Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 16:46, 18 February 2007

Cannabis (also known as marijuana, ganja or the fat man's crop in its herbal form and hashish in its resinous form) is a psychoactive drug produced from parts of the Cannabis sativa or subspecies Cannabis indica and ruderalis plant. The herbal forms are primarily from the cured flowers and gathered trichomes of the female plant, as well as the less psychoactive remains of the plant; highly psychoactively concentrated resin, known as hashish, is composed of the compressed trichomes collected from the leaves and flowers of a mature, flowering female Cannabis plant.

The major active chemical compound Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC, has psychoactive and medicinal effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory , though in the 20th century there was a rise in the use of cannabis for recreational and religious purposes. At the beginning of the 21st century, it is estimated that cannabis is used regularly by four percent of the world's adult population each year,with in the West estimates of up to 20% or greater in the United States as having tried the plant, and estimates of 10-30% or greater using the plant in many European countries. The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, while some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition, others have reduced the priority of enforcement almost to the point of legalization, as is the case in The Netherlands. The supplying of cannabis remains illegal almost everywhere in the world through the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, while simple possession of small quantities is either legal or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offence in a few countries.

Ancient history

Biologists generally agree that the cannabis plant first grew somewhere in the Himalayas. Evidence of the smoking of cannabis can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, where charred hemp seeds were found in a ritual brazier at a burial site in present day Romania. The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus. It was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian languages, named for the Ganges river ). The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.

The citizens of the Persian Empire would partake in the ceremonial burning of massive cannabis bonfires, directly exposing themselves and neighboring tribes to the billowing fumes, often for over 24 hours.

Cannabis was also well known to the Assyrians, who discovered it through the Aryans. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu, or the drug for sadness. Also introduced by the Aryans, the Scythians as well as the Thracians/Dacians used it, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of Dionysus, which is believed to have originated in Thrace, is also believed to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2006, dried cannabis leaves were found with a 2,800 year old mummy of a shaman in Xinjiang, China.

Religious and spiritual use

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews, early Christians and Muslims of the Sufi order. In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of cognizance. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion.

Medical use

There are many claims (many of which are espoused by groups that support drug legalization) regarding the use of cannabis in a medicinal context. However, on April 20th, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an advisory against medical marijuana stating that, "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. Furthermore, there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful." Additionally, the smoked form of marijuana is not supported as modern medicine by the American Medical Association , the National Multiple Sclerosis Society , the American Glaucoma Society, the American Academy of Ophthalmology and the American Cancer Society . (Federal Register, 1992). On June 6, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision which supported the Federal Government's position against "medical marijuana.

Marijuana legalization advocacy groups such as the Marijuana Policy Project claim that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression and from nausea (and resulting weight loss) due to chemotherapy and other treatments that directly address their symptoms. It is claimed that cannabis makes other forms of treatment for cancer and AIDS more tolerable. The nausea suppression and mild analgesic effects are also claimed to provide a degree of relief for persons suffering from seasickness or from motion sickness. It can also be used by hyperhidrosis sufferers for temporary relief of excessive sweating.

Claims have also been made that cannabis can also reduce intraocular pressure (fluid pressure within the eye) and is therefore suggested by some advocates for glaucoma patients. It is also suggested for certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, migraine and bipolar disorder. Studies have found that the use of cannabis can relieve tics in patients suffering from OCD and/or Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with marijuana reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior were also found. A recent study has also suggested that cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.

Currently the citizenry of 11 states in the United States (upwards of 60 million people) have legalized cannabis for medical usage to some degree. Additionally, 6 states have enacted decriminalization policies toward the drug. However, as the federal government does not recognize any medicinal use of cannabis and its own laws remain unchanged, federal enforcement of prohibition continues in these areas.

The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but physicians sometimes recommend it informally, yet of late face prosecution for doing so by the federal government in the United States. A synthetic version of the major active chemical in cannabis, THC, is available in many countries in the form of a pill as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol). THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages. A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis in Canada as the prescription drug Sativex—this drug may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription. (Note: United States Law currently registers cannabis as a schedule I drug and Marinol as a schedule III drug.)

