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{{Short description|German-born philosopher (1818–1883)}}
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{{redirect|Marx|other uses|Marx (disambiguation)|and|Karl Marx (disambiguation)}}
'''Karl Heinrich Marx''' (], ] – ], ]) was an ] influential ] ], ], and a ]. Marx was not only a ] and ], but was also active as an organizer of the revolutionary ]. Although Marx addressed a wide range of issues in his career as a ] and philosopher, he is most famous for his analysis of history in terms of class conflict, summed up in the famous line from the introduction to the ]: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles". His writings formed the basis of later ], ], ] ], and ] movements.
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{{Infobox person
| name = Karl Marx
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRSA}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from Karl Marx accepting membership of the Society 1862 |url=http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416202116/http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=RSA%2fSC%2fIM%2f701%2fS1000&pos=9 |archive-date=16 April 2018 |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=]}}</ref>
| image = Karl Marx 001 (rotated).jpg
| alt =
| caption = Marx in 1875
| birth_name = Karl Marx{{efn|name=name|His name was spelled ''Carl Marx'' in the birth register of ] and he occasionally used this spelling in official contexts up to the 1840s. His full name is sometimes given as ''Karl Heinrich Marx'', but he never officially had a middle name, using the forms ''Karl Heinrich'' or ''Carl Heinrich'' (with his father's first name added after his own) only several times as a student.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=34–35}}}}
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1818|5|5}}
| birth_place = ], ], ]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1883|3|14|1818|5|5}}
| death_place = London, England
| burial_place = ]
| nationality = {{Plainlist|
* ] (1818–1845)
* ] (after 1845)
}}
| education = {{Plainlist|
* ]
* ]
* ] (PhD, 1841)
}}
| spouse = {{Marriage|]|19 June 1843|2 December 1881|end=died}}
| children = At least 7,<ref name=PadoverXXV>{{cite book |editor-first=Saul |editor-last=Padover |editor-link=Saul K. Padover |chapter=Introduction: Marx, the Human Side |title=Karl Marx on Education, Women, and Children |location=New York |publisher=] |date=1975 |page=xxv}}</ref> including ], ] and ]
| father = ]
| mother = ]
| relatives = {{Plainlist|
* ] (sister)
* ] (grandson)
* ] (grandson)
* ] (nephew)
* ] (cousin)
}}
| module = {{Infobox philosopher|embed=yes
| era = ]
| region = ]
| school_tradition = {{hlist|]|]}}
| thesis_title = ]
| thesis_year = 1841
| doctoral_advisor = ]
| main_interests = {{hlist|Philosophy|economics|history|politics}}
| notable_ideas = {{Plainlist|
* ]
* ]
* Contributions to ] and the ]
* ]
* ] and ] of the worker
* ]
}}
}}
| signature = Karl Marx Signature.svg
| signature_alt =
}}

'''Karl Marx'''{{efn|name=name}} ({{IPA|de|kaʁl ˈmaʁks|lang}}; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German-born ], political theorist, ], historian, ], journalist, and ]. His best-known works are the 1848 pamphlet '']'' (with ]) and his three-volume {{lang|de|]}} (1867–1894); the latter employs his critical approach of ] in an analysis of ], in the culmination of his intellectual endeavours. Marx's ideas and their subsequent development, collectively known as ], have had enormous influence on modern intellectual, economic and political history.

Born in ] in the ], Marx studied at the universities of ], ], and ], and received a ] in philosophy from the latter in 1841. A ], he was influenced by the philosophy of ], and both critiqued and developed Hegel's ideas in works such as '']'' (written 1846) and the '']'' (written 1857–1858). While in Paris in 1844, Marx wrote his '']'' and met Engels, who became his closest friend and collaborator. After moving to Brussels in 1845, they were active in the ], and in 1848 they wrote ''The Communist Manifesto'', which expresses Marx's ideas and lays out a programme for revolution. Marx was expelled from Belgium and Germany, and in 1849 moved to London, where he wrote '']'' (1852) and {{lang|de|Das Kapital}}. From 1864, Marx was involved in the ] (First International), in which he fought the influence of ] led by ]. In his '']'' (1875), Marx wrote on revolution, the state and the transition to communism. He died ] in 1883 and was buried in ].

Marx's ] hold that human societies develop through ]. In the ], this manifests itself in the conflict between the ]es (known as the ]) that control the ] and the ]es (known as the ]) that enable these means by selling their ] in return for wages.<ref name=manifesto/> Employing his historical materialist approach, Marx predicted that capitalism produced ] like previous socioeconomic systems and that these tensions would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system known as the ]. For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism—owing in part to its instability and ]-prone nature—would eventuate the working class's development of ], leading to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a ], ] constituted by a ].<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |chapter=Index |title=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027041955/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/index.htm |archive-date=27 October 2007 |via=]}}</ref> Marx actively pressed for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry out organised ]ary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic ].{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}}

Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures of the ], and his work has been both lauded and ].<ref name="Manchester"/> Marxism has exerted major influence on socialist thought and political movements, with ] such as ] and its offshoots becoming the guiding ideologies of revolutionary governments that took power in many countries during the 20th century, known as ]s. Marx's work in economics has had a strong influence on modern ] theories of labour and ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Unger |first=Roberto Mangabeira |title=Free Trade Reimagined: The World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics |date=2007 |publisher=] |location=Princeton |author-link=Roberto Mangabeira Unger}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=John |author-link=John Hicks |date=May 1974 |title=Capital Controversies: Ancient and Modern |journal=] |volume=64 |page=307 |quote=The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes, have changed the course of history&nbsp;... |number=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Ten Great Economists: From Marx to Keynes |date=1952 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-11078-5 |edition=4th |series=Unwin University books |volume=26 |author-link=Joseph Schumpeter}}</ref> and he is often cited as one of the principal architects of modern ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm |title=Marxism and Method |last=Little |first=Daniel |access-date=10 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210095117/http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/Marxism%20and%20Method%203.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |chapter=Max Weber |last=Kim |first=Sung Ho |year=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, ] |access-date=10 December 2017 |quote=Max Weber is known as a principal architect of modern social science along with Karl Marx and Emil Durkheim. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318101547/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/weber/ |archive-date=18 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>


== Biography == == Biography ==


=== Childhood and early education: 1818–1836 ===
=== Early life ===
], now Brückenstraße 10, in Trier. The family occupied two rooms on the ground floor and three on the first floor.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=178, Plate 1}}.</ref> Purchased by the ] in 1928, it now houses a museum devoted to him.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=12–13}}]]
Karl Marx was born into a progressive ]ish family in ]n ] (now in ]). His father Herschel, descending from a long line of ]s, was a lawyer; Herschel´s brother Samuel was &mdash; like many of his ancestors &mdash; chief rabbi of Trier. The family name was originally "Marx Levi", which derives from the old Jewish surname Mardochai. In 1817 Heinrich Marx converted to the Prussian ] of ], in order to keep his position as a lawyer, which he had gained under the ]ic regime. The Marx family was very liberal and the Marx household hosted many visiting intellectuals and artists through Karl's early life.


Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to ] and ]. He was born at Brückengasse 664 in ], an ancient city then part of the ]'s ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=8, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=1}}.</ref> Marx's family was originally ] but had ] before his birth. His maternal grandfather was a Dutch ], while his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=7–9, 12}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–3}}.</ref> His father, as a child known as Herschel, was the first in the line to receive a secular education. He became a lawyer with a comfortably ] income and the family owned a number of ] vineyards, in addition to his income as an attorney. Prior to his son's birth and after the abrogation of ] in the ],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |title=Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews – A History |last=Carroll |first=James |year=2002 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-547-34888-9 |page=419 |language=en |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924094733/https://books.google.com/books?id=6q0OHHNyFeEC&pg=PA419 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref> Herschel converted from Judaism to join the state ], taking on the German forename Heinrich over the ] Herschel.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=4–6}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=2–4}}.</ref>
==== Education ====
Marx received good marks in ''],'' the Prussian ] program (the approximate equivalent of ]). His senior thesis (which anticipated his later development of a social analysis of religion, although in a way that emphasized social functions rather than economic and political inequality) was a treatise on "Religion: The Glue That Binds Society Together", for which he won a prize.


Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the ], interested in the ideas of the philosophers ] and ]. A ], he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, which was then an ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=5, 8–12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=11}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=5–6}}.</ref> In 1815, Heinrich Marx began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family to a ten-room property near the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=10}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> His wife, Henriette Pressburg, was a Dutch Jew from a prosperous business family that later founded the company ]. Her sister Sophie Pressburg (1797–1854) married ] (1794–1866) and was the grandmother of both ] and ] and great-grandmother to ]. Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and ] would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref>
]
Marx enrolled in the ] in ] to study ], at his father's behest. Bonn was a notorious party school, and Marx did poorly as he spent most of his time singing songs in beer halls. The next year, his father made him transfer to the far more serious and academically oriented Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in ] (now known as the ]).


Little is known of Marx's childhood.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}.</ref> The third of nine children, he became the eldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819.<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=7}}.</ref> Marx and his surviving siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie, and Caroline, were ] into the ] on 28 August 1824,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turley |first=Justin |date=2020-08-24 |title=The Baptism of Karl Marx, 1824 |url=https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=Landmark Events |language=en |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712232703/https://landmarkevents.org/the-baptism-of-karl-marx-1824/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and their mother in November 1825.<ref>{{cite book |title=Karl Marx: Dictionary of National Biography |volume=37 |pages=57–58 |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-861387-9}}</ref> Marx was privately educated by his father until 1830 when he entered Trier High School ({{Interlanguage link|Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Trier)|de|3=Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Trier)|lt=Gymnasium zu Trier}}), whose headmaster, ], was a friend of his father. By employing many ] as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government. Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832 and discovered that literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students. Considering the distribution of such material a seditious act, the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staff during Marx's attendance.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976 |pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=13}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=7–11}}.</ref>
==== Marx and Young Hegelians ====
In Berlin, Marx's interests turned to ], much to his father's dismay, and he joined the circle of students and young professors known as the "]", led by ]. Some members of this circle drew an analogy between post-] philosophy and post-Hegelian philosophy. Another Young Hegelian, ], applied Hegelian criticism and argued that stopping anywhere short of ] ] was ]. His views were not accepted by most of his colleagues, and Karl Marx responded in parts of ''Die Deutsche Ideologie'' (]).


In October 1835 at the age of 16, Marx travelled to the ] wishing to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=15–16}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=14}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=13}}.</ref> Due to a condition referred to as a "weak chest",{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=15}} Marx was excused from military duty when he turned 18. While at the University at Bonn, Marx joined the Poets' Club, a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the police.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=20}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society ({{Langx|de|Landsmannschaft der Treveraner}}) where many ideas were discussed and at one point he served as the club's co-president.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=16}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}</ref><ref name="drinking1">{{cite news |title=Karl Marx: the drinking years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/what-to-see/karl-marx-drinking-years/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=] |first=Rachel |last=Holmes |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Additionally, Marx was involved in certain disputes, some of which became serious: in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the university's ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref> Although his grades in the first term were good, they soon deteriorated, leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=22}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–17}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=14}}.</ref>
] had just recently died in ], and during his lifetime was an extremely influential figure at the University and in German academia in general. The Hegelian establishment (known as the ]) in place at the University maintained that the series of historical dialectics had been completed, and that Prussian society as it existed was the culmination of all social development to date, with an extensive ] system, good universities, ], and high employment. The Young Hegelians with whom Marx was associated believed that there were still further dialectical changes to come, and that the Prussian society of the time was far from perfect as it still contained pockets of poverty, government censorship was in place, and non-Lutherans suffered from religious discrimination.


=== Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843 ===
Marx was warned not to submit his doctoral dissertation at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, as it would certainly be poorly received there due to his reputation as a Young Hegelian radical. Marx instead submitted his dissertation, which compared the atomic theories of ] and ], to the ] in ], where it was accepted.
] in the 1830s]]
{{multiple image
| direction =
| total_width = 330
| width =
| image1 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.1 raw.jpg
| caption1 = Trierer students in front of the White Horse, among them, Karl Marx.
| image2 = David Levy-Elkan - Die „Trierer“ vor dem „Weißen Roß“ in Godesberg (1836) V01-1.2 cropped.jpg
| caption2 = Karl Marx (detail)
| footer = A famous lithograph by ], simply known as "''Die Trierer''", depicts several students, and among them, Karl Marx, in front of the White Horse in 1836.<br>Until 2017, this was the earliest known depiction of Marx, even though he was only identified in 1890 by Schneider, a judicial council and senate president in Cologne. However, because this depiction fits into Marx's description, it was accepted as being him since then.{{sfn|Heinrich|2019|pp=131–132}}<br>Depictions of the young Marx by Hellmut Bach (1953) and another drawing that is more idealistic by I. Grinshtein (1961) was based upon this lithography; however they became more famous than the original depiction.<br>The copy preserved in the Stadtmuseum Simeonstift Trier has some lost portions from above (the written year 1836, depictions of the brotherhood's activities etc.) because of ageing: this can be seen from earlier publications of the image.
}}


Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier, Marx became more serious about his studies and his life. He became engaged to ], an educated member of the ] who had known Marx since childhood. As she had broken off her engagement with a young ] to be with Marx, their relationship was socially controversial owing to the differences between their religious and class origins, but Marx befriended her father ] (a liberal aristocrat) and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.<ref>{{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973|p=23}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=23–30}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=16–21, 33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=15, 20}}.</ref> Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June 1843, they married in a Protestant church in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=70–71}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=52–53}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=61–62}}.</ref>
=== Career ===
When his mentor Bauer was dismissed from the philosophy faculty in ], Marx abandoned philosophy for ] and went on to edit the ''],'' a radical ] newspaper. After the newspaper was later shut in ], in part due to Marx's conflicts with government censors, Marx returned to philosophy, turned to political activism, and worked as a ]. Marx soon moved, however, something he would have to do often as a result of his radical views.


In October 1836, Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating in the university's faculty of law and renting a room in the Mittelstrasse.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=31}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=15}}.</ref> During the first term, Marx attended lectures of ] (who represented the progressive Hegelian standpoint, elaborated on rational development in history by emphasising particularly its libertarian aspects, and the importance of social question) and of ] (who represented the ]).<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}</ref> Although studying law, he was fascinated by philosophy and looked for a way to combine the two, believing that "without philosophy nothing could be accomplished".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> Marx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher ], whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical circles.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=32–34}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=21–22}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=21–22}}.</ref> During a convalescence in Stralau, he joined the Doctor's Club ({{lang|de|Doktorklub}}), a student group which discussed ] ideas, and through them became involved with a group of ] known as the ] in 1837. They gathered around ] and ], with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with ]. Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's ] assumptions but adopted his ] to criticise established society, politics and religion from a left-wing perspective.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=34–38}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=25–27}}.</ref> Marx's father died in May 1838, resulting in a diminished income for the family.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=44,69–70}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=17–18}}.</ref> Marx had been emotionally close to his father and treasured his memory after his death.{{sfn|Sperber|2013|pp=55–56}}
Marx first moved to ], where he re-evaluated his relationship with Bauer and the Young Hegelians, and wrote '']'', mostly a ] of current notions of ] and political ]. It was in ] that he met and began working with his life-long collaborator ], who called Marx's attention to the situation of the ], and guided Marx's interest in ]. After he was forced to leave ] for his writings, he and Engels moved to ], ].


] commemorating the PhD he was awarded there in 1841.|170px]]
]
By 1837, Marx was writing both fiction and non-fiction, having completed a short novel, '']''; a drama, '']''; as well as a number of love poems dedicated to his wife. None of this early work was published during his lifetime.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=18–19}}</ref> The love poems were published posthumously in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 1''.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |date=1975 |pages=531–632}}</ref> Marx soon abandoned fiction for other pursuits, including the study of both English and Italian, ] and the translation of Latin classics.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=25–26}}.</ref> He began co-operating with ] on editing Hegel's '']'' in 1840. Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, '']'',<ref>Marx's thesis was posthumously published in {{Cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |date=1975 |pages=25–107}}.</ref> which he completed in 1841. It was described as "a daring and original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy".<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=32}}.</ref> The essay was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin. Marx decided instead to submit his thesis to the more liberal ], whose faculty awarded him his ] in April 1841.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=33}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=28–29, 33}}.</ref> As Marx and Bauer were both ], in March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled {{lang|de|Archiv des Atheismus}} (''Atheistic Archives''), but it never came to fruition. In July, Marx and Bauer took a trip to ] from Berlin. There they scandalised their class by getting drunk, laughing in church and galloping through the streets on donkeys.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=38–45}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=34}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=32–33, 37}}.</ref>
There they co-wrote '']'', a critique of the philosophy of Hegel and the ], and then Marx wrote '']'' (]), a critique of French socialist thought. These works laid the foundation for Marx and Engels' most famous work, ''],'' first published on ], ], which was commissioned by the ] (formerly, the League of the Just), an organization of German émigrés whom Marx had met in ].


Marx was considering an academic career, but this path was barred by the government's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=49}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=33}}.</ref> Marx moved to ] in 1842, where he became a journalist, writing for the radical newspaper {{lang|de|]}} (''Rhineland News''), expressing his early views on socialism and his developing interest in economics. Marx criticised right-wing European governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements, whom he thought ineffective or counter-productive.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=50–51}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=34–36, 42–44}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=35–47}}.</ref> The newspaper attracted the attention of the Prussian ], who checked every issue for seditious material before printing, which Marx lamented: "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear".<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=57}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=47}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=48–50}}.</ref> After the {{lang|de|]}} published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy, Tsar ] requested it be banned and Prussia's government complied in 1843.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=60–61}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=47–48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=50–51}}.</ref>
That year ] experienced revolutionary upheaval; a working-class movement seized power from King ] in France and invited Marx to return to Paris. When this government collapsed in ], Marx moved back to Cologne and restarted the ''Rheinische Zeitung'', only to be swiftly expelled again. Marx's final move was to London. In ] Marx wrote his famous pamphlet '']'', in which he analyzed ] takeover of France. From 1852 to ], while in London, Marx contributed to ]'s ] as its European correspondent.


=== Paris: 1843–1845 ===
=== First International and Gladstone Quote ===
In 1843, Marx became co-editor of a new, radical left-wing Parisian newspaper, the {{lang|de|]}} (''German-French Annals''), then being set up by the German activist ] to bring together German and French radicals.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=68–69, 72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=48}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=59–61}}</ref> Therefore Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843. Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 ], they found the living conditions difficult, so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=77–79}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=62–66}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=73–74, 94}}.</ref> Although intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the {{lang|de|Jahrbücher}} was dominated by the latter and the only non-German writer was the exiled Russian ] ].<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|p=72}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=64–65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=71–72}}.</ref> Marx contributed two essays to the paper, "]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Law |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |date=1975 |page=3}}</ref> and "]",<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=3 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |date=1975 |page=146}}</ref> the latter introducing his belief that the ] were a revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism.{{sfn|McLellan|2006|pp=65–70, 74–80}} Only one issue was published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of ]'s satirical odes on King ], leading the German states to ban it and seize imported copies (Ruge nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further issues and his friendship with Marx broke down).<ref>{{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|1976|pp=72, 75–76}}; {{harvnb|Wheen|2001|p=65}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=88–90}}.</ref> After the paper's collapse, Marx began writing for the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper left, {{lang|de|]}} (''Forward!''). Based in Paris, the paper was connected to the ], a ] secret society of workers and artisans. Marx attended some of their meetings but did not join.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=66–67, 112}}; {{harvnb|McLellan|2006|pp=79–80}}.</ref> In {{lang|de|Vorwärts!}}, Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of ], at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in Europe.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=90}}


], whom Marx met in 1844; the two became lifelong friends and collaborators.]]
In ], ] ] gave a budget speech to ] in which he commented on the increase in ]'s national wealth, and added (according to the report of the speech in the ''Times''), "I should look almost with apprehension and with pain upon this intoxicating augmentation of wealth and power if it were my belief that it was confined to the class who are in easy circumstances. This takes no cognizance at all of the condition of the laboring population. The augmentation I have described and which is founded, I think, upon accurate returns, is an augmentation entirely confined to classes possessed of property." But, in the semi-official version published in the ''Hansard'', Gladstone deleted the final sentence (editing the "Hansard" version was a common practice among ]).


On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist ] at the ], beginning a lifelong friendship.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=75}} Engels showed Marx his recently published '']'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=Paris Between Empires |page=390 |publisher=] |location=New York |date=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter=] |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |date=1975 |pages=295–596}}</ref> convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.<ref name="Bottomore1991"/>{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=82}} Soon, Marx and Engels were collaborating on a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, ]. This work was published in 1845 as '']''.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=85–86}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |chapter=The Holy Family |title=Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels |volume=4 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |date=1975 |pages=3–211}}</ref> Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians ] and ], but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.<ref name="et"/>
In ] Marx organized the ], later called the ], as a base for continued ]. In his inaugural address, he quoted the ''Times''' version of Gladstone's speech, to the effect that, "This intoxicating augmentation of wealth and power is entirely confined to classes of property." He repeated the citation in Volume 1 of ''Capital''. The discrepancy between Marx's quote and the ''Hansard'' version of the speech (which was well-known) was soon employed in an attempt to discredit the International. Marx attempted to rebut the accusations of dishonesty, but the allegation continued to resurface. Even Engels' exhaustive account of the affair in the preface to the fourth edition of ''Capital'' did not put the matter fully to rest, for, to this day, anti-Marxists such as the journalist ] invoke Marx's supposed misquotation as evidence of general dishonesty.


