Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 00:38, 21 July 2021

Cronus
God of the Harvest
Member of Titans
Predecessor	Uranus
Successor	Zeus
Abode	Mount Othrys (formerly) Tartarus
Planet	Saturn
Battles	Titanomachy
Symbol	Snake, grain, sickle, scythe
Genealogy
Parents	Uranus and Gaia
Siblings	Titans Crius Coeus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Hekatonkheires Briareos Cottus Gyges Cyclopes Arges Brontes Steropes Other siblings Aphrodite Gigantes Erinyes Meliae
Consort	Rhea
Offspring	Zeus, Hera, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, Poseidon, Chiron
Equivalents
Roman	Saturn
Slavic	Rod, Рід, Род
Egyptian	Geb
Mesopotamian	Ninurta

In Greek mythology, Cronus, Cronos, or Kronos (/ˈkroʊnəs/ or /ˈkroʊnɒs/, US: /-oʊs/, from Template:Lang-el, Krónos) was the leader and youngest of the first generation of Titans, the divine descendants of the primordial Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky). He overthrew his father and ruled during the mythological Golden Age, until he was overthrown by his own son Zeus and imprisoned in Tartarus. According to Plato, however, the it was the deities Oceanus and Tethys who were the parents of Phorcys, Cronus, and Rhea.

Cronus was usually depicted with a harpe, scythe, or a sickle, which was the instrument he used to castrate and depose his father Uranus. In Athens, on the twelfth day of the Attic month of Hekatombaion, a festival called Kronia was held in honour of Cronus to celebrate the harvest, suggesting that, as a result of his association with the virtuous Golden Age, Cronus continued to preside as a patron of the harvest. In classical antiquity Cronus was conflated with the Roman deity Saturn.

Mythology

In a version of the myth in Theogony Cronus envied the power of his father, Uranus, the ruler of the universe. Uranus drew the enmity of Cronus's mother, Gaia, when he hid Gaia's gigantic youngest children, the hundred-handed Hecatoncheires and one-eyed Cyclopes, in Tartarus, so that they could not see the light. Gaia created a great stone sickle and gathered together Cronus and his brothers to persuade them to castrate Uranus.

Only Cronus was willing to do the deed, so Gaia gave him the sickle and placed him in ambush. When Uranus met with Gaia, Cronus attacked him with the sickle, castrating him and casting his testicles into the sea. From the blood that spilled out from Uranus and fell upon the earth, the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae were produced. The testicles produced a white foam from which the goddess Aphrodite emerged. For this, Uranus threatened vengeance and called his sons Titenes for overstepping their boundaries and daring to commit such an act.

After dispatching Uranus, Cronus re-imprisoned the Hecatoncheires and the Cyclopes, and set the dragon Campe to guard them. He and his older sister Rhea took the throne of the world as king and queen. The period in which Cronus ruled was called the Golden Age, as the people of the time had no need for laws or rules; everyone did the right thing, and immorality was absent.

Cronus learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overthrown by his own son(s), just as he had overthrown his father. As a result, although he sired the gods Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon by Rhea, he devoured them all as soon as they were born to prevent the prophecy. When the sixth child, Zeus, was born, Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save them and to eventually get retribution on Cronus for his acts against his father and children.

Rhea secretly gave birth to Zeus in Crete, and handed Cronus a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, also known as the Omphalos Stone, which he promptly swallowed, thinking that it was his son.

Rhea kept Zeus hidden in a cave on Mount Ida, Crete. According to some versions of the story, he was then raised by a goat named Amalthea, while a company of Kouretes (armored male dancers) shouted and clapped their hands to make enough noise to mask the baby's cries from Cronus. Other versions of the myth have Zeus raised by the nymph Adamanthea, who hid Zeus by dangling him by a rope from a tree so that he was suspended between the earth, the sea, and the sky, all of which were ruled by his father, Cronus. Still other versions of the tale say that Zeus was raised by his grandmother, Gaia.

Once he had grown up, Zeus used an emetic given to him by Gaia to force Cronus to disgorge the contents of his stomach in reverse order: first the stone, which was set down at Pytho under the glens of Mount Parnassus to be a sign to mortal men, and then his two brothers and three sisters. In other versions of the tale, Metis gave Cronus an emetic to force him to disgorge the children.

After freeing his siblings, Zeus released the Hecatoncheires, and the Cyclopes who forged for him his thunderbolts, Poseidon's trident and Hades' helmet of darkness. In a vast war called the Titanomachy, Zeus and his older brothers and older sisters, with the help of the Hecatoncheires and Cyclopes, overthrew Cronus and the other Titans. Afterwards, many of the Titans were confined in Tartarus. However, Oceanus, Helios, Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus and Menoetius were not imprisoned following the Titanomachy. Gaia bore the monster Typhon to claim revenge for the imprisoned Titans.

