suffers from poor electrochemical kinetics and relatively weak structural stability. In 2021, researchers from Ningbo, China employed pre-potassiated {{Chem2|TiS2}}, presenting rate capability of 165.9mAh/g and a cycling stability of 85.3% capacity after 500 cycles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Chengcheng |last2=Liu |first2=Yiwen |last3=Zheng |first3=Runtian |last4=Yang |first4=Zhengwei |last5=Miao |first5=Zhonghao |last6=Zhang |first6=Junwei |last7=Cai |first7=Xinhao |last8=Yu |first8=Haoxiang |last9=Zhang |first9=Liyuan |last10=Shu |first10=Jie |title=Interlayer gap widened TiS2 for highly efficient sodium-ion storage |journal=Journal of Materials Science & Technology |date=April 2022 |volume=107 |pages=64–69 |doi=10.1016/j.jmst.2021.08.035 }}</ref>

==== Other anodes for {{Chem2|Na+}} ====
Some other materials, such as ], ] and sodium ] derivatives,<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2018.01.208 | title=Pyromellitic dianhydride-based polyimide anodes for sodium-ion batteries | date=2018 | last1=Zhao | first1=Qinglan | last2=Gaddam | first2=Rohit Ranganathan | last3=Yang | first3=Dongfang | last4=Strounina | first4=Ekaterina | last5=Whittaker | first5=Andrew K. | last6=Zhao | first6=X.S. | journal=Electrochimica Acta | volume=265 | pages=702–708 }}</ref> have also been demonstrated in laboratories, but did not provoke commercial interest.<ref name="Rudola Commercialisation of high energy"/>

=== Cathodes ===

==== Oxides ====
Many layered ] oxides can reversibly intercalate sodium ions upon reduction. These oxides typically have a higher ] and a lower electronic ], than other posode materials (such as phosphates). Due to a larger size of the Na<sup>+</sup> ion (116 pm) compared to Li<sup>+</sup> ion (90 pm), cation mixing between Na<sup>+</sup> and first row transition metal ions (which is common in the case of Li+) usually does not occur. Thus, low-cost iron and manganese oxides can be used for Na-ion batteries, whereas Li-ion batteries require the use of more expensive cobalt and nickel oxides. The drawback of the larger size of Na<sup>+</sup> ion is its slower intercalation kinetics compared to Li<sup>+</sup> ion and the presence of multiple intercalation stages with different voltages and kinetic rates.<ref name="auto1"/>

A P2-type Na<sub>2/3</sub>Fe<sub>1/2</sub>Mn<sub>1/2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> oxide from earth-abundant Fe and Mn resources can reversibly store 190 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 2.75 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup> utilising the Fe<sup>3+/4+</sup> ] – on par or better than commercial lithium-ion cathodes such as LiFePO<sub>4</sub> or LiMn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Komaba|first1=Shinichi|last2=Yamada|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Usui|first3=Ryo|last4=Okuyama|first4=Ryoichi|last5=Hitomi|first5=Shuji|last6=Nishikawa|first6=Heisuke|last7=Iwatate|first7=Junichi|last8=Kajiyama|first8=Masataka|last9=Yabuuchi|first9=Naoaki|date=June 2012|title=P2-type Na<sub>x</sub>O<sub>2</sub> made from earth-abundant elements for rechargeable Na batteries|journal=Nature Materials|volume=11|issue=6|pages=512–517|doi=10.1038/nmat3309|pmid=22543301|bibcode=2012NatMa..11..512Y }}</ref> However, its sodium deficient nature lowered energy density. Significant efforts were expended in developing Na-richer oxides. A mixed P3/P2/O3-type Na<sub>0.76</sub>Mn<sub>0.5</sub>Ni<sub>0.3</sub>Fe<sub>0.1</sub>Mg<sub>0.1</sub>O<sub>2</sub> was demonstrated to deliver 140 mAh/g at an average discharge voltage of 3.2 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup> in 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keller|first1=Marlou|last2=Buchholz|first2=Daniel|last3=Passerini|first3=Stefano|date=2016|title=Layered Na-Ion Cathodes with Outstanding Performance Resulting from the Synergetic Effect of Mixed P- and O-Type Phases|journal=Advanced Energy Materials|volume=6|issue=3|pages=1501555|doi=10.1002/aenm.201501555 |pmc=4845635|pmid=27134617|bibcode=2016AdEnM...601555K }}</ref> In particular, the O3-type NaNi<sub>1/4</sub>Na<sub>1/6</sub>Mn<sub>2/12</sub>Ti<sub>4/12</sub>Sn<sub>1/12</sub>O<sub>2</sub> oxide can deliver 160 mAh/g at average voltage of 3.22 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kendrick|first1= E.|last2= Gruar|first2= R.|last3= Nishijima|first3= M.|last4= Mizuhata|first4= H.|last5= Otani|first5= T.|last6= Asako|first6= I.|last7= Kamimura|first7= Y. |title=Tin-Containing Compounds United States Patent No. US 10,263,254|url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/c1/bf/cf/7daf59140325f7/US10263254.pdf |date=May 22, 2014}}</ref> while a series of doped Ni-based oxides of the ] Na<sub>a</sub>Ni<sub>(1−x−y−z)</sub>Mn<sub>x</sub>Mg<sub>y</sub>Ti<sub>z</sub>O<sub>2</sub> can deliver 157 mAh/g in a sodium-ion "full cell" with a hard carbon anode at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V utilising the Ni<sup>2+/4+</sup> redox couple.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Bauer|first1=Alexander|last2=Song|first2=Jie|last3=Vail|first3=Sean|last4=Pan|first4=Wei|last5=Barker|first5=Jerry|last6=Lu|first6=Yuhao|date=2018|title=The Scale-up and Commercialization of Nonaqueous Na-Ion Battery Technologies|journal=Advanced Energy Materials|volume=8|issue=17|pages=1702869|doi=10.1002/aenm.201702869 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018AdEnM...802869B }}</ref> Such performance in full cell configuration is better or on par with commercial lithium-ion systems. A Na<sub>0.67</sub>Mn<sub>1−x</sub>Mg<sub>x</sub>O<sub>2</sub> cathode material exhibited a discharge capacity of 175 mAh/g for Na<sub>0.67</sub>Mn<sub>0.95</sub>Mg<sub>0.05</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. This cathode contained only abundant elements.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1=Juliette|last1= Billaud|first2= Gurpreet|last2= Singh|first3= A. Robert|last3= Armstrong|first4= Elena|last4= Gonzalo|first5=Vladimir|last5=Roddatis|first6= Michel|last6= Armand|date=2014-02-21|title=Na<sub>0.67</sub>Mn<sub>1−x</sub>Mg<sub>x</sub>O<sub>2</sub> {{Nowrap|(0≤x≤2)}}: a high capacity cathode for sodium-ion batteries|journal=Energy & Environmental Science|volume=7|pages=1387–1391|doi=10.1039/c4ee00465e}}</ref> Copper-substituted Na<sub>0.67</sub>Ni<sub>0.3−x</sub>Cu<sub>x</sub>Mn<sub>0.7</sub>O<sub>2</sub> cathode materials showed a high reversible capacity with better capacity retention. In contrast to the copper-free Na<sub>0.67</sub>Ni<sub>0.3−x</sub>Cu<sub>x</sub>Mn<sub>0.7</sub>O<sub>2</sub> electrode, the as-prepared Cu-substituted cathodes deliver better sodium storage. However, cathodes with Cu are more expensive.<ref>{{Cite journal| first1=Lei|last1= Wang|first2= Yong-Gang|last2= Sun|first3= Lin-Lin|last3= Hu|first4= Jun-Yu|last4= Piao|first5=Jing|last5=Guo|first6= Arumugam|last6= Manthiram|first7=Jianmin|last7=Ma|first8=An-Min|last8=Cao|date=2017-04-09|title=Copper-substituted Na<sub>0.67</sub>Ni<sub>0.3−x</sub>Cu<sub>x</sub>Mn<sub>0.7</sub>O<sub>2</sub> cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries with suppressed P2–O2 phase transition|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A|volume=5|issue= 18|pages=8752–8761|doi=10.1039/c7ta00880e}}</ref>