During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vaneau in Paris (from October 1843 until January 1845),<ref>Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 of {{harvnb|Fedoseyev|1973}}.</ref> Marx engaged in an intensive study of ] (], ], ], ''etc.'')'',''{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=63}} the French socialists (especially ] and ]){{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=90–94}} and the history of France.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}} The study of, and critique, of political economy is a project that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life<ref>Larisa Miskievich, "Preface" to Volume 28 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) p. xii</ref> and would result in his major economic work{{mdash}}the three-volume series called ''Das Kapital''.<ref>Karl Marx, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 35'', ''Volume 36'' and ''Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).</ref> ] is based in large part on three influences: Hegel's dialectics, French utopian socialism and British political economy. Together with his earlier study of Hegel's dialectics, the studying that Marx did during this time in Paris meant that all major components of "Marxism" were in place by the autumn of 1844.{{sfn|Berlin|1963|pp=35–61}} Marx was constantly being pulled away from his critique of political economy{{mdash}}not only by the usual daily demands of the time, but additionally by editing a radical newspaper and later by organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years of potentially revolutionary popular uprisings of the citizenry. Still, Marx was always drawn back to his studies where he sought "to understand the inner workings of capitalism".{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=62}}
The International survived the controversy, however, collapsing in ] in part because of the fall of the ], and in part because many members turned to ]'s ]. In London throughout this period, Marx also dedicated himself to the historical and theoretical research behind '']'' (''Capital: A Critique of Political Economy''). Marx published the first volume in ]. The remaining two volumes of ''Capital'' were never completed by Marx, but were reconstructed by Engels from extensive notes and drafts, and published posthumously.


An outline of "Marxism" had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844. Indeed, many features of the Marxist view of the world had been worked out in great detail, but Marx needed to write down all of the details of his world view to further clarify the new critique of political economy in his own mind.<ref>Note 54 contained on p. 598 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3''.</ref> Accordingly, Marx wrote '']''.<ref>Karl Marx, "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 229–346.</ref> These manuscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marx's concept of ].<ref name=sep/> By the spring of 1845, his continued study of political economy, capital and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new critique of political economy he was espousing—that of ]—needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the world.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=83}}
Throughout the London period of Marx's life his family were generally impoverished and depended on generous contributions from Engels to get by. Marx died in London in the year 1883, and is buried in ], London.


The ''Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844'' had been written between April and August 1844, but soon Marx recognised that the ''Manuscripts'' had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach. Accordingly, Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach's philosophy in favour of historical materialism, thus a year later (in April 1845) after moving from Paris to Brussels, Marx wrote his eleven "]".<ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach", contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 3–14.</ref> The "Theses on Feuerbach" are best known for Thesis 11, which states that "philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change it".<ref name=sep/><ref>Karl Marx, "Theses on Feuerbach," contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'', p. 8.</ref> This work contains Marx's criticism of ] (for being contemplative), ] (for reducing practice to theory), and, overall, philosophy (for putting abstract reality above the physical world).<ref name=sep/> It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's ], an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Engels1999"/> In 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government shut down {{lang|de|Vorwärts!}}, with the interior minister, ], expelling Marx from France.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=}}
=== Marital life ===
Marx's wife, Jenny von Westphalen, came from an aristocratic background. Her uncle was Lion Philips, father of the brothers Gerard and Anton who founded the famous ] company in 1891. The Marxes had many children, several of whom died young &mdash; their daughter ] (1855-1898), born in London, was also a committed socialist and helped edit her father's works. Jenny Marx died in December 1881.


=== Brussels: 1845–1848 ===
== Influences on Marx's philosophy ==
Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in February 1845. However, to stay in Belgium he had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=}} In Brussels, Marx associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including ], ] and ]. In April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=}}<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild : Dresden, 1972) p. 101</ref> Later, ], Engels' long-time companion, left Manchester, England to join Engels in Brussels.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 102.</ref>
Marx's thought was heavily influenced by both the dialectical historicism of ] and the classical political economy of ] and ]. Marx believed that he could study ] and ] scientifically, and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist ] is inevitable. However, Marx famously asserted that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it," and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to change the world. Consequently, most followers of Marx are not fatalists, but activists who believe that revolutionaries must organize ].
] note]]


In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the leaders of the ], a working-class movement in Britain. This was Marx's first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip. Engels had already spent two years living in Manchester from November 1842<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild : Dresden, 1972) p. 53</ref> to August 1844.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al.'', ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'', p. 78.</ref> Not only did Engels already know the English language,{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} but he had also developed a close relationship with many Chartist leaders.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} Indeed, Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist and socialist English newspapers.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=89}} Marx used the trip as an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in various libraries in London and Manchester.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=92}}
Marx's philosophy (which Engels &mdash; but ''not'' Marx &mdash; called ]), is certainly influenced by Hegel's claim that reality (and history) should be viewed ], through a clash of opposing forces. This is sometimes caricatured into the trinitary fomula: thesis + antithesis &#8594; synthesis. Hegel believed that the direction of human history is charactarized in the movement from the fragmentary toward the complete and the real (which was also a movement towards greater and greater rationality). Sometimes, Hegel explained, this progressive unfolding of ] involves gradual, evolutionary accretion but at other times requires discontinuous, revolutionary leaps &mdash; episodal upheavals against existing status quo. While Marx accepted this broad conception of history, Hegel was an ], and Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in ] terms. He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that it was necessary to set it upon its feet.


In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of ], '']''.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "German Ideology" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 5'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 19–539.</ref> In this work, Marx broke with ], ], ] and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke with ] and other "true socialists" whose philosophies were still based in part on "]". In ''German Ideology'', Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy, which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=96–97}} ''German Ideology'' is written in a humorously satirical form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship. Like so many other early writings of his, ''German Ideology'' would not be published in Marx's lifetime and was published only in 1932.<ref name="sep"/><ref name="wk"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=93}}
Marx's acceptance of this notion of ''materialist'' dialectics which rejected Hegel's idealism, was greatly influenced by ]. In '']'', Feuerbach argued that ] is really a creation of man, and that the qualities people attribute to God are really qualities of ]. Accordingly, Marx argued that it is the material world that is real, and that our ideas of it are consequences, not causes, of the world. Thus, like Hegel and other philosophers, Marx distinguished between appearances and reality. But he did not believe that the material world hides from us the "real" world of the ideal; on the contrary, he thought that historically and socially specific ] prevented people from seeing the material conditions of their lives clearly.


After completing ''German Ideology'', Marx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position regarding "the theory and tactics" of a truly "revolutionary proletarian movement" operating from the standpoint of a truly "scientific materialist" philosophy.<ref>See Note 71 on p. 672 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976).</ref> This work was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian socialists and Marx's own scientific socialist philosophy. Whereas the utopians believed that people must be persuaded one person at a time to join the socialist movement, the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief, Marx knew that people would tend, on most occasions, to act in accordance with their own economic interests, thus appealing to an entire class (the working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the class's best material interest would be the best way to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society. This was the intent of the new book that Marx was planning, but to get the manuscript past the government censors he called the book '']'' (1847)<ref>Karl Marx, ''The Poverty of Philosophy'' contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 105–212.</ref> and offered it as a response to the "petty-bourgeois philosophy" of the French anarchist socialist ] as expressed in his book '']'' (1840).{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=107}}
The other important contribution to Marx's revision of Hegelianism was Engels' book, '']'', which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of ], and to see the modern ] as the most progressive force for revolution.


]
== Marx's philosophy ==
The notion of ''']''' is fundamental in Marx's thought. Basically, Marx argued that it is ] to transform nature, and he calls this process of transformation "labor" and the capacity to transform nature ''']'''. For Marx, this is a natural capacity for a physical activity, but it is intimately tied to the human mind and human imagination:
:A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an architect in the construction of her cells. But what distinguishes the worst ] from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality.
Beyond his claim about the human capacity to transform nature, Marx makes no other claims about "human nature."


These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as '']''. While residing in Brussels in 1846, Marx continued his association with the secret radical organisation ].{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=124}} As noted above, Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe toward the mass movement that would bring about a working-class revolution.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 671–72.</ref> However, to organise the working class into a mass movement the League had to cease its "secret" or "underground" orientation and operate in the open as a political party.<ref>Note 260 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 672.</ref> Members of the League eventually became persuaded in this regard. Accordingly, in June 1847 the League was reorganised by its membership into a new open "above ground" political society that appealed directly to the working classes.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|pp=123–125}} This new open political society was called the Communist League.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=125}} Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing up the programme and organisational principles of the new ].<ref>Frederick Engels, "Principles of Communism" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'' (International Publishers, New York, 1976) pp. 341–57.</ref>
Although "labor power" for Marx is human nature, he did not believe that all people worked the same way, or that how one works is entirely personal and individual. Instead, he argued that work is a social activity, and that the conditions and forms under and through which people work are socially determined and change over time.


]'', published in German in 1848]]
Marx's analysis of history is based on his distinction between the ''']''', literally those things, like land and natural resources, and technology, that are necessary for the production of material goods, and the ''']''', in other words, the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production. Together these comprise the ''']'''; Marx observed that within any given society the mode of production changes, and that European societies had progressed from a ] mode of production to a ] mode of production. In general, Marx believed that the means of production change more rapidly than the relations of production (for example, we develop a new ], such as the ], and only later do we develop laws to regulate that technology). For Marx this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) ] is a major source of social disruption and conflict.


In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work&nbsp;– a programme of action for the ]. Written jointly by Marx and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848, '']'' was first published on 21 February 1848.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 6'', pp. 477–519.</ref> ''The Communist Manifesto'' laid out the beliefs of the new Communist League. No longer a secret society, the Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=115}} The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles".<ref name="ShillingMellor2001">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Shilling |first2=Philip A. |last2=Mellor |title=The Sociological Ambition: Elementary Forms of Social and Moral Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |year=2001 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-7619-6549-7 |page=114 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=15 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915145130/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CdgJe9Jx0UC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref> It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of interest between the ] (the wealthy capitalist class) and the ] (the industrial working class). Proceeding on from this, the ''Manifesto'' presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism.<ref>].</ref>
Marx understood the "social relations of ]" to comprise not only relations among individuals, but between or among groups of people, or ''']es'''. As a ] and ], Marx did not understand classes as purely ] (in other words, groups of people who consciously identified with one another). He sought to define classes in terms of objective criteria, such as their access to ].


Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions, and often violent upheavals that became known as the ].{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} In France, ] led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the ].{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=125}} Marx was supportive of such activity and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle Lionel Philips since his father's death in 1838) of either 6,000<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/> or 5,000 francs<ref>{{cite book |first=Saul Kussiel |last=Padover |title=Karl Marx, an intimate biography |publisher=] |date=1978 |page=205}}</ref>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–27}} he allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–27}} Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed,<ref name="MaltsevN.-93"/><ref>David McLellan 1973 ''Karl Marx: His life and Thought''. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–90</ref> the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused Marx of it, subsequently arresting him and he was forced to flee back to France, where with a new republican government in power he believed that he would be safe.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=126–27}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felix |first1=David |year=1982 |title=Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician |journal=] |volume= 15 |issue=4 |pages=332–350 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900010621 |jstor=4545968 |s2cid=145405027| issn = 0008-9389}}</ref>
Marx was especially concerned with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labor-power. Marx wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of ''']'''. As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception. For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labor &mdash; one's capacity to transform the world &mdash; is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss. Marx described this loss in terms of ''']''', in which people come to believe that it is the very things that they produce that are powerful, and the sources of power and creativity, rather than people themselves. He argued that when this happens, people begin to mediate all their relationships among themselves and with others through commodities.


=== Cologne: 1848–1849 ===
Commodity fetishism is an example of what Engels called ''']''', which is closely related to the understanding of '''ideology'''. By ideology they meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which are presented as universal and eternal. Marx and Engels' point was not only that such beliefs are wrong; they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods; it includes the production of ideas as well (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests). Thus, while such ideas may be false, they also reveal in coded form some truth about political relations. For example, although the belief that the things people produce are actually more productive than the people who produced them is literally absurd, it does reflect the fact (according to Marx and Engels) that people under capitalism are alienated from their own labor-power. Another example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the ''Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's "Philosophy of Right:"''
]}}. E. Capiro, 1895]]
:Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.
Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that the primary social function of religion was to promote solidarity, here Marx sees the social function as a way of expressing and coping with social inequality.


Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a ] with various German socialists living there.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=128}} Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled the ''Demands of the Communist Party in Germany'',<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Demands of the Communist Party" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 7'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) pp. 3–6.</ref> in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the ''Communist Manifesto'', believing that in Germany at that time the bourgeoisie must overthrow the ] monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=129}} On 1 June, Marx started the publication of a daily newspaper, the {{lang|de|]}}, which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the newspaper featured Marx as a primary writer and the dominant editorial influence. Despite contributions by fellow members of the Communist League, according to ] it remained "a simple dictatorship by Marx".{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=50}}<ref name="DL-Marx"/>
== Marx's critique of capitalism ==
Marx argued that this alienation of labor power (and resulting commodity fetishism) is precisely the defining feature of ]. Prior to capitalism, markets existed in Europe where producers and merchants bought and sold commodities. According to Marx, a capitalist mode of production developed in Europe when labor itself became a commodity &mdash; when peasants became free to sell their own labor-power, and needed to sell their own labor because they no longer possessed their own land or tools necessary to produce. People sell their labor-power when they accept compensation in return for whatever work they do in a given period of time (in other words, they are not selling the product of their labor, but their capacity to work). In return for selling their labor power they receive money, which allows them to survive. Those who must sell their labor power to live are "]s." The person who buys the labor power, generally someone who does own the land and technology to produce, is a "capitalist" or "]." (NOTE: Marx considered this an ] description of capitalism, distinct from any one of a variety of ideological claims of or about capitalism). The proletarians inevitably outnumber the capitalists.


Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, committing a press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting,<ref>{{cite web |title=Neue Rheinsiche Zeitung No. 145 November 1848 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129110224/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/11/17c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wheen|2001|pp=136–137}}; {{harvnb|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=}}; {{harvnb|Splichal|2002|p=115}};</ref><ref name="Mehring2003"/> although each time he was acquitted.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=}}<ref name="Mehring2003"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=David M. |year=2014 |title=99 Tactics of Successful Tax Resistance Campaigns |publisher=Picket Line Press |isbn=978-1-4905-7274-1 |pages=76–77}}</ref> Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in ] collapsed and the king, ], introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counterrevolutionary measures to expunge left-wing and other revolutionary elements from the country.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=136–37}} Consequently, the {{lang|de|Neue Rheinische Zeitung}} was soon suppressed, and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May 1849.<ref name="DL-Marx"/>{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=137–146}} Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counterrevolution and a ] epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city authorities, who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child and with Marx not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Watson2010"/>
Marx distinguished capitalists from ]s. Merchants buy ] in one place and sell them in another; more precisely, they buy things in one market and sell them in another. Since the laws of ] operate within given ], there is often a difference between the price of a commodity in one market and another. Merchants, then, practice ], and hope to capture the difference between these two markets. According to Marx, capitalists, on the other hand, take advantage of the difference between the labor market and the market for whatever commodity is produced by the capitalist. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry the price for labor was lower than the price of the manufactured good. Marx called this difference "]" and argued that this surplus value was in fact the source of a capitalist's ].


=== Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860 ===
The capitalist mode of production is capable of tremendous growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new technologies. Marx considered the capitalist class to be the most revolutionary in history, because it constantly revolutionized the means of production. But Marx believed that capitalism was prone to periodic crises. He suggested that over time, capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies, and less and less in labor. Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labor is the source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew. When the rate of profit falls below a certain point, the result would be a recession or depression in which certain sectors of the economy would collapse. Marx understood that during such a crisis the price of labor would also fall, and eventually make possible the investment in new technologies and the growth of new sectors of the economy.
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Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life. The headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London. However, in the winter of 1849–1850, a split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by ] and ] began agitating for an immediate uprising. Willich and Schapper believed that once the Communist League had initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across Europe would rise "spontaneously" to join it, thus creating revolution across Europe. Marx and Engels protested that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was "adventuristic" and would be suicide for the Communist League.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} Such an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper/Willich group would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe. Marx maintained that this would spell doom for the Communist League itself, arguing that changes in society are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of a handful of men.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=233}} They are instead brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving toward revolution through different stages of social development. In the present stage of development (''circa'' 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 he felt that the Communist League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms, such as a constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal (male) suffrage. In other words, the working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of the bourgeois revolution before stressing the working-class agenda and a working-class revolution.{{cn|date=August 2024}}
Marx believed that this ] of growth, collapse, and growth would be punctuated by increasingly severe crises. Moreover, he believed that the long-term consequence of this process was necessarily the empowerment of the capitalist class and the impoverishment of the proletariat. He believed that were the proletariat to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, and a system of production less vulnerable to periodic crises. In general, Marx thought that peaceful negotiation of this problem was impracticable, and that a massive, well-organized and violent revolution was required. Finally, he theorized that to maintain the socialist system, a proletarian dictatorship must be established and maintained.


After a long struggle that threatened to ruin the Communist League, Marx's opinion prevailed and eventually, the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League. Meanwhile, Marx also became heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society.<ref>Note 269 contained on p. 674 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref> The Society held their meetings in ], ], central London's entertainment district.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|pp=151–155}}<ref name="Harriss2006"/> This organisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members, some of whom followed Marx while others followed the Schapper/Willich faction. The issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in the internal split within the Communist League, but Marx lost the fight with the Schapper/Willich faction within the German Workers' Educational Society and on 17 September 1850 resigned from the Society.<ref>Note 269 on p. 674 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11''.</ref>
==Marx's critique of bourgeois democracy and of anti-Semitism==
A small number of scholars have presented an alternative reading of Marx, based on his essays ''On the Jewish Question''. Economist ], historian ], and political scientist ] have suggested that what they see as an intense hatred for the "Jewish Class" was part of Marx's belief that if he could convince his contemporaries and the public to hate Jewish capitalists, the public would eventually come to hate non-Jewish capitalists as well.


=== ''New-York Daily Tribune'' and journalism ===
Most scholars reject this claim for two reasons: first, it is based on two short essays written in the ]s, and ignores the bulk of Marx's analysis of capitalism written in the following years. Second, it distorts the argument of ''On the Jewish Question'', in which Marx deconstructs ] notions of ]. During ], philosophers and political theorists argued that religious authority had been oppressing human beings, and that ] must be separated from the functions of the state for people to be truly free. Following the ], many people were thus calling for the ].
In the early period in London, Marx committed himself almost exclusively to his studies, such that his family endured extreme poverty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dussel |first1=Enrique D. |editor1-last=Moseley |editor1-first=Fred Baker |translator-last1=Angulo |translator-first1=Yolanda |title=Towards an Unknown Marx: A Commentary on the Manuscripts of 1861–63 |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York |isbn=0-415-21545-5 |page=xxxiii}}</ref><ref name="egsbio">{{cite web |url=http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/ |title=Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography |publisher=] |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901101839/http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography |archive-date=1 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> His main source of income was Engels, whose own source was his wealthy industrialist father.{{r|egsbio}} In Prussia as editor of his own newspaper, and contributor to others ideologically aligned, Marx could reach his audience, the working classes. In London, without finances to run a newspaper themselves, he and Engels turned to international journalism. At one stage they were being published by six newspapers from England, the United States, ], Austria, and South Africa.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 295.</ref> Marx's principal earnings came from his work as European correspondent, from 1852 to 1862, for the '']'',<ref name="Kluger">{{cite book |last=Kluger |first=Richard |title=The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune |url=https://archive.org/details/paperlife00klug |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=] |date=1986 |isbn=978-0-394-50877-1}}</ref>{{rp|17}} and from also producing articles for more "bourgeois" newspapers. Marx had his articles translated from German by {{Interlanguage link|Wilhelm Pieper (revolutionary)|de|3=Wilhelm Pieper (Revolutionär)|lt=Wilhelm Pieper}}, until his proficiency in English had become adequate.<ref name="Dispatches"/>


The ''New-York Daily Tribune'' had been founded in April 1841 by ].{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=274}} Its editorial board contained progressive bourgeois journalists and publishers, among them ] and the journalist ], who was editor-in-chief. Dana, a ] and an ], was Marx's contact. The ''Tribune'' was a vehicle for Marx to reach a transatlantic public, such as for his "hidden warfare" against ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |editor1-last=Ryazanskaya |editor1-first=S. W. |translator-last1=Lasker |translator-first1=I. |chapter=Marx to Engels, June 14, 1853 |title=Selected Correspondence |date=1965 |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow |pages=83–86 |edition=2nd}}</ref> The journal had wide working-class appeal from its foundation; at two cents, it was inexpensive;<ref>Taken from a picture on p. 327 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979).</ref> and, with about 50,000 copies per issue, its circulation was the widest in the United States.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|14}} Its editorial ethos was progressive and its anti-slavery stance reflected Greeley's.<ref name="Kluger"/>{{rp|82}} Marx's first article for the paper, on the British parliamentary elections, was published on 21 August 1852.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Elections in England – Tories and Whigs" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 327–32.</ref>
At the same time, many argued that ] is a more enlightened and advanced religion than Judaism. For example, Marx's former mentor, Bruno Bauer, argued that Christians need to be emancipated only once (from Christianity), and Jews need to be emancipated twice &mdash; first from Judaism (presumably, by converting to Christianity), then from religion altogether.