Accounts of the fate of Cronus after the Titanomachy differ. In Homeric and other texts he is imprisoned with the other Titans in Tartarus. In Orphic poems, he is imprisoned for eternity in the cave of Nyx. Pindar describes his release from Tartarus, where he is made King of Elysium by Zeus. In another version, the Titans released the Cyclopes from Tartarus, and Cronus was awarded the kingship among them, beginning a Golden Age. In Virgil's Aeneid, it is Latium to which Saturn (Cronus) escapes and ascends as king and lawgiver, following his defeat by his son Jupiter (Zeus).

In yet another account referred to by Robert Graves, (who claims to be following the account of the Byzantine mythographer Tzetzes) it is said that Cronus was castrated by his son Zeus just as Uranus had earlier been castrated by his son Cronos. However the subject of a son castrating his own father, or simply castration in general, was so repudiated by the Greek mythographers of that time that they suppressed it from their accounts until the Christian era (when Tzetzes wrote).

Libyan account by Diodorus Siculus

In a Libyan account related by Diodorus Siculus (Book 3), Uranus and Titaea were the parents of Cronus and Rhea and the other Titans. Ammon, a king of Libya, married Rhea (3.18.1). However, Rhea abandoned Ammon and married her younger brother Cronus. With Rhea's incitement, Cronus and the other Titans made war upon Ammon, who fled to Crete (3.71.1–2). Cronus ruled harshly and Cronus in turn was defeated by Ammon's son Dionysus (3.71.3–3.73) who appointed Cronus' and Rhea's son, Zeus, as king of Egypt (3.73.4). Dionysus and Zeus then joined their forces to defeat the remaining Titans in Crete, and on the death of Dionysus, Zeus inherited all the kingdoms, becoming lord of the world (3.73.7–8).

Sibylline Oracles

Cronus is mentioned in the Sibylline Oracles, particularly in book three, which makes Cronus, 'Titan' and Iapetus, the three sons of Uranus and Gaia, each to receive a third division of the Earth, and Cronus is made king over all. After the death of Uranus, Titan's sons attempt to destroy Cronus's and Rhea's male offspring as soon as they are born, but at Dodona, Rhea secretly bears her sons Zeus, Poseidon and Hades and sends them to Phrygia to be raised in the care of three Cretans. Upon learning this, sixty of Titan's men then imprison Cronus and Rhea, causing the sons of Cronus to declare and fight the first of all wars against them. This account mentions nothing about Cronus either killing his father or attempting to kill any of his children.

Other accounts

Cronus was said to be the father of the wise centaur Chiron by the Oceanid Philyra, who was subsequently transformed into a linden tree. The Titan chased the nymph and consorted with her in the shape of a stallion, hence the half-human, half-equine shape of their offspring; this was said to have taken place on Mount Pelion.

Two other sons of Cronus and Philyra may have been Dolops and Aphrus, the ancestor and eponym of the Aphroi, i.e. the native Africans.

In some accounts, Cronus was also called the father of the Corybantes.

Name and comparative mythology

Antiquity

During antiquity, Cronus was occasionally interpreted as Chronos, the personification of time. The Roman philosopher Cicero (1st century BCE) elaborated on this by saying that the Greek name Cronus is synonymous to chronos (time) since he maintains the course and cycles of seasons and the periods of time, whereas the Latin name Saturn denotes that he is saturated with years since he was devouring his sons, which implies that time devours the ages and gorges.

The Greek historian and biographer Plutarch (1st century CE) asserted that the Greeks believed that Cronus was an allegorical name for χρόνος (time). The philosopher Plato (3rd century BCE) in his Cratylus gives two possible interpretations for the name of Cronus. The first is that his name denotes "κόρος" (koros), the pure (καθαρόν) and unblemished (ἀκήρατον) nature of his mind. The second is that Rhea and Cronus were given names of streams . Proclus (5th century CE), the Neoplatonist philosopher, makes in his Commentary on Plato's Cratylus an extensive analysis on Cronus; among others he says that the "One cause" of all things is "Chronos" (time) that is also equivalent to Cronus.

In addition to the name, the story of Cronus eating his children was also interpreted as an allegory to a specific aspect of time held within Cronus' sphere of influence. As the theory went, Cronus represented the destructive ravages of time which devoured all things, a concept that was illustrated when the Titan king ate the Olympian gods—the past consuming the future, the older generation suppressing the next generation.