==== Oxoanions ====
Research has also considered cathodes based on ]. Such cathodes offer lower tap density, lowering energy density than oxides. On the other hand, a stronger ]ing of the polyanion positively impacts cycle life and safety and increases the cell voltage. Among polyanion-based cathodes, sodium vanadium phosphate<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Uebou|first1=Yasushi|last2=Kiyabu|first2=Toshiyasu|last3=Okada|first3=Shigeto|last4=Yamaki|first4=Jun-Ichi|title=Electrochemical Sodium Insertion into the 3D-framework of Na<sub>3</sub>M<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub> (M=Fe, V)|journal=The Reports of Institute of Advanced Material Study, Kyushu University|language=ja|volume=16|pages=1–5|hdl=2324/7951}}</ref> and ]<ref>{{cite web|last1=Barker|first1= J.|last2= Saidi|first2= Y.|last3= Swoyer|first3= J. L. |title=Sodium ion Batteries United States Patent No. US 6,872,492 Issued March 29, 2005 |url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/10/6b/db/161f02860d5ff0/US6872492.pdf }}</ref> have demonstrated excellent cycling stability and in the latter, an acceptably high capacity (⁓120 mAh/g) at high average discharge voltages (⁓3.6 V ''vs'' Na/Na<sup>+</sup>).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kang|first1=Kisuk|last2=Lee|first2=Seongsu|last3=Gwon|first3=Hyeokjo|last4=Kim|first4=Sung-Wook|last5=Kim|first5=Jongsoon|last6=Park|first6=Young-Uk|last7=Kim|first7=Hyungsub|last8=Seo|first8=Dong-Hwa|last9=Shakoor|first9=R. A.|date=2012-09-11|title=A combined first principles and experimental study on Na<sub>3</sub>V<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub> for rechargeable Na batteries|journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry|volume=22|issue=38|pages=20535–20541|doi=10.1039/C2JM33862A }}</ref> Besides that, sodium manganese silicate has also been demonstrated to deliver a very high capacity (>200 mAh/g) with decent cycling stability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Law |first1=Markas |last2=Ramar |first2=Vishwanathan |last3=Balaya |first3=Palani |date=2017-08-15 |title=Na<sub>2</sub>MnSiO<sub>4</sub> as an attractive high capacity cathode material for sodium-ion battery |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=359 |pages=277–284 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.05.069 |bibcode=2017JPS...359..277L }}</ref> A French startup TIAMAT develops Na<sup>+</sup> ion batteries based on a sodium-vanadium-phosphate-fluoride cathode material Na<sub>3</sub>V<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub>, which undergoes two reversible 0.5 e-/V transitions: at 3.2V and at 4.0 V.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233460 | title=Determination of a sodium-ion cell entropy-variation | date=2023 | last1=Damay | first1=Nicolas | last2=Recoquillé | first2=Rémi | last3=Rabab | first3=Houssam | last4=Kozma | first4=Joanna | last5=Forgez | first5=Christophe | last6=El Mejdoubi | first6=Asmae | last7=El Kadri Benkara | first7=Khadija | journal=Journal of Power Sources | volume=581 | bibcode=2023JPS...58133460D | url=https://hal.science/hal-04186950/file/2023%20JPS%20Damay%20N.%20-%20Determination%20of%20a%20sodium-ion%20cell%20entropy-variation.pdf }}</ref> A startup from Singapore, is developing and commercialising Na<sub>3</sub>V<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub> cathode material, which shows very good cycling stability, utilising the non-flammable glyme-based electrolyte.<ref>{{Cite patent|number=US20190312299A1|title=Non-flammable sodium-ion batteries|gdate=2019-10-10|invent1=PALANI|invent2=RUDOLA|invent3=Du|invent4=Gajjela|inventor1-first=Balaya|inventor2-first=Ashish|inventor3-first=Kang|inventor4-first=Satyanarayana Reddy|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20190312299A1/en}}</ref>

==== Prussian blue and analogues ====
Numerous research groups investigated the use of ] and various Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) as cathodes for Na<sup>+</sup>-ion batteries. The ideal formula for a discharged material is
Na<sub>2</sub>M, and it corresponds to the theoretical capacity of ca. 170 mAh/g, which is equally split between two one-electron voltage plateaus. Such high specific charges are rarely observed only in PBA samples with a low number of structural defects.

For example, the patented rhombohedral Na<sub>2</sub>MnFe(CN)<sub>6</sub> displaying 150–160 mAh/g in capacity and a 3.4 V average discharge voltage<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Yuhao |last2=Wang |first2=Long |last3=Cheng |first3=Jinguang |last4=Goodenough |first4=John B. |title=Prussian blue: a new framework of electrode materials for sodium batteries |journal=Chemical Communications |date=2012 |volume=48 |issue=52 |pages=6544–6546 |doi=10.1039/c2cc31777j |pmid=22622269 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Song|first1=Jie|last2=Wang|first2=Long|last3=Lu|first3=Yuhao|last4=Liu|first4=Jue|last5=Guo|first5=Bingkun|last6=Xiao|first6=Penghao|last7=Lee|first7=Jong-Jan|last8=Yang|first8=Xiao-Qing|last9=Henkelman|first9=Graeme|date=2015-02-25|title=Removal of Interstitial H<sub>2</sub>O in Hexacyanometallates for a Superior Cathode of a Sodium-Ion Battery|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=137|issue=7|pages=2658–2664|doi=10.1021/ja512383b|pmid=25679040|bibcode=2015JAChS.137.2658S }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Lu|first1= Y.|last2= Kisdarjono|first2= H.|last3= Lee|first3= J. J.|last4= Evans|first4= D. |title=Transition metal hexacyanoferrate battery cathode with single plateau charge/discharge curve United States Patent No. 9,099,718 Issued August 4, 2015; Filed by Sharp Laboratories of America, Inc. on October 3, 2013|url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/ac/48/29/211dbcea2a9631/US9099718.pdf }}</ref> and rhombohedral Prussian white Na<sub>1.88(5)</sub>Fe·0.18(9)H<sub>2</sub>O displaying initial capacity of 158 mAh/g and retaining 90% capacity after 50 cycles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brant |first1=William R. |last2=Mogensen |first2=Ronnie |last3=Colbin |first3=Simon |last4=Ojwang |first4=Dickson O. |last5=Schmid |first5=Siegbert |last6=Häggström |first6=Lennart |last7=Ericsson |first7=Tore |last8=Jaworski |first8=Aleksander |last9=Pell |first9=Andrew J. |last10=Younesi |first10=Reza |title=Selective Control of Composition in Prussian White for Enhanced Material Properties |journal=Chemistry of Materials |date=24 September 2019 |volume=31 |issue=18 |pages=7203–7211 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemmater.9b01494 }}</ref>

While Ti, Mn, Fe and Co PBAs show a two-electron electrochemistry, the Ni PBA shows only one-electron (Ni is not electrochemically active in the accessible voltage range). Iron-free PBA Na<sub>2</sub>Mn<sup>II</sup> is also known. It has a fairly large reversible capacity of 209 mAh/g at C/5, but its voltage is unfortunately low (1.8 V versus Na<sup>+</sup>/Na).<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1201/9781003308744 | title=Handbook of Sodium-Ion Batteries | date=2023 | last1=Gaddam | first1=Rohit R. | last2=Zhao | first2=George | isbn=978-1-003-30874-4 }}</ref>

=== Electrolytes ===
Sodium-ion batteries can use ] and non-aqueous electrolytes. The limited ] of water results in lower voltages and limited energy densities. Non-aqueous ] polar aprotic solvents extend the voltage range. These include ], ], ], and ]. The most widely used salts in non-aqueous electrolytes are NaClO<sub>4</sub> and ] (NaPF<sub>6</sub>) dissolved in a mixture of these solvents. It is a well-established fact that these carbonate-based electrolytes are flammable, which pose safety concerns in large-scale applications. A type of glyme-based electrolyte, with ] as the salt is demonstrated to be non-flammable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Du |first1=Kang |last2=Wang |first2=Chen |last3=Subasinghe |first3=Lihil Uthpala |last4=Gajella |first4=Satyanarayana Reddy |last5=Law |first5=Markas |last6=Rudola |first6=Ashish |last7=Balaya |first7=Palani |title=A comprehensive study on the electrolyte, anode and cathode for developing commercial type non-flammable sodium-ion battery |journal=Energy Storage Materials |date=August 2020 |volume=29 |pages=287–299 |doi=10.1016/j.ensm.2020.04.021 |bibcode=2020EneSM..29..287D }}</ref> In addition, NaTFSI (TFSI = bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide) and NaFSI (FSI = bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, NaDFOB (DFOB = difluoro(oxalato)borate) and NaBOB (bis(oxalato)borate) anions have emerged lately as new interesting salts. Of course, electrolyte additives can be used as well to improve the performance metrics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Law |first1=Markas |last2=Ramar |first2=Vishwanathan |last3=Balaya |first3=Palani |date=August 2017 |title=Na<sub>2</sub>MnSiO<sub>4</sub> as an attractive high capacity cathode material for sodium-ion battery |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=359 |pages=277–284 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.05.069 |bibcode=2017JPS...359..277L }}</ref>

== Comparison ==
Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics (for the aqueous versions), and similar power delivery characteristics, but also a lower energy density (especially the aqueous versions).<ref name=":9" />

The table below compares how NIBs in general fare against the two established rechargeable battery technologies in the market currently: the lithium-ion battery and the rechargeable ].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Zhenguo |last2=Zhang |first2=Jianlu |last3=Kintner-Meyer |first3=Michael C. W. |last4=Lu |first4=Xiaochuan |last5=Choi |first5=Daiwon |last6=Lemmon |first6=John P. |last7=Liu |first7=Jun |title=Electrochemical Energy Storage for Green Grid |journal=Chemical Reviews |date=11 May 2011 |volume=111 |issue=5 |pages=3577–3613 |doi=10.1021/cr100290v |pmid=21375330 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
|+Battery comparison
|
!
|'''Lead-acid battery'''
|'''Lithium-ion battery''' ! Sodium-ion battery
|'''Sodium-ion battery''' ! Lithium-ion battery
! Lead–acid battery
|- |-
! Cost per kilowatt-hour of capacity
|'''Cost'''
|$40–77 (theoretical in 2019)<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=Jens F.|last2=Peña Cruz|first2=Alexandra|last3=Weil|first3=Marcel|date=2019|title=Exploring the Economic Potential of Sodium-Ion Batteries|journal=Batteries|volume=5|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.3390/batteries5010010|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|Low
|$137 (average in 2020)<ref>{{cite web|
|High
title=Battery Pack Prices Cited Below $100/kWh for the First Time in 2020, While Market Average Sits at $137/kWh
|Low
|url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/battery-pack-prices-cited-below-100-kwh-for-the-first-time-in-2020-while-market-average-sits-at-137-kwh/
|date=16 December 2020|access-date=15 March 2021|publisher=Bloomberg NEF}}
</ref>
|$100–300<ref name="doecostreport">{{cite report
|title=Energy Storage Technology and Cost Characterization Report
|url=https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/07/f65/Storage%20Cost%20and%20Performance%20Characterization%20Report_Final.pdf
|vauthors=Mongird K, Fotedar V, Viswanathan V, Koritarov V, Balducci P, Hadjerioua B, Alam J
|type=pdf
|date=July 2019
|access-date=15 March 2021
|publisher=U.S. Department Of Energy|page=iix}}
</ref>
|- |-
! Volumetric energy density
|'''Energy Density'''
|250–375 W·h/L, based on prototypes<ref name="Abraham How Comparable Are Sodium-Ion Batteries"/>
|Low
|200–683 W·h/L<ref name="Ding Automotive Li-Ion Batteries">{{cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Yuanli |last2=Cano |first2=Zachary P. |last3=Yu |first3=Aiping |last4=Lu |first4=Jun |last5=Chen |first5=Zhongwei |title=Automotive Li-Ion Batteries: Current Status and Future Perspectives |journal=Electrochemical Energy Reviews |date=March 2019 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |osti=1561559 |doi=10.1007/s41918-018-0022-z }}</ref>
|High
|80–90 W·h/L<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=May |first1=Geoffrey J. |last2=Davidson |first2=Alistair |last3=Monahov |first3=Boris |title=Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review |journal=Journal of Energy Storage |date=February 2018 |volume=15 |pages=145–157 |doi=10.1016/j.est.2017.11.008 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018JEnSt..15..145M }}</ref>
|Moderate/High
|- |-
! ]
|'''Safety'''
|75–200 W·h/kg, based on prototypes and product announcements<ref name="Abraham How Comparable Are Sodium-Ion Batteries"/><ref name="catl_announcement">{{Cite web|title=CATL Unveils Its Latest Breakthrough Technology by Releasing Its First Generation of Sodium-ion Batteries|url=https://www.catl.com/en/news/6015.html|access-date=2023-04-24|website=www.catl.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 October 2022 |title=CATL to begin mass production of sodium-ion batteries next year |url=https://www.arenaev.com/catl_to_begin_mass_production_of_sodiumion_batteries_next_year-news-930.php}}</ref> Low end for aqueous, high end for carbon batteries<ref name=":9" />
|Moderate
|120–260 W·h/kg (without protective case needed for battery pack in vehicle)<ref name="Ding Automotive Li-Ion Batteries" />
|Low
|35–40 Wh/kg<ref name=":3" />
|High
|- |-
!]
|'''Materials'''
|~1000 W/kg<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2024-01-10 |title=Sodium-Ion Batteries Will Diversify the Energy Storage Industry |url=https://www.idtechex.com/en/research-article/sodium-ion-batteries-will-diversify-the-energy-storage-industry/30405 |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=IDTechEx }}</ref>
|Toxic
|~340-420 W/kg (NMC),<ref name=":8" /> ~175-425 W/kg (LFP)<ref name=":8" />
|Scarce
|180 W/kg<!-- using CCA, but power-weight ratio is a little dubious without specifying capacity at that rate -->
|Earth-abundant

