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| {{Short description|Tax imposed on the lower caste and untouchable Hindu women by the Kingdom of Tranvancore}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}} | |||
| {{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}} | |||
| The '''breast tax''' (''mulakkaram'' or ''mula-karam'' in ]) was a tax imposed until 1924 on the ] and ] Hindu women by the ] (in present-day ] state of ]) if they wanted to cover their breasts in public.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/education/cbse-removed-history-womens-caste-struggle|title=The CBSE Just Removed an Entire History of Women's Caste Struggle|website=The Wire|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36891356|title=The woman who cut off her breasts to protest a tax|date=2016-07-28|access-date=2019-11-13|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nation-world/nine-weird-taxes-from-around-the-world/window-tax/slideshow/56516226.cms|title=Nine weird taxes from around the world – Really absurd|website=The Economic Times|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref> The lower caste and untouchable women were expected to pay the government the breast tax when they started developing breasts.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=K.S. Manilal |date=15 November 2012 |title=Sikhism in Kerala: Forgotten Chapter in the Social History of the State |url= https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxjcmlrc2NzYW1hZ3JhfGd4OjE5OTc0YzhhNWRlN2Y2MDM |journal= Samagra |issn=0973-3906 |volume=8 |pages=3–4 |quote= One such infamous law that was in force in Travancore until as late as the first quarter of the 20th century was known as Mulakkaram, i.e., the law of breast tax. According to this law the avarna women, were to pay tax to the government for their breasts from the very time of their girlhood, when they start developing breasts }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=R. N. Yesudas |title=The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore, 1806–1908 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oscAAAAMAAJ |year=1980 |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |page=19 |quote=The lower classes were to pay tax for the hair they grew, and for the breasts of ladies called breast-tax. }}</ref> The lower caste men had to pay a similar tax, called ''tala-karam'', on their heads.<ref name="Jacob_1990">{{cite book |author=Jacob Kattackal |title=Comparative Religion |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=O_MnAAAAYAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Oriental Institute of Religious Studies |page=144 |quote=In South India, until the 19th century, the 'low caste' men had to pay the 'head tax, and the 'low caste' women had to pay a 'breast tax' ('tala-karam' and 'mula-karam') to the government treasury. The still more shameful truth is that these women were not allowed to wear upper garments in public.}}</ref> Travancore tax collectors would visit every house to collect the breast tax from any lower caste women who passed the age of ].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ststworld.com/breast-tax/|title=Breast Tax and the Revolt of Lower Cast Women in 19th Century Travancore|date=2019-05-17|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-11-14}}</ref> The tax was evaluated by the tax collectors depending on the size of the woman’s breasts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pathak-Shelat|first=Manisha|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=X6ohEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38&dq=mulakkaram+breast+size&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj63vHJr4HyAhWVxGEKHcNQDpc4HhDoATAEegQIBBAD#v=onepage&q=mulakkaram%20breast%20size&f=false|title=Raising a Humanist: Conscious Parenting in an Increasingly Fragmented World|last2=Bhatia|first2=Kiran|date=2021|publisher=SAGE Publishing India|year=2021|isbn=978-93-5388-777-3|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qutzDQAAQBAJ|title=Coromandel : A personal history of South India|last=Allen|first=Charles|publisher=Little, Brown|year=2017|isbn=9781408705391|location=London|page=285|oclc=1012741451}}</ref><ref name="Gupta2019">{{cite book|author=Archana Garodia Gupta|title=The Women Who Ruled India: Leaders. Warriors. Icons.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XuLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT155|access-date=13 May 2020|date=20 April 2019|publisher=Hachette India|isbn=978-93-5195-153-7|pages=155–}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://ourheritagejournals.com/images/short_pdf/1580374996_926.pdf | title=Dress as a tool of Empowerment: The Channar Revolt | author=Keerthana Santhosh | journal=Our Heritage Journal | year=2020 | volume=22 | pages=533 | access-date=15 May 2020 | archive-date=3 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703144357/http://ourheritagejournals.com/images/short_pdf/1580374996_926.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.homesciencejournal.com/archives/2017/vol3issue3/PartF/3-3-84-673.pdf | title=Rani Gowry Lakshmi Bai: Abolition of slavery in Travancore | author=Renjini P and Dr. C Natarajan | journal=International Journal of Home Science | year=2017 | pages=337}}</ref><ref></ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/culture/nangeli-first-documented-pati-sahagamanam | title=Nangeli and the first documented ‘Pati Sahagamanam’ | publisher=Sunday Guardian | work=Souhardya De | date=31 October 2020 | accessdate=27 July 2021}}</ref>{{citation overkill|date=October 2021}} | |||
| The baring of breasts by the lower caste and untouchable Hindu women was a longtime Travancore tradition and a sign of respect to an upper caste person. It was considered part of the Indian caste system, and came to be challenged as a result of the influence of Christian missionaries.<ref name="Jacob_1990" /> | |||
| == Background == | |||