Relationship with other illicit drugs

Since its origin in the 1950s, the "gateway drug" theory has been one of the major facets of marijuana drug policy in the United States. Those who subscribe to this theory, which has since spread throughout the world, essentially believe that smoking cannabis may lead users to other drugs and should therefore be treated as a serious matter. Some studies have found the theory to be false, whereas others have found truth to these claims. Despite the conflicting results of these studies, much of the research on both sides suggests that the legal status of cannabis may have some correlation with the "gateway theory". In many countries cannabis is outlawed, so the cannabis user may very easily find himself or herself in situations where other illegal drugs are being used, or he or she may become acquainted with people who use other substances illegally through the process of purchasing cannabis from black market dealers. Situations such as these may lead the user to move on to drugs that are generally considered more dangerous. As well, marijuana is usually the most easily accessable drug in most regions of the world and many people that eventually move on to use other drugs, have usually started with marijuana. Keeping this in mind, there are certain activist groups such as NORML that argue that the legalization of cannabis would eliminate these problems by taking it out of the hands of outlaws and regulating it in the same manner as drugs such as alcohol or tobacco. Government organizations such as the DEA, however, claim that legalization would do far more harm than good, and would perhaps cause a rise in cannabis use.

New breeding and cultivation techniques

Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the diversity and potency of cannabis strains since 1970, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances are known as the sinsemilla techniques of production; sinsemilla, Spanish for without seed, are the dried, seedless female flowers of cannabis plants which have been grown in the absence of males to ensure no pollination takes place. Because THC potency and production drops off once pollination takes place, various techniques such as seed banks, hydroponics, cloning, lighting techniques, and the sea of green method have been utilized, in part as a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky; thus, efficient indoor cultivation has become more common. These same advances have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis currently than were present 20 years ago.

Many opponents of cannabis use, both in and out of government, have exaggerated the increases in potency and ramifications thereof. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that pot today is significantly stronger and thus more dangerous than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past. In a general pattern of proposing reverses in cannabis rescheduling, the UK government is considering scheduling stronger cannabis (skunk, in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance. Many cannabis proponents disagree vehemently, reasoning that as one must smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, it actually is safer and less potentially carcinogenic in the long run than that which was smoked in earlier times.

There are three recognized subspecies of Cannabis sativa: Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa, C. sativa subsp. indica, and C. sativa subsp. ruderalis Sativas are reputed to induce a noticeably more cerebral high, while indicas induce more of a body high.

Preparations for human consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

• Marijuana or ganja, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants.
• Hashish, a concentrated resin mostly comprised of trichomes that are extracted physically, as with ice hash, or chemically.
• Kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"); it is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves.
• Charas, hand-made hashish produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces.
• Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink.
• Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant.
• Budder, processed hash oil. Ordinary hash oil is whipped to incorporate air, making it a foam. It has been marketed as being anywhere between 82% and 100% THC, though no actual lab tests have been done to validate this claim.

These forms are certainly not exclusive and combinations of two or more different forms of cannabis are common. Mixing different forms is done mainly to obtain a different or more powerful effect. Between the many different strains of Cannabis, the various ways that it is prepared for consumption and methods by which it is consumed, there are innumerable types of blends or mixes, similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic or caffeinated beverages that are possible.

Cannabis is measured in many different ways. The most common is in pounds or kilos (fractions of an ounce or grammes).

Smoking

There are a wide variety of methods of smoking cannabis. The most popular include the joint, the blunt, the bong, the pipe more commonly called a "bowl" or "piece," the shotgun, and the one-hitter, which resemble miniature chillums. Cannabis is sometimes smoked inside a small closed area (such as a car) used to trap smoke so that it is inhaled with every breath. This is often referred to as "hotboxing", "fishbowling", "baking", "jeaning", "clam-baking", "green-housing", creating a "potmosphere" or in Australia as a "compression session". One can also smoke marijuana in a steam-filled environment (bathrooms, saunas), with the added humidity intended to produce a greater high.

To create a joint, cannabis is rolled up into a cigarette, using rolling paper (where available). Brown paper, newsprint, and other assorted paper products can be used. Cannabis cigars, or blunts, can also be created by using the wrapper of a standard cigar.