<ref name="trojan">{{cite web |date=2008 |title=Product Specification Guide |url=http://www.batteriesinaflash.com/specs/floodedleadacid/TrojanSpecs/Trojan%20Specification%20Sheet.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604020026/http://www.batteriesinaflash.com/specs/floodedleadacid/TrojanSpecs/Trojan%20Specification%20Sheet.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-04 |access-date=2014-01-09 |publisher=Trojan Battery Company}}</ref>
|- |-
! Cycles at 80% depth of discharge{{efn|The number of charge-discharge cycles a battery supports depends on multiple considerations, including depth of discharge, rate of discharge, rate of charge, and temperature. The values shown here reflect generally favorable conditions.}}
|'''Cycling Stability'''
|Hundreds to thousands<ref name="faradion" />
|Moderate (high ])
|3,500<ref name="doecostreport" />
|High (negligible self-discharge)
|900<ref name="doecostreport" />
|High (negligible self-discharge)
|- |-
! Safety
|'''Efficiency'''
|Low risk for aqueous batteries, high risk for Na in carbon batteries<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Ruohui |last2=Chen |first2=Long |last3=Su |first3=Jing |last4=Cai |first4=Shiteng |last5=Wang |first5=Sheng |last6=Chen |first6=Zhongxue |year=2024 |title=Issues and challenges facing aqueous sodium-ion batteries toward practical applications |journal=Battery Energy |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1002/bte2.20230036 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|Low (< 75%)
|High risk{{efn|See ]}}
|High (> 90%)
|Moderate risk
|High (> 90%)
|- |-
! Materials
|'''Temperature Range'''
| Abundant
|<nowiki>-40 °C to 60 °C</nowiki>
| Scarce
|<nowiki>-25 °C to 40 °C</nowiki>
| Toxic
|<nowiki>-40 °C to 60 °C</nowiki>
|- |-
! Cycling stability
|'''Remarks'''
|High (negligible self-discharge){{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}
|Mature technology; fast charging not possible
|High (negligible self-discharge) {{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}
|Transportation restrictions at discharged state
|Moderate (high ])<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Complete Guide to Lithium vs Lead Acid Batteries - Power Sonic |newspaper=Power Sonic |date=25 February 2020 |url=https://www.power-sonic.com/blog/lithium-vs-lead-acid-batteries/ |last1=Spendiff-Smith |first1=Matthew }}</ref>
|Less mature technology; easy transportation
|-
! Direct current round-trip efficiency
|up to 92%<ref name="faradion">{{cite web|
title=Performance
|url=https://www.faradion.co.uk/technology-benefits/strong-performance/
|access-date=17 March 2021
|publisher=Faradion Limited
|quote="The (round trip) energy efficiency of sodium-ion batteries is 92% at a discharge time of 5 hours."
}}
</ref>
|85–95%<ref>{{cite report|
title=Lithium Ion Battery Test – Public Report 5
|url=https://arena.gov.au/assets/2015/08/battery-test-centre-report-5.pdf
|access-date=17 March 2021
|date=September 2018
|publisher=ITP Renewables
|quote="The data shows all technologies delivering between 85–95% DC round-trip efficiency."
|page=13
|type=pdf
}}
</ref>
|70–90%<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Battery Storage Technologies for Electrical Applications: Impact in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
|url=https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/10/11/1760/pdf
|access-date=17 March 2021
|date=November 2017
|quote="Lead–acid batteries have a ... round trip-efficiency (RTE) of ~70–90%"
|page=13
|doi=10.3390/en10111760
|doi-access=free
|last1=Akinyele
|first1=Daniel
|last2=Belikov
|first2=Juri
|last3=Levron
|first3=Yoash
|journal=Energies
|volume=10
|issue=11
}}
</ref>
|-
! Temperature range{{efn | Temperature affects charging behavior, capacity, and battery lifetime, and affects each of these differently, at different temperature ranges for each. The values given here are general ranges for battery operation.}}
|<nowiki>−20 °C to 60 °C</nowiki><ref name="faradion" />
|<nowiki>Acceptable:−20 °C to 60 °C.</nowiki>
<nowiki>Optimal: 15 °C to 35 °C</nowiki><ref>{{cite journal|
title="Temperature effect and thermal impact in lithium-ion batteries: A review"
|date=December 2018
|issue=6
|pages=653–666
|journal=Progress in Natural Science: Materials International
|volume=28
|doi=10.1016/j.pnsc.2018.11.002
|type=pdf
|last1=Ma
|first1=Shuai
|doi-access=free
}}
</ref>
|<nowiki>−20 °C to 60 °C</nowiki><ref>{{cite report
|date=June 2004
|publisher=Sandia National Labs
|doi=10.2172/975252
|doi-access=free
|title=Temperature effects on sealed lead acid batteries and charging techniques to prolong cycle life
|last1=Hutchinson
|first1=Ronda
|pages=SAND2004–3149, 975252
}}</ref>
|} |}
'''Cost:''' As stated earlier, since 2011, there has been a revival of research interest in sodium-ion batteries. This is because of growing concerns about the availability of lithium resources and hence, about their future costs. Apart from being the sixth most ], sodium can be extracted from seawater indicating that its resources are effectively infinite. Due to these facts, the consensus is that sodium-ion batteries’ costs would perpetually be low if the cathode and anode are also based on earth-abundant elements. Furthermore, sodium-ion batteries allow for usage of ] current collectors for the cathode as well as anode. In lithium-ion batteries, the anode current collector has to be the heavier and more costly ] as Al alloys with lithium at low potentials (sodium does not form an alloy with Al).


== Commercialization ==
Another advantage is that sodium-ion batteries utilise the same manufacturing protocols and methodology as that required for commercial lithium-ion batteries owing to their similar working principles. Hence, sodium-ion batteries can be a drop-in replacement for lithium-ion batteries not only in terms of application but also during the production process. This fact indicates no additional capital costs are required for existing lithium-ion battery manufacturers to switch to sodium-ion technology.
Companies around the world have been working to develop commercially viable sodium-ion batteries. A 2-hour 5MW/10MWh ] was installed in China in 2023.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Murray |first1=Cameron |title='World-first' grid-scale sodium-ion battery project in China enters commercial operation |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/world-first-grid-scale-sodium-ion-battery-project-in-china-enters-commercial-operation/ |website=Energy-Storage.News |date=3 August 2023}}</ref>


=== Electric vehicles===
'''Energy Density:''' It was assumed traditionally that NIBs would never display the same levels of energy densities as those delivered by LIBs. This rationale was assumed by taking into account the higher ] of sodium ''vs'' lithium (23 ''vs'' 6.9 g/mol) and a higher ] of the Na/Na<sup>+</sup> redox couple relative to the Li/Li<sup>+</sup> redox couple (-2.71 V ''vs'' S.H.E. and -3.02 V ''vs'' S.H.E. respectively). Such a rationale is applicable only to metal batteries where the anode would be the concerned metal (sodium or lithium metal). In metal-ion batteries, the anode is any suitable host material other than the metal itself. Hence, strictly speaking, the energy density of metal-ion batteries is dictated by the individual capacities of the cathode and anode host materials as well as the difference in their working potentials (the higher the difference in working potentials, the higher the output voltage of the metal-ion battery). Considering this, there is no reason to assume that NIBs would be inferior to LIBs in terms of energy densities – recent research developments have already indicated several potential cathodes and anodes with performance similar or better than lithium-ion cathodes or anodes. Furthermore, the use of lighter Al current collector for anode helps enhancing the energy density of sodium-ion batteries.
]’s ] (Youth Edition) sets a new standard as the world's first serial-production A00-class ] equipped with sodium batteries (sodium-ion batteries), offering a range of {{Convert|251|km|mi}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=First sodium-ion battery EVs go into serial production in China |url=https://www.electrive.com/2024/01/02/first-sodium-ion-battery-evs-go-into-serial-production-in-china/ |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=electrive.com }}</ref>


] revealed the ] electric vehicle, which Dongfeng claimed features a sodium solid state battery at a launch event.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bobylev |first=Denis |date=2023-08-24 |title=Dongfeng reveales Nammi 01 EV that supports a solid state battery |url=https://carnewschina.com/2023/08/24/dongfeng-reveales-nammi-01-ev-with-a-solid-state-battery/ |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=CarNewsChina.com }}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=December 2024|reason=Solid-state sodium battery may not actually be available in production version}}
With reference to rechargeable lead-acid batteries, the energy density of NIBs can be anywhere from 1 – 5 times the value, depending on the chemistry used for the sodium-ion battery.