On 21 March 1857, Dana informed Marx that due to the economic recession only one article a week would be paid for, published or not; the others would be paid for only if published. Marx had sent his articles on Tuesdays and Fridays, but, that October, the ''Tribune'' discharged all its correspondents in Europe except Marx and B. Taylor, and reduced Marx to a weekly article. Between September and November 1860, only five were published. After a six-month interval, Marx resumed contributions from September 1861 until March 1862, when Dana wrote to inform him that there was no longer space in the ''Tribune'' for reports from London, due to American domestic affairs.<ref name="MECW">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MarxEngelsCollectedWorksVolume10MKarlMarx|title=Marx & Engels Collected Works, vol.41|date=15 March 2017}}</ref> In 1868, Dana set up a rival newspaper, the ''New York Sun'', at which he was editor-in-chief.<ref>Richard Kluger, ''The Paper: The Life and Death of the New York Herald Tribune'' (Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New York, 1986) p. 121.</ref> In April 1857, Dana invited Marx to contribute articles, mainly on military history, to the '']'', an idea of George Ripley, Dana's friend and literary editor of the ''Tribune''. In all, 67 Marx-Engels articles were published, of which 51 were written by Engels, although Marx did some research for them in the ].<ref>{{harvnb|McLellan|2006|p=262}}</ref> By the late 1850s, American popular interest in European affairs waned and Marx's articles turned to topics such as the "slavery crisis" and the outbreak of the ] in 1861 in the "War Between the States".<ref>Note 1 at p. 367 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 19'' (International Publishers: New York, 1984).</ref> Between December 1851 and March 1852, Marx worked on his theoretical work about the ], titled '']''.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'' (International Publishers: New York, 1979) pp. 99–197.</ref> In this he explored concepts in ], ], ], and victory of the proletariat over the ] state.<ref name="Marx2008"/>
Marx rejects Bauer's argument as a form of Christian ], if not ]. Marx proceeds to turn Bauer's language, and the rhetoric of anti-Semites, upside down to make a more progressive argument. First, he points out that Bruno Bauer's argument is too parochial because it considers Christianity to be more evolved than Judaism, and because it narrowly defines the problem that requires emancipation to be religion. Marx instead argues that the issue is not religion, but capitalism. Pointing out that anti-Semitic stereotypes of Jews are fundamentally ], Marx provides a theory of anti-Semitism by suggesting that anti-Semites scapegoat Jews for capitalism because too many non-Jews benefit from, or are invested in capitalism, to attack capitalism directly.


The 1850s and 1860s may be said to mark a philosophical boundary distinguishing the ]'s ] ] and the more ]'s<ref name="Wood"/><ref name="Wood1993"/><ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="Johnston2000"/> scientific ideology associated with ].<ref name="Johnston2000"/> However, not all scholars accept this distinction.<ref name="Hook1994"/><ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975"/> For Marx and Engels, their experience of the ] to 1849 were formative in the development of their theory of economics and historical progression. After the "failures" of 1848, the revolutionary impetus appeared spent and not to be renewed without an economic recession. Contention arose between Marx and his fellow communists, whom he denounced as "adventurists". Marx deemed it fanciful to propose that "will power" could be sufficient to create the revolutionary conditions when in reality the economic component was the necessary requisite. The recession in the United States' economy in 1852 gave Marx and Engels grounds for optimism for revolutionary activity, yet this economy was seen as too immature for a capitalist revolution. Open territories on America's western frontier dissipated the forces of social unrest. Moreover, any economic crisis arising in the United States would not lead to revolutionary contagion of the older economies of individual European nations, which were closed systems bounded by their national borders. When the so-called ] in the United States spread globally, it broke all economic theory models, and was the first truly global economic crisis.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 320.</ref>
Marx also uses this ] ] to develop his critique of bourgeois notions of emancipation. Marx points out that the bourgeois notion of ] is predicated on choice (in politics, through elections; in the economy, through the ]), but that this form of freedom is anti-social and alienating. Although Bauer and other liberals believe that emancipation means freedom to choose, Marx argues that this is at best a very narrow notion of freedom. Thus, what Bauer believes would be the emancipation of the Jews is for Marx actually alienation, not emancipation. After explaining that he is not referring to real Jews or to the Jewish religion, Marx appropriates this anti-Semitic rhetoric against itself (in a way that parallels his Hegelian argument that capitalism contains the seeds of its own destruction) by using "Judaism" ironically as a metaphor for capitalism. In this sense, Marx states, all Europeans are "Jewish." This is a pun on two levels. First, if the Jews must be emancipated, Marx is saying that all Europeans must be emancipated. Second, if by "Judaism" one really means "capitalism," then far from Jews needing to be emancipated from Christianity (as Bauer called for), Christians need to be emancipated from Judaism (meaning, bourgeois society). See works by historian ] and ].


=== First International and ''Das Kapital'' ===
== Marx's influence ==
]
The body of work of Marx and Engels covers a wide range of topics and presents a complex analysis of history and society in terms of class relations. Followers of Marx and Engels have drawn on this work to propose a political and economic philosophy dubbed ]. Nevertheless, there have been numerous debates among Marxists over how to interpret Marx's writings and how to apply his concepts to current events and conditions (and it is important to distinguish between "Marxism" and "what Marx believed"; for example, shortly before he died in ], Marx wrote a letter to the French workers' leader Jules Guesde, and to Marx's son-in-law Paul Lafargue, accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and of denying the value of reformist struggles; "if that is Marxism" &mdash; paraphrasing what Marx wrote &mdash; "then I am not a Marxist"). Essentially, people use the word "]" to describe those who rely on Marx's conceptual language (e.g. mode of production, class, commodity fetishism) to understand capitalist and other societies, or to describe those who believe that a worker's revolution is the only means to a communist society.


Marx continued to write articles for the ''New York Daily Tribune'' as long as he was sure that the ''Tribune''{{'}}s editorial policy was still progressive. However, the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial policy.<ref>Jonathan Sperber, ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life'', p. 347.</ref> No longer was the ''Tribune'' to be a strong ] paper dedicated to a complete ] victory. The new editorial board supported an immediate peace between the Union and the ] in the Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy. Marx strongly disagreed with this new political position and in 1863 was forced to withdraw as a writer for the ''Tribune''.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=345}}
Six years after Marx's death, Engels and others founded the "]" as a base for continued political activism. This organization collapsed in ], in part because some members turned to ]'s "]ary" socialism, and in part because of divisions precipitated by ].


In 1864, Marx became involved in the ] (also known as the First International),{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=}} to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.{{sfn|Nicolaievsky|Maenchen-Helfen|2007|p=}} In that organisation, Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on ] (1814–1876).{{r|egsbio}} Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526"/> The most important political event during the existence of the International was the ] of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. In response to the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "]", a defence of the Commune.<ref name="Curtis1997"/><ref>Karl Marx, "The Civil War in France" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 22'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 307–59.</ref>
World War I also led to the ] and the consequent ascendance of ]'s leadership of the communist movement, embodied in the "]". Lenin claimed to be both the philosophical and political heir to Marx, and developed a political program, called ] or ], which called for revolution organized and led by a centrally organized ].


Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand and provide a critique suitable for the ], and hence spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the ] studying.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=20}} By 1857, Marx had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, ], wage labour, the state, and foreign trade, and the world market, though this work did not appear in print until 1939, under the title '']'' ({{langx|en|Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy}}).<ref name="Segrest2002"/><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 28'' (International Publishers: New York, 1986) pp. 5–537.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Economic Manuscripts of 1857–1858" contained in the Preparatory Materials section of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'' (International Publishers: New York, 1987) pp. 421–507.</ref>
After Lenin's death, the Secretary-General of the Communist Party of the ], ], seized control of the Party and ] apparatus. He argued that before a world-wide communist revolution would be possible, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had to dedicate itself to building communism in their own country.


In 1859, Marx published '']'',<ref>Karl Marx, "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 29'', pp. 257–417.</ref> his first serious critique of political economy. This work was intended merely as a preview of his three-volume '']'' (English title: ''Capital: Critique of Political Economy''), which he intended to publish at a later date. In ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', Marx began to critically examine axioms and categories of economic thinking.{{sfn|Postone|1993|pp=54–55, 173, 192}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marx |title=Economic Manuscripts: Appendix I: Production, Consumption, Distribution, Exchange |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |access-date=28 March 2022 |website=www.marxists.org |quote= The solitary and isolated hunter or fisherman, who serves Adam Smith and Ricardo as a starting point, is one of the unimaginative fantasies of eighteenth-century romances a la Robinson Crusoe; and despite the assertions of social historians, these by no means signify simply a reaction against over-refinement and reversion to a misconceived natural life. This is an illusion and nothing but the aesthetic illusion of the small and big Robinsonades. It is, on the contrary, the anticipation of “bourgeois society,” which began to evolve in the sixteenth century and in the eighteenth century made giant strides towards maturity. The individual in this society of free competition seems to be rid of natural ties, etc., which made him an appurtenance of a particular, limited aggregation of human beings in previous historical epochs. The prophets of the eighteenth century, on whose shoulders Adam Smith and Ricardo were still wholly standing, envisaged this 18th-century individual – a product of the dissolution of feudal society on the one hand and of the new productive forces evolved since the sixteenth century on the other – as an ideal whose existence belonged to the past. They saw this individual not as an historical result, but as the starting point of history<br /><br />Labour seems to be a very simple category. The notion of labour in this universal form, as labour in general, is also extremely old. Nevertheless “labour” in this simplicity is economically considered just as modern a category as the relations which give rise to this simple abstraction. |archive-date=8 February 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020208230946/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/appx1.htm#205 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Calhoun|2012|p=138|ps=: "Marx used social criticism as his standard form of social analysis. Marx defined criticism as the "radical negation of social reality.""}}</ref> The work was enthusiastically received, and the edition sold out quickly.{{sfn|Fedoseyev|1973|p=318}}
At this time, ] left the Soviet Union and in ] founded the competing "]." Some followers of Trotsky argued that Stalin had created a ] rather than a ].


]'']]
In China ] also claimed to be an heir to Marx, but argued that peasants and not just workers could play a leading role in a communist revolution. This was a profound departure from Marx's own view of revolution, which focused exclusively on the urban proletariat, and which he believed would take place in advanced industrial societies such as France, Germany and England.


The successful sales of '']'' stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three large volumes that would compose his major life's work&nbsp;– {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} and the '']'', which discussed and critiqued the theoreticians of political economy, particularly ] and ].{{r|egsbio}} ''Theories of Surplus Value'' is often referred to as the fourth volume of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the ].<ref name="Rockmore2002"/> In 1867, the first volume of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} was published, a work which critically analysed capital.<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15"/><ref name=":0" /> {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} proposes an explanation of the "laws of motion" of the ] from its origins to its future by describing the dynamics of the accumulation of capital, with topics such as the growth of ], the transformation of the workplace, ], competition, the ] system, the ] and land-rents, as well as how waged labour continually reproduce the rule of capital.{{sfn|Postone|2006|pp=190, 26–27. 135, 374–75}}{{sfn|Calhoun|2012}}{{sfn|Pepperell|2010|pp=104–105}} Marx proposes that the driving force of capital is in the ] of ], whose unpaid work is the ultimate source of ].
In the ] and '], a group of dissident Marxists founded the Institute for Social Research in Germany, among them ], ], ], and ]. As a group, these authors are often called the ]. Their work is known as ], a type of Marxist philosophy and cultural criticism heavily influenced by Hegel, Freud, Nietzsche, and Max Weber.


Demand for a Russian language edition of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} soon led to the printing of 3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which was published on 27 March 1872. By the autumn of 1871, the entire first edition of the German-language edition of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} had been sold out and a second edition was published.
The Frankfurt School broke with earlier Marxists, including Lenin and ] in several key ways. First, writing at the time of the ascendance of ] and ], they had grave doubts as to the traditional Marxist concept of proletarian ]. Second, unlike earlier Marxists, especially Lenin, they rejected economic determinism. While highly influential, their work is often criticized for reducing Marxism to a purely academic enterprise.


]
Other influential non-Bolshevik Marxists at that time include ], ], ], and ]. ], who elaborated the mathematical basis of Marx's 'law of capitalist breakdown', was another contemporary. These figures, including but not limited to the Frankfurt School, are often known by the term ].


Volumes II and III of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life. Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx's death.{{r|egsbio}} Volume II of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} was prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name ''Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital''.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 36'' (International Publishers: New York, 1997).</ref> Volume III of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} was published a year later in October 1894 under the name ''Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole''.<ref>Karl Marx, "Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole" embodying the whole volume of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 37'' (International Publishers: New York, 1998).</ref> ''Theories of Surplus Value'' derived from the sprawling ''Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863'', a ''second'' draft for {{lang|de|Das Kapital}}, the latter spanning volumes 30–34 of the ''Collected Works of Marx and Engels''. Specifically, ''Theories of Surplus Value'' runs from the latter part of the ''Collected Works'<nowiki/>'' thirtieth volume through the end of their thirty-second volume;<ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988) pp. 318–451.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 31'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–580.</ref><ref>Karl Marx, "Theories of Surplus Value" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1989) pp. 5–543.</ref> meanwhile, the larger ''Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863'' run from the start of the ''Collected Works''' thirtieth volume through the first half of their thirty-fourth volume. The latter half of the Collected Works' thirty-fourth volume consists of the surviving fragments of the ''Economic Manuscripts of 1863–1864'', which represented a ''third'' draft for {{lang|de|Das Kapital}}, and a large portion of which is included as an appendix to the Penguin edition of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}}, volume I.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |title=Economic Works of Karl Marx 1861–1864 |website=] |access-date=14 July 2018 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716154952/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/economic/introduction.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> A German-language abridged edition of ''Theories of Surplus Value'' was published in 1905 and in 1910. This abridged edition was translated into English and published in 1951 in London, but the complete unabridged edition of ''Theories of Surplus Value'' was published as the "fourth volume" of {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow.<ref>See note 228 on p. 475 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 30''.</ref>
In ] ] and Leo Huberman founded '']'', a journal and press, to provide an outlet for Marxist thought in the United States independent of the Communist Party.


]
== Contemporary criticism ==
Marxist theory has been criticized from various points of view.


During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined, and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.{{r|egsbio}} He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His '']'' opposed the tendency of his followers ] and ] to compromise with the ] ideas of ] in the interests of a united socialist party.{{r|egsbio}} This work is also notable for another famous Marx quote: "]".<ref name="CGP P1"/>
Many proponents of ] have argued that capitalism in fact is ultimately a more effective means of generating and redistributing wealth than socialism or communism, and that the gulf between rich and poor that concerned Marx and Engels was a temporary phenomenon. Some suggest that greed and the need to acquire capital is an inherent component of human behavior, and is not caused by the adoption of capitalism or any other specific economic system (although economic ] have questioned this assertion), and that different economic systems reflect different social responses to this fact. The ] of economics has criticized Marx's use of the ]. In addition, the policies and actions of various soi disant ]s, which typically claimed to follow some form of Marxism, have done much to destroy Marx's reputation in the ].


In a letter to ] dated 8 March 1881, Marx contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village '']''.{{r|egsbio}}<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.</ref> While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it from all sides".<ref name="k72"/> Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist.<ref name=k72/> However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich he points out that "at the core of the capitalist system&nbsp;... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production".<ref name=k72/> In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that "the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type&nbsp;– collective production and appropriation". He added that "the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies".<ref>K. Marx, First draft of the letter to Vera Zasulich . In Marx-Engels 'Collected Works', Volume 24, p. 346.</ref> Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title '']''.
Marx has also been criticized from the Left. Evolutionary Socialists reject his claim that socialism can be accomplished only through class conflict and violent revolution. Others argue that class is not the most fundamental inequality in history, and call attention to ] or ]. Some today question the theoretical and historical validity of "class" as an analytic construct or as a political actor. In this line, some question Marx's reliance on 19th century notions that linked science with the idea of "progress" (see ]). Many observe that capitalism has changed much since Marx's time, and that class differences and relationships are much more complex &mdash; citing as one example the fact that much corporate stock in the United States is owned by workers through pension funds. (See ] and ] for discussions of two movements generally aligned with the left that are critical of Marx and Marxism.)


== Personal life ==
Still others criticize Marx from the perspective of philosophy of science. Notably, philosopher ] has critized Marx's theories for not being ], which would render his historical and socio-political arguments unscientific. Primarily, this stems from Marx's prediction that capitalism will fall to class revolt. The skeptic may say "this will not happen," to which the Marxist may reply "but it will." This makes any argument over Marxism on ] grounds impossible. From this position, Popper argues that despite Marx's claims to restoring science to the study of history, Marxist thought is anything ''but'' scientific. ] often vilify Marx individually in the West, influenced by the actions of certain Communist Party-led regimes and seeing his philosophy through the prism of ] politics.


=== Family ===
Openly Marxist political parties and movements have significantly declined since the ]. Critics, mostly right-wing, argue that the Soviet Union's numerous internal failings and subsequent collapse were a direct result of the practical failings of Marx's program, but Marxists claim that the Soviet Union's Leninist and Stalinist policies were only superficially similar to Marxist theory. Marx analyzed the world of his day and refused to draw up plans of how a future socialist society should be run saying he did not "write recipes...for cook-shops of the future". Outside Europe and the United States, communism has generally been superseded by anti-colonialist and ] struggles which sometimes appeal to Marx for theoretical support.
]


Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together, but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Singer |author-link=Peter Singer |date=2000 |title=Marx: A very short introduction |page=5 |isbn=0-19-285405-4 |publisher=] |location=Oxford}}</ref> Their children were: ] (m. Longuet; 1844–1883); ] (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–1852); ] (1855–1898) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). According to his son-in-law, ], Marx was a loving father.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Lafargue |author-link=Paul Lafargue |editor=] |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1972 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |title=''Reminiscences of Marx'' (September 1890) |quote=He was a loving, gentle and indulgent father. There was never even a trace of the bossy parent in his relations with his daughters, whose love for him was extraordinary. He never gave them an order, but asked them to do what he wished as a favour or made them feel that they should not do what he wanted to forbid them. And yet a father could seldom have had more docile children than he. |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816133812/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lafargue/1890/xx/marx.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1962, there were allegations that Marx fathered a son, Freddy,<ref name=Montefiore>{{cite news|last=Montefiore |first=Simon Sebag |author-link=Simon Sebag Montefiore |title=The Means of Reproduction |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |work=] |date=23 September 2011 |access-date=25 September 2011 |archive-date=26 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926042626/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html |url-status=live}}</ref> out of wedlock by his housekeeper, ],{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=173}} but the claim is disputed for lack of documented evidence.<ref name="Carver, 1991">{{cite book |quote=this is not well founded on the documentary materials available |last=Carver |first=Terrell |title=The Cambridge Companion to Marx |date=1991 |publisher=] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-36694-6 |page=11 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |editor-last=Carver |editor-first=Terrell |chapter=Reading Marx: Life and Works |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608131100/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-marx/C8B7D6342B659E2AA6203BA970A791DF |url-status=live }}</ref>
Contemporary supporters of Marx argue most generally that Marx was correct that human behavior reflects determinate historical and social conditions (and is therefore changing and can not be understood in terms of some universal "human nature"). More specifically, they argue his analysis of commodities is still useful and that alienation is still a problem. Some argue that capitalism does not exist as an independent system in any one country, and that one must analyze it as a global system. They further argue that when examined as a global system, capitalism is still organizing and exacerbating the gulf between rich and poor that first caught Marx's attention when he read Engels' book on Britain.


Helene Demuth was also largely entrusted as a confidante. In her obituary, penned by ], her role is revealed as: "Marx took counsel of Helena Demuth, not only in difficult and intricate party matters, but even in respect of his economical writings".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Helene Demuth Obituary |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/family/demuth/obitry.htm |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref>
==Miscellaneous==
<!--- this picture doesn't work
] stamp commemorating the centenary of Marx's death]] --->
In ] the ] renamed the city of ] to Karl-Marx-Stadt. However, in a ] in ] the citizens of Karl-Marx-Stadt favoured the old name, so that the city was renamed again.


Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of "Monsieur Ramboz", whilst in London, he signed off his letters as "A. Williams". His friends referred to him as "Moor", owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, while he encouraged his children to call him "Old Nick" and "Charley".{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}} He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family, referring to Friedrich Engels as "General", his housekeeper Helene as "Lenchen" or "Nym", while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as "Qui Qui, ]" and another, Laura, was known as "]" or "the ]".{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=152}}
] advocate ] (who was influential in developing U.S. President Ronald Reagan's economic policy) claims Karl Marx as a supply sider. He sees Supply Side economics as a return to production focused economics in keeping with many of the traditions of Marx.