A bong is a pipe with a cone piece on one end which the weed is placed in, wiht the other end sitting in water wheather this be in an actual bong or a home made bong. A home made bong is usually made with a plastic milk bottle. The marijuana is burnt and that patient sucks the top of the bottle forcing the smoke to be filtered through the water then inhaled. The smoking of marijuana through a bong intensifies its effects. Variants include the gravity bong, also known as a bucket bong, which consists of a cone atop a perforated or cut water bottle. This method of cannabis smoking is one of the most efficient, as the presence of a chamber and carburetor reduce smoke waste. One can consume massive amounts of cannabis in one "hit". Pipes are usually made of blown glass, wood, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Glass pipes often have a carburetor, colloquially referred to as a carb, rush, choke, shotgun, or shooter (British use) that is covered for suction then released for inhalation. Some users also prefer vertically held pipes, or improvised pipes "tinnies", "foilies" made from aluminium foil (either constructed entirely from the foil or by using it as a gauze), small plumbing fittings, soda cans, crisp fruits or vegetables, or the cardboard from bathroom-tissue or aluminium foil rolls.

A "one-hitter" is a device that allows smaller amounts of cannabis to be smoked with equal suction. Cannabis buds are loaded into a compartment for combustion. The smoker then lights the compartment and the entire amount of cannabis is smoked. This is repeated for each hit. This method is also efficient in titrating the exact dose desired. One-hitters are often disguised as actual cigarettes in order to mislead or deceive people into believing that the person is smoking an authentic cigarette.

Vaporization

With a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365 °F (185 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many (or any) toxic chemicals depending on the quality of the vaporizer. Scientific studies by MAPS/NORML have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of cannabis consumption. One particular study by MAPS/NORML, using a Volcano Vaporizer found 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. However, an older study by MAPS/NORML showed minimal reduction of toxins. Because of this method's similarity in common use to vaporizing or "freebasing" crack cocaine or heroin, this method is also commonly known as freebasing, although the technical definition of "freebase" relates to an alkaloid in its standalone, non-salt form.

Eating cannabis

Cannabis may be orally consumed. In order to release its psychoactive properties hashish can be eaten raw or mixed with water but marijuana will only be absorbed into the bloodstream by blending it with ethanol or lipids. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be perceived as more physical rather than mental, though there are claims to the contrary. A dose of oral cannabis is often considered to give a stronger experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis, and some people are displeased after ingesting the compounds this way after receiving too great an effect with an unknown dose. A common belief holds that smoking cannabis leads to a large amount of the active compounds being lost in the exhaled smoke or simply decomposing on burning, whereas ingested cannabis results in 100% consumption of the active compounds, an assertion which cannot be confirmed without objective analysis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC in the liver. Titration is much more complex than through inhalation. Common preparations involve blending with butter, to create Cannabutter that is used in preparing Brownies, fudge, cookies, ganja goo balls or space cakes. When blended with melted butter, the plant is finely minced almost into powder form. A more pure form on Cannabutter is prepared by heating marijuana bud or trim with butter and water for an extended period of time without boiling. The trim or bud is filtered out through a strainer or cheese cloth, and the water and butter are allowed to naturally separate, leaving Cannabutter to be used in recipes. However, there are some preparations that do not contain butter in them and therefore fall into a slightly different category; these include the Leary biscuit, which requires less preparation than more "conventional" recipes. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India. Hollowed-out gumballs filled with the plant, wrapped and distributed labeled as Greenades, were identified in 2006 as being used by high school students in the United States.

As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before eating the plant to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will digest the plant faster so it 'hits' stronger. However, some people do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach may cause nausea. Still, time to effect onset is an hour or sometimes more, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate.

Cannabis can also be leached in high-percentage ethanol (often grain alcohol) to create Green Dragon. This process is often used to utilize otherwise low-quality stems and leaves.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble, with a solubility of only 2.8 grams per litre, but enough to make a tea effective. Water-based infusion is generally considered to be inefficient.

The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Many countries, including the United States, make the possession of viable cannabis seeds illegal, although they can be openly bought and sold legally in much of Europe, including the UK.

Immediate effects of consumption

The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. What the user does under the influence can also affect the effects of cannabis. For example, if the user does nothing they will feel relaxed and sleepy, whereas if they engage in intense physical or mental activity they will feel energised. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that drug varieties of Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa tend to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while C. sativa subsp. indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.

Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity

Of the approximately 315 different psychoactive chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC can degrade to other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol or cannabinol, which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different cannabis products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality and nature of the "high" will vary.

THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system, which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit the cause of cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. It is however a widely-held belief that smoking cannabis lowers the sperm count of men, in particular smoking stems and seeds. Mild to moderate allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population. A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not conclusively increase THC's effects on psychological test performance

Lethal dose

According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD₅₀, the lethal dose for 50% of rats tested by inhalation, is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is the equivalent of a 165 lb (75 kg) man inhaling all of the THC in 21, one-gram cigarettes of extremely high-potency (15% THC) cannabis buds at once, arguably an impossibility, and assuming that no THC was lost through burning or errant smoke. For oral consumption, the LD₅₀ of THC for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with intravenous administration may such a level be even theoretically possible. The ratio of cannabis required to saturate cannabinoid receptors to the amount of cannabis required to have a fatal over dose is 1:40,000. There have been no reported deaths or permanent injuries sustained as a result of a marijauna overdose.

Health issues and the effects of cannabis

Cancer of the respiratory tract and lungs may be promoted by marijuana smoke. A study comparing 173 cancer patients and 176 healthy individuals produced strong evidence that smoking marijuana increases the likelihood of developing cancer of the head or neck, and that the more marijuana smoked, the greater the increase. A statistical analysis of the data suggested that marijuana smoking doubled or tripled the risk of these cancers.

Marijuana has the potential to promote cancer of the lungs and other parts of the respiratory tract because it contains irritants and carcinogens.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). Such complications demonstrate the need for studies on cannabis which have stronger controls and investigations into the symptoms of cannabis that may also be caused by tobacco.

In addition, research using cannabis is heavily restricted in many countries, reducing the studies funded or approved, and it may be many years before accurate, unbiased information comes to light.

Unlike tobacco, cannabis has not been shown to cause emphysema or lung cancer. Other studies have suggested that cannabis may be less likely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users than other drugs. According to a United Kingdom government report, using cannabis is less dangerous than both tobacco and alcohol in social harms, physical harm and addiction.

Cannabis has a complicated effect on memory, and its effects have been shown to vary from case to case. Rats who were exposed to THC daily for 30% of their typical lifespan showed neurodegeneration of the hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with memory and learning. Similar findings in humans have not yet been established, and some studies even point to enhancement of particular types of memory. Additional research has shown that cannabis has neuroprotective effects, further demonstrating its complicated action. However, A 1998 French governmental report commissioned by Health Secretary of State Bernard Kouchner, and directed by Dr. Pierre-Bernard Roques determined that "former results suggesting anatomic changes in the brain of chronic cannabis users, measured by tomography, were not confirmed by the accurate modern neuro-imaging techniques. Moreover, morphological impairment of the hippocampus of rat after administration of very high doses of THC (Langfield et al., 1988) was not shown (Slikker et al., 1992)." he concluded that : "Scientifical facts show that, for cannabis, no neurotoxicity is demonstrated, to the contrary of alcohol and cocaine."

Research between the use of cannabis and mental illness has also brought significant results. Cannabis use is generally higher among sufferers of schizophrenia, but the causality between the two has not been established. Another study concluded that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among genetically predisposed individuals has been associated with a variety of mental illness outcomes; ranging from psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia.

Legality

Since the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However, this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal amount" of cannabis, since buying or growing cannabis is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. Some countries allow the sale through drug companies. However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

Recent history

Under the name cannabis, 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a tincture) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis. Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like aspirin took over its use as a pain reliever.

In 1894, the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission commissioned by the UK Secretary of State and the government of India, was instrumental in the decision not to criminalize the drug in those countries. The Report, which at over 500 pages remains one of the most complete collections of information on cannabis in existence, shows the stark contrast in the way that the American and British governments went about deciding whether to criminalize cannabis.

The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, which deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal, playing upon attitudes towards race. (See 1937 Marihuana Tax Act). Those who demonized the drug by calling it marihuana omitted the fact that the "deadly marihuana" was identical to cannabis indica, which had at the time a reputation for pharmaceutical safety.

Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.

Decriminalization and legalization

In recent decades, a movement to decriminalize cannabis has arisen in several countries. 12 US states have passed by majority vote of the citizenry, laws allowing some degree of medical use, while a further 6 states have taken steps to decriminalize it to some degree. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include Denver, Colorado legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis, a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to grow it legally, and Massachusetts voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of cannabis.