===Active===
'''Safety:''' Lead-acid batteries themselves are quite safe in operation, but the use of corrosive acid-based electrolytes hampers their safety. Lithium-ion batteries are quite stable if cycled with care but are susceptible to catching ] if overcharged thus necessitating strict controls on ]s. Another safety issue with lithium-ion batteries is that transportation cannot occur at fully discharged state – such batteries are required to be transported at least at 30% ]. In general, metal-ion batteries tend to be at their most unsafe state at the fully charged state, hence, the requirement for lithium-ion batteries to be transported at a partially charged state is not only cumbersome and more unsafe but also imposes additional costs. Such requirement for lithium-ion battery transport is on account of the dissolution concerns of Cu current collector if the lithium-ion battery's voltage drops too low.<ref name=":1" /> Sodium-ion batteries, using Al current collector on the anode, suffers no such issue upon being fully discharged to 0 V – in fact, it has been demonstrated that keeping sodium-ion batteries at a shorted state (0 V) for prolonged periods does not hamper its cycle life at all.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">Barker, J.; Wright, C. W.; “Storage and/or transportation of sodium-ion cells”. ''''. Filed by Faradion Limited on August 22, 2014.</ref> While sodium-ion batteries can use many of the same solvents in the electrolyte as used by lithium-ion battery electrolytes, the compatibility of hard carbon with the more thermally stable ] is a distinct advantage that sodium-ion batteries have over lithium-ion batteries. Hence, electrolytes with a higher percentage of propylene carbonate can be formulated for sodium-ion batteries as opposed to highly ] ] or ] (preferred for lithium-ion electrolytes) which would result in significantly enhanced safety for NIBs.
== Commercialisation== ==== Altris AB ====
Altris AB was founded by Associate Professor Reza Younesi, his former PhD student, Ronnie Mogensen, and Associate Professor William Brant as a spin-off from ], Sweden,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Major successes for Uppsala University researchers' battery material – Uppsala University |url=https://www.uu.se/en/news/archive/2022-06-08-major-successes-for-uppsala-university-researchers-battery-material |access-date=2023-06-29 |website=www.uu.se |date=8 June 2022 }}</ref> launched in 2017 as part of research efforts from the team on sodium-ion batteries. The research was conducted at the Ångström Advanced Battery Centre led by Prof. ] at ]. The company offers a proprietary iron-based Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode in non-aqueous sodium-ion batteries that use hard carbon as the anode.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-17|title=Researchers develop electric vehicle battery made from seawater and wood|url=https://www.electrichybridvehicletechnology.com/news/battery-technology/researchers-develop-electric-vehicle-battery-made-from-seawater-and-wood.html |access-date=2021-07-29|website=Electric & Hybrid Vehicle Technology International}}</ref> Altris holds patents on non-flammable fluorine-free electrolytes consisting of NaBOB in alkyl-phosphate solvents, Prussian white cathode, and cell production. Clarios is partnering to produce batteries using Altris technology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clarios and Altris announce collaboration agreement to advance sustainable sodium-ion battery technology |url=https://www.clarios.com/insights/news/news-details/clarios-and-altris-announce-collaboration-agreement-to-advance-sustainable-sodium-ion-battery-technology |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Default }}</ref>
At present, there are a few companies around the world developing commercial sodium-ion batteries for various different applications. The major companies are listed below.


====BYD====
'''Faradion Limited''': Founded in 2011 in the ], their chief cell design uses oxide cathodes with hard carbon anode and a liquid electrolyte. Their ] have energy densities comparable to commercial Li-ion batteries (140 – 150 Wh/kg at cell-level) with good rate performance till ] and cycle lives of 300 (100% ]) to over 1,000 cycles (80% depth of discharge).<ref name=":1" /> The viability of its scaled-up battery packs for e-bike and e-scooter applications has been shown.<ref name=":1" /> They have also demonstrated transporting sodium-ion cells in the shorted state (at 0 V), effectively eliminating any risks from commercial transport of such cells.<ref name=":2" /> The company's ] is Dr. Jerry Barker, co-inventor of several popularly used lithium-ion and sodium-ion electrode materials such as LiM<sub>1</sub>M<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>,<ref></ref> Li<sub>3</sub>M<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>,<ref></ref> and Na<sub>3</sub>M<sub>2</sub>(PO4)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub>ref></ref> and the carbothermal reduction<ref></ref> method of synthesis for battery electrode materials.
The ] is a Chinese electric vehicle manufacturer and battery manufacturer. In 2023, they invested $1.4B USD into the construction of a sodium-ion battery plant in Xuzhou with an annual output of 30 GWh.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.electrive.com/2023/11/20/byd-huaihai-move-on-plans-for-sodium-ion-battery-plant/ |title=BYD & Huaihai move on plans for sodium-ion battery plant |date=2023-11-20 |accessdate=2023-11-20 |website=electrive.com }}</ref>


==== CATL ====
'''Tiamat''': Founded in 2017 in France, TIAMAT has spun off from the ]/] following researches carried out by a task force around the Na-ion technology funded within the RS2E network and a ] EU-project called NAIADES.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ra2017cnrs.fr/en/en-2020-des-batteries-dopees-au-sodium/|title=Sodium to boost batteries by 2020|date=2018-03-26|website=2017 une année avec le CNRS|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref> With an exclusive licence for 6 patents from the CNRS and CEA, the solution developed by TIAMAT focuses on the development of ] cylindrical full cells based on polyanionic materials. With an energy density between 100 Wh/kg to 120 Wh/kg for this format, the technology targets applications in the fast charge and discharge markets. More than 4000 cycles have been recorded in terms of cycle life and rate capabilities exceed the 80% retention for a 6 min charge.<ref>Broux, T. ''et al.''; (2018) “High Rate Performance for Carbon-Coated Na<sub>3</sub>V<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub> in Na-Ion Batteries”. ''Small Methods''. '''1800215'''. </ref><ref>Ponrouch, A. ''et al.''; (2013) “Towards high energy density sodium ion batteries through electrolyte optimization”. ''Energy & Environmental Science''. '''6''': 2361 – 2369. .</>Hall, N.; Boulineau, S.; Croguennec, L.; Launois, S.; Masquelier, C.; Simonin, L.; “Method for preparing a Na3V2(PO4)2F3 particulate material”. ''.'' Filed by Universite De Picardie on October 13, 2015.</ref> With a nominal operating voltage at 3.7 V, Na-ion cells are well-placed in the developing power market. The start-up has demonstrated several operational prototypes: e-bikes, e-scooters, start & stop 12V batteries, 48V batteries. &nbsp;
Chinese battery manufacturer ] announced in 2021 that it would bring a sodium-ion based battery to market by 2023.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-07-29|title=China's CATL unveils sodium-ion battery – a first for a major car battery maker|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/chinas-top-ev-battery-maker-catl-touts-new-sodium-ion-batteries-2021-07-29/ |access-date=2021-11-07}}</ref> It uses Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode and porous carbon for the negative electrode. They claimed a specific energy density of 160 Wh/kg in their first generation battery.<ref name="catl_announcement" />


In 2024, CATL unveiled the Freevoy hybrid chemistry battery pack for use in ] with a mix of sodium ion and lithium ion cells. This battery pack features an expected range of over {{Convert|400|km|mi}}, 4C fast charging capability, the ability to be discharged at {{Convert|-40.|C|F|abbr=}}, and no difference to the driving experience at {{Convert|-20.|C|F|abbr=}}. By 2025, around 30 different hybrid vehicle models are expected to be equipped with this pack.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2024-10-24|title= CATL launches Freevoy battery for hybrid cars that can offer over 400 km range|url= https://cnevpost.com/2024/10/24/catl-launches-freevoy-battery-for-hybrids/|access-date=2024-10-24}}</ref>
''']''' developed aqueous sodium-ion batteries and in 2014 offered a commercially available sodium-ion battery with cost/kWh similar to a lead-acid battery for use as a backup power source for electricity ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/532311/a-battery-to-prop-up-renewable-power-hits-the-market/|title=A Much Cheaper Grid Battery Comes to Market|last=Bullis|first=Kevin|website=MIT Technology Review|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref> According to the company, it was 85 percent efficient. Aquion Energy filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy in March 2017.