| The ] was known for its rigid and oppressive caste system and hence ] called Travancore a "lunatic asylum" <ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/kerala-secularism-hindus-christians-5506515/ | title=God’s own challenge | publisher=The Indian Express | date=24 December 2018 | accessdate=27 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="VanamamalaiVān̲amāmalai1981">{{cite book|author1=N. Vanamamalai|author2=Nā Vān̲amāmalai|title=Interpretation of Tamil Folk Creations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDnaAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Dravidian Linguistics Association}}</ref><ref name="Radhakrishnan2002">{{cite book|author=P. Radhakrishnan|title=India, the Perfidies of Power: A Social Critique |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQpuAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=27 July 2021|year=2002|publisher=Vedam ebooks|isbn=978-81-7936-003-3|page=245}}</ref>.The breast tax was levied by Travancore on lower caste Hindu women, which was to be paid if they wanted to cover their breasts and was further assessed in proportion to the size of their breasts.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2"/><ref name=":0"/> This was seen as a sign of respect towards the upper caste and the lower castes including ] and ] women had to pay the tax.<ref name=":1"/> Dr Sheeba KM, professor of gender ecology and Dalit studies, says the purpose of the tax was to maintain the ].<ref name=":2"/> | |||
| The law resulted from Travancore's tradition, in which the breast was bared as a sign of respect to a higher-status person.<ref name="Jacob_1990" /> Attingal Rani once had a lower caste woman’s breast cut off as a punishment for wearing upper cloth.<ref name="Pre">{{cite journal | url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422185251id_/http://ijrcs.rcsjournals.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/201708019.pdf | title=CONDITION OF WOMEN IN PRE-MODERN TRAVANCORE | author=Keerthana Santhosh}}</ref> For example, the ] women were not allowed to cover their breasts while in front of the ] Brahmins or entering the temples, while the Brahmins bared their breasts only to the images of the deities. The women of the even lower castes, such as Nadars, Ezhavars and ] castes, were not allowed to cover their breasts at all.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Judge |first1=Paramjit |last2=Bal |first2=Gurpreet |title=Strategies of Social Change in India |date=1996 |publisher=MD Publications |isbn=9788175330061 |page=167 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/A_Social_History_of_India/Be3PCvzf-BYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Nadars,+Ezhavas+,+were+not+allowed+to+cover+their+breasts&pg=PA375&printsec=frontcover |access-date=11 July 2021}}</ref> With the spread of ] in the 19th century, the Christian converts among the Nadar women started covering their upper body, and gradually even the Hindu Nadar women adopted this practice.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/nadarsoftamilnad0000hard|url-access=registration|title=The Nadars of Tamilnad|author=Robert L. Hardgrave|publisher=University of California Press|year=1969|pages=–62|oclc=12064}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr.|year=1968|title=The Breast-Cloth Controversy: Caste Consciousness and Social Change in Southern Travancore|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|volume=5|issue=2|pages=171–187|doi=10.1177/001946466800500205|s2cid=143287605}}</ref> After a series of protests, known as the ], Nadar women were granted the right to cover their breasts in 1859.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women at the Intersection of Caste and Sex: History of Breast Tax|url=https://in.makers.yahoo.com/women-at-the-intersection-of-caste-and-sex-history-of-breast-tax-030006956.html|access-date=2021-07-10|website=in.makers.yahoo.com|language=en-IN}}</ref> | |||
| Multiple historians have documented that uncovering one's breasts was revered as a symbolic token of homage from the lower castes towards the ] in the state of Travancore and a state-law prevented this covering which served to demarcate the caste hierarchy in a prominent manner and often served as the core locus of spontaneous rebellions by lower castes.{{sfn|Cohn|1996|p=140}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/nadarsoftamilnad0000hard|url-access=registration|title=The Nadars of Tamilnad|year=1969|last=Hardgrave|first=Robert L.|publisher=University of California Press|pages=-70|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| == Channar Revolt == | |||
| {{Main|Channar revolt}} | |||
| During the time of Travancore, lower-caste women were not allowed to wear clothes that covered their breasts.<ref name=":52" /> Higher-class women covered both breasts and shoulders, whereas lower castes including Nadar and Ezhava women were not allowed to cover their breasts, to indicate their low status.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newsclick.in/saffronisation-education-ncert-syllabus-drops-chapters |title=Re-writing History, Saffronising Education: Remembering Nangeli Lest Government Makes Us Forget|date=2019-03-19|website=NewsClick|language=en|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/sabarimala-row-travancore-parallel-the-fight-to-wear-an-upper-garment-5406642/|title=Travancore parallel: the fight to wear an upper garment|date=2018-10-18|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=2019-11-13}}</ref> They had to pay the breast tax if they wanted to cover themselves.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":1"/> Uneasy with their social status, a large number of Nadars embraced Christianity, and started to wear long cloths. When many more Nadar women turned to Christianity, many Hindu Nadar women also started to wear the ] breast cloth,<ref name=":62" /> which led to violence between the upper caste and lower castes.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2009/jul/27/a-struggle-for-decent-dress-71376.html|title=A struggle for decent dress|website=The New Indian Express |access-date=2019-11-15}}</ref> | |||