=== Health ===
The message carved on Marx's tombstone, in ], ], is: "Workers of all lands, unite".
Marx drank heavily after joining the Trier Tavern Club drinking society in the 1830s, and continued to do so until his death.<ref name="drinking1"/>


Marx was afflicted by poor health, what he himself described as "the wretchedness of existence",{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}} and various authors have sought to describe and explain it. His biographer Werner Blumenberg attributed it to liver and gall problems which Marx had in 1849 and from which he was never afterward free, exacerbated by an unsuitable lifestyle. The attacks often came with headaches, eye inflammation, ] in the head, and rheumatic pains. A serious nervous disorder appeared in 1877 and protracted ] was a consequence, which Marx fought with narcotics.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}}
]

The illness was aggravated by excessive nocturnal work and faulty diet. Marx was fond of highly seasoned dishes, smoked fish, caviare, pickled cucumbers, "none of which are good for liver patients", but he also liked wine and liqueurs and smoked an enormous amount "and since he had no money, it was usually bad-quality cigars". From 1863, Marx complained a lot about boils: "These are very frequent with liver patients and may be due to the same causes".{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=100}} The abscesses were so bad that Marx could neither sit nor work upright. According to Blumenberg, Marx's irritability is often found in liver patients:

<blockquote>The illness emphasised certain traits in his character. He argued cuttingly, his biting satire did not shrink at insults, and his expressions could be rude and cruel. Though in general Marx had blind faith in his closest friends, nevertheless he himself complained that he was sometimes too mistrustful and unjust even to them. His verdicts, not only about enemies but even about friends, were sometimes so harsh that even less sensitive people would take offence&nbsp;... There must have been few whom he did not criticize like this&nbsp;... not even Engels was an exception.{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|pp=99–100}}</blockquote>

According to Princeton historian ], in his late teens, Marx may have had pneumonia or pleurisy, the effects of which led to his being exempted from Prussian military service. In later life whilst working on {{lang|de|Das Kapital}} (which he never completed),{{sfn|Blumenberg|2000|p=98}}{{sfn|Seigel|1978|p=494}} Marx suffered from a trio of afflictions. A liver ailment, probably hereditary, was aggravated by overwork, a bad diet, and lack of sleep. Inflammation of the eyes was induced by too much work at night. A third affliction, eruption of carbuncles or boils, "was probably brought on by general physical debility to which the various features of Marx's style of life&nbsp;– alcohol, tobacco, poor diet, and failure to sleep&nbsp;– all contributed. Engels often exhorted Marx to alter this dangerous regime". In Seigel's thesis, what lay behind this punishing sacrifice of his health may have been guilt about self-involvement and egoism, originally induced in Karl Marx by his father.{{sfn|Seigel|1978|pp=495–496}}

In 2007, a ] of Marx's skin disease was made by ] Sam Shuster of ] and for Shuster, the most probable explanation was that Marx suffered not from liver problems, but from ], a recurring infective condition arising from blockage of ] ducts opening into ]. This condition, which was not described in the English medical literature until 1933 (hence would not have been known to Marx's physicians), can produce joint pain (which could be misdiagnosed as rheumatic disorder) and painful eye conditions.{{sfn|Shuster|2008|pp=1–2}}

To arrive at his retrodiagnosis, Shuster considered the primary material: the Marx correspondence published in the 50 volumes of the ''Marx/Engels Collected Works''. There, "although the skin lesions were called 'furuncles', 'boils' and 'carbuncles' by Marx, his wife, and his physicians, they were too persistent, recurrent, destructive and site-specific for that diagnosis". The sites of the persistent 'carbuncles' were noted repeatedly in the armpits, groins, ], ] (] and ]) and ] regions and inner thighs, "favoured sites of hidradenitis suppurativa". Professor Shuster claimed the diagnosis "can now be made definitively".{{sfn|Shuster|2008|pp=1–2}}

Shuster went on to consider the potential ] effects of the disease, noting that the skin is an organ of communication and that hidradenitis suppurativa produces much psychological distress, including loathing and disgust and depression of self-image, mood, and well-being, feelings for which Shuster found "much evidence" in the Marx correspondence. Professor Shuster went on to ask himself whether the mental effects of the disease affected Marx's work and even helped him to develop ].{{sfn|Shuster|2008|p=3}}

=== Death ===
], East ], London]]

Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a ] that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the ] and ] that killed him in London on 14 March 1883, when he died a ] at age 64.<ref name="stateless"/> Family and friends in London buried his body in ] (East), London, on 17 March 1883 in an area reserved for agnostics and atheists. For example, ]'s grave is nearby. According to ], there were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.{{sfn|Wheen|2001|p=}}<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Research from contemporary sources identifies thirteen named individuals attending the funeral: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], Gottlieb Lemke, ], G Lochner, Sir ], ] and ].<ref>John Shepperd, 'Who was really at Marx's funeral?', in "Friends of Highgate Cemetery Newsletter ", April (2018), pp. 10–11. https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204074940/https://highgatecemetery.org/uploads/2018-04_Newsletter_final_web.pdf |date=4 February 2020 }}</ref> A contemporary newspaper account claims that twenty-five to thirty relatives and friends attended the funeral.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx', in '']'', 25 March 1883, p.3.</ref>

A writer in '']'' noted: 'By a strange blunder ... his death was not announced for two days, and then as having taken place at Paris. The next day the correction came from Paris; and when his friends and followers hastened to his house in ], to learn the time and place of burial, they learned that he was already in the cold ground. But for this secresy and haste, a great popular demonstration would undoubtedly have been held over his grave'.<ref>'Dr Karl Marx' in ''The Graphic'', 31 March 1883, pp. 319, 322</ref>

Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including ] and Friedrich Engels. Engels' speech included the passage: {{blockquote|On the 14th&nbsp;of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep&nbsp;– but forever.<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx"/>}}

Marx's surviving daughters ] and ], as well as ] and ], Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> He had been predeceased by his wife and his eldest daughter, the latter dying a few months earlier in January 1883. Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social Democratic Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Two ]s from workers' parties in France and Spain{{Which|date=April 2021}} were also read out.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the ] of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League"; and ], a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the ], and a communist activist involved in the 1848 ].<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/> Another attendee of the funeral was ], a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007"/>

Marx left a personal estate valued for probate at £250,<ref name="probate">{{cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk |title=Marx, Karl |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=1883 |website=probatesearchservice.gov |publisher=UK Government |access-date=14 June 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807135123/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> equivalent to £38,095 in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=£250 in 1883 → 2024 {{!}} UK Inflation Calculator |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |access-date=11 April 2024 |website=www.in2013dollars.com |language=en |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128173620/https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1883 |url-status=live }}</ref> Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his considerable estate, valued in 2024 at US$6.8&nbsp;million.<ref name="Montefiore"/>

Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954. The ] at the new site, unveiled on 14 March 1956,<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|title=Marx monument unveiled in Highgate cemetery – archive, 15 March 1956|date=15 March 2016|access-date=7 January 2018|work=The Guardian|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227094820/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/mar/15/karl-marx-monument-highgate-cemetery-archive-1956|url-status=live}}</ref> bears the carved message: "]", the final line of ''The Communist Manifesto''; and, from the 11th "]" (as edited by Engels), "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways{{mdash}}the point however is to change it".<ref name="wh1" /> The ] had the monument with a portrait bust by ] erected and Marx's original tomb had only humble adornment.<ref name="wh1"/> Black civil rights leader and CPGB activist ] was later buried beside Karl Marx's tomb.

The Marxist historian ] remarked: "One cannot say Marx died a failure." Although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the left-wing movements in Germany and Russia. Within twenty-five years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics had contributed to significant gains in their ] elections.<ref>]. pp. 3–4.</ref>

== Thought ==
{{Marxism}}

=== Influences ===
{{Main|Influences on Karl Marx}}
Marx's thought demonstrates influence from many sources, including but not limited to:
* ]'s philosophy{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}}
* The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and ],<ref name="Sherman1995"/> as well as ]'s critique of laissez-faire economics and analysis of the precarious state of the proletariat<ref name="Paresh">{{cite book |last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Paresh |title=Marx's Associated Mode of Production: A Critique of Marxism |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |pages=39–41}}</ref>
* ],<ref name="Sherman1995"/> in particular the thought of ], ], ] and ]<ref name="Beilharz1992"/>{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}}
* Earlier German philosophical materialism among the ], particularly that of ] and ],<ref name=et/> as well as the French materialism of the late 18th century, including ], ] and ]
* ] analysis of the working class,<ref name="Bottomore1991"/> as well as the early descriptions of class provided by French liberals and Saint-Simonians such as ] and ]
* Marx's Judaic legacy has been identified as formative to both his moral outlook<ref>Eagleton, Terry. '']''. Yale University Press, 2011, p. 158</ref> and his materialist philosophy.{{sfn|Seigel|1978|pp=112–119}}

Marx's view of history, which came to be called ] (controversially adapted as the philosophy of ] by Engels and Lenin), certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) ]ally.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} However, whereas Hegel had thought in ] terms, putting ideas in the forefront, Marx sought to conceptualise dialectics in ] terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.<ref name=sep/>{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}}

Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} Despite his dislike of mystical terms, Marx used ] language in several of his works: in ''The Communist Manifesto'' he proclaims "A spectre is haunting Europe&nbsp;– the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre", and in ''The Capital'' he refers to capital as "] that surrounds the products of labour".<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/OPE/archive/0604/att-0138/01-PoliticalEconOfTheDead.pdf |first=Mark |last=Neocleous |title=The Political Economy of the Dead: Marx's Vampires |access-date=1 November 2013 |archive-date=12 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412205331/http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/OPE/archive/0604/att-0138/01-PoliticalEconOfTheDead.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,<ref name="Sherman1995"/> Marx criticised ], arguing that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty and that only a large-scale change in the ] could bring about real change.{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Leopold |first1=David |title=Marx, Engels, and Some (Non-Foundational) Arguments against Utopian Socialism |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ba0c49a8-6592-4961-9d54-3a805c564272/files/m1c8aee21e160b7ea7c6e728719ba7a69 |website=ORA - Oxford University Research Archive |access-date=August 22, 2024 |archive-date=22 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240822025856/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ba0c49a8-6592-4961-9d54-3a805c564272/files/m1c8aee21e160b7ea7c6e728719ba7a69 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other important contributions to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, '']'', which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of ] and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution,<ref name="Bottomore1991"/> as well as from the social democrat ], who in {{lang|de|Die Bewegung der Produktion}} described the movement of society as "flowing from the contradiction between the forces of production and the mode of production."<ref name="Levine">{{cite book |last1=Levine |first1=Norman |title=Divergent Paths: The Hegelian foundations of Marx's method |date=2006 |publisher=] |page=223}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated144">{{cite book|first=Jonathan |last=Sperber |author-link=Jonathan Sperber |title=Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life |page=144}}</ref>

Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically, discerning tendencies of history and thereby predicting the outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx, therefore, concluded that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his "]" that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it" and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}}<ref name="wh1"/>

Marx's theories inspired several theories and disciplines of future, including but not limited to:
* ]
* ] and ]
* Theory of ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

=== Philosophy and social thought ===
Marx has been called "the first great user of ] in social sciences", a characterisation stemming from his frequent use of ]s throughout his work to effect critiques of other thinkers.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}}<ref name="Sherman1995"/> He criticised speculative philosophy, equating ] with ideology.{{sfn|Bannerji|2001|p=27}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paolucci |first1=Paul |title=Marx's scientific and political criticism: The internal relation |journal=Capital & Class |year=2015|volume=39 |pages=65–78 |doi=10.1177/0309816814564657 }}</ref> By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.<ref name="Sherman1995"/> This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}}

==== Human nature ====
{{further|Marx's theory of human nature}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = G.W.F. Hegel (by Sichling, after Sebbers).jpg
| image2 = Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach.jpg
| footer = The philosophers ] (left) and ], whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx
}}
Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic ] with no identifiable despot,<ref>], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915142405/https://books.google.com/books?id=a3SFelqBLw8C&dq= |date=15 September 2015 }}, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 152.</ref> Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with ], who discussed the nature of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to analyse "the despotism of capital".<ref>Karl Marx. ''Capital: A Critique of Political Economy'', vol. 1, trans. ] and Edward Aveling (New York: Modem Library, 1906), 440.</ref> Fundamentally, Marx assumed that ] involves transforming ], which encompasses both human beings and material objects.<ref name="Ollman1973"/> Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.<ref name = "Marx_labour">Marx K (1999). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018135115/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch07.htm |date=18 October 2010 }} In K Marx, ''Das Kapital'' (Vol. 1, Ch. 7). Marxists.org. Retrieved 20 October 2010. Original work published 1867.</ref><ref name = "Marx_critique">See Marx K (1997). "Critique of Hegel's dialectic and philosophy in general". In K Marx, ''Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society'' (LD Easton & KH Guddat, Trans.), pp. 314–47. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Original work published 1844.</ref>

For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal ] stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a ] agent, renders its potential counterpart an ] to be apprehended.<ref name="Marx_critique"/> Marx further argues that by moulding nature<ref name = "Lefever">See also Lefever DM; Lefever JT (1977). "Marxian alienation and economic organisation: An alternate view". ''The American Economist (21)'' 2, pp. 40–48.</ref> in desired ways<ref name = "Holland_desire">See also Holland EW (2005). "Desire". In CJ Stivale (Ed.), ''Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts'', pp. 53–62. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.</ref> the subject takes the object as its own and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, the ]&nbsp;– {{lang|de|Gattungswesen}}, or ]&nbsp;– exists as a function of human labour.<ref name="Marx_labour"/><ref name="Marx_critique"/><ref name="Holland_desire"/>

Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object it must first exert influence upon literal, ] in the subject's world.<ref name = "Marx_objects"/> Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his {{em|own work}}",<ref name = "Marx_work">Marx (1997), p. 321, emphasis in original.</ref> but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.<ref name = "Marx_spiritual">Marx (1997), p. 324.</ref>

Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects".<ref name = "Marx_objects">Marx (1997), p. 325, emphasis in original.</ref> Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "]" and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "]".<ref name=sep/>

==== Labour, class struggle and false consciousness ====
{{further|Alienation (Marxism)|Class struggle|Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)}}
{{blockquote|The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.|Karl Marx, '']''<ref name="MarxEngels2009pp5">{{cite book|first1=Karl |last1=Marx |first2=Friedrich |last2=Engels |author-link2=Friedrich Engels |title=The Communist Manifesto |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pC1RMZh4iC0C&pg=PA5 |year=2009 |publisher=Echo Library |isbn=978-1-4068-5174-8 |page=5 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=12 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912161744/https://books.google.com/books?id=pC1RMZh4iC0C&pg=PA5 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>}}
], China]]

Marx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour power.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=22}} He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of ].{{sfn|Mészáros|2006|p=96}} As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=22}} ] mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=22}} For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour&nbsp;– one's capacity to transform the world&nbsp;– is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature and it is a spiritual loss.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=22}} Marx described this loss as ], in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt.<ref name="Balibar1995"/>

] provides an example of what Engels called "]",<ref name="KołakowskiFalla2005">{{cite book|first1=Leszek |last1=Kołakowski |author-link1=Leszek Kołakowski |first2=Paul Stephen |last2=Falla |title=Main currents of Marxism: the founders, the golden age, the breakdown|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUCxpznbkaoC&pg=PA226 |access-date=8 March 2011 |year=2005 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-393-06054-6 |page=226 |archive-date=16 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616233048/http://books.google.com/books?id=qUCxpznbkaoC&pg=PA226 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref> which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.<ref name="Hernadi1989"/> Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production include not only the production of food or manufactured goods but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).<ref name=sep/><ref name="Thompson1990"/> An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface<ref>Karl Marx: {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512102215/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm |date=12 May 2019 }} to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in: '']'', February 1844</ref> to his 1843 ''Contribution to the ]'': {{blockquote|Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.<ref name="MarxO'Malley1977"/>|sign=|source=}}

Whereas his ] senior thesis at the {{Interlanguage link|Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Trier)|de|3=Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium (Trier)|lt=Gymnasium zu Trier}} argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of ], here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic ''status quo'' and ].<ref name="SwatosKivisto1998"/>

Marx was an outspoken opponent of ],<ref>In '']'', Part II:Proletariats and Communist and '']'', Part III</ref> saying that British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children".<ref name="autogenerated2"/><ref>{{cite speech|author=Karl Marx|title=Inaugural Address of the International Working Men's Association|year=1864}}</ref>

==== Critique of political economy, history and society ====
{{further|Critique of political economy|Marxian economics}}
{{Quote box
|width=25em
|align=right
|quote=But you Communists would introduce community of women, screams the whole bourgeoisie in chorus. The bourgeois sees in his wife a mere instrument of production. He hears that the means of production are to be exploited in common, and, naturally, can come to no other conclusion than that the lot of being common to all will likewise fall to the women. He has not even a suspicion that the real point aimed at is to do away with the status of women as mere mean of production.
|source=—Karl Marx, ''The Communist Manifesto''<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Communist Manifesto", page 55, translation made by Samuel Moore in 1888</ref>
}}
Marx's thoughts on labour and its function in reproducing capital were related to the primacy he gave to social relations in determining the society's past, present and future.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}}<ref name="Turner2005"/><ref name=":1">{{cite web |last=Marx |first=Karl |title=Grundrisse 06 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/grundrisse/ch06.htm |access-date=21 November 2021 |website=] |quote=the demand that wage labour be continued but capital suspended is self-contradictory, self-dissolving. |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121201428/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/grundrisse/ch06.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Critics have called this ]. Labour is the precondition for the existence of, and ], which both shape the ].<ref name=":1" /> For Marx, ] was driven by conflict between opposing interests, by parties situated in the historical situation of their ].{{sfn|Calhoun|2012}} This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the ].<ref name="Turner2005"/>

In his ] model of history, he argued that ] began with free, productive and creative activities that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} Marx noted that this was not an intentional process, but rather due to the immanent logic of the current ] which demands more human labour (]) to reproduce the social relationships of capital.{{sfn|Postone|2006|pp=190, 26–27. 135, 374–75}}{{sfn|Pepperell|2010|pp=104–105}}

The organisation of society depends on ]. The means of production are all things required to produce material goods, such as land, natural resources, and technology but not human labour. The ] are the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production.<ref name="Turner2005"/> Together, these compose the ] and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of modes of production. Marx differentiated between ], where the base (or substructure) is the ] and superstructure is the cultural and political system.<ref name="Turner2005"/> Marx regarded this mismatch between economic base and social ] as a major source of social disruption and conflict.<ref name="Turner2005"/>

Despite Marx's stress on the critique of capitalism and discussion of the new ] that should replace it, his explicit critique is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (] and ]).<ref name=sep/> Marx never clearly discusses issues of ] and ], but scholars agree that his work contained ] discussion of those concepts.<ref name=sep/>

{{multiple image
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| caption1 = Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow, whose inscription reads: "]"
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| caption2 = A mural by ] showing Karl Marx, in the ] in Mexico City
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Marx's view of capitalism was two-sided.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Wood1993"/> On one hand, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system he noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical ] leading to mass unemployment. On the other hand, he characterised capitalism as "revolutionising, industrialising and universalising qualities of development, growth and progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased ] and growth, ], and ]) that are responsible for progress, at in contrast to earlier forms of societies.<ref name=sep/><ref name="Wood1993"/>{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}}

Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history and was responsible for the overthrow of ].{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}}<ref name="Gilbert2010" /> Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist has an incentive to reinvest profits in new technologies and ].{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=22}}

According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry, input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "]" and argued that it was based on ], the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive, and what they can produce.<ref name=sep/> Although Marx describes capitalists as ]s sucking worker's blood,{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice" since Marx, according to ] "excludes any trans-epochal standpoint from which one can comment" on the morals of such particular arrangements.<ref name=sep/> Marx also noted that even the capitalists themselves cannot go against the system.{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}} The problem is the "cancerous cell" of ], understood not as property or equipment, but the social relations between workers and owners, (the selling and purchasing of labour power)&nbsp;– the societal system, or rather ], in general.{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}}

At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable and prone to ].<ref name=wk/> He suggested that over time capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies and less and less in labour.<ref name=sep/> Since Marx believed that profit derived from surplus value appropriated from labour, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall as the economy grows.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=23}} Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this ] of growth and collapse.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=23}} Moreover, he believed that in the long-term, this process would enrich and ] the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=23}}{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}} In section one of ''The Communist Manifesto'', Marx describes ], capitalism and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:

{{blockquote|We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged&nbsp;... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes&nbsp;... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.<ref name=manifesto/>}}

], 1900. Marx believed that industrial workers, the ], would rise up around the world.]]

Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a ], communist society:

{{blockquote|The development of modern industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.<ref name="manifesto"/>}}

Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop ], in time realising that they can and must change the system.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing the exploiting class and introducing a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=20–23}} Marx argued in '']'' that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class: {{blockquote|Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence.<ref name="Elster1985"/>|sign=|source=}}

In this new society, the alienation would end and humans would be free to act without being bound by selling their labour.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=23}} It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}} In such a ]n world, there would also be little need for a state, whose goal was previously to enforce the alienation.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=23}} Marx theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, would exist a period of ]&nbsp;– where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production.{{sfn|Clark|1998|pp=57–59}} As he wrote in his '']'', "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the ] of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat".<ref name="Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme"/> While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong ] institutional structures (such as ], the ], and the ]), he suggested that in other countries in which workers cannot "attain their goal by peaceful means" the "lever of our revolution must be force".<ref> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716015355/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/09/08.htm |date=16 July 2018 }} delivered by Karl Marx on 8 September 1872, in ]. "You know that the institutions, mores, and traditions of various countries must be taken into consideration, and we do not deny that there are countries – such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I would perhaps also add Holland – where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means. This being the case, we must also recognise the fact that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must some day appeal to erect the rule of labour."</ref>

=== International relations ===
] in ], known as ''Karl-Marx-Stadt'' from 1953 to 1990]]

Marx viewed ] as the main counter-revolutionary threat to European revolutions.{{sfn|Anderson|2016|pp=49–239}} During the ], Marx backed the ] and its allies Britain and France against Russia.{{sfn|Anderson|2016|pp=49–239}} He was absolutely opposed to ], viewing it as an instrument of Russian foreign policy.{{sfn|Anderson|2016|pp=49–239}} Marx had considered the ] nations except ] as 'counter-revolutionary'. Marx and Engels published in the '']'' in February 1849:

{{blockquote|To the sentimental phrases about brotherhood which we are being offered here on behalf of the most counter-revolutionary nations of Europe, we reply that hatred of Russians was and still is the primary revolutionary passion among Germans; that since the ] hatred of Czechs and Croats has been added, and that only by the most determined use of terror against these Slav peoples can we, jointly with the Poles and Magyars, safeguard the revolution. We know where the enemies of the revolution are concentrated, ''viz''. in Russia and the Slav regions of Austria, and no fine phrases, no allusions to an undefined democratic future for these countries can deter us from treating our enemies as enemies. Then there will be a struggle, an "inexorable life-and-death struggle", against those Slavs who betray the revolution; an annihilating fight and ruthless terror&nbsp;– not in the interests of Germany, but in the interests of the revolution!"<ref>Cited in: B. Hepner, "Marx et la puissance russe," in: K. Marx, ''La Russie et l'Europe'', Paris, 1954, p. 20. Originally published in '']'', no. 223, 16 February 1849.</ref>}}

Marx and Engels sympathised with the ] revolutionaries of the 1860s and 1870s. When the ] assassinated Tsar ], Marx expressed the hope that the assassination foreshadowed 'the formation of a Russian commune'.<ref>Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to the Chairman of the Slavonic Meeting, 21 March 1881. Source: Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Selected Correspondence'' (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1975).</ref> Marx supported the ] against tsarist Russia.{{sfn|Anderson|2016|pp=49–239}} He said in a speech in London in 1867:

{{blockquote|In the first place the policy of Russia is changeless... Its methods, its tactics, its manoeuvres may change, but the polar star of its policy – world domination – is a fixed star. In our times only a civilised government ruling over barbarian masses can hatch out such a plan and execute it. ... There is but one alternative for Europe. Either Asiatic barbarism, under Muscovite direction, will burst around its head like an avalanche, or else it must re-establish Poland, thus putting twenty million heroes between itself and Asia and gaining a breathing spell for the accomplishment of its social regeneration.<ref>Speech delivered in London, probably to a meeting of the International's General Council and the Polish Workers Society on 22 January 1867, text published in ''Le Socialisme'', 15 March 1908; ''Odbudowa Polski'' (Warsaw, 1910), pp. 119–23; ''Mysl Socjalistyczna'', May 1908. From Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''The Russian Menace to Europe'', edited by Paul Blackstock and Bert Hoselitz, and published by ], London, 1953, pp. 104–08.</ref>}}

] poster in ], India]]

Marx supported the cause of ]<!--The quote shows he meant more than Home Rule. He also seemed to be confusing England and Great Britain.-->. In 1867, he wrote Engels: "I used to think the separation of Ireland from England impossible. I now think it inevitable. The English working class will never accomplish anything until it has got rid of Ireland. ... English reaction in England had its roots ... in the subjugation of Ireland."<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509153123/https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/01/archives/karl-marx-and-the-irish.html |date=9 May 2018 }}". '']''. December 1971.</ref>

Marx spent some time in ], which had been ] and made a ] in 1830, and had the opportunity to observe life in colonial North Africa. He wrote about the colonial justice system, in which "a form of torture has been used (and this happens 'regularly') to extract confessions from the Arabs; naturally it is done (like the English in India) by the 'police'; the judge is supposed to know nothing at all about it."<ref name="alahram"/> Marx was surprised by the arrogance of many ] in Algiers and wrote in a letter: "when a European colonist dwells among the 'lesser breeds,' either as a settler or even on business, he generally regards himself as even more inviolable than handsome William I . Still, when it comes to bare-faced arrogance and presumptuousness vis-à-vis the 'lesser breeds,' the British and Dutch outdo the French."<ref name="alahram"/>

According to the '']'': "Marx's analysis of colonialism as a progressive force bringing modernization to a backward feudal society sounds like a transparent rationalization for foreign domination. His account of British domination, however, reflects the same ambivalence that he shows towards capitalism in Europe. In both cases, Marx recognizes the immense suffering brought about during the transition from feudal to bourgeois society while insisting that the transition is both necessary and ultimately progressive. He argues that the penetration of foreign commerce will cause a social revolution in India."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Colonialism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2017 |access-date=10 August 2018 |archive-date=11 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611042603/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Marx discussed ] ] in ] in the '']'' in June 1853:

{{blockquote|There cannot remain any doubt but that the misery inflicted by the British on Hindostan is of an essentially different and infinitely more intensive kind than all Hindostan had to suffer before. England has broken down the entire framework of Indian society, without any symptoms of reconstitution yet appearing... , we must not forget that these idyllic village communities, inoffensive though they may appear, had always been the solid foundation of Oriental despotism, that they restrained the human mind within the smallest possible compass, making it the unresisting tool of superstition.<ref name="alahram">{{cite news |title=Marx in Algiers |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/24784.aspx |work=Al-Ahram |access-date=10 August 2018 |archive-date=10 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810144250/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/24784.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Marx on India under the British |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-bookreview/marx-on-india-under-the-british/article3209143.ece |work=] |date=13 June 2006 |access-date=10 August 2018 |archive-date=30 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630051005/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-bookreview/marx-on-india-under-the-british/article3209143.ece |url-status=live}}</ref>}}

== Legacy ==
{{main|Marxism}}
], ], Germany]]
], featuring Marx and Engels, commemorating the 100th anniversary of the ''Manifesto'']]

Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought,{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}}<ref name="Manchester"/><ref>{{cite news |last=Wheen |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Wheen |date=17 July 2005 |url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,6903,1530250,00.html |title=Why Marx is man of the moment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050718233606/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,6903,1530250,00.html |archive-date=18 July 2005 |work=]}}</ref><ref name="Allan2010"/> in particular in the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Magness |first1=Phil |last2=Makovi |first2=Michael |date=2022 |title=The Mainstreaming of Marx: Measuring the Effect of the Russian Revolution on Karl Marx's Influence |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/722933 |journal=] |volume=131 |issue=6 |pages=1507–1545 |doi=10.1086/722933 |issn=0022-3808 |access-date=12 November 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230081241/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/722933 |url-status=live }}</ref> Followers of Marx have often debated among themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and apply his concepts to the modern world.{{sfn|Andersen|Kaspersen|2000|p=123–}} The legacy of Marx's thought has become contested between numerous tendencies, each of which sees itself as Marx's most accurate interpreter. In the political realm, these tendencies include ] such as ], ], ], ], ], ],{{sfn|Andersen|Kaspersen|2000|p=123–}} and ]. Various currents have also developed in ], often under influence of other views, resulting in ], ], phenomenological Marxism, ], and ].{{sfn|Andersen|Kaspersen|2000|p=123–}}

From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology. He has been cited as one of the 19th century's three masters of the "]", alongside ] and ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ricoeur |first=Paul |title=Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation |location=New Haven and London |publisher=] |date=1970 |page=32}}</ref> and as one of the three principal architects of modern ] along with ] and ].<ref name="plato.stanford.edu"/> In contrast to other philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the ].{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|pp=23–24}}

Both Marx and ] set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European ] and new developments in the ] and science. Working in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean ] in an attempt to develop a ''science of society''.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002|p=19}} ] considered Marx and ] to be the two greatest philosophical successors of Hegel.<ref>{{cite book |last=Löwith |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Löwith |title=From Hegel to Nietzsche |location=New York |publisher=] |date=1991 |page=49}}</ref>

In modern ], ] is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. ] considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology "in so far as anyone can claim the title".{{sfn|Berlin|1963|p=130}} Beyond social science, he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy, literature, the arts, and the humanities.{{sfn|Singer|1980|p=1}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Bridget |last=O'Laughlin |date=October 1975 |title=Marxist Approaches in Anthropology |journal=] |volume=4 |pages=341–370 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013}}<br />William Roseberry (1997) ''Marx and Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=S.L. |year=1984 |title=Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience |journal=Critical Studies in Mass Communication |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=66–80 |doi=10.1080/15295038409360014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first1=Manuel |last1=Alvarado |author1-link=Manuel Alvarado |first2=Robin |last2=Gutch |first3=Tana |last3=Wollen |date=1987 |title=Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching |publisher=]}}</ref>

]
Social theorists of the 20th and 21st centuries have pursued two main strategies in response to Marx. One move has been to reduce it to its analytical core, known as analytical Marxism. Another, more common move has been to dilute the explanatory claims of Marx's social theory and emphasise the "relative ]working-class agenda" of aspects of social and economic life not directly related to Marx's central narrative of interaction between the development of the "forces of production" and the succession of "modes of production". This has been the ] theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marx's social theory such as ] and Eric Hobsbawm. It has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists such as ] who have sought to understand the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice, seen in the light of Marxist social theory.<ref>Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism: the Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown. Translated by P.S. Falla. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005.</ref><ref>Aron, Raymond. Main Currents in Sociological Thought. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1965.</ref><ref>Anderson, Perry. Considerations on Western Marxism. London: NLB, 1976.</ref><ref>Hobsbawm, E. J. How to Change the World: Marx and Marxism, 1840–2011 (London: Little, Brown, 2011), 314–44.</ref> Marx's ideas had a profound influence on subsequent artists and art history, with avant-garde movements across literature, visual art, music, film, and theatre.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hemingway |first=Andrew |title=Marxism and the History of Art: From William Morris to the New Left |publisher=] |date=2006}}</ref>

] definition between 1979 and 1983, which marked the greatest territorial extent of ]]]

Politically, Marx's legacy is more complex. Throughout the 20th century, revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves "Marxist"{{mdash}}most notably the ], which led to the founding of the ].<ref name="April Thesis">{{cite web|last1=Lenin |first1=V.I. |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=The Tasks of the Proletariat in the Present Revolution|date=1917 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/apr/04.htm |website=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |archive-date=9 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109111834/http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/apr/04.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Major world leaders including ],<ref name="April Thesis"/> ],<ref>{{cite web |title=Glossary of People – Ma |url=https://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/m/a.htm |publisher=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |archive-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404060241/https://www.marxists.org/glossary/people/m/a.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Savioli |first1=Arminio |title=L'Unita Interview with Fidel Castro: The Nature of Cuban Socialism|date=1961 |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/1961/02/01.htm |publisher=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907221742/https://www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/1961/02/01.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Allende |first1=Salvador |author-link=Salvador Allende |title=First speech to the Chilean parliament after his election |date=1970|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/allende/1970/september/20.htm |publisher=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924044153/http://marxists.org/archive/allende/1970/september/20.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Broz Tito |first1=Josip |author-link=Josip Broz Tito |title=Historical Development in the World Will Move Towards the Strengthening of Socialism|date=1959 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/tito/1959/04/19.htm |publisher=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426215819/https://www.marxists.org/archive/tito/1959/04/19.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nkrumah |first1=Kwame |author-link=Kwame Nkrumah |title=African Socialism Revisited|date=1967 |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/1967/african-socialism-revisited.htm |publisher=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |archive-date=8 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508212248/https://www.marxists.org/subject/africa/nkrumah/1967/african-socialism-revisited.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/nehrus-economic-philosophy/article18589548.ece |title=Nehru's economic philosophy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226013014/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/nehrus-economic-philosophy/article18589548.ece |archive-date=26 December 2019 |work=] |date=27 May 2017}}</ref> ],<ref>" {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509223406/https://www.thesouthafrican.com/nelson-mandelas-living-legacy-embracing-communism-and-the-defiance-campaign-1949-1952/ |date=9 May 2018 }}". ''The South African''. 6 November 2013.</ref> ]<ref name="euronews">{{cite news |url=http://www.euronews.com/2018/05/04/juncker-opens-exhibition-to-karl-marx |last=Churm |first=Philip Andrew |title=Juncker opens exhibition to Karl Marx |work=] |date=4 May 2018 |access-date=16 May 2019 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403030931/https://www.euronews.com/2018/05/04/juncker-opens-exhibition-to-karl-marx |url-status=live}}</ref> and ]<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Harsch |first=Ernest |date=20 May 2015 |title=Resurrecting Thomas Sankara |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2015/05/thomas-sankara-burkina-faso-assassination/ |access-date=6 October 2021 |magazine=] |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023094513/https://jacobinmag.com/2015/05/thomas-sankara-burkina-faso-assassination |url-status=live }}</ref> have all cited Marx as an influence. Beyond where Marxist revolutions took place, Marx's ideas have informed political parties worldwide.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jeffries |first1=Stuart |title=Why Marxism is on the rise again |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/04/the-return-of-marxism |newspaper=] |access-date=8 January 2015 |date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=8 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108185759/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/04/the-return-of-marxism |url-status=live}}</ref>

In countries associated with Marxism, some events have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stanley |first1=Tim |title=The Left is trying to rehabilitate Karl Marx. Let's remind them of the millions who died in his name |url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/timstanley/100244023/the-left-is-trying-to-rehabilitate-karl-marx-lets-remind-them-of-the-millions-who-died-in-his-name/ |work=] |date=1 November 2013|access-date=8 January 2015|archive-date=7 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407225246/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/timstanley/100244023/the-left-is-trying-to-rehabilitate-karl-marx-lets-remind-them-of-the-millions-who-died-in-his-name/|url-status=dead}}</ref> while others argue for a distinction between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically, and the legacy and influence of those who have shaped his ideas for political purposes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Elbe |first1=Indigo |title=Between Marx, Marxism, and Marxisms – Ways of Reading Marx's Theory |url=https://viewpointmag.com/2013/10/21/between-marx-marxism-and-marxisms-ways-of-reading-marxs-theory/ |work=Viewpoint Magazine |access-date=8 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108194200/https://viewpointmag.com/2013/10/21/between-marx-marxism-and-marxisms-ways-of-reading-marxs-theory/ |archive-date=8 January 2015 |date=21 October 2013}}</ref> Arthur Lipow describes Marx and his collaborator ] as "the founders of modern revolutionary democratic socialism."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lipow |first=Arthur |date=1991 |title=Authoritarian Socialism in America: Edward Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement |publisher=] |page=1 |isbn=978-0-520-07543-6 |quote={{'}}We are not among those communists who are out to destroy personal liberty, who wish to turn the world into one huge barrack or into a gigantic workhouse. There certainly are some communists who, with an easy conscience, refuse to countenance personal liberty and would like to shuffle it out of the world because they consider that it is a hindrance to complete harmony. But we have no desire to exchange freedom for equality. We are convinced ... that in no social order will freedom be assured as in a society based upon communal ownership.' Thus wrote the editors of the ''Journal'' of the Communist League in 1847, under the direct influence of the founders of modern revolutionary democratic socialism, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels.}}</ref>

The cities of ] and ], now known as Chemnitz, were named after Marx.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2010 |title=Где находится Екатериненштадт? Города России |url=http://wm-izhevsk.com/turizm/14638-gde-naxoditsya-ekaterinenshtadt-goroda-rossii.html |access-date=1 September 2023 |website=Ижевский новостной сайт |language=ru |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612142040/http://wm-izhevsk.com/turizm/14638-gde-naxoditsya-ekaterinenshtadt-goroda-rossii.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826225659/http://www.chemnitz-tourismus.de/cmtdaten/downloads/chemnitz_inside.pdf|date=26 August 2010}}; {{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In May 2018, to mark the bicentenary of his birth, a 4.5m statue of him by leading Chinese sculptor ] and donated by the Chinese government was unveiled in his birthplace of ], Germany. The then-] president ] defended Marx's memory, saying that today Marx "stands for things which he is not responsible for and which he didn't cause because many of the things he wrote down were redrafted into the opposite".<ref name="independent">{{cite news |last=Stone |first=Jon |date=4 May 2018 |title='Today he stands for things which is he not responsible for': EU president Juncker defends Karl Marx's legacy |work=] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/karl-marx-jean-claude-juncker-defends-legacy-a8337176.html |url-status=live |access-date=16 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424005321/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/karl-marx-jean-claude-juncker-defends-legacy-a8337176.html |archive-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44009621 |title=Karl Marx statue from China adds to German angst |work=] |date=5 May 2018 |access-date=16 May 2019 |archive-date=22 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622182403/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44009621 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2017, a feature film, titled '']'', featuring Marx, his wife ], and Engels, among other revolutionaries and intellectuals prior to the ], received good reviews for both its historical accuracy and its brio in dealing with intellectual life.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/22/movies/the-young-karl-marx-review.html |title=Review: In 'The Young Karl Marx,' a Scruffy Specter Haunts Europe |last=Scott |first=A. O. |date=22 February 2018 |newspaper=] |access-date=6 May 2018 |archive-date=7 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180507004940/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/22/movies/the-young-karl-marx-review.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Selected bibliography ==
{{See also|Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe|Marx/Engels Collected Works}}
* '']'' (doctoral thesis),<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.marxistsfr.org/archive/marx/works/1841/dr-theses/ |title = English translation online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420103907/http://www.marxistsfr.org/archive/marx/works/1841/dr-theses/ |archive-date=20 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> 1841
* '']'', 1842
* '']'', 1843
* ], 1843
* ], 1844
* '']'', 1844
* '']'', 1845
* ], written 1845, first published posthumously 1888 by Engels.
* '']'', 1845
* '']'', 1847
* ], 1847
* '']'', 1848
* '']'', 1850
* '']'', 1852
* ''] (Foundations of a Critique of Political Economy)'', 1857
* '']'', 1859
* '']'', 1861
* '']'', (posthumously published by ]) 3 volumes, 1862
* '']'', 1864
* ], 1865
* '']'' (''Das Kapital''), 1867
* ], 1871
* ], 1875
* ], 1883
* ] (posthumously published by Engels), 1885
* ] (posthumously published by Engels), 1894


== See also == == See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=30em}}
*]
* ], an asteroid
*]
* ]
*'']''
*] * ]
*] * ]
*] * ]
* ]
*], named after the philosopher.
* ''],'' a 2011 movie
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* '']'', an article by ]
* ]
{{colend}}


==External links== == Notes ==
{{notelist}}
=== Selected Marx bibliography ===
{{wikisource author}}
*
** <small> (1843)''
** <small> (1843)
** <small> (1844)
** <small> (1844)
** <small> (1845)
** <small> (1845-46)
** <small> (1846-47)
** <small> (1847)
** <small> (1847-48)
** <small> (1852)
** <small> (1857-58)
** <small> (1859)
** <small> (1861)
** <small> (1862)
** <small> (1865)
** <small> (1867)
** <small> (1871)
** <small> (1875)
** <small> (1883)
** <small> (1893)
** <small> (1894)
** <small> (1833-95)
** <small>''Ethnological Notebooks'' &mdash; ISBN 9023209249 (1879-80)
*


== References ==
=== Selected online texts ===
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
{{wikiquote}}
<ref name="1883: The death of Karl Marx">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm |title=1883: The death of Karl Marx |publisher=] |access-date=21 December 2009 |archive-date=4 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104114229/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
*
*


<ref name="Allan2010">{{cite book |first=Kenneth |last=Allan |title=The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEgg5g0d-fgC&pg=PA68 |access-date=25 March 2011 |year=2010 |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=978-1-4129-7834-7 |page=68 |archive-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622084122/http://books.google.com/books?id=KEgg5g0d-fgC&pg=PA68 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>
=== Other resources ===
* information on the at the International Institute of Social History
*


<ref name="Balibar1995">{{cite book |last=Balibar |first=Étienne |title=The philosophy of Marx |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBw-U1tSZoMC&pg=PA56 |access-date=8 March 2011 |year=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-85984-951-4 |page=56 |archive-date=17 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617021319/http://books.google.com/books?id=HBw-U1tSZoMC&pg=PA56 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>
==Further reading==
* Daniel Little, ''The Scientific Marx'', University of Minnesota Press (1986), trade paperback, 244 pages, ISBN 0816615055 (Marx's work considered as ])
* Francis Wheen, ''Karl Marx'', Fourth Estate (1999), ISBN 1857026373 (biography of Marx)


<ref name="Beilharz1992">{{cite book |last=Beilharz |first=Peter |title=Labour's Utopias: Bolshevism, Fabianism and Social Democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=7 March 2011 |year=1992 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-09680-5 |page=4 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620160709/http://books.google.com/books?id=dJc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>
<br clear=all>

<center>
<ref name="Bottomore1991">{{cite book |last=Bottomore |first=T. B. |author-link=Thomas Bottomore |title=A Dictionary of Marxist thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA108 |access-date=5 March 2011 |year=1991 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-631-18082-1 |pages=108– |archive-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622075208/http://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA108 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>
{| id="toc" style="margin: 0 2em 0 2em;"

|-
<ref name="BrewerMarx1984-15">{{cite book |last1=Brewer |first1=Anthony |last2=Marx |first2=Karl |author2-link=Karl Marx |title=A guide to Marx's Capital |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RyQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15 |access-date=9 March 2011|year=1984 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-25730-5 |page=15 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722090920/http://books.google.com/books?id=RyQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>
| style="background:#ccccff" align="center" | This article is part of the ''']''' series

|-
<ref name="CGP P1">{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |title=Critique of the Gotha Program |year=1875 |chapter=Part I |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm |title-link=Critique of the Gotha Program |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-date=26 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226042725/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
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|}
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</center>