On November 18th 2024, CATL announced its second generation sodium-ion battery to be released in 2025 and reach mass market by 2027. The battery is expected to be able to be discharged normally at temperatures of {{Convert|-40.|C|F|abbr=}}. <ref>{{Cite news|date=2024-11-18|title= CATL announces second-generation sodium battery, normal discharge at -40°C |url=https://carnewschina.com/2024/11/18/catl-announces-second-generation-sodium-battery-normal-discharge-at-40c/ |access-date=2024-11-18}}</ref>
'''Novasis Energies, Inc.''': Originated from battery pioneer Prof. ] group at the ] in 2010 and further developed at the Sharp Laboratories of America. Reliant on Prussian Blue analogues as the cathode and hard carbon as the anode, their sodium-ion batteries can deliver 100 – 130 Wh/kg with good cycling stability over 500 cycles and good rate capability till 10C.<ref name=":1" />


==== Faradion Limited ====
'''HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd''': A spin-off from the ] (CAS), HiNa Battery was established in 2017 building off of the research conducted by Prof. Hu Yong-sheng's group at the Institute of Physics at CAS. HiNa's sodium-ion batteries are based on Na-Fe-Mn-Cu based oxide cathodes and ]-based carbon anode and can deliver 120 Wh/kg energy density. In 2019, it was reported that HiNa installed a 100 kWh sodium-ion battery power bank in East China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/news/201904/t20190410_207907.shtml|title=Sodium-ion Battery Power Bank Operational in East China---Chinese Academy of Sciences|website=english.cas.cn|access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref>
]
Faradion Limited is a subsidiary of India's ].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-18 |title=Reliance takes over Faradion for £100 million |url=https://www.electrive.com/2022/01/18/reliance-takes-over-faradion-for-100-million/ |access-date=2022-10-29 |website=electrive.com }}</ref> Its cell design uses oxide cathodes with hard carbon anode and a liquid electrolyte. Their ] have energy densities comparable to commercial Li-ion batteries (160 Wh/kg at cell-level), with good rate performance up to ], and cycle lives of 300 (100% ]) to over 1,000 cycles (80% depth of discharge). Its battery packs have demonstrated use for e-bike and e-scooter applications.<ref name=":1" /> They demonstrated transporting sodium-ion cells in the shorted state (at 0 V), eliminating risks from commercial transport of such cells.<ref name=":2">{{Cite patent|number=WO2016027082A1|title=Storage and/or transportation of sodium-ion cells|gdate=2016-02-25|invent1=Barker|invent2=Wright |inventor1-first=Jeremy|inventor2-first=Christopher John|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2016027082A1/en}} Filed by Faradion Limited on August 22, 2014.</ref> It is partnering with AMTE Power plc<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-10|title=Faradion announces a collaboration and licensing deal with AMTE Power|url=https://www.faradion.co.uk/faradion-the-world-leader-in-sodium-ion-battery-technology-announces-a-collaboration-and-licensing-deal-with-amte-power/|access-date=2021-11-07|website=Faradion}}</ref> (formerly known as AGM Batteries Limited).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://amtepower.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ULTRA-Safe-AMTE-A5-leaflet.pdf|title=Ultra Safe AMTE A5|date=May 2020|access-date=2021-10-14|archive-date=2020-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927023600/https://amtepower.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ULTRA-Safe-AMTE-A5-leaflet.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Dundee in running as battery cell pioneer AMTE Power closes in on UK 'gigafactory' site|url=https://www.scotsman.com/business/dundee-in-running-as-battery-cell-pioneer-amte-power-closes-in-on-uk-gigafactory-site-3407570|access-date=2021-11-07|website=www.scotsman.com|date=5 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rudola |first1=Ashish |last2=Rennie |first2=Anthony J. R. |last3=Heap |first3=Richard |last4=Meysami |first4=Seyyed Shayan |last5=Lowbridge |first5=Alex |last6=Mazzali |first6=Francesco |last7=Sayers |first7=Ruth |last8=Wright |first8=Christopher J. |last9=Barker |first9=Jerry |date=2021 |title=Commercialisation of high energy density sodium-ion batteries: Faradion's journey and outlook |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |volume=9 |issue=13 |pages=8279–8302 |doi=10.1039/d1ta00376c }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=The Tesla Domain |title=This UK based sodium battery threatens to change the EV industry forever!! |date=November 6, 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRNdOo3qQ-0 |access-date=2022-11-27}}</ref>


In November 2019, Faradion co-authored a report with Bridge India<ref>{{cite web |last1=India |first1=Bridge |title=Bridge India Homepage |url=https://www.bridgeindia.org.uk/ |website=bridgeindia.org.uk |publisher=Bridge India |access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref> titled 'The Future of Clean Transportation: Sodium-ion Batteries'<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rudola |first1=Ashish |title=The Future of Clean Transportation: Sodium-ion Batteries |url=https://www.bridgeindia.org.uk/the-future-of-clean-transportation-sodium-ion-batteries/ |website=bridgeindia.org.uk |date=24 November 2019 |publisher=Bridge India, Faradion |access-date=17 August 2023}}</ref> looking at the growing role India can play in manufacturing sodium-ion batteries.
'''Natron Energy''': A spin-off from ], Natron Energy uses Prussian Blue analogues for both cathode and anode with an aqueous electrolyte.


On December 5, 2022, Faradion installed its first sodium-ion battery for Nation in New South Wales Australia.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://faradion.co.uk/first-faradion-battery-installed-in-australia/ | title=First Faradion battery installed in Australia | date=5 December 2022 }}</ref>
'''Altris AB:''' In 2017 three researchers from ], Sweden collaborated with EIT InnoEnergy to bring their invention in the field of rechargeable sodium batteries to commercialisation, leading to formation of Altris AB. Altris AB is a spin-off company coming from the Ångström Advanced Battery Centre lead by Prof. Kristina Edström at Uppsala University. EIT InnoEnergy has invested in the company from its inception. The company is selling a proprietary iron based Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode in non-aqueous sodium ion batteries that use hard carbon as the anode.


==== HiNA Battery Technology Company ====
HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd is, a spin-off from the ] (CAS). It leverages research conducted by Prof. Hu Yong-sheng's group at the Institute of Physics at CAS. HiNa's batteries are based on Na-Fe-Mn-Cu based oxide cathodes and ]-based carbon anode. In 2023, HiNa partnered with JAC as the first company to put a sodium-ion battery in an electric car, the Sehol E10X. HiNa also revealed three sodium-ion products, the NaCR32140-ME12 cylindrical cell, the NaCP50160118-ME80 square cell and the NaCP73174207-ME240 square cell, with gravimetric energy densities of 140 Wh/kg, 145 Wh/kg and 155 Wh/kg respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://batteriesnews.com/hina-battery-becomes-1st-battery-maker-put-sodium-ion-batteries-evs-china/ |title=Hina Battery Becomes 1st Battery Maker to Put Sodium-ion Batteries in Evs in China|website=batteriesnews.com|date=23 February 2023 |access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref> The cycle life of Hina's Battery was reported to by 4,500 cycles in 2022. The company's goals were increasing specific energy to 180-200 Wh/kg and the cycle life to 8,000-10,000 cycles. ] and ] also made similar statements around the same time.<ref>{{cite news |id={{ProQuest|2743883698}} |last1=Kang |first1=Lei |title=World's first GWh-class sodium-ion battery production line sees first product off line |url=https://cnevpost.com/2022/12/02/hina-gwh-sodium-ion-battery-production-line-first-product/ |work=CnEVPost |date=2 December 2022 }}</ref>


In 2019, it was reported that HiNa installed a 100 kWh sodium-ion battery energy storage system in East China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.cas.cn/newsroom/news/201904/t20190410_207907.shtml |title=Sodium-ion Battery Power Bank Operational in East China—Chinese Academy of Sciences|website=english.cas.cn |access-date=2019-09-05}}</ref>
==Applications==
While the sodium-ion battery technology is very versatile and can essentially be tailored to suit any application, it is widely believed that the first usage of sodium-ion batteries would be for all applications which are currently being served by lead-acid batteries. For such lower energy density applications, sodium-ion batteries would essentially be delivering much higher energy densities than current lead-acid batteries (1 – 5 times higher) at similar costs with enhanced performance (efficiency, safety, faster charging/discharging capabilities and cycling stabilities). These applications could be for smart grids, ] for ] power plants, the car ] battery, ], telecoms, ] and for any other stationary energy storage applications.


Chinese automaker Yiwei debuted the first sodium-ion battery-powered car in 2023. It uses JAC Group's UE module technology, which is similar to CATL's cell-to-pack design.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Peter |date=2023-12-27 |title=Volkswagen-backed EV maker rolls out first sodium-ion battery powered electric car |url=https://electrek.co/2023/12/27/volkswagen-backed-ev-maker-first-sodium-ion-battery-electric-car/ |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=Electrek }}</ref> The car has a 23.2 kWh battery pack with a CLTC range of {{convert|230|km}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=JAC Group delivers first EVs with sodium-ion battery |last=McDee |first=Max |work=ArenaEV |date=6 January 2024 |url= https://www.arenaev.com/jac_group_delivers_first_evs_with_sodiumion_battery-news-2967.php |access-date=11 January 2024 }}</ref>
The higher energy density sodium-ion batteries (typically those using non-aqueous electrolytes) would be well suited for those applications currently dominated by lithium-ion batteries. Among the lower energy density spectrum of such high energy density batteries, applications such as ]s, ], low speed ]s, e-bikes, e-scooters and e-buses would benefit from the lower costs of sodium-ion batteries with respect to those of lithium-ion batteries at similar performance levels (safety being in favour of sodium-ion batteries). 


==== KPIT Technologies ====
It is expected that with the current rate of rapid progress in the field of sodium-ion batteries, such batteries would be eventually used in applications requiring very high energy density batteries (such as long-range electric vehicles and consumer electronics such as mobile phones and laptops) which are currently served by high cost and high energy density lithium-ion batteries.
] introduced India's first sodium-ion battery technology, marking a significant breakthrough in the country. This newly developed technology is predicted to reduce the cost of batteries for electric vehicles by 25-30%. It has been developed in cooperation with Pune's Indian Institute of Science Education and Research over the course of almost a decade and claims several notable benefits over existing alternatives such as lead-acid and lithium-ion. Among its standout features are a longer lifespan of 3,000–6,000 cycles, faster charging than traditional batteries, greater resistance to below-freezing temperatures and with varied energy densities between 100 and 170 Wh/Kg.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/kpit-tech-launches-sodium-ion-battery-tech/articleshow/105948242.cms|title=KPIT Tech launches sodium-ion battery tech|newspaper=The Times of India |date=December 13, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/kpit-rolls-out-indias-first-sodium-ion-battery-tech-aims-at-revenue-within-a-year-11897651.html|title=KPIT rolls out India's first sodium-ion battery tech, aims at revenue within a year|date=December 13, 2023|website=Moneycontrol}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zeebiz.com/markets/stocks/news-kpit-tech-shares-zoom-heres-whats-powering-the-upmove-in-the-stock-268677|title=KPIT Tech shares zoom; here's what's powering the upmove|date=December 13, 2023|website=Zee Business}}</ref>