| From 1813 to 1859 several laws were enacted and removed by Travancore regarding the upper cloth issue.{{sfn|Cohn|1996|p=140}}{{sfn|Ponnumuthan|1996|p=109}} On one such occasion the members of the king's council argued that this right would remove the ] and pollute the kingdom.{{sfn|Cohn|1996|p=140}}{{sfn|Ponnumuthan|1996|p=109}} Agitations and violence continued against the lower caste Christian and Hindu women on the right to cover their breasts and several schools and churches were burned.{{sfn|Cohn|1996|p=141}} Several waves of violence continued for four decades.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4"/> | |||
| In 1859 the violence reached a peak when two Nadar women were stripped of their upper clothes by Travancore officials and hung on a tree in public for covering their breasts.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":62"/> The Nadars revolted in ferocity and started to terrorize the upper caste neighborhoods and ] their shops. Thus the kingdom was forced to take action on the upper cloth law to bring peace in the kingdom.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":62"/> In the same year, under pressure from the ] governor, the king issued a decree giving all Nadar women the right to cover their breasts.{{sfn|Cohn|1996|p=141}}{{sfn|Ross|2008|p=78}}{{sfn|Jones|1989|p=159}} Yet they were still not allowed in the style of the higher-class women which the Nadar women did not follow.{{sfn|Ponnumuthan|1996|p=110}}{{sfn|Cohn|1996|p=141-142}}{{sfn|Kertzer|1988|p=113}} | |||
| == Legend of Nangeli == | |||
| {{Main|Nangeli}} | |||
| The village-legend Nangeli is about a woman who lived in the early 19th century at ] in the erstwhile princely state of Travancore in India and supposedly, cut off her breasts in an effort to protest against the caste-based breast tax.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":0"/><ref name="manu">{{Cite book |title=The Courtesan, the Mahatma and the Italian Brahmin: Tales from Indian History |last=Pillai |first=Manu S. |publisher=Westland Publications |year=2019 |isbn=9789388689786 |location=Chennai |chapter=The woman with no breasts |via=The Hindu |author-link=Manu S. Pillai |chapter-url=http://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/the-woman-who-cut-off-her-breasts/article17324549.ece}}</ref> According to the legend, she cut off her breasts and presented them to the tax collector in a ],<ref name="TH">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/200-years-on-nangelis-sacrifice-only-a-fading-memory/article5255026.ece|title=200 years on, Nangeli's sacrifice only a fading memory|last=Surendranath|first=Nidhi|date=21 October 2013|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=15 April 2017}}</ref><ref name=":122">{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/She-died-fighting-breast-tax-her-name-lives-on/articleshow/51283819.cms|title=She died fighting 'breast tax', her name lives on|last=Singh|first=Vijay|date=7 March 2016|website=Times of India|access-date=15 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="manu" /> then died of blood loss.<ref name="manu" /> Following the death of Nangeli, a series of people's movements were set off. Soon the place where she lived had come to be called as ''Mulachiparambu'' (meaning ''place of the breasted woman'').<ref name=":2"/> | |||
| However, the story is not officially recognized in any of India's historical accounts and its authenticity is debatable.<ref name=":2"/><ref name="manu" /> Historian ] argues that covering breasts was not the norm in Kerala's matrilineal society during Nangeli's life-span. Victorian standards of morality penetrated into the society decades later under British colonial influence, which led to subsequent class-struggles for the right to wear upper cloth.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|last=Pillai|first=Manu S.|date=2017-02-18|title=The woman who cut off her breasts |language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/the-woman-who-cut-off-her-breasts/article17324549.ece|access-date=2021-01-15|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He believes Nangeli to have protested against an oppressive tax regime that was imposed upon all lower castes, which got appropriated with the passage of time, in pursuit of a different patriarchal fight for the preservation of female dignity.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=2019-11-03|title=Revisiting Nangeli, the Woman with No Breasts|url=https://www.newsclick.in/Nangeli-Basava-Manu-Pillai-Indian-History-Travancore-breast-tax|access-date=2021-01-15|website=NewsClick|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist}} | |||
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| == Further reading == | |||
| * {{Citation|last=Cohn|first=Bernard S.|title=Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/5870.html|year=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691000435}} | |||
| * {{Citation|last=Jones|first=Kenneth W.|title=Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India|url=http://www.cambridge.org/nl/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/socio-religious-reform-movements-british-india|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-24986-4}} | |||
| * {{Citation|last=Kertzer|first=David I.|title=Ritual, Politics, and Power|url=http://www.davidkertzer.com/books/ritual-politics-and-power|year=1988|publisher=Yale University Press}} | |||
| * {{Citation|last=Ponnumuthan|first=Selvister|title=The Spirituality of Basic Ecclesial Communities in the Socio-religious Context of Trivandrum/Kerala, India|year=1996|publisher=Universita Gregoriana}} | |||
| * {{Citation|last=Ross|first=Robert|title=Clothing: A Global History|year=2008|publisher=Polity}} | |||
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