From the Renaissance to the present

During the Renaissance, the identification of Cronus and Chronos gave rise to "Father Time" wielding the harvesting scythe.

H. J. Rose in 1928 observed that attempts to give "Κρόνος" a Greek etymology had failed. Recently, Janda (2010) offers a genuinely Indo-European etymology of "the cutter", from the root *(s)ker- "to cut" (Greek κείρω (keirō), cf. English shear), motivated by Cronus's characteristic act of "cutting the sky" (or the genitals of anthropomorphic Uranus). The Indo-Iranian reflex of the root is kar, generally meaning "to make, create" (whence karma), but Janda argues that the original meaning "to cut" in a cosmogonic sense is still preserved in some verses of the Rigveda pertaining to Indra's heroic "cutting", like that of Cronus resulting in creation:

RV 10.104.10 ārdayad vṛtram akṛṇod ulokaṃ
he hit Vrtra fatally, cutting a free path.
RV 6.47.4 varṣmāṇaṃ divo akṛṇod
he cut the loftiness of the sky.

This may point to an older Indo-European mytheme reconstructed as *(s)kert wersmn diwos "by means of a cut he created the loftiness of the sky". The myth of Cronus castrating Uranus parallels the Song of Kumarbi, where Anu (the heavens) is castrated by Kumarbi. In the Song of Ullikummi, Teshub uses the "sickle with which heaven and earth had once been separated" to defeat the monster Ullikummi, establishing that the "castration" of the heavens by means of a sickle was part of a creation myth, in origin a cut creating an opening or gap between heaven (imagined as a dome of stone) and earth enabling the beginning of time (chronos) and human history.

A theory debated in the 19th century, and sometimes still offered somewhat apologetically, holds that Κρόνος is related to "horned", assuming a Semitic derivation from qrn. Andrew Lang's objection, that Cronus was never represented horned in Hellenic art, was addressed by Robert Brown, arguing that, in Semitic usage, as in the Hebrew Bible, qeren was a signifier of "power". When Greek writers encountered the Semitic deity El, they rendered his name as Cronus.

Robert Graves remarks that "cronos probably means 'crow', like the Latin cornix and the Greek corōne", noting that Cronus was depicted with a crow, as were the deities Apollo, Asclepius, Saturn, and Bran.

El, the Phoenician Cronus

When Hellenes encountered Phoenicians and, later, Hebrews, they identified the Semitic El, by interpretatio graeca, with Cronus. The association was recorded Template:Cicra by Philo of Byblos' Phoenician history, as reported in Eusebius' Præparatio Evangelica I.10.16. Philo's account, ascribed by Eusebius to the semi-legendary pre-Trojan War Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, indicates that Cronus was originally a Canaanite ruler who founded Byblos and was subsequently deified. This version gives his alternate name as Elus or Ilus, and states that in the 32nd year of his reign, he emasculated, slew and deified his father Epigeius or Autochthon "whom they afterwards called Uranus". It further states that after ships were invented, Cronus, visiting the 'inhabitable world', bequeathed Attica to his own daughter Athena, and Egypt to Taautus the son of Misor and inventor of writing.

Roman mythology and later culture

While the Greeks considered Cronus a cruel and tempestuous force of chaos and disorder, believing the Olympian gods had brought an era of peace and order by seizing power from the crude and malicious Titans, the Romans took a more positive and innocuous view of the deity, by conflating their indigenous deity Saturn with Cronus. Consequently, while the Greeks considered Cronus merely an intermediary stage between Uranus and Zeus, he was a larger aspect of Roman religion. The Saturnalia was a festival dedicated in his honour, and at least one temple to Saturn already existed in the archaic Roman Kingdom.

His association with the "Saturnian" Golden Age eventually caused him to become the god of "time", i.e., calendars, seasons, and harvests—not now confused with Chronos, the unrelated embodiment of time in general. Nevertheless, among Hellenistic scholars in Alexandria and during the Renaissance, Cronus was conflated with the name of Chronos, the personification of "Father Time", wielding the harvesting scythe.

As a result of Cronus's importance to the Romans, his Roman variant, Saturn, has had a large influence on Western culture. The seventh day of the Judaeo-Christian week is called in Latin Dies Saturni ("Day of Saturn"), which in turn was adapted and became the source of the English word Saturday. In astronomy, the planet Saturn is named after the Roman deity. It is the outermost of the Classical planets (the astronomical planets that are visible with the naked eye).