In Alaska, cannabis was decided legal for in-home, personal use under the Ravin vs. State ruling in 1975. This ruling allowed up to four ounces of cannabis for these purposes. A 1991 voter ballot initiative recriminalized marijuana possession, but when that law was eventually challenged in 2004, the Alaska court's upheld the Ravin ruling, saying the popular vote could not trump the state constitution.In response to former Governor Frank Murkowski's successive attempt to re-criminalize cannabis, the ACLU filed a lawsuit against the state. On July 17, 2006, Superior Court Judge Patricia Collins awarded the Case Summary judgement to the ACLU. In her ruling, she said "No specific argument has been advanced in this case that possession of more than 1 ounce of cannabis, even within the privacy of the home, is constitutionally protected conduct under Ravin or that any plaintiff or ACLU of Alaska member actually possesses more than 1 ounce of cannabis in their homes." This does not mean that the legal possession threshold has been reduced to one ounce, as this was a mere case summary review filed by the ACLU, not a full case. Reinforcing Ravin, Collins wrote "A lower court cannot reverse the State Supreme Court's 1975 decision in Ravin v. State" and "Unless and until the Supreme Court directs otherwise, Ravin is the law in this state and this court is duty bound to follow that law". The law regarding possession of cannabis has not changed in Alaska, and the Supreme Court has declined to review the case, therefore the law still stands at 4 ounces.

In 2002, Nevada voters defeated a ballot question which would legalize up to 3 ounces for adults 21 and older by 39% to 61%. In 2006, a similar Nevada ballot initiative, which would have legalized and regulated the cultivation, distribution, and possession of up to 1 ounce of marijuana by adults 21 and older, was defeated by 44% to 56%.

In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, this change took effect on January 29, 2004. Since then there has recently been some controversy amongst UK politicians about the message this sends out, with some calling for its reclassification to Class B.

The Government of Mexico voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on April 28, 2006. However, as of May 3, 2006, Mexican President Vicente Fox has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs and vetoed the bill on May 4, 2006, sparking broad controversy over the bill. In the early summer of 2006 Fox and the Mexican congress came to an agreement and legalized possession of small amounts (and also measured amounts of other drugs). On July 17, 2006, Italian Social Solidarity Minister Paolo Ferrero, speaking of the urgent need for depenalising the consumption of light drugs, said that "a joint is less harmful than a litre of wine." In the Australian Capital Territory, two plants both less than 6 feet tall are allowed for personal use. In South Australia however, possession of cannabis is an offence, with fines ranging from $150 to $300 for possession and cultivation of small amounts. There is much confusion on the subject, with many people believing that possession of a certain amount is legal. In South Australia however, this is a myth.

Legality in Hong Kong

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Cannabis is regulated under section 9 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance.

Cultivation and dealing with cannabis plant is illegal and a fine of $100,000 and to imprisonment for 15 years can be laid by the court. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000(HKD). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 fine and/or 7 years of jail time.

Legality in the United States

Under Federal law, it is illegal to possess, use, buy, sell, or cultivate marijuana anywhere in the United States. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classifies marijuana as a Schedule I drug, meaning it has a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. Under the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution, Federal law in the United States preempts conflicting state and local laws. Nevertheless, some states and local governments have established laws attempting to decriminalize cannabis, which has reduced the number of "simple possession" offenders sent to jail, since federal enforcement agents rarely target individuals directly for such relatively minor offenses. Other state and local governments ask law enforcement agencies to limit enforcement of drug laws with respect to cannabis. In the 2006 election, amendment 44 of Colorado making it legal to possess less than 1 ounce of marijuana, failed and the election was 40-60, yet it is still a misdemeanor to possess up to one half pound, and is punished mainly by fines unless sale is established.

The National Center for Natural Products Research in Oxford, Mississippi is the only facility in the United States that is federally licensed by the National Institute on Drug Abuse to cultivate cannabis for scientific research. The Center is part of the School of Pharmacy at the University of Mississippi.