<ref name="Curtis1997">{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Curtis |title=Marxism: the inner dialogues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRdyY2f8UcUC&pg=PA291 |access-date=9 March 2011 |year=1997 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-56000-945-0|page=291 |archive-date=16 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616220111/http://books.google.com/books?id=hRdyY2f8UcUC&pg=PA291 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="DL-Marx">Doug Lorimer. Introduction. In {{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |title=The Class Struggles in France: From the February Revolution to the Paris Commune |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=PA6 |access-date=9 March 2011 |publisher=Resistance Books |isbn=978-1-876646-19-6 |page=6 |archive-date=17 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617100749/http://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Dispatches">{{Cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |editor-first=James |editor-last=Ledbetter |title=Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx |publisher=] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-14-144192-4}}</ref>

<ref name="Elster1985">{{cite book|author=Jon Elster|title=Making sense of Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I14p3dFLerYC&pg=PA217|access-date=23 April 2011|year=1985|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-29705-9|page=217|archive-date=17 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617012124/http://books.google.com/books?id=I14p3dFLerYC&pg=PA217|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Engels1999">Doug Lorimer, in {{cite book|author=Friedrich Engels|title=Socialism: utopian and scientific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_A7P0fL_kYsC&pg=PA34|access-date=7 March 2011|year=1999|publisher=Resistance Books|isbn=978-0-909196-86-8|pages=34–36|archive-date=17 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617114803/http://books.google.com/books?id=_A7P0fL_kYsC&pg=PA34|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="GeorgeScanlan1975">{{cite book|author1=Richard T. De George|author2=James Patrick Scanlan|title=Marxism and religion in Eastern Europe: papers presented at the Banff International Slavic Conference, September&nbsp;4–7, 1974|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gO_mQQU8-GIC&pg=PA20|access-date=16 March 2011|year=1975|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-277-0636-2|page=20|archive-date=17 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617023911/http://books.google.com/books?id=gO_mQQU8-GIC&pg=PA20|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Gilbert2010">{{cite book|author=Dennis Gilbert|title=The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4JyQus8r9JYC&pg=PA6|access-date=8 March 2011|year=2010|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-7965-8|pages=6–|archive-date=16 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616221658/http://books.google.com/books?id=4JyQus8r9JYC&pg=PA6|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="GouldMcGarr2007">{{cite book |author1=Stephen Jay Gould|author2=Paul McGarr|author3=Steven Peter Russell Rose|title=The richness of life: the essential Stephen Jay Gould|url=https://archive.org/details/richnessoflifees0000goul|url-access=registration|access-date=9 March 2011|year=2007|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-06498-8|pages=–168}}{{Dead link|date=April 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="Harriss2006">{{cite book |first=Phil |last=Harriss |title=London Markets |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zv6GxJzhrbgC&pg=PA20 |access-date=23 April 2011 |year=2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-86011-306-2 |page=20 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620190116/http://books.google.com/books?id=zv6GxJzhrbgC&pg=PA20 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Hernadi1989">{{cite book|author=Paul Hernadi|title=The Rhetoric of interpretation and the interpretation of rhetoric|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNGAg_yK6R4C&pg=PA137|access-date=8 March 2011|year=1989|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8223-0934-5|page=137|archive-date=16 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616215140/http://books.google.com/books?id=yNGAg_yK6R4C&pg=PA137|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Hook1994">{{cite book|author=Sidney Hook|title=From Hegel to Marx: studies in the intellectual development of Karl Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXQ_cwiMhAUC&pg=PR24|access-date=16 March 2011|year=1994|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-231-09665-2|pages=24–25|archive-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923164300/http://books.google.com/books?id=JXQ_cwiMhAUC&pg=PR24|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="JessopWheatley1999-526">{{cite book|author1=Bob Jessop|author2=Russell Wheatley|title=Karl Marx's social and political thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC&pg=PA526|access-date=9 March 2011|year=1999|publisher=] US|isbn=978-0-415-19327-6|page=526|archive-date=17 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617103720/http://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC&pg=PA526|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Johnston2000">{{cite book|editor1=Ronald John Johnston|title=The Dictionary of Human Geography|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhuma0000unse_w3r7/page/795/mode/1up|edition=4th|year=2000|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-631-20561-6|pages=795–797|editor2= Derek Gregory | editor3= Geraldine Pratt | editor4= Michael Watts | author= Derek Gregory | chapter= structural Marxism | chapter-url-access= registration |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm|chapter=Critique of the Gotha Programme, Part IV |via=marxists.org| author= Karl Marx | orig-date= 1875 | title =Marx/Engels Selected Works| volume= 3 | pages= 13–30 | publisher= Progress Publishers|place= Moscow| date= 1970 |archive-date=2 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702071606/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="MaltsevN.-93">{{cite book|author1=Maltsev|author2=Yuri N.|title=Requiem for Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=PA93|access-date=9 March 2011|publisher=Ludwig von Mises Institute|isbn=978-1-61016-116-9|pages=93–94|year=1993|archive-date=22 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722083729/http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=PA93|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Manchester">{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm |title=Marx the millennium's 'greatest thinker' |work=BBC News World Online |date=1 October 1999 |access-date=23 November 2010 |archive-date=2 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902192653/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marx2008">{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |title=The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryOVzGSq0zYC&pg=PA141 |access-date=9 March 2011 |year=2008 |publisher=Wildside Press LLC |isbn=978-1-4344-6374-6 |page=141 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722084040/http://books.google.com/books?id=ryOVzGSq0zYC&pg=PA141 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="MarxO'Malley1977">{{cite book |first1=Karl |last1=Marx |author1-link=Karl Marx |first2=Joseph |last2=O'Malley |title=Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of right' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxg4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131 |access-date=23 April 2011 |year=1977 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-521-29211-5 |page=131 |archive-date=17 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617004239/http://books.google.com/books?id=uxg4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Mehring2003">{{cite book|author=Franz Mehring|title=Karl Marx: The Story of His Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-jdsC&pg=PR19|access-date=9 March 2011|year=2003|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-415-31333-9|pages=19–20|archive-date=16 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616220242/http://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-jdsC&pg=PR19|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Ollman1973">{{cite book|author=Bertell Ollman|title=Alienation: Marx's conception of man in capitalist society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Ac4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81|access-date=8 March 2011|year=1973|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-001-33135-5|page=81|archive-date=22 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622092831/http://books.google.com/books?id=8Ac4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Rockmore2002">{{cite book|author=Tom Rockmore|title=Marx after Marxism: the philosophy of Karl Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FkMgeGZuCOwC&pg=PA128|access-date=9 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=] |isbn=978-0-631-23189-9|page=128|archive-date=16 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616233929/http://books.google.com/books?id=FkMgeGZuCOwC&pg=PA128|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Segrest2002">{{cite book|author=Mab Segrest|title=Born to belonging: writings on spirit and justice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOmpSMh3y3YC&pg=PA232|access-date=9 March 2011|year=2002|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8135-3101-4|page=232|archive-date=16 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616220203/http://books.google.com/books?id=gOmpSMh3y3YC&pg=PA232|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Sherman1995">{{cite book |last=Sherman |first=Howard J. |title=Reinventing marxism |url=https://archive.org/details/reinventingmarxi0000sher |url-access=registration |access-date=7 March 2011 |year=1995 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8018-5077-6 |page=}}</ref>

<ref name="SwatosKivisto1998">{{cite book|author1=William H. Swatos|author2=Peter Kivisto|title=Encyclopedia of religion and society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C&pg=PA499|access-date=8 March 2011|year=1998|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1|pages=499–|archive-date=20 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620152445/http://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C&pg=PA499|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Thompson1990">{{cite book|author=John B. Thompson|title=Ideology and modern culture: critical social theory in the era of mass communication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ql5Ab8OXiPMC&pg=PA37|access-date=8 March 2011|year=1990|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-8047-1846-2|pages=37–38|archive-date=20 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620184832/http://books.google.com/books?id=ql5Ab8OXiPMC&pg=PA37|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Turner2005">{{cite book|author=Jonathan H. Turner|title=Sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90vMAAAACAAJ|access-date=9 March 2011|year=2005|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-13-113496-6|pages=17–18|archive-date=20 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620172806/http://books.google.com/books?id=90vMAAAACAAJ|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Watson2010">{{cite book|first=Peter |last=Watson|title=The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=PA250|access-date=9 March 2011|year=2010|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-06-076022-9|pages=250–|archive-date=17 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617094656/http://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=PA250|url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Wood">{{cite book |first=John Cunningham |last=Wood |author-link=John Cunningham Wood |title=Karl Marx's economics: critical assessments |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Pr97rppN2EC&pg=PA346 |access-date=16 March 2011 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-06558-0 |page=346 |year=1987 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620212506/http://books.google.com/books?id=0Pr97rppN2EC&pg=PA346 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="Wood1993">{{cite book |first=John Cunningham |last=Wood |author-link=John Cunningham Wood |title=Karl Marx's economics: critical assessments: second series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoNIh_NYeRwC&pg=PA232 |access-date=16 March 2011 |year=1993 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-415-08711-7 |page=232 |archive-date=17 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617082303/http://books.google.com/books?id=zoNIh_NYeRwC&pg=PA232 |url-status=live |via=]}}</ref>

<ref name="et">Several authors elucidated this long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical development, such as Ernie Thomson in ''The Discovery of the Materialist Conception of History in the Writings of the Young Karl Marx'', ]: ], 2004; for a short account see {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518155939/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/eninnuce.html |date=18 May 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name="k72">Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works Volume 46'' (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 72.</ref>

<ref name="manifesto">Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902090238/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm |date=2 September 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="plato.stanford.edu">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/ |title=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |chapter=Max Weber |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, ] |year=2017 |access-date=29 November 2009 |url-status=live |archive-date=26 May 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240526001335/https://www.webcitation.org/67z4lyOlO?url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/}}</ref>

<ref name="sep">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ |title=Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy |chapter=Karl Marx |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, ] |year=2017 |access-date=28 May 2005 |archive-date=8 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208100606/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ |url-status=live}}. First published Tue 26 August 2003; substantive revision Mon 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2011.</ref>

<ref name="stateless">McLellan 1973, p. 541</ref>

<ref name="wh1">{{Cite book |last=Wheen |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Wheen |title=Karl Marx: A Life |publisher=New York: Norton |year=2002 |pages=Introduction |no-pp=true}}</ref>

<ref name="wk">{{Cite book |last1=Baird |first1=Forrest E. |last2=Kaufmann |first2=Walter |title=From Plato to Derrida |publisher=] |year=2008 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-158591-1}}</ref>
}}

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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}

=== Biographies ===
{{main|Biographies of Karl Marx}}
{{div col}}
* Barnett, Vincent. ''Marx'' (Routledge, 2009)
* ]. ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'' (], 1963) {{ISBN|0-19-520052-7}}
* Gemkow, Heinrich. ''Karl Marx: A Biography''. Dresden: Verlag Zeit im Bild. 1968.
* {{cite ODNB|id=39021|title=Marx, Karl Heinrich|year=2004|last=Hobsbawm|first=E.J.|ref=no}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lenin |first=Vladimir |title=Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |year=1967 |orig-year=1913 |publisher=Foreign Languages Press |location=Peking |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm |access-date=19 February 2011 |archive-date=2 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702055230/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm |url-status=live |via=]}}
* Liedman, Sven-Eric. ''A World to Win: The Life and Works of Karl Marx.'' Jeffrey N. Skinner, trans. London: ], 2018.
* McLellan, David. ''Karl Marx: his Life and Thought'' Harper & Row, 1973 {{ISBN|978-0-06-012829-6}}
* ]. ''Karl Marx: The Story of His Life'' (], 2003)
* ]. ''Marx before Marxism'' (1980), Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0-333-27882-6}}
* {{cite book |chapter=The Teacher: Karl Marx, Who Sowed Dragon's Teeth |title=Apostles of Revolution |first=Max |last=Nomad |author-link=Max Nomad |year=1961 |orig-year=1939 |location=] |publisher=] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/apostlesofrevolu00noma/page/83/ |lccn=61018566 |oclc=984463383 |pages=83–150}}
* ]. ''Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work'' (Blackwell, 1975) {{ISBN|0-631-15780-8}}
* ]. ''Two Centuries of Karl Marx Biographies: An Overview'' (LEA Working Paper Series, nº 4, March 2019).
* Sperber, Jonathan. ''Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life.'' New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2013.
* Stedman Jones, Gareth. ''Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion'' (Allen Lane, 2016). {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9904-4}}.
* Walker, Frank Thomas. ''Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography''. (bj.publications), 2009.
* ]. ''Karl Marx: A Life'', (Fourth Estate, 1999), {{ISBN|1-85702-637-3}}
{{div col end}}

=== Commentaries on Marx ===
{{div col}}
* ]. '']''. London: Verso, 2005.
* Althusser, Louis and ]. '']''. London: Verso, 2009.
* ]. ''Karl Marx or the thought of the world''. 2005
* ]. ''The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx'' (Cambridge University Press, 1968) {{ISBN|0-521-09619-7}}
* ]. ''Karl Marx: Philosophy and Revolution'' (Yale University Press, 2019) {{ISBN|978-0-300-21170-2}}
* ]. ''Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx'' (translated by Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).
* Blackledge, Paul. ''Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History'' (Manchester University Press, 2006)
* Blackledge, Paul. ''Marxism and Ethics'' (SUNY Press, 2012)
* Bottomore, Tom, ed. ''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought''. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
* {{Cite book |last=Callinicos |first=Alex |author-link=Alex Callinicos |title=The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx |year=2010 |orig-year=1983 |publisher=Bookmarks |location=Bloomsbury; London |isbn=978-1-905192-68-7}}
* ]. ''Reading Capital Politically'' (AK Press, 2000)
* ]. ''Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence'' (], 1978) {{ISBN|0-691-07068-7}}
* ]. ''Marx'' (Oneworld, 2004)
* ], ''Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution'' (4 volumes) ] Press
* Duncan, Ronald and ]. (editors) ''Marx Refuted'', (Bath, UK, 1987) {{ISBN|0-906798-71-X}}
* ]. ''Why Marx Was Right'' (New Haven & London: ], 2011).
* ]. ''Marx's Capital.'' 5th ed. London: ], 2010.
* ]. ''Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000.
* ]. ''A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester'', p.&nbsp;1, Find Articles.com{{cbignore}} (1999)
* ]. ''A Companion to Marx's Capital.'' London: ], 2010.
* Harvey, David. ''The Limits of Capital''. London: Verso, 2006.
{{Clear}}
* ]. ''Marx I'' and ''Marx II''. 1976
* Holt, Justin P. ''The Social Thought of Karl Marx''. Sage, 2015.
* Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."(], 1997, 2005)
* ]. ''Main Currents of Marxism'' Oxford: ], OUP, 1978
* ]. ''Read Marx: The most important texts of Karl Marx for the 21st Century'' (2000) {{ISBN|3-8218-1644-9}}
* Little, Daniel. ''The Scientific Marx'', (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) {{ISBN|0-8166-1505-5}}
* ]. ''Marxist Economic Theory''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
* Mandel, Ernest. ''The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx''. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977.
* Miller, Richard W. ''Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History''. Princeton, N.J: ], 1984.
* ]. ''An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume&nbsp;II: Classical Economics'' (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) {{ISBN|0-945466-48-X}}
* ]. ''The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism''. London: ], 2002.
* ]. ''Karl Marx's Ecosocialism: Capital, Nature, and the Unfinished Critique of Political Economy'', Monthly Review Press 2017.
* ]. ''The Concept of Nature in Marx''. London: NLB, 1971.
* {{cite journal |last=Seigel |first=J.E. |title=Marx's Early Development: Vocation, Rebellion and Realism |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=3 |issue=3 |year=1973 |pages=475–508 |jstor=202551 |doi=10.2307/202551}}
* ]. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)
* Thomas, Paul. ''Karl Marx and the Anarchists''. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
* ]. ''Principles of Political Economy. Theory of a Purely Capitalist Society'', Brighton, Sussex: Harvester; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities, 1980.
* ], F. , "Effective Demand and the Rate of Profits: Some Thoughts on Marx, ] and ]", in: Sebastiani, M. (ed.), ''Kalecki's Relevance Today'', London, Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0-312-02411-6}}.
* Wendling, Amy. ''Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
* Wheen, Francis. ''Marx's Das Kapital'', (Atlantic Books, 2006) {{ISBN|1-84354-400-8}}
* Wilson, Edmund. '']: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940
{{div col end}}

=== Fiction works ===
*{{cite book |last=Barker |first=Jason |author-link=Jason Barker |title=] |location=Winchester, UK |publisher=Zero Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78535-660-5}}

{{refend}}

{{wikisource author}}
== External links ==
* {{Gutenberg author|id=46|name=Karl Marx}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Karl Marx}}
* {{Librivox author|id=2426}}
* {{cite SEP|url-id=marx|title=Karl Marx}}
* {{marxists.org|marx|Karl Marx}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/swmarxengels1|title=Selected Works|author=Marx and Engels |location=Moscow|publisher=Progress Publishers|volume=1|year=1973}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/swmarxengels2|title=Selected Works|author=Marx and Engels |location=Moscow|publisher=Progress Publishers|volume=2|year=1973}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/swmarxengels3|title=Selected Works|author=Marx and Engels |location=Moscow |publisher=Progress Publishers |volume=3 |year=1973}}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/selectedcorrespondencemarxengels |title=Selected Correspondence |author=Marx and Engels |location=Moscow |publisher=Progress Publishers |edition=3rd rev. |year=1982}}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/KarlMarxABiography |title=Karl Marx: a Biography |author=Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union |location=Moscow |publisher=Progress Publishers |edition=4th |year=1989}}
* {{cite book |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1881/ethnographical-notebooks/notebooks.pdf |title=The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx |editor-last=Krader |editor-first=Lawrence |location=Assen |publisher=Van Gorcum |edition=2nd |year=1974 |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=20 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020025302/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1881/ethnographical-notebooks/notebooks.pdf |url-status=live }}
* Archive of {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608151012/https://search.socialhistory.org/Record/ARCH00860 |date=8 June 2018 }} at the ]
* The ''Collected Works'' of Marx and Engels, in English translation and in 50 volumes, are published in London by Lawrence & Wishart and in New York by International Publishers. (These volumes were at one time put online by the ], until the original publishers objected on copyright grounds: {{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/index.htm|title=Marx/Engels Collected Works|publisher=]|access-date=3 March 2018|archive-date=17 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817061207/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/index.htm|url-status=live}}) They are available online and searchable, for purchase or through subscribing libraries, in the '''' ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303164706/https://alexanderstreet.com/products/social-theory |date=3 March 2018 }}) collection published by in collaboration with the ].
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405042734/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9jg |date=5 April 2018 }}, ] discussion with Anthony Grayling, Francis Wheen & Gareth Stedman Jones ('']'', 14 July 2005)
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506191145/http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/das-kapital-book-review#.XtAB0mhKizk |date=6 May 2020 }}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/011971}}


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Latest revision as of 01:00, 22 December 2024

German-born philosopher (1818–1883) "Marx" redirects here. For other uses, see Marx (disambiguation) and Karl Marx (disambiguation).

Karl MarxFRSA
Marx in 1875
BornKarl Marx
(1818-05-05)5 May 1818
Trier, Kingdom of Prussia, German Confederation
Died14 March 1883(1883-03-14) (aged 64)
London, England
Burial placeTomb of Karl Marx
Nationality
Education
Spouse Jenny von Westphalen ​ ​(m. 1843; died 1881)
ChildrenAt least 7, including Jenny, Laura and Eleanor
Parents
Relatives

Philosophy career
Era19th-century philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
School
ThesisThe Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature (1841)
Doctoral advisorBruno Bauer
Main interests
  • Philosophy
  • economics
  • history
  • politics
Notable ideas
Signature

Karl Marx (German: [kaʁl ˈmaʁks]; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German-born philosopher, political theorist, economist, historian, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His best-known works are the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto (with Friedrich Engels) and his three-volume Das Kapital (1867–1894); the latter employs his critical approach of historical materialism in an analysis of capitalism, in the culmination of his intellectual endeavours. Marx's ideas and their subsequent development, collectively known as Marxism, have had enormous influence on modern intellectual, economic and political history.

Born in Trier in the Kingdom of Prussia, Marx studied at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Jena, and received a doctorate in philosophy from the latter in 1841. A Young Hegelian, he was influenced by the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and both critiqued and developed Hegel's ideas in works such as The German Ideology (written 1846) and the Grundrisse (written 1857–1858). While in Paris in 1844, Marx wrote his Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts and met Engels, who became his closest friend and collaborator. After moving to Brussels in 1845, they were active in the Communist League, and in 1848 they wrote The Communist Manifesto, which expresses Marx's ideas and lays out a programme for revolution. Marx was expelled from Belgium and Germany, and in 1849 moved to London, where he wrote The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852) and Das Kapital. From 1864, Marx was involved in the International Workingmen's Association (First International), in which he fought the influence of anarchists led by Mikhail Bakunin. In his Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875), Marx wrote on revolution, the state and the transition to communism. He died stateless in 1883 and was buried in Highgate Cemetery.

Marx's critiques of history, society and political economy hold that human societies develop through class conflict. In the capitalist mode of production, this manifests itself in the conflict between the ruling classes (known as the bourgeoisie) that control the means of production and the working classes (known as the proletariat) that enable these means by selling their labour power in return for wages. Employing his historical materialist approach, Marx predicted that capitalism produced internal tensions like previous socioeconomic systems and that these tensions would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system known as the socialist mode of production. For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism—owing in part to its instability and crisis-prone nature—would eventuate the working class's development of class consciousness, leading to their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment of a classless, communist society constituted by a free association of producers. Marx actively pressed for its implementation, arguing that the working class should carry out organised proletarian revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic emancipation.

Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures of the modern era, and his work has been both lauded and criticised. Marxism has exerted major influence on socialist thought and political movements, with Marxist schools of thought such as Marxism–Leninism and its offshoots becoming the guiding ideologies of revolutionary governments that took power in many countries during the 20th century, known as communist states. Marx's work in economics has had a strong influence on modern heterodox theories of labour and capital, and he is often cited as one of the principal architects of modern social science.

Biography

Childhood and early education: 1818–1836

Marx's birthplace, now Brückenstraße 10, in Trier. The family occupied two rooms on the ground floor and three on the first floor. Purchased by the Social Democratic Party of Germany in 1928, it now houses a museum devoted to him.

Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx and Henriette Pressburg. He was born at Brückengasse 664 in Trier, an ancient city then part of the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine. Marx's family was originally non-religious Jewish but had converted formally to Christianity before his birth. His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx. His father, as a child known as Herschel, was the first in the line to receive a secular education. He became a lawyer with a comfortably upper middle class income and the family owned a number of Moselle vineyards, in addition to his income as an attorney. Prior to his son's birth and after the abrogation of Jewish emancipation in the Rhineland, Herschel converted from Judaism to join the state Evangelical Church of Prussia, taking on the German forename Heinrich over the Yiddish Herschel.

Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire. A classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, which was then an absolute monarchy. In 1815, Heinrich Marx began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family to a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra. His wife, Henriette Pressburg, was a Dutch Jew from a prosperous business family that later founded the company Philips Electronics. Her sister Sophie Pressburg (1797–1854) married Lion Philips (1794–1866) and was the grandmother of both Gerard and Anton Philips and great-grandmother to Frits Philips. Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in London.

Little is known of Marx's childhood. The third of nine children, he became the eldest son when his brother Moritz died in 1819. Marx and his surviving siblings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie, and Caroline, were baptised into the Lutheran Church on 28 August 1824, and their mother in November 1825. Marx was privately educated by his father until 1830 when he entered Trier High School (Gymnasium zu Trier [de]), whose headmaster, Hugo Wyttenbach, was a friend of his father. By employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of the local conservative government. Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832 and discovered that literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students. Considering the distribution of such material a seditious act, the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staff during Marx's attendance.

In October 1835 at the age of 16, Marx travelled to the University of Bonn wishing to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field. Due to a condition referred to as a "weak chest", Marx was excused from military duty when he turned 18. While at the University at Bonn, Marx joined the Poets' Club, a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the police. Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society (German: Landsmannschaft der Treveraner) where many ideas were discussed and at one point he served as the club's co-president. Additionally, Marx was involved in certain disputes, some of which became serious: in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the university's Borussian Korps. Although his grades in the first term were good, they soon deteriorated, leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic University of Berlin.

Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843

Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Trierer students in front of the White Horse, among them, Karl Marx.Karl Marx (detail)A famous lithograph by David Levi Elkan, simply known as "Die Trierer", depicts several students, and among them, Karl Marx, in front of the White Horse in 1836.
Until 2017, this was the earliest known depiction of Marx, even though he was only identified in 1890 by Schneider, a judicial council and senate president in Cologne. However, because this depiction fits into Marx's description, it was accepted as being him since then.
Depictions of the young Marx by Hellmut Bach (1953) and another drawing that is more idealistic by I. Grinshtein (1961) was based upon this lithography; however they became more famous than the original depiction.
The copy preserved in the Stadtmuseum Simeonstift Trier has some lost portions from above (the written year 1836, depictions of the brotherhood's activities etc.) because of ageing: this can be seen from earlier publications of the image.

Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier, Marx became more serious about his studies and his life. He became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated member of the petty nobility who had known Marx since childhood. As she had broken off her engagement with a young aristocrat to be with Marx, their relationship was socially controversial owing to the differences between their religious and class origins, but Marx befriended her father Ludwig von Westphalen (a liberal aristocrat) and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to him. Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June 1843, they married in a Protestant church in Kreuznach.

In October 1836, Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating in the university's faculty of law and renting a room in the Mittelstrasse. During the first term, Marx attended lectures of Eduard Gans (who represented the progressive Hegelian standpoint, elaborated on rational development in history by emphasising particularly its libertarian aspects, and the importance of social question) and of Karl von Savigny (who represented the Historical School of Law). Although studying law, he was fascinated by philosophy and looked for a way to combine the two, believing that "without philosophy nothing could be accomplished". Marx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical circles. During a convalescence in Stralau, he joined the Doctor's Club (Doktorklub), a student group which discussed Hegelian ideas, and through them became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians in 1837. They gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer, with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with Adolf Rutenberg. Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions but adopted his dialectical method to criticise established society, politics and religion from a left-wing perspective. Marx's father died in May 1838, resulting in a diminished income for the family. Marx had been emotionally close to his father and treasured his memory after his death.

Inscription at the University of Jena commemorating the PhD he was awarded there in 1841.

By 1837, Marx was writing both fiction and non-fiction, having completed a short novel, Scorpion and Felix; a drama, Oulanem; as well as a number of love poems dedicated to his wife. None of this early work was published during his lifetime. The love poems were published posthumously in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 1. Marx soon abandoned fiction for other pursuits, including the study of both English and Italian, art history and the translation of Latin classics. He began co-operating with Bruno Bauer on editing Hegel's Philosophy of Religion in 1840. Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature, which he completed in 1841. It was described as "a daring and original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy". The essay was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin. Marx decided instead to submit his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him his Ph.D. in April 1841. As Marx and Bauer were both atheists, in March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled Archiv des Atheismus (Atheistic Archives), but it never came to fruition. In July, Marx and Bauer took a trip to Bonn from Berlin. There they scandalised their class by getting drunk, laughing in church and galloping through the streets on donkeys.

Marx was considering an academic career, but this path was barred by the government's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians. Marx moved to Cologne in 1842, where he became a journalist, writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung (Rhineland News), expressing his early views on socialism and his developing interest in economics. Marx criticised right-wing European governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements, whom he thought ineffective or counter-productive. The newspaper attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors, who checked every issue for seditious material before printing, which Marx lamented: "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear". After the Rheinische Zeitung published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy, Tsar Nicholas I requested it be banned and Prussia's government complied in 1843.

Paris: 1843–1845

In 1843, Marx became co-editor of a new, radical left-wing Parisian newspaper, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher (German-French Annals), then being set up by the German activist Arnold Ruge to bring together German and French radicals. Therefore Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843. Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, they found the living conditions difficult, so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844. Although intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter and the only non-German writer was the exiled Russian anarchist collectivist Mikhail Bakunin. Marx contributed two essays to the paper, "Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right" and "On the Jewish Question", the latter introducing his belief that the proletariat were a revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism. Only one issue was published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, leading the German states to ban it and seize imported copies (Ruge nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further issues and his friendship with Marx broke down). After the paper's collapse, Marx began writing for the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper left, Vorwärts! (Forward!). Based in Paris, the paper was connected to the League of the Just, a utopian socialist secret society of workers and artisans. Marx attended some of their meetings but did not join. In Vorwärts!, Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in Europe.

Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; the two became lifelong friends and collaborators.

On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence, beginning a lifelong friendship. Engels showed Marx his recently published The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history. Soon, Marx and Engels were collaborating on a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, Bruno Bauer. This work was published in 1845 as The Holy Family. Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.

During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vaneau in Paris (from October 1843 until January 1845), Marx engaged in an intensive study of political economy (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Mill, etc.), the French socialists (especially Claude Henri St. Simon and Charles Fourier) and the history of France. The study of, and critique, of political economy is a project that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life and would result in his major economic work—the three-volume series called Das Kapital. Marxism is based in large part on three influences: Hegel's dialectics, French utopian socialism and British political economy. Together with his earlier study of Hegel's dialectics, the studying that Marx did during this time in Paris meant that all major components of "Marxism" were in place by the autumn of 1844. Marx was constantly being pulled away from his critique of political economy—not only by the usual daily demands of the time, but additionally by editing a radical newspaper and later by organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years of potentially revolutionary popular uprisings of the citizenry. Still, Marx was always drawn back to his studies where he sought "to understand the inner workings of capitalism".

An outline of "Marxism" had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844. Indeed, many features of the Marxist view of the world had been worked out in great detail, but Marx needed to write down all of the details of his world view to further clarify the new critique of political economy in his own mind. Accordingly, Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts. These manuscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marx's concept of alienated labour. By the spring of 1845, his continued study of political economy, capital and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new critique of political economy he was espousing—that of scientific socialism—needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the world.

The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 had been written between April and August 1844, but soon Marx recognised that the Manuscripts had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach. Accordingly, Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach's philosophy in favour of historical materialism, thus a year later (in April 1845) after moving from Paris to Brussels, Marx wrote his eleven "Theses on Feuerbach". The "Theses on Feuerbach" are best known for Thesis 11, which states that "philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change it". This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for reducing practice to theory), and, overall, philosophy (for putting abstract reality above the physical world). It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's historical materialism, an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice. In 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government shut down Vorwärts!, with the interior minister, François Guizot, expelling Marx from France.

Brussels: 1845–1848

Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in February 1845. However, to stay in Belgium he had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics. In Brussels, Marx associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph Weydemeyer. In April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels. Later, Mary Burns, Engels' long-time companion, left Manchester, England to join Engels in Brussels.

In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the leaders of the Chartists, a working-class movement in Britain. This was Marx's first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip. Engels had already spent two years living in Manchester from November 1842 to August 1844. Not only did Engels already know the English language, but he had also developed a close relationship with many Chartist leaders. Indeed, Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist and socialist English newspapers. Marx used the trip as an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in various libraries in London and Manchester.

In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, The German Ideology. In this work, Marx broke with Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Max Stirner and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke with Karl Grün and other "true socialists" whose philosophies were still based in part on "idealism". In German Ideology, Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy, which was based solely on materialism as the sole motor force in history. German Ideology is written in a humorously satirical form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship. Like so many other early writings of his, German Ideology would not be published in Marx's lifetime and was published only in 1932.

After completing German Ideology, Marx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position regarding "the theory and tactics" of a truly "revolutionary proletarian movement" operating from the standpoint of a truly "scientific materialist" philosophy. This work was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian socialists and Marx's own scientific socialist philosophy. Whereas the utopians believed that people must be persuaded one person at a time to join the socialist movement, the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief, Marx knew that people would tend, on most occasions, to act in accordance with their own economic interests, thus appealing to an entire class (the working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the class's best material interest would be the best way to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society. This was the intent of the new book that Marx was planning, but to get the manuscript past the government censors he called the book The Poverty of Philosophy (1847) and offered it as a response to the "petty-bourgeois philosophy" of the French anarchist socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as expressed in his book The Philosophy of Poverty (1840).

Marx (right) with his daughters and Engels

These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as The Communist Manifesto. While residing in Brussels in 1846, Marx continued his association with the secret radical organisation League of the Just. As noted above, Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe toward the mass movement that would bring about a working-class revolution. However, to organise the working class into a mass movement the League had to cease its "secret" or "underground" orientation and operate in the open as a political party. Members of the League eventually became persuaded in this regard. Accordingly, in June 1847 the League was reorganised by its membership into a new open "above ground" political society that appealed directly to the working classes. This new open political society was called the Communist League. Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing up the programme and organisational principles of the new Communist League.

The first edition of The Manifesto of the Communist Party, published in German in 1848

In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work – a programme of action for the Communist League. Written jointly by Marx and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848, The Communist Manifesto was first published on 21 February 1848. The Communist Manifesto laid out the beliefs of the new Communist League. No longer a secret society, the Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing. The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles". It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy capitalist class) and the proletariat (the industrial working class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism.

Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions, and often violent upheavals that became known as the Revolutions of 1848. In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic. Marx was supportive of such activity and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle Lionel Philips since his father's death in 1838) of either 6,000 or 5,000 francs he allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action. Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed, the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused Marx of it, subsequently arresting him and he was forced to flee back to France, where with a new republican government in power he believed that he would be safe.

Cologne: 1848–1849

Marx and Engels in the printing house of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung. E. Capiro, 1895

Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there. Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany, in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germany at that time the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie. On 1 June, Marx started the publication of a daily newspaper, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the newspaper featured Marx as a primary writer and the dominant editorial influence. Despite contributions by fellow members of the Communist League, according to Friedrich Engels it remained "a simple dictatorship by Marx".

Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, committing a press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting, although each time he was acquitted. Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counterrevolutionary measures to expunge left-wing and other revolutionary elements from the country. Consequently, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon suppressed, and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May 1849. Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counterrevolution and a cholera epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city authorities, who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child and with Marx not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.

Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860

Marx lived at 28 Dean Street, Soho, London from 1851 to 1856. An English Heritage Blue plaque is visible on the second floor.Close up of the Blue plaque.

Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life. The headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London. However, in the winter of 1849–1850, a split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by August Willich and Karl Schapper began agitating for an immediate uprising. Willich and Schapper believed that once the Communist League had initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across Europe would rise "spontaneously" to join it, thus creating revolution across Europe. Marx and Engels protested that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was "adventuristic" and would be suicide for the Communist League. Such an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper/Willich group would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe. Marx maintained that this would spell doom for the Communist League itself, arguing that changes in society are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of a handful of men. They are instead brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving toward revolution through different stages of social development. In the present stage of development (circa 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 he felt that the Communist League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms, such as a constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal (male) suffrage. In other words, the working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of the bourgeois revolution before stressing the working-class agenda and a working-class revolution.

After a long struggle that threatened to ruin the Communist League, Marx's opinion prevailed and eventually, the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League. Meanwhile, Marx also became heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society. The Society held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district. This organisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members, some of whom followed Marx while others followed the Schapper/Willich faction. The issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in the internal split within the Communist League, but Marx lost the fight with the Schapper/Willich faction within the German Workers' Educational Society and on 17 September 1850 resigned from the Society.

New-York Daily Tribune and journalism

In the early period in London, Marx committed himself almost exclusively to his studies, such that his family endured extreme poverty. His main source of income was Engels, whose own source was his wealthy industrialist father. In Prussia as editor of his own newspaper, and contributor to others ideologically aligned, Marx could reach his audience, the working classes. In London, without finances to run a newspaper themselves, he and Engels turned to international journalism. At one stage they were being published by six newspapers from England, the United States, Prussia, Austria, and South Africa. Marx's principal earnings came from his work as European correspondent, from 1852 to 1862, for the New-York Daily Tribune, and from also producing articles for more "bourgeois" newspapers. Marx had his articles translated from German by Wilhelm Pieper [de], until his proficiency in English had become adequate.

The New-York Daily Tribune had been founded in April 1841 by Horace Greeley. Its editorial board contained progressive bourgeois journalists and publishers, among them George Ripley and the journalist Charles Dana, who was editor-in-chief. Dana, a fourierist and an abolitionist, was Marx's contact. The Tribune was a vehicle for Marx to reach a transatlantic public, such as for his "hidden warfare" against Henry Charles Carey. The journal had wide working-class appeal from its foundation; at two cents, it was inexpensive; and, with about 50,000 copies per issue, its circulation was the widest in the United States. Its editorial ethos was progressive and its anti-slavery stance reflected Greeley's. Marx's first article for the paper, on the British parliamentary elections, was published on 21 August 1852.

On 21 March 1857, Dana informed Marx that due to the economic recession only one article a week would be paid for, published or not; the others would be paid for only if published. Marx had sent his articles on Tuesdays and Fridays, but, that October, the Tribune discharged all its correspondents in Europe except Marx and B. Taylor, and reduced Marx to a weekly article. Between September and November 1860, only five were published. After a six-month interval, Marx resumed contributions from September 1861 until March 1862, when Dana wrote to inform him that there was no longer space in the Tribune for reports from London, due to American domestic affairs. In 1868, Dana set up a rival newspaper, the New York Sun, at which he was editor-in-chief. In April 1857, Dana invited Marx to contribute articles, mainly on military history, to the New American Cyclopedia, an idea of George Ripley, Dana's friend and literary editor of the Tribune. In all, 67 Marx-Engels articles were published, of which 51 were written by Engels, although Marx did some research for them in the British Museum. By the late 1850s, American popular interest in European affairs waned and Marx's articles turned to topics such as the "slavery crisis" and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 in the "War Between the States". Between December 1851 and March 1852, Marx worked on his theoretical work about the French Revolution of 1848, titled The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon. In this he explored concepts in historical materialism, class struggle, dictatorship of the proletariat, and victory of the proletariat over the bourgeois state.

The 1850s and 1860s may be said to mark a philosophical boundary distinguishing the young Marx's Hegelian idealism and the more mature Marx's scientific ideology associated with structural Marxism. However, not all scholars accept this distinction. For Marx and Engels, their experience of the Revolutions of 1848 to 1849 were formative in the development of their theory of economics and historical progression. After the "failures" of 1848, the revolutionary impetus appeared spent and not to be renewed without an economic recession. Contention arose between Marx and his fellow communists, whom he denounced as "adventurists". Marx deemed it fanciful to propose that "will power" could be sufficient to create the revolutionary conditions when in reality the economic component was the necessary requisite. The recession in the United States' economy in 1852 gave Marx and Engels grounds for optimism for revolutionary activity, yet this economy was seen as too immature for a capitalist revolution. Open territories on America's western frontier dissipated the forces of social unrest. Moreover, any economic crisis arising in the United States would not lead to revolutionary contagion of the older economies of individual European nations, which were closed systems bounded by their national borders. When the so-called Panic of 1857 in the United States spread globally, it broke all economic theory models, and was the first truly global economic crisis.

First International and Das Kapital

Earliest known photograph taken of Marx in London, 1861.

Marx continued to write articles for the New York Daily Tribune as long as he was sure that the Tribune's editorial policy was still progressive. However, the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial policy. No longer was the Tribune to be a strong abolitionist paper dedicated to a complete Union victory. The new editorial board supported an immediate peace between the Union and the Confederacy in the Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy. Marx strongly disagreed with this new political position and in 1863 was forced to withdraw as a writer for the Tribune.

In 1864, Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's Association (also known as the First International), to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864. In that organisation, Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International. The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. In response to the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "The Civil War in France", a defence of the Commune.

Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand and provide a critique suitable for the capitalist mode of production, and hence spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying. By 1857, Marx had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state, and foreign trade, and the world market, though this work did not appear in print until 1939, under the title Grundrisse der Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie (English: Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy).

In 1859, Marx published A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, his first serious critique of political economy. This work was intended merely as a preview of his three-volume Das Kapital (English title: Capital: Critique of Political Economy), which he intended to publish at a later date. In A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Marx began to critically examine axioms and categories of economic thinking. The work was enthusiastically received, and the edition sold out quickly.

The first volume of Das Kapital

The successful sales of A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three large volumes that would compose his major life's work – Das Kapital and the Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed and critiqued the theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Theories of Surplus Value is often referred to as the fourth volume of Das Kapital and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought. In 1867, the first volume of Das Kapital was published, a work which critically analysed capital. Das Kapital proposes an explanation of the "laws of motion" of the mode of production from its origins to its future by describing the dynamics of the accumulation of capital, with topics such as the growth of wage labour, the transformation of the workplace, capital accumulation, competition, the banking system, the tendency of the rate of profit to fall and land-rents, as well as how waged labour continually reproduce the rule of capital. Marx proposes that the driving force of capital is in the exploitation of labour, whose unpaid work is the ultimate source of surplus value.

Demand for a Russian language edition of Das Kapital soon led to the printing of 3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which was published on 27 March 1872. By the autumn of 1871, the entire first edition of the German-language edition of Das Kapital had been sold out and a second edition was published.

Marx photographed by John Mayall, 1875

Volumes II and III of Das Kapital remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life. Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx's death. Volume II of Das Kapital was prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name Capital II: The Process of Circulation of Capital. Volume III of Das Kapital was published a year later in October 1894 under the name Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole. Theories of Surplus Value derived from the sprawling Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863, a second draft for Das Kapital, the latter spanning volumes 30–34 of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels. Specifically, Theories of Surplus Value runs from the latter part of the Collected Works' thirtieth volume through the end of their thirty-second volume; meanwhile, the larger Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863 run from the start of the Collected Works' thirtieth volume through the first half of their thirty-fourth volume. The latter half of the Collected Works' thirty-fourth volume consists of the surviving fragments of the Economic Manuscripts of 1863–1864, which represented a third draft for Das Kapital, and a large portion of which is included as an appendix to the Penguin edition of Das Kapital, volume I. A German-language abridged edition of Theories of Surplus Value was published in 1905 and in 1910. This abridged edition was translated into English and published in 1951 in London, but the complete unabridged edition of Theories of Surplus Value was published as the "fourth volume" of Das Kapital in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow.

Marx in 1882

During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined, and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work. He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the Gotha Programme opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialist ideas of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party. This work is also notable for another famous Marx quote: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".

In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir. While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it from all sides". Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist. However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich he points out that "at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production". In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that "the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type – collective production and appropriation". He added that "the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies". Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.

Personal life

Family

Jenny Carolina and Jenny Laura Marx (1869): all the Marx daughters were named Jenny in honour of their mother, Jenny von Westphalen.

Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together, but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood. Their children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–1883); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–1852); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–1898) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). According to his son-in-law, Paul Lafargue, Marx was a loving father. In 1962, there were allegations that Marx fathered a son, Freddy, out of wedlock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth, but the claim is disputed for lack of documented evidence.