Cronus alias Geb in Greco-Roman Egypt

In Greco-Roman Egypt, Cronus was equated with the Egyptian god Geb, because he held a quite similar position in Egyptian mythology as the father of the gods Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys as Cronus did in the Greek pantheon. This equation is particularly well attested in Tebtunis in the southern Fayyum: Geb and Cronus were here part of a local version of the cult of Sobek, the crocodile god. The equation was shown on the one hand in the local iconography of the gods, in which Geb was depicted as a man with attributes of Cronus and Cronus with attributes of Geb. On the other hand, the priests of the local main temple identified themselves in Egyptian texts as priests of "Soknebtunis-Geb", but in Greek texts as priests of "Soknebtunis-Cronus". Accordingly, Egyptian names formed with the name of the god Geb were just as popular among local villager as Greek names derived from Cronus, especially the name "Kronion".

Astronomy

A star (HD 240430) was named after him in 2017 when it was reported to have swallowed its planets. The planet Saturn, named after the Roman equivalent of Cronus, is still referred to as "Cronus" in modern Greek.

"Cronus" was also a suggested name for the dwarf planet Pluto, but was rejected and not voted for because it was suggested by the unpopular and egocentric astronomer Thomas Jefferson Jackson See.

Genealogy

Notes

1. According to Hesiod Titenes (Τιτῆνες), the source of the word "titan", meant "straining ones". This etymology is disputed.
2. In an alternate version of this myth, a more benevolent Cronus overthrew the wicked serpentine titan Ophion and in doing so he released the world from bondage and for a time ruled it justly.

References

1. Iroku, Osita (2001). A Day in the Life of God (paperback, bw, 5th ed.). Enlil Institute (EnlilInstitute.com); Lulu.com. ISBN 978-0615241944 – via Google Books.
2. Plato (1925) . Timaeus. Translated by Lamb, W.R.M. Cambridge, MA; London, UK: Harvard University Press; William Heinemann Ltd. 40e – via Perseus, Tufts University.
   See also Misplaced Pages article: Timaeus.
3. ^ Hesiod. Theogony. 154–166 – via perseus.org.
4. Hesiod. Theogony. [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0020.tlg001.perseus-eng1:139-172 167–206 – via Perseus.
5. pseudo-Apollodorus. Bibliotheca. 1.2.1 – via perseus.org.
6. Vergil. "Book VIII, pp 323 ff". Aeneid.
7. Graves, Robert, Hebrew Myths 21.4
8. Tzetzes on Lycophron, 1200
9. Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7. 197
10. Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 2.1235 citing Pherecydes
11. Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 2. 1231 ff
12. Scholia on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica 1. 554
13. Callimachus, Hymn 4 to Delos 104 ff
14. Hyginus, Fabulae, Preface
15. Suda s.v. Aphroi
16. Strabo, Geographica 10.3.19
17. ^ Κρόνος: Cronos – Later interpreted as chronos (time): LSJ entry Κρόνος
18. Cicero, De Natura Deorum 25
19. These men are like the Greeks who say that Cronus is but a metaphorical name for χρόνος (time). Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris, 32
20. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940) . "ἀκήρ-α^τος". In Jones, Henry Stuart, Sir; McKenzie, Roderick (eds.). A Greek-English Lexicon (revised and augmented throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved 9 August 2016 – via Perseus Digital Library.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
21. Plato. Cratylus. 402b – via Perseus, Tufts University.
22. Plato. Cratylus. 402b – via Perseus, Tufts University.
23. Proclus. Commentary on Plato's Cratylus. 396.B.7.
24. Dronke, Peter. (edit.) Marenbon, John. Poetry and Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Leiden, The Netherlands. Brill, 2001; p. 316
25. Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology 1928:43.
26. ^ Michael Janda (2010), Die Musik nach dem Chaos, Innsbruck, pp 54–56.
27. Fritz Graf (1996), Thomas Marier, trans. Thomas Marier, Greek mythology: an introduction, ISBN 978-0-8018-5395-1, p 88
28. "We would like to consider whether the Semitic stem q r n might be connected with the name Kronos," suggests A.P. Bos (1989), Cosmic and Meta-cosmic Theology in Aristotle's Lost Dialogues, p 11 .
29. As in H. Lewy (1895), Die semitischen Fremdwörter in Griechischen, p 216; and Robert Brown (1877), The Great Dionysiak Myth, ii.127, "Kronos signifies 'the Horned one'", the Rev. Hislop had previously asserted in The Two Babylons; or, The papal worship proved to be the worship of Nimrod and his wife, Alexander Hislop (1862, 2nd ed.) p 46, with the note "From krn, a horn. The epithet Carneus applied to Apollo is just a different form of the same word. In the Orphic Hymns, Apollo is addressed as 'the Two-Horned God'".
30. Lang, Andrew (1897), Modern Mythology p 35.
31. Brown, Robert (1898), Semitic Influence in Hellenic Mythology, p 112 ff.
32. "Philôn, who of course regarded Kronos as an Hellenic divinity, which indeed he became, always renders the name of the Semitic god Îl or Êl ('the Powerful') by 'Kronos', in which use we have a lingering feeling of the real meaning of the name" Brown (1898) p 116
33. Graves, Robert (1955). "The Castration of Uranus". Greek Myths. London: Penguin. p. 38. ISBN 0-14-001026-2.
34. Walcot, (May 1965), "Five or seven recesses?" The Classical Quarterly, 15(1) p 79. The quote stands as Philo Fr. 2.
35. Eusebius of Caesarea. Praeparatio Evangelica. book 1, chapter 10.
36. Kockelmann, Holger (2017). Der Herr der Seen, Sümpfe und Flußläufe. Untersuchungen zum Gott Sobek und den ägyptischen Krokodilgötter-Kulten von den Anfängen bis zur Römerzeit (in German). Vol. 1. Wiesbaden, DE: Harrassowitz. pp. 81–88. ISBN 978-3-447-10810-2.
37. Rondot, Vincent (2013). Derniers visages des dieux dʼÉgypte. Iconographies, panthéons et cultes dans le Fayoum hellénisé des IIe–IIIe siècles de notre ère (in French). Paris, FR: Presses de lʼuniversité Paris-Sorbonne; Éditions du Louvre. pp. 75–80, 122–27, 241–46.
38. Sippel, Benjamin (2020). Gottesdiener und Kamelzüchter: Das Alltags- und Sozialleben der Sobek-Priester im kaiserzeitlichen Fayum. Wiesbaden, DE: Harrassowitz. pp. 73–78. ISBN 978-3-447-11485-1.
39. Sokol, Josh (21 September 2017). "Star nicknamed Kronos after eating its own planetary children". New Scientist Magazine. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
40. Innes, Kenneth, III. "Thomas Jefferson Jackson See". Retrieved 6 June 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
41. This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted.
42. According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.
43. According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
44. According to Hesiod, Theogony 886–890, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
45. According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
46. According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.

