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* {{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert Habib|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo00hour|url-access=registration|location=]|publisher=] of ]|year=1991|ref=CITEREFHourani1991}}
* {{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert Habib|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo00hour|url-access=registration|location=]|publisher=] of ]|year=1991}}
There is considerable controversy regarding social status in the Ottoman Empire. Social scientists have developed class models on the socio-economic stratification of Ottoman society which feature more or less congruent theories. Albert Hourani described the Ottoman Empire as "a bureaucratic state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system".
Hourani, Albert Habib (1991). A History of the Arab Peoples (revised ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (published 2002). p. 207. ISBN9780674010178. Retrieved 29 July 2020. The empire was a bureaucratic state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system. It was also, however, the last great expression of the universality of the world of Islam. It was also a multi-religious state, giving a recognized status to christian and Jewish communities.
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