Helene Demuth was also largely entrusted as a confidante. In her obituary, penned by Friedrich Engels, her role is revealed as: "Marx took counsel of Helena Demuth, not only in difficult and intricate party matters, but even in respect of his economical writings".

Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of "Monsieur Ramboz", whilst in London, he signed off his letters as "A. Williams". His friends referred to him as "Moor", owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, while he encouraged his children to call him "Old Nick" and "Charley". He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family, referring to Friedrich Engels as "General", his housekeeper Helene as "Lenchen" or "Nym", while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as "Qui Qui, Emperor of China" and another, Laura, was known as "Kakadou" or "the Hottentot".

Health

Marx drank heavily after joining the Trier Tavern Club drinking society in the 1830s, and continued to do so until his death.

Marx was afflicted by poor health, what he himself described as "the wretchedness of existence", and various authors have sought to describe and explain it. His biographer Werner Blumenberg attributed it to liver and gall problems which Marx had in 1849 and from which he was never afterward free, exacerbated by an unsuitable lifestyle. The attacks often came with headaches, eye inflammation, neuralgia in the head, and rheumatic pains. A serious nervous disorder appeared in 1877 and protracted insomnia was a consequence, which Marx fought with narcotics.

The illness was aggravated by excessive nocturnal work and faulty diet. Marx was fond of highly seasoned dishes, smoked fish, caviare, pickled cucumbers, "none of which are good for liver patients", but he also liked wine and liqueurs and smoked an enormous amount "and since he had no money, it was usually bad-quality cigars". From 1863, Marx complained a lot about boils: "These are very frequent with liver patients and may be due to the same causes". The abscesses were so bad that Marx could neither sit nor work upright. According to Blumenberg, Marx's irritability is often found in liver patients:

The illness emphasised certain traits in his character. He argued cuttingly, his biting satire did not shrink at insults, and his expressions could be rude and cruel. Though in general Marx had blind faith in his closest friends, nevertheless he himself complained that he was sometimes too mistrustful and unjust even to them. His verdicts, not only about enemies but even about friends, were sometimes so harsh that even less sensitive people would take offence ... There must have been few whom he did not criticize like this ... not even Engels was an exception.

According to Princeton historian Jerrold Seigel, in his late teens, Marx may have had pneumonia or pleurisy, the effects of which led to his being exempted from Prussian military service. In later life whilst working on Das Kapital (which he never completed), Marx suffered from a trio of afflictions. A liver ailment, probably hereditary, was aggravated by overwork, a bad diet, and lack of sleep. Inflammation of the eyes was induced by too much work at night. A third affliction, eruption of carbuncles or boils, "was probably brought on by general physical debility to which the various features of Marx's style of life – alcohol, tobacco, poor diet, and failure to sleep – all contributed. Engels often exhorted Marx to alter this dangerous regime". In Seigel's thesis, what lay behind this punishing sacrifice of his health may have been guilt about self-involvement and egoism, originally induced in Karl Marx by his father.

In 2007, a retrodiagnosis of Marx's skin disease was made by dermatologist Sam Shuster of Newcastle University and for Shuster, the most probable explanation was that Marx suffered not from liver problems, but from hidradenitis suppurativa, a recurring infective condition arising from blockage of apocrine ducts opening into hair follicles. This condition, which was not described in the English medical literature until 1933 (hence would not have been known to Marx's physicians), can produce joint pain (which could be misdiagnosed as rheumatic disorder) and painful eye conditions.

To arrive at his retrodiagnosis, Shuster considered the primary material: the Marx correspondence published in the 50 volumes of the Marx/Engels Collected Works. There, "although the skin lesions were called 'furuncles', 'boils' and 'carbuncles' by Marx, his wife, and his physicians, they were too persistent, recurrent, destructive and site-specific for that diagnosis". The sites of the persistent 'carbuncles' were noted repeatedly in the armpits, groins, perianal, genital (penis and scrotum) and suprapubic regions and inner thighs, "favoured sites of hidradenitis suppurativa". Professor Shuster claimed the diagnosis "can now be made definitively".

Shuster went on to consider the potential psychosocial effects of the disease, noting that the skin is an organ of communication and that hidradenitis suppurativa produces much psychological distress, including loathing and disgust and depression of self-image, mood, and well-being, feelings for which Shuster found "much evidence" in the Marx correspondence. Professor Shuster went on to ask himself whether the mental effects of the disease affected Marx's work and even helped him to develop his theory of alienation.

Death

Tomb of Karl Marx, East Highgate Cemetery, London

Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883, when he died a stateless person at age 64. Family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery (East), London, on 17 March 1883 in an area reserved for agnostics and atheists. For example, George Eliot's grave is nearby. According to Francis Wheen, there were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral. Research from contemporary sources identifies thirteen named individuals attending the funeral: Friedrich Engels, Eleanor Marx, Edward Aveling, Paul Lafargue, Charles Longuet, Helene Demuth, Wilhelm Liebknecht, Gottlieb Lemke, Frederick Lessner, G Lochner, Sir Ray Lankester, Carl Schorlemmer and Ernest Radford. A contemporary newspaper account claims that twenty-five to thirty relatives and friends attended the funeral.

A writer in The Graphic noted: 'By a strange blunder ... his death was not announced for two days, and then as having taken place at Paris. The next day the correction came from Paris; and when his friends and followers hastened to his house in Haverstock Hill, to learn the time and place of burial, they learned that he was already in the cold ground. But for this secresy and haste, a great popular demonstration would undoubtedly have been held over his grave'.

Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels' speech included the passage:

On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep – but forever.

Marx's surviving daughters Eleanor and Laura, as well as Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance. He had been predeceased by his wife and his eldest daughter, the latter dying a few months earlier in January 1883. Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social Democratic Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French. Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out. Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral. Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne Communist Trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League"; and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society, and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution. Another attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.

Marx left a personal estate valued for probate at £250, equivalent to £38,095 in 2024. Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his considerable estate, valued in 2024 at US$6.8 million.

Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954. The tomb at the new site, unveiled on 14 March 1956, bears the carved message: "Workers of All Lands Unite", the final line of The Communist Manifesto; and, from the 11th "Thesis on Feuerbach" (as edited by Engels), "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways—the point however is to change it". The Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) had the monument with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw erected and Marx's original tomb had only humble adornment. Black civil rights leader and CPGB activist Claudia Jones was later buried beside Karl Marx's tomb.

The Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked: "One cannot say Marx died a failure." Although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the left-wing movements in Germany and Russia. Within twenty-five years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics had contributed to significant gains in their representative democratic elections.

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Influences

Main article: Influences on Karl Marx

Marx's thought demonstrates influence from many sources, including but not limited to:

Marx's view of history, which came to be called historical materialism (controversially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin), certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically. However, whereas Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, Marx sought to conceptualise dialectics in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.

Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world. He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet. Despite his dislike of mystical terms, Marx used Gothic language in several of his works: in The Communist Manifesto he proclaims "A spectre is haunting Europe – the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre", and in The Capital he refers to capital as "necromancy that surrounds the products of labour".

Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought, Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty and that only a large-scale change in the economic system could bring about real change.

Other important contributions to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution, as well as from the social democrat Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz, who in Die Bewegung der Produktion described the movement of society as "flowing from the contradiction between the forces of production and the mode of production."

Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically, discerning tendencies of history and thereby predicting the outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx, therefore, concluded that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his "Theses on Feuerbach" that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it" and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.

Marx's theories inspired several theories and disciplines of future, including but not limited to:

Philosophy and social thought

Marx has been called "the first great user of critical method in social sciences", a characterisation stemming from his frequent use of polemics throughout his work to effect critiques of other thinkers. He criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology. By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases. This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.

Human nature

Further information: Marx's theory of human nature The philosophers G.W.F. Hegel (left) and Ludwig Feuerbach, whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx

Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic despotism with no identifiable despot, Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with Montesquieu, who discussed the nature of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to analyse "the despotism of capital". Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, which encompasses both human beings and material objects. Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.

For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended. Marx further argues that by moulding nature in desired ways the subject takes the object as its own and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, the human nature – Gattungswesen, or species-being – exists as a function of human labour.

Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world. Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his own work", but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.

Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects". Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour" and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "labour power".

Labour, class struggle and false consciousness

Further information: Alienation (Marxism), Class struggle, and Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

— Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto
A monument dedicated to Marx and Engels in Shanghai, China

Marx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour power. He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation. As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception. Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market. For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour – one's capacity to transform the world – is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature and it is a spiritual loss. Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt.

Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false consciousness", which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal. Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production include not only the production of food or manufactured goods but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests). An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right:

Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.

Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis at the Gymnasium zu Trier [de] argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic status quo and inequality.

Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour, saying that British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children".

Critique of political economy, history and society

Further information: Critique of political economy and Marxian economics

But you Communists would introduce community of women, screams the whole bourgeoisie in chorus. The bourgeois sees in his wife a mere instrument of production. He hears that the means of production are to be exploited in common, and, naturally, can come to no other conclusion than that the lot of being common to all will likewise fall to the women. He has not even a suspicion that the real point aimed at is to do away with the status of women as mere mean of production.

—Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto

Marx's thoughts on labour and its function in reproducing capital were related to the primacy he gave to social relations in determining the society's past, present and future. Critics have called this economic determinism. Labour is the precondition for the existence of, and accumulation of capital, which both shape the social system. For Marx, social change was driven by conflict between opposing interests, by parties situated in the historical situation of their mode of production. This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.

In his evolutionary model of history, he argued that human history began with free, productive and creative activities that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism. Marx noted that this was not an intentional process, but rather due to the immanent logic of the current mode of production which demands more human labour (abstract labour) to reproduce the social relationships of capital.

The organisation of society depends on means of production. The means of production are all things required to produce material goods, such as land, natural resources, and technology but not human labour. The relations of production are the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production. Together, these compose the mode of production and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of modes of production. Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, where the base (or substructure) is the economic system and superstructure is the cultural and political system. Marx regarded this mismatch between economic base and social superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict.

Despite Marx's stress on the critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should replace it, his explicit critique is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (slavery and feudalism). Marx never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, but scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.

A mural by Diego Rivera showing Karl Marx, in the National Palace in Mexico City

Marx's view of capitalism was two-sided. On one hand, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system he noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment. On the other hand, he characterised capitalism as "revolutionising, industrialising and universalising qualities of development, growth and progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and growth, rationality, and scientific revolution) that are responsible for progress, at in contrast to earlier forms of societies.

Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism. Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist has an incentive to reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.

According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry, input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "surplus value" and argued that it was based on surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive, and what they can produce. Although Marx describes capitalists as vampires sucking worker's blood, he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice" since Marx, according to Allen W. Wood "excludes any trans-epochal standpoint from which one can comment" on the morals of such particular arrangements. Marx also noted that even the capitalists themselves cannot go against the system. The problem is the "cancerous cell" of capital, understood not as property or equipment, but the social relations between workers and owners, (the selling and purchasing of labour power) – the societal system, or rather mode of production, in general.

At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable and prone to periodic crises. He suggested that over time capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies and less and less in labour. Since Marx believed that profit derived from surplus value appropriated from labour, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall as the economy grows. Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth and collapse. Moreover, he believed that in the long-term, this process would enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat. In section one of The Communist Manifesto, Marx describes feudalism, capitalism and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:

We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.

Outside a factory in Oldham, 1900. Marx believed that industrial workers, the proletariat, would rise up around the world.

Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society:

The development of modern industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.

Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop class consciousness, in time realising that they can and must change the system. Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing the exploiting class and introducing a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises. Marx argued in The German Ideology that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class:

Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence.

In this new society, the alienation would end and humans would be free to act without being bound by selling their labour. It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population. In such a utopian world, there would also be little need for a state, whose goal was previously to enforce the alienation. Marx theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, would exist a period of dictatorship of the proletariat – where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production. As he wrote in his Critique of the Gotha Program, "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat". While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the United States, and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries in which workers cannot "attain their goal by peaceful means" the "lever of our revolution must be force".

International relations

Karl Marx Monument in Chemnitz, known as Karl-Marx-Stadt from 1953 to 1990

Marx viewed Russia as the main counter-revolutionary threat to European revolutions. During the Crimean War, Marx backed the Ottoman Empire and its allies Britain and France against Russia. He was absolutely opposed to Pan-Slavism, viewing it as an instrument of Russian foreign policy. Marx had considered the Slavic nations except Poles as 'counter-revolutionary'. Marx and Engels published in the Neue Rheinische Zeitung in February 1849:

To the sentimental phrases about brotherhood which we are being offered here on behalf of the most counter-revolutionary nations of Europe, we reply that hatred of Russians was and still is the primary revolutionary passion among Germans; that since the revolution hatred of Czechs and Croats has been added, and that only by the most determined use of terror against these Slav peoples can we, jointly with the Poles and Magyars, safeguard the revolution. We know where the enemies of the revolution are concentrated, viz. in Russia and the Slav regions of Austria, and no fine phrases, no allusions to an undefined democratic future for these countries can deter us from treating our enemies as enemies. Then there will be a struggle, an "inexorable life-and-death struggle", against those Slavs who betray the revolution; an annihilating fight and ruthless terror – not in the interests of Germany, but in the interests of the revolution!"

Marx and Engels sympathised with the Narodnik revolutionaries of the 1860s and 1870s. When the Russian revolutionaries assassinated Tsar Alexander II of Russia, Marx expressed the hope that the assassination foreshadowed 'the formation of a Russian commune'. Marx supported the Polish uprisings against tsarist Russia. He said in a speech in London in 1867:

In the first place the policy of Russia is changeless... Its methods, its tactics, its manoeuvres may change, but the polar star of its policy – world domination – is a fixed star. In our times only a civilised government ruling over barbarian masses can hatch out such a plan and execute it. ... There is but one alternative for Europe. Either Asiatic barbarism, under Muscovite direction, will burst around its head like an avalanche, or else it must re-establish Poland, thus putting twenty million heroes between itself and Asia and gaining a breathing spell for the accomplishment of its social regeneration.

A CPI(M) poster in Kerala, India

Marx supported the cause of Irish independence. In 1867, he wrote Engels: "I used to think the separation of Ireland from England impossible. I now think it inevitable. The English working class will never accomplish anything until it has got rid of Ireland. ... English reaction in England had its roots ... in the subjugation of Ireland."

Marx spent some time in French Algeria, which had been invaded and made a French colony in 1830, and had the opportunity to observe life in colonial North Africa. He wrote about the colonial justice system, in which "a form of torture has been used (and this happens 'regularly') to extract confessions from the Arabs; naturally it is done (like the English in India) by the 'police'; the judge is supposed to know nothing at all about it." Marx was surprised by the arrogance of many European settlers in Algiers and wrote in a letter: "when a European colonist dwells among the 'lesser breeds,' either as a settler or even on business, he generally regards himself as even more inviolable than handsome William I . Still, when it comes to bare-faced arrogance and presumptuousness vis-à-vis the 'lesser breeds,' the British and Dutch outdo the French."

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Marx's analysis of colonialism as a progressive force bringing modernization to a backward feudal society sounds like a transparent rationalization for foreign domination. His account of British domination, however, reflects the same ambivalence that he shows towards capitalism in Europe. In both cases, Marx recognizes the immense suffering brought about during the transition from feudal to bourgeois society while insisting that the transition is both necessary and ultimately progressive. He argues that the penetration of foreign commerce will cause a social revolution in India."

Marx discussed British colonial rule in India in the New York Herald Tribune in June 1853:

There cannot remain any doubt but that the misery inflicted by the British on Hindostan is of an essentially different and infinitely more intensive kind than all Hindostan had to suffer before. England has broken down the entire framework of Indian society, without any symptoms of reconstitution yet appearing... , we must not forget that these idyllic village communities, inoffensive though they may appear, had always been the solid foundation of Oriental despotism, that they restrained the human mind within the smallest possible compass, making it the unresisting tool of superstition.

Legacy

Main article: Marxism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels monument in Marx-Engels Forum, Berlin-Mitte, Germany
1948 Soviet Union stamp, featuring Marx and Engels, commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Manifesto

Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought, in particular in the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution. Followers of Marx have often debated among themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and apply his concepts to the modern world. The legacy of Marx's thought has become contested between numerous tendencies, each of which sees itself as Marx's most accurate interpreter. In the political realm, these tendencies include political theories such as Leninism, Marxism–Leninism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, libertarian Marxism, and Open Marxism. Various currents have also developed in academic Marxism, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical materialism, phenomenological Marxism, analytical Marxism, and Hegelian Marxism.

From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology. He has been cited as one of the 19th century's three masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud, and as one of the three principal architects of modern social science along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber. In contrast to other philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method.

Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the philosophies of history and science. Working in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean sociological positivism in an attempt to develop a science of society. Karl Löwith considered Marx and Søren Kierkegaard to be the two greatest philosophical successors of Hegel.

In modern sociological theory, Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. Isaiah Berlin considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology "in so far as anyone can claim the title". Beyond social science, he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy, literature, the arts, and the humanities.

Marx statue in Trier, Germany

Social theorists of the 20th and 21st centuries have pursued two main strategies in response to Marx. One move has been to reduce it to its analytical core, known as analytical Marxism. Another, more common move has been to dilute the explanatory claims of Marx's social theory and emphasise the "relative autonomyworking-class agenda" of aspects of social and economic life not directly related to Marx's central narrative of interaction between the development of the "forces of production" and the succession of "modes of production". This has been the neo-Marxist theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marx's social theory such as E. P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. It has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists such as Antonio Gramsci who have sought to understand the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice, seen in the light of Marxist social theory. Marx's ideas had a profound influence on subsequent artists and art history, with avant-garde movements across literature, visual art, music, film, and theatre.

A map of countries that declared themselves to be socialist states under the Marxist–Leninist definition between 1979 and 1983, which marked the greatest territorial extent of socialist states

Politically, Marx's legacy is more complex. Throughout the 20th century, revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves "Marxist"—most notably the Russian Revolution, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Major world leaders including Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Fidel Castro, Salvador Allende, Josip Broz Tito, Kwame Nkrumah, Jawaharlal Nehru, Nelson Mandela, Xi Jinping and Thomas Sankara have all cited Marx as an influence. Beyond where Marxist revolutions took place, Marx's ideas have informed political parties worldwide.

In countries associated with Marxism, some events have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths, while others argue for a distinction between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically, and the legacy and influence of those who have shaped his ideas for political purposes. Arthur Lipow describes Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels as "the founders of modern revolutionary democratic socialism."

The cities of Marks, Russia and Karl-Marx-Stadt, Germany, now known as Chemnitz, were named after Marx. In May 2018, to mark the bicentenary of his birth, a 4.5m statue of him by leading Chinese sculptor Wu Weishan and donated by the Chinese government was unveiled in his birthplace of Trier, Germany. The then-European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker defended Marx's memory, saying that today Marx "stands for things which he is not responsible for and which he didn't cause because many of the things he wrote down were redrafted into the opposite".

In 2017, a feature film, titled The Young Karl Marx, featuring Marx, his wife Jenny Marx, and Engels, among other revolutionaries and intellectuals prior to the Revolutions of 1848, received good reviews for both its historical accuracy and its brio in dealing with intellectual life.

Selected bibliography

See also: Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe and Marx/Engels Collected Works

See also

Notes

  1. ^ His name was spelled Carl Marx in the birth register of Trier and he occasionally used this spelling in official contexts up to the 1840s. His full name is sometimes given as Karl Heinrich Marx, but he never officially had a middle name, using the forms Karl Heinrich or Carl Heinrich (with his father's first name added after his own) only several times as a student.

References

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  4. ^ Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848).The Communist Manifesto Archived 2 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine
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Sources

Further reading

Biographies

Main article: Biographies of Karl Marx

Commentaries on Marx

  • Henry, Michel. Marx I and Marx II. 1976
  • Holt, Justin P. The Social Thought of Karl Marx. Sage, 2015.
  • Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)
  • Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978
  • Kurz, Robert. Read Marx: The most important texts of Karl Marx for the 21st Century (2000) ISBN 3-8218-1644-9
  • Little, Daniel. The Scientific Marx, (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) ISBN 0-8166-1505-5
  • Mandel, Ernest. Marxist Economic Theory. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
  • Mandel, Ernest. The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977.
  • Miller, Richard W. Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1984.
  • Rothbard, Murray. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume II: Classical Economics (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) ISBN 0-945466-48-X
  • Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism. London: Routledge, 2002.
  • Saito, Kohei. Karl Marx's Ecosocialism: Capital, Nature, and the Unfinished Critique of Political Economy, Monthly Review Press 2017.
  • Schmidt, Alfred. The Concept of Nature in Marx. London: NLB, 1971.
  • Seigel, J.E. (1973). "Marx's Early Development: Vocation, Rebellion and Realism". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 3 (3): 475–508. doi:10.2307/202551. JSTOR 202551.
  • Strathern, Paul. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)
  • Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
  • Uno, Kozo. Principles of Political Economy. Theory of a Purely Capitalist Society, Brighton, Sussex: Harvester; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities, 1980.
  • Vianello, F. , "Effective Demand and the Rate of Profits: Some Thoughts on Marx, Kalecki and Sraffa", in: Sebastiani, M. (ed.), Kalecki's Relevance Today, London, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-312-02411-6.
  • Wendling, Amy. Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
  • Wheen, Francis. Marx's Das Kapital, (Atlantic Books, 2006) ISBN 1-84354-400-8
  • Wilson, Edmund. To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940

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