See also

• Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang
• National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws
• Illegal drug trade
• Psychoactive drugs
• Health issues and the effects of cannabis
• 420 (cannabis culture)
• BC Bud
• Bhang
• Cannabis (drug) cultivation
• Cannabis coffee shops
• Cheech & Chong
• Drug policy of the Netherlands
• Eagle Bill
• Emerald Triangle
• Fitz Hugh Ludlow ("The Hasheesh Eater")
• Grow-op
• Hash oil
• Head shop
• Jack Herer
• List of cannabis strains
• Marc Emery
• Marijuana Parties
• Marijuana Decriminalization
• Seed bank
• Shake
• Soap bar
• Stoner
• Stoner rock
• Victor Robinson
• War on Drugs
• Psychoactive drug
• Quebec Gold

References

Notes

1. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. "CANNABIS: WHY WE SHOULD CARE". World Drug Report 2006, Volume I: Analysis (PDF). United Nations. ISBN 92-1-148214-3. Retrieved 2006-11-10.
2. Richard Rudgley (1999). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age.
3. Flashbacks, Tim Leary
4. "HEMP". Encyclopædia Britannica (11 ed.). 1911. Retrieved 2006-06-15.
5. "Soma". The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Little, Brown and Company. 1998. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
6. Abu Usaybia (1965), Uyunu al-Anba fi Tabaquat al-Atibba, Berkeley: University of California Press
7. "Plastic Cement: The Ten Cent Hallucinogen". International Journal of the Addictions. 2: 271–272. 1967. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
8. People's Daily Online (English). "Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman".
9. ^ K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich (1999). "Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol". American Journal of Psychiatry. 156 (3).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
10. K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich (2002). "Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial". Pharmacopsychiatry. 35 (2).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
11. R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch (1988). "Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 8 (6).
12. . Retrieved 2006-12-31. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
13. "Cannabis compound benefits blood vessels". Nature (magazine). 2005-04-04. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
14. "Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada". 2005-06-23. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
15. "Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain". Retrieved 2006-03-25.
16. "RAND STUDY CASTS DOUBT ON CLAIMS THAT MARIJUANA ACTS AS "GATEWAY" TO THE USE OF COCAINE AND HEROIN". Retrieved 2006-12-24. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 48 (help)
17. Tarter, Ralph E. (2006). "Predictors of Marijuana Use in Adolescents Before and After Licit Drug Use: Examination of the Gateway Hypothesis". American Journal of Psychiatry. 163 (12). doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.12.2134. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
18. Richard Saitz,MD,MPH,FACP. "Is Marijuana a Gateway Drug?". Journal Watch. Retrieved 2006-12-27. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
19. Morral, Andrew R. (2002.). "Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect". Addiction. 97 (12): 1493–1504. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
20. "Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ". Retrieved 2006-12-24.
21. "Marijuana Decriminalization & Its Impact on Use". Retrieved 2007-01-29.
22. "The DEA Position on Marijuana". Retrieved 2007-01-29.
23. "Nation's Youth Turning Away from Marijuana, as Perceptions of Risk Rise; Most Adults with Substance Abuse Problems Are Employed" (Press release). United States Department of Health and Human Services. 2004-09-09. Retrieved 2006-05-30. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
24. USDA, NRCS (2006). "The PLANTS Database". Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA: National Plant Data Center. Retrieved 2006-11-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
25. Gieringer, Dale H. (2004). "Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds" (pdf). Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 4 (1): 7–27. doi:10.1300/J175v04n01_02. Retrieved 2006-04-21. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
26. Gieringer, Dale. "Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study". Retrieved 2006-04-21.
27. Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini (2004). "Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage". Sao Paulo Medical Journal. 122 (3). doi:10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007. Retrieved 2006-05-02. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
28. "Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students". PR Web. 2006-07-22. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
29. Akinde Omotayo. "The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids". Borough of Manhattan Community College. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
30. "Controlled Substances Act". 21 USCS § 801. United States Drug Enforcement Agency. Retrieved November 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
31. "Urban Legends Reference Pages: Language (420)". Retrieved 2006-05-11.
32. Erowid. "Cannabis Chemistry". Retrieved 2006-03-20.
33. Tashkin, D.P. Pulmonary complications of smoked substance abuse. West J Med 152:525-530, 1990.
34. Fred Gardner (2006-07-06). "Marijuana Smoking Does Not Cause Lung Cancer". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