Sources

• Apollonius Rhodius (1912) Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853–1915), R.C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, UK: William Heinemann Ltd. text online via Topos Text Project.
• Apollonius Rhodius (1912) Argonautica. George W. Mooney. London, UK: Longmans, Green. Greek text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Callimachus (1921) Hymns translated by Alexander William Mair (1875–1928). London: William Heinemann; New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons. text online via Topos Text Project.
• Callimachus (1921) Works. A.W. Mair. London, UK: William Heinemann; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Greek text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Gantz, Timothy (1996) Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, in two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (volume 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (volume 2).
• Hesiod (1914) Theogony The Homeric Hymns and Homerica, Greek w/English translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, UK: William Heinemann Ltd. text online and Greek text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Homer (1924) The Iliad, Greek w/English translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, UK: William Heinemann, Ltd. text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Homer (1920) Homeri Opera in five volumes. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Greek text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Homer (1919) The Odyssey, Greek w/English translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, UK: William Heinemann, Ltd. text online and Greek text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. text online via Topos Text Project.
• Marcus Tullius Cicero (1878) Nature of the Gods from the Treatises of M.T. Cicero translated by Charles Duke Yonge (1812–1891), Bohn edition of. text online via Topos Text Project.
• Marcus Tullius Cicero (1917) De Natura Deorum. O. Plasberg. Leipzig. Teubner. Latin text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Orpheus (1999) The Hymns of Orpheus Translated by Taylor, Thomas. University of Pennsylvania Press. text online via theoi.com .
• Plato (1925) Timaeus in Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 9 translated by W.R.M. Lamb. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Pliny the Elder (1855) The Natural History. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A. London, UK: Taylor and Francis. text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Pseudo-Apollodorus (1921) The Library, Greek w/English translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in two volumes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London, UK: William Heinemann Ltd. text online and Greek text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Publius Vergilius Maro (1895) Eclogues. J.B. Greenough. Boston, MA: Ginn & Co. text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
• Publius Vergilius Maro (1900) "Bucolics", Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J.B. Greenough. Boston, MA: Ginn & Co. Latin text online via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.

External links

• Media related to Kronos at Wikimedia Commons

• Cronus
• Agricultural gods
• Condemned souls into Tartarus
• Greek gods
• Children of Gaia
• Titans (mythology)
• Children of Oceanus
• Child sacrifice
• Mythological cannibals
• Saturnian deities