== See also == ==== Natron Energy ====
], a spin-off from ], uses Prussian blue analogues for both cathode and anode with an aqueous electrolyte.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Patel|first=Prachi |date=2021-05-10|title=Sodium-Ion Batteries Poised to Pick Off Large-Scale Lithium-Ion Applications|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/sodium-ion-battery |access-date=2021-07-29|newspaper=IEEE Spectrum}}</ref> Clarios is partnering to produce a battery using Natron technology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natron Collaborates With Clarios on Mass Manufacturing of Sodium-Ion Batteries |url=https://www.clarios.com/insights/news/news-details/natron-collaborates-with-clarios-on-world-s-first-mass-manufacturing-of-sodium-ion-batteries |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Default }}</ref>


==== Northvolt ====
], Europe's only large homegrown electric battery maker, has said it has made a "breakthrough" sodium-ion battery. Northvolt said its new battery, which has an energy density of more than 160 watt-hours per kilogram, has been designed for electricity storage plants but could in future be used in electric vehicles, such as two wheeled scooters.<ref name=Lawson/> The company filed for bankruptcy in November 2024.<ref>{{cite news|access-date=25 November 2024 |agency=Northvolt’s Bankruptcy and the EV Crash |date=24 November 2024 |quote=European governments backed a $5 billion loan for Northvolt The bankruptcy filing will sting Northvolt’s investors, which include Volkswagen, BMW, and Danish and Canadian pension funds |title=Northvolt's Bankruptcy and the EV Crash |url=https://www.wsj.com/opinion/northvolts-bankruptcy-and-the-ev-crash-electric-vehicles-policy-a902999f |work=]}}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>

==== TIAMAT ====
TIAMAT spun off from the ]/] and a ] EU-project called NAIADES.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ra2017cnrs.fr/en/en-2020-des-batteries-dopees-au-sodium/|title=Sodium to boost batteries by 2020|date=2018-03-26|website=2017 une année avec le CNRS|access-date=2019-09-05|archive-date=2020-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418142527/https://ra2017cnrs.fr/en/en-2020-des-batteries-dopees-au-sodium/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Its technology focuses on the development of ] cylindrical cells based on polyanionic materials. It achieved energy density between 100 Wh/kg to 120 Wh/kg. The technology targets applications in the fast charge and discharge markets. Power density is between 2 and 5&nbsp;kW/kg, allowing for a 5 min charging time. Lifetime is 5000+ cycles to 80% of capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Broux |first1=Thibault |last2=Fauth |first2=François |last3=Hall |first3=Nikita |last4=Chatillon |first4=Yohann |last5=Bianchini |first5=Matteo |last6=Bamine |first6=Tahya |last7=Leriche |first7=Jean-Bernard |last8=Suard |first8=Emmanuelle |last9=Carlier |first9=Dany |last10=Reynier |first10=Yvan |last11=Simonin |first11=Loïc |last12=Masquelier |first12=Christian |last13=Croguennec |first13=Laurence |date=April 2019 |title=High Rate Performance for Carbon-Coated Na<sub>3</sub>V<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub> in Na-Ion Batteries |journal=Small Methods |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=1800215 |doi=10.1002/smtd.201800215 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02103530/file/2019-056.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ponrouch |first1=Alexandre |last2=Dedryvère |first2=Rémi |last3=Monti |first3=Damien |last4=Demet |first4=Atif E. |last5=Ateba Mba |first5=Jean Marcel |last6=Croguennec |first6=Laurence |last7=Masquelier |first7=Christian |last8=Johansson |first8=Patrik |last9=Palacín |first9=M. Rosa |year=2013 |title=Towards high energy density sodium ion batteries through electrolyte optimization |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=2361 |doi=10.1039/c3ee41379a }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hall|first1= N.|last2= Boulineau|
first2= S.|last3= Croguennec|first3= L.|last4= Launois|first4= S.|last5= Masquelier|first5= C.|last6= Simonin|first6= L.|title=Method for preparing a Na<sub>3</sub>V<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>F<sub>3</sub> particulate material United States Patent Application No. 2018/0297847 |url=https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/fb/b2/0c/42e27dd70a42eb/US20180297847A1.pdf |date=October 13, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tiamat-energy.com/|title=Tiamat}}</ref>

They are responsible for one of the first commercialized product powered by Sodium-Ion battery technology, as of October 2023, through the commercialization of an electric screw-driver.<ref name=":6" />

==== SgNaPLus ====
SgNaPlus is a spin off from ], that uses a propeitary electrode and electrolyte. It is based in Singapore and leverages on research conducted by Alternative Energy Systems Laboratory (AESL) from Energy and Bio-Thermal Systems Division in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore (NUS). The division is founded by Prof Palani Balaya. SgNaPlus also has rights for the patent for a non-flammable sodium-ion batteries.{{fact|date=December 2024}}

===Defunct===
==== Aquion Energy ====
] was (between 2008 and 2017) a ] from ]. Their batteries ('''salt water battery''') were based on sodium titanium phosphate anode, ] cathode, and aqueous ] electrolyte. After receiving government and private loans, the company filed for bankruptcy in 2017. Its assets were sold to a Chinese manufacturer Juline-Titans, who abandoned most of Aquion's patents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US8298701B2/en?assignee=Aquion&oq=Aquion|title=Aqueous electrolyte energy storage device}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US8652672B2/en?assignee=Aquion&oq=Aquion|title=Large format electrochemical energy storage device housing and module}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite tweet |user=CNRS |number=1717520365184852183 |title=La spin-off du CNRS @TiamatEnergy commercialise le 1er produit grand public alimenté par la technologie de batteries sodium-ion. Ce tournevis sans fil 🪛 sera en rayon dans certains @leroymerlinfr dès le mois d'octobre. }}</ref>

== Sodium metal rechargeable batteries==
Types are:<ref>{{Cite web |title=DOE ESHB Chapter 4: Sodium-Based Battery Technologies |url=https://www.sandia.gov/a0pp/uploads/sites/163/2022/02/ESHB_Ch4_Sodium_Spoerke-1.pdf}}</ref>
* ]:
**] (Nas).
**Sodium-metal halide or Sodium-nickel chloride battery (Na-NiCl2 or ]).
*Sodium-ion battery (NaIBs).

== See also ==
* ] * ]
* Alkali metal-ion battery * ]
* ]-ion batteries:
** ] ** ]
** Sodium-ion battery ** Sodium-ion battery
** ] ** ]
* ]-ion batteries:
*]
*] ** ]
* ]
* ]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}


==References== ==References==
{{reflist|30em}} {{reflist|30em}}


== External links ==
* {{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=Bingyuan|last2=Lee|first2=Youngju|last3=Bai|first3=Peng|title=Dynamic Interfacial Stability Confirmed by Microscopic Optical Operando Experiments Enables High-Retention-Rate Anode-Free Na Metal Full Cells|journal=Advanced Science|year=2021|volume=8|issue=12|pages=2005006|doi=10.1002/advs.202005006|pmid=34194939|pmc=8224441 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite web |last=Wunderlich-Pfeiffer|first=Frank|date=April 19, 2023|title=Na-ion: A battery worth its salt? |url=https://intercalationstation.substack.com/p/na-ion-a-battery-worth-its-salt |access-date=2023-04-28 |website=intercalationstation.substack.com }}
* {{cite AV media |last=Wu |first=Billy |title=Sodium ion batteries - The low-cost future of energy storage? |date=January 3, 2024 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3jjJb-CcCU |access-date=2024-01-05 |type=Podcast }}
{{Galvanic cells}} {{Galvanic cells}}


]
] ]
] ]

Latest revision as of 00:19, 20 December 2024

Type of rechargeable battery
Sodium-ion battery
A sodium-ion cell (size 18650)
Specific energy0.27-0.72 MJ/kg (75–200 W·h/kg)
Energy density250–375 W·h/L
Cycle durability"thousands" of cycles
Nominal cell voltage3.0-3.1 V

Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs, SIBs, or Na-ion batteries) are several types of rechargeable batteries, which use sodium ions (Na) as their charge carriers. In some cases, its working principle and cell construction are similar to those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types, but it replaces lithium with sodium as the intercalating ion. Sodium belongs to the same group in the periodic table as lithium and thus has similar chemical properties. However, in some cases, such as aqueous batteries, SIBs can be quite different from LIBs.

A sodium-ion accumulator stack (Germany, 2019)

SIBs received academic and commercial interest in the 2010s and early 2020s, largely due to lithium's high cost, uneven geographic distribution, and environmentally-damaging extraction process. An obvious advantage of sodium is its natural abundance, particularly in saltwater. Another factor is that cobalt, copper and nickel are not required for many types of sodium-ion batteries, and more abundant iron-based materials (such as NaFeO2 with the Fe3+/Fe4+ redox pair) work well in Na+ batteries. This is because the ionic radius of Na (116 pm) is substantially larger than that of Fe and Fe (69–92 pm depending on the spin state), whereas the ionic radius of Li is similar (90 pm). Similar ionic radii of lithium and iron result in their mixing in the cathode material during battery cycling, and a resultant loss of cyclable charge. A downside of the larger ionic radius of Na is a slower intercalation kinetics of sodium-ion electrode materials.

Number of simple patent families and of non-patent publications about Na+ batteries vs the earliest priority or publication year.

The development of Na+ batteries started in the 1990s. After three decades of development, NIBs are at a critical moment of commercialization. Several companies such as HiNa and CATL in China, Faradion in the United Kingdom, Tiamat in France, Northvolt in Sweden, and Natron Energy in the US, are close to achieving the commercialization of NIBs, with the aim of employing sodium layered transition metal oxides (NaxTMO2), Prussian white (a Prussian blue analogue) or vanadium phosphate as cathode materials.

Sodium-ion accumulators are operational for fixed electrical grid storage, but vehicles using sodium-ion battery packs are not yet commercially available. However, CATL, the world's biggest lithium-ion battery manufacturer, announced in 2022 the start of mass production of SIBs. In February 2023, the Chinese HiNA Battery Technology Company, Ltd. placed a 140 Wh/kg sodium-ion battery in an electric test car for the first time, and energy storage manufacturer Pylontech obtained the first sodium-ion battery certificate from TÜV Rheinland.