35. D.P. Tashkin; et al. (January 1997). "Heavy habitual marijuana smoking does not cause an accelerated decline in FEV1 with age". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155 (1): 141–148. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
36. "Study finds no marijuana-lung cancer link". Washington Post. 2006-05-26. Retrieved 2006-07-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
37. J.S. Hayes, R. Lampart, M.C. Dreher, L. Morgan (1991). "Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy". West Indian Medical Journal. 40 (3): 120–3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
38. M.C. Dreher, K. Nugent, R. Hudgins (1994). "Prenatal Marijuana Exposure and Neonatal Outcomes in Jamaica: An Ethnographic Study". Pediatrics. 93 (3): 254–260.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
39. "UK government report" (PDF). House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-08-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)]
40. National Institute On Drug Abuse (2005-06). "Marijuana Abuse" (PDF). Research Report Series. Retrieved 2007-02-13. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
41. {{}}
42. 1998 INSERM-CNRS report, directed by Pr. Bernard Roques and commissioned by Health Secretary of State Bernard Kouchner
43. Cécile Henquet, Lydia Krabbendam, Janneke Spauwen, Charles Kaplan, Roselind Lieb, Hans-Ulrich Wittchen and Jim van Os (2004). "Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people". British Medical Journal. 330 (11).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
44. G C Patton, Carolyn Coffey, J B Carlin, Louisa Degenhardt, Micheal Lynskey and Wayne Hall (2005). "Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study". British Medical Journal. 325 (1195).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
45. Louise Arseneault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study" (PDF). British Medical Journal.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
46. Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arseneault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (January 2005). "Moderation of the Effect of Adolescent-Onset Cannabis Use on Adult Psychosis by a Functional Polymorphism in the catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene: Longitudinal Evidence of a Gene X Environment Interaction" (PDF). Society of Biological Psychiatry.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
47. "Positive and negative cerebral symptoms: the roles of Russell Reynolds and Hughlings Jackson". Retrieved 2006-03-25.
48. Kaplan, J. (1969) "Introduction" of the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission ed. by The Honorable W. Mackworth Young, et al. (Simla: Government Central Printing Office, 1894) LCCN 74-84211, pp. v-vi.
49. Gieringer, Dale H. (2006-06-17). "The Origins of Cannabis Prohibition in California" (PDF). Contemporary Drug Problems. 26 (2). Retrieved 2007-01-05. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |quotes= ignored (help) p.13
50. Patrick O'Driscoll (2005-11-03). "Denver votes to legalize marijuana possession". USA Today. Retrieved 2006-03-11. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
51. "Dutch Politicians Seek Marijuana Rules". Retrieved 2006-02-25.
52. "Marijuana fight nears". Retrieved 2006-02-17.
53. "Home Office- Class B to Class C". Retrieved 2006-03-27.
54. Randewich, Noel (2006-04-28). "Mexico to decriminalize pot, cocaine and heroin". Reuters. Retrieved 2006-04-28. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
55. "Mexico's Fox won't sign drug law". Reuters. 2006-05-03. Retrieved 2006-05-04. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
56. "Mexican legal drug proposal rejected". Sign On San Diego. 2006-05-04. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
57. "Mexico denies drug law veto result of US pressure". Dominican Today. 2006-05-04. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
58. "Protest at Mexican Consulate in New York, Friday". Scoop. 2006-05-05. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
59. "Drug Bill Veto Sparks Mexico City Marijuana Smoke-In". Fox News. 2006-06-05. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
60. "DRUG: FERRERO DECRIMINALIZE CONSUMPTION OF LIGHT DRUGS". Agenzia Giornalistica Italia. 2006-07-17. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Text "accessdat2--6-07-26" ignored (help)

Bibliography

• Howard Markel (2002-10-27). "For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away". New York Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 325: 1212–1213.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (2005). "Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction" (PDF). Biol Psychiatry. 25: 1117–1127. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |Author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Henderson, Mark (2005-04-12). "One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis". The Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana (Aston Birmingham): "Psychosis, Hype And Baloney". AlterNet. 2005-03-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• James Huff and Po Chan (October 2000). "Antitumor Effects of THC". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108(10): Correspondence. PMID 11097557.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
• Cannabis: A History (2005). Martin Booth - ISBN 0-312-32220-8

Template:Link FA

• Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants
• Cannabis
• Medicinal plants