History

Sodium-ion battery development took place in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, by the 1990s, lithium-ion batteries had demonstrated more commercial promise, causing interest in sodium-ion batteries to decline. In the early 2010s, sodium-ion batteries experienced a resurgence, driven largely by the increasing cost of lithium-ion battery raw materials. Also, the number of patent families reached the number of non-patent publication after ca. 2020, which usually signify the fact, that the technology reached the commercialization stage.

Operating principle

SIB cells consist of a cathode based on a sodium-based material, an anode (not necessarily a sodium-based material) and a liquid electrolyte containing dissociated sodium salts in polar protic or aprotic solvents. During charging, sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode while electrons travel through the external circuit. During discharge, the reverse process occurs.

Materials

Illustration of the various electrode structures in sodium-ion batteries

Due to the physical and electrochemical properties of sodium, SIBs require different materials from those used for LIBs.

Anodes

Carbons

SIBs can use hard carbon, a disordered carbon material consisting of a non-graphitizable, non-crystalline and amorphous carbon. Hard carbon's ability to absorb sodium was discovered in 2000. This anode was shown to deliver 300 mAh/g with a sloping potential profile above ⁓0.15 V vs Na/Na. It accounts for roughly half of the capacity and a flat potential profile (a potential plateau) below ⁓0.15 V vs Na/Na. Such capacities are comparable to 300–360 mAh/g of graphite anodes in lithium-ion batteries. The first sodium-ion cell using hard carbon was demonstrated in 2003 and showed a 3.7 V average voltage during discharge. Hard carbon was the preferred choice of Faradion due to its excellent combination of capacity, (lower) working potentials, and cycling stability. Notably, nitrogen-doped hard carbons display even larger specific capacity of 520 mAh/g at 20 mA/g with stability over 1000 cycles.

In 2015, researchers demonstrated that graphite could co-intercalate sodium in ether-based electrolytes. Low capacities around 100 mAh/g were obtained with relatively high working potentials between 0 – 1.2 V vs Na/Na.

One drawback of carbonaceous materials is that, because their intercalation potentials are fairly negative, they are limited to non-aqueous systems.

Graphene

Graphene Janus particles have been used in experimental sodium-ion batteries to increase energy density. One side provides interaction sites while the other provides inter-layer separation. Energy density reached 337 mAh/g.

Carbon arsenide

Carbon arsenide (AsC5) mono/bilayer has been explored as an anode material due to high specific gravity (794/596 mAh/g), low expansion (1.2%), and ultra low diffusion barrier (0.16/0.09 eV), indicating rapid charge/discharge cycle capability, during sodium intercalation. After sodium adsorption, a carbon arsenide anode maintains structural stability at 300 K, indicating long cycle life.

Metal alloys

Numerous reports described anode materials storing sodium via alloy reaction and/or conversion reaction. Alloying sodium metal brings the benefits of regulating sodium-ion transport and shielding the accumulation of electric field at the tip of sodium dendrites. Wang, et al. reported that a self-regulating alloy interface of nickel antimony (NiSb) was chemically deposited on Na metal during discharge. This thin layer of NiSb regulates the uniform electrochemical plating of Na metal, lowering overpotential and offering dendrite-free plating/stripping of Na metal over 100 h at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm.

Metals

Many metals and semi-metals (Pb, P, Sn, Ge, etc.) form stable alloys with sodium at room temperature. Unfortunately, the formation of such alloys is usually accompanied by a large volume change, which in turn results in the pulverization (crumbling) of the material after a few cycles. For example, with tin sodium forms an alloy Na
15Sn
4, which is equivalent to 847 mAh/g specific capacity, with a resulting enormous volume change up to 420%.

In one study, Li et al. prepared sodium and metallic tin Na
15Sn
4/Na through a spontaneous reaction. This anode could operate at a high temperature of 90 °C (194 °F) in a carbonate solvent at 1 mA cm with 1 mA h cm loading, and the full cell exhibited a stable charge-discharge cycling for 100 cycles at a current density of 2C. (2C means that full charge or discharge was achieved in 0.5 hour). Despite sodium alloy's ability to operate at extreme temperatures and regulate dendritic growth, the severe stress-strain experienced on the material in the course of repeated storage cycles limits cycling stability, especially in large-format cells.

Researchers from Tokyo University of Science achieved 478 mAh/g with nano-sized magnesium particles, announced in December 2020.

In 2024, Dalhousie Universiry researchers enhanced sodium-ion battery performance by replacing hard carbon in the negative electrode with lead (Pb) and single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). This combination significantly increased volumetric energy density and eliminated capacity fade in half cells. SWCNTs endured active material connectivity, boosting capacity to 475 mAh/g and reducing losses, compared to 430 mAh/g in Pb cell without SWCNTs.

Oxides

Some sodium titanate phases such as Na2Ti3O7, or NaTiO2, delivered capacities around 90–180 mAh/g at low working potentials (< 1 V vs Na/Na), though cycling stability was limited to a few hundred cycles.

Molybdenum disulphide

In 2021, researchers from China tried layered structure MoS2 as a new type of anode for sodium-ion batteries. A dissolution-recrystallization process densely assembled carbon layer-coated MoS2 nanosheets onto the surface of polyimide-derived N-doped carbon nanotubes. This kind of C-MoS2/NCNTs anode can store 348 mAh/g at 2 A/g, with a cycling stability of 82% capacity after 400 cycles at 1 A/g. TiS2 is another potential material for SIBs because of its layered structure, but has yet to overcome the problem of capacity fade, since TiS2 suffers from poor electrochemical kinetics and relatively weak structural stability. In 2021, researchers from Ningbo, China employed pre-potassiated TiS2, presenting rate capability of 165.9mAh/g and a cycling stability of 85.3% capacity after 500 cycles.

Other anodes for Na

Some other materials, such as mercury, electroactive polymers and sodium terephthalate derivatives, have also been demonstrated in laboratories, but did not provoke commercial interest.

Cathodes

Oxides

Many layered transition metal oxides can reversibly intercalate sodium ions upon reduction. These oxides typically have a higher tap density and a lower electronic resistivity, than other posode materials (such as phosphates). Due to a larger size of the Na ion (116 pm) compared to Li ion (90 pm), cation mixing between Na and first row transition metal ions (which is common in the case of Li+) usually does not occur. Thus, low-cost iron and manganese oxides can be used for Na-ion batteries, whereas Li-ion batteries require the use of more expensive cobalt and nickel oxides. The drawback of the larger size of Na ion is its slower intercalation kinetics compared to Li ion and the presence of multiple intercalation stages with different voltages and kinetic rates.

A P2-type Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2 oxide from earth-abundant Fe and Mn resources can reversibly store 190 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 2.75 V vs Na/Na utilising the Fe redox couple – on par or better than commercial lithium-ion cathodes such as LiFePO4 or LiMn2O4. However, its sodium deficient nature lowered energy density. Significant efforts were expended in developing Na-richer oxides. A mixed P3/P2/O3-type Na0.76Mn0.5Ni0.3Fe0.1Mg0.1O2 was demonstrated to deliver 140 mAh/g at an average discharge voltage of 3.2 V vs Na/Na in 2015. In particular, the O3-type NaNi1/4Na1/6Mn2/12Ti4/12Sn1/12O2 oxide can deliver 160 mAh/g at average voltage of 3.22 V vs Na/Na, while a series of doped Ni-based oxides of the stoichiometry NaaNi(1−x−y−z)MnxMgyTizO2 can deliver 157 mAh/g in a sodium-ion "full cell" with a hard carbon anode at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V utilising the Ni redox couple. Such performance in full cell configuration is better or on par with commercial lithium-ion systems. A Na0.67Mn1−xMgxO2 cathode material exhibited a discharge capacity of 175 mAh/g for Na0.67Mn0.95Mg0.05O2. This cathode contained only abundant elements. Copper-substituted Na0.67Ni0.3−xCuxMn0.7O2 cathode materials showed a high reversible capacity with better capacity retention. In contrast to the copper-free Na0.67Ni0.3−xCuxMn0.7O2 electrode, the as-prepared Cu-substituted cathodes deliver better sodium storage. However, cathodes with Cu are more expensive.

Oxoanions

Research has also considered cathodes based on oxoanions. Such cathodes offer lower tap density, lowering energy density than oxides. On the other hand, a stronger covalent bonding of the polyanion positively impacts cycle life and safety and increases the cell voltage. Among polyanion-based cathodes, sodium vanadium phosphate and fluorophosphate have demonstrated excellent cycling stability and in the latter, an acceptably high capacity (⁓120 mAh/g) at high average discharge voltages (⁓3.6 V vs Na/Na). Besides that, sodium manganese silicate has also been demonstrated to deliver a very high capacity (>200 mAh/g) with decent cycling stability. A French startup TIAMAT develops Na ion batteries based on a sodium-vanadium-phosphate-fluoride cathode material Na3V2(PO4)2F3, which undergoes two reversible 0.5 e-/V transitions: at 3.2V and at 4.0 V. A startup from Singapore, SgNaPlus is developing and commercialising Na3V2(PO4)2F3 cathode material, which shows very good cycling stability, utilising the non-flammable glyme-based electrolyte.

Prussian blue and analogues

Numerous research groups investigated the use of Prussian blue and various Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) as cathodes for Na-ion batteries. The ideal formula for a discharged material is Na2M, and it corresponds to the theoretical capacity of ca. 170 mAh/g, which is equally split between two one-electron voltage plateaus. Such high specific charges are rarely observed only in PBA samples with a low number of structural defects.

For example, the patented rhombohedral Na2MnFe(CN)6 displaying 150–160 mAh/g in capacity and a 3.4 V average discharge voltage and rhombohedral Prussian white Na1.88(5)Fe·0.18(9)H2O displaying initial capacity of 158 mAh/g and retaining 90% capacity after 50 cycles.

While Ti, Mn, Fe and Co PBAs show a two-electron electrochemistry, the Ni PBA shows only one-electron (Ni is not electrochemically active in the accessible voltage range). Iron-free PBA Na2Mn is also known. It has a fairly large reversible capacity of 209 mAh/g at C/5, but its voltage is unfortunately low (1.8 V versus Na/Na).

Electrolytes

Sodium-ion batteries can use aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. The limited electrochemical stability window of water results in lower voltages and limited energy densities. Non-aqueous carbonate ester polar aprotic solvents extend the voltage range. These include ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, and propylene carbonate. The most widely used salts in non-aqueous electrolytes are NaClO4 and sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF6) dissolved in a mixture of these solvents. It is a well-established fact that these carbonate-based electrolytes are flammable, which pose safety concerns in large-scale applications. A type of glyme-based electrolyte, with sodium tetrafluoroborate as the salt is demonstrated to be non-flammable. In addition, NaTFSI (TFSI = bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide) and NaFSI (FSI = bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, NaDFOB (DFOB = difluoro(oxalato)borate) and NaBOB (bis(oxalato)borate) anions have emerged lately as new interesting salts. Of course, electrolyte additives can be used as well to improve the performance metrics.

Comparison

Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics (for the aqueous versions), and similar power delivery characteristics, but also a lower energy density (especially the aqueous versions).

The table below compares how NIBs in general fare against the two established rechargeable battery technologies in the market currently: the lithium-ion battery and the rechargeable lead–acid battery.

Battery comparison
Sodium-ion battery Lithium-ion battery Lead–acid battery
Cost per kilowatt-hour of capacity $40–77 (theoretical in 2019) $137 (average in 2020) $100–300
Volumetric energy density 250–375 W·h/L, based on prototypes 200–683 W·h/L 80–90 W·h/L
Gravimetric energy density (specific energy) 75–200 W·h/kg, based on prototypes and product announcements Low end for aqueous, high end for carbon batteries 120–260 W·h/kg (without protective case needed for battery pack in vehicle) 35–40 Wh/kg
Power-to-weight ratio ~1000 W/kg ~340-420 W/kg (NMC), ~175-425 W/kg (LFP) 180 W/kg

Cycles at 80% depth of discharge Hundreds to thousands 3,500 900
Safety Low risk for aqueous batteries, high risk for Na in carbon batteries High risk Moderate risk
Materials Abundant Scarce Toxic
Cycling stability High (negligible self-discharge) High (negligible self-discharge) Moderate (high self-discharge)
Direct current round-trip efficiency up to 92% 85–95% 70–90%
Temperature range −20 °C to 60 °C Acceptable:−20 °C to 60 °C.

Optimal: 15 °C to 35 °C

−20 °C to 60 °C

Commercialization

Companies around the world have been working to develop commercially viable sodium-ion batteries. A 2-hour 5MW/10MWh grid battery was installed in China in 2023.

Electric vehicles

Farasis Energy’s JMEV EV3 (Youth Edition) sets a new standard as the world's first serial-production A00-class electric vehicle equipped with sodium batteries (sodium-ion batteries), offering a range of 251 kilometres (156 mi).

Dongfeng revealed the Nammi 01 electric vehicle, which Dongfeng claimed features a sodium solid state battery at a launch event.

Active

Altris AB

Altris AB was founded by Associate Professor Reza Younesi, his former PhD student, Ronnie Mogensen, and Associate Professor William Brant as a spin-off from Uppsala University, Sweden, launched in 2017 as part of research efforts from the team on sodium-ion batteries. The research was conducted at the Ångström Advanced Battery Centre led by Prof. Kristina Edström at Uppsala University. The company offers a proprietary iron-based Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode in non-aqueous sodium-ion batteries that use hard carbon as the anode. Altris holds patents on non-flammable fluorine-free electrolytes consisting of NaBOB in alkyl-phosphate solvents, Prussian white cathode, and cell production. Clarios is partnering to produce batteries using Altris technology.

BYD

The BYD Company is a Chinese electric vehicle manufacturer and battery manufacturer. In 2023, they invested $1.4B USD into the construction of a sodium-ion battery plant in Xuzhou with an annual output of 30 GWh.

CATL

Chinese battery manufacturer CATL announced in 2021 that it would bring a sodium-ion based battery to market by 2023. It uses Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode and porous carbon for the negative electrode. They claimed a specific energy density of 160 Wh/kg in their first generation battery.

In 2024, CATL unveiled the Freevoy hybrid chemistry battery pack for use in hybrid vehicles with a mix of sodium ion and lithium ion cells. This battery pack features an expected range of over 400 kilometres (250 mi), 4C fast charging capability, the ability to be discharged at −40 °C (−40 °F), and no difference to the driving experience at −20 °C (−4 °F). By 2025, around 30 different hybrid vehicle models are expected to be equipped with this pack.

On November 18th 2024, CATL announced its second generation sodium-ion battery to be released in 2025 and reach mass market by 2027. The battery is expected to be able to be discharged normally at temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F).

Faradion Limited

A Faradion sodium-ion battery manufactured in 2022

Faradion Limited is a subsidiary of India's Reliance Industries. Its cell design uses oxide cathodes with hard carbon anode and a liquid electrolyte. Their pouch cells have energy densities comparable to commercial Li-ion batteries (160 Wh/kg at cell-level), with good rate performance up to 3C, and cycle lives of 300 (100% depth of discharge) to over 1,000 cycles (80% depth of discharge). Its battery packs have demonstrated use for e-bike and e-scooter applications. They demonstrated transporting sodium-ion cells in the shorted state (at 0 V), eliminating risks from commercial transport of such cells. It is partnering with AMTE Power plc (formerly known as AGM Batteries Limited).

In November 2019, Faradion co-authored a report with Bridge India titled 'The Future of Clean Transportation: Sodium-ion Batteries' looking at the growing role India can play in manufacturing sodium-ion batteries.

On December 5, 2022, Faradion installed its first sodium-ion battery for Nation in New South Wales Australia.

HiNA Battery Technology Company

HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd is, a spin-off from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). It leverages research conducted by Prof. Hu Yong-sheng's group at the Institute of Physics at CAS. HiNa's batteries are based on Na-Fe-Mn-Cu based oxide cathodes and anthracite-based carbon anode. In 2023, HiNa partnered with JAC as the first company to put a sodium-ion battery in an electric car, the Sehol E10X. HiNa also revealed three sodium-ion products, the NaCR32140-ME12 cylindrical cell, the NaCP50160118-ME80 square cell and the NaCP73174207-ME240 square cell, with gravimetric energy densities of 140 Wh/kg, 145 Wh/kg and 155 Wh/kg respectively. The cycle life of Hina's Battery was reported to by 4,500 cycles in 2022. The company's goals were increasing specific energy to 180-200 Wh/kg and the cycle life to 8,000-10,000 cycles. CATL and BYD also made similar statements around the same time.

In 2019, it was reported that HiNa installed a 100 kWh sodium-ion battery energy storage system in East China.

Chinese automaker Yiwei debuted the first sodium-ion battery-powered car in 2023. It uses JAC Group's UE module technology, which is similar to CATL's cell-to-pack design. The car has a 23.2 kWh battery pack with a CLTC range of 230 kilometres (140 mi).

KPIT Technologies

KPIT Technologies introduced India's first sodium-ion battery technology, marking a significant breakthrough in the country. This newly developed technology is predicted to reduce the cost of batteries for electric vehicles by 25-30%. It has been developed in cooperation with Pune's Indian Institute of Science Education and Research over the course of almost a decade and claims several notable benefits over existing alternatives such as lead-acid and lithium-ion. Among its standout features are a longer lifespan of 3,000–6,000 cycles, faster charging than traditional batteries, greater resistance to below-freezing temperatures and with varied energy densities between 100 and 170 Wh/Kg.

Natron Energy

Natron Energy, a spin-off from Stanford University, uses Prussian blue analogues for both cathode and anode with an aqueous electrolyte. Clarios is partnering to produce a battery using Natron technology.

Northvolt

Northvolt, Europe's only large homegrown electric battery maker, has said it has made a "breakthrough" sodium-ion battery. Northvolt said its new battery, which has an energy density of more than 160 watt-hours per kilogram, has been designed for electricity storage plants but could in future be used in electric vehicles, such as two wheeled scooters. The company filed for bankruptcy in November 2024.

TIAMAT

TIAMAT spun off from the CNRS/CEA and a H2020 EU-project called NAIADES. Its technology focuses on the development of 18650-format cylindrical cells based on polyanionic materials. It achieved energy density between 100 Wh/kg to 120 Wh/kg. The technology targets applications in the fast charge and discharge markets. Power density is between 2 and 5 kW/kg, allowing for a 5 min charging time. Lifetime is 5000+ cycles to 80% of capacity.

They are responsible for one of the first commercialized product powered by Sodium-Ion battery technology, as of October 2023, through the commercialization of an electric screw-driver.

SgNaPLus

SgNaPlus is a spin off from National University of Singapore, that uses a propeitary electrode and electrolyte. It is based in Singapore and leverages on research conducted by Alternative Energy Systems Laboratory (AESL) from Energy and Bio-Thermal Systems Division in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore (NUS). The division is founded by Prof Palani Balaya. SgNaPlus also has rights for the patent for a non-flammable sodium-ion batteries.

Defunct

Aquion Energy

Aquion Energy was (between 2008 and 2017) a spin-off from Carnegie Mellon University. Their batteries (salt water battery) were based on sodium titanium phosphate anode, manganese dioxide cathode, and aqueous sodium perchlorate electrolyte. After receiving government and private loans, the company filed for bankruptcy in 2017. Its assets were sold to a Chinese manufacturer Juline-Titans, who abandoned most of Aquion's patents.

Sodium metal rechargeable batteries

Types are:

See also

Notes

  1. The number of charge-discharge cycles a battery supports depends on multiple considerations, including depth of discharge, rate of discharge, rate of charge, and temperature. The values shown here reflect generally favorable conditions.
  2. See Lithium-ion battery safety.
  3. Temperature affects charging behavior, capacity, and battery lifetime, and affects each of these differently, at different temperature ranges for each. The values given here are general ranges for battery operation.

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