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| {{Infobox_President | name=Ronald Wilson Reagan | |||
| | nationality=American | |||
| | image=Official Portrait of President Reagan 1981.jpg | |||
| | order=40th ] | |||
| | vicepresident=] | |||
| | term_start=] ] | |||
| | term_end=] ] | |||
| | predecessor=] | |||
| | successor=] | |||
| | order2=33rd ] | |||
| | lieutenant2=] <br>(1967 - 1969) <br> ] <br>(1969 - 1974) <br> ] <br>(1974 - 1975) | |||
| | term_start2=] ] | |||
| | term_end2=] ] | |||
| | predecessor2=] | |||
| | successor2=] | |||
| | birth_date=] ] | |||
| | birth_place=], ] | |||
| | death_date={{death date and age|2004|6|5|1911|2|6}} | |||
| | death_place=], ], ], ] | |||
| | spouse=(1) ] (married 1940, divorced 1948)<br/>(2) ] (married 1952) | |||
| | religion=] | |||
| | signature=Ronald Reagan signature.gif | |||
| | party=] | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Ronald Wilson Reagan''' (], ] – ], ]) was the 40th ] (1981–1989) and the 33rd ] (1967–1975). At sixty-nine, he was the ]. Before entering politics, Reagan was a successful Hollywood and television actor, head of the ], and a spokesman for ]. He was a prominent ] in the 1940s, but by 1960 Reagan had become a ] Republican. He strongly opposed ] and ], and as president he fought for free-trade agreements, welfare cutbacks, tax cuts, and sought a reduction to regulation. | |||
| He married ] in ], and they divorced in ]. In ], he married ], with whom he remained for the rest of his life, fifty-two years. | |||
| Reagan is often referred to as the Gipper, referring to his performance as ] in the film '']'', often along with his popular line "Win one for the Gipper." As a youth he was called "Dutch", a nickname given him by his father. As President, he became known as "The Great Communicator" and "The Teflon President". His Secret Service codename was "Rawhide". <ref name="An American Life"> {{cite book | last = Reagan | first = Ronald | authorlink = | coauthors = | origyear = 1990 |title = | url = | title = "An American Life" |pages= | publisher = Harper Collins | location = New York | id = | accessdate = 2007-1-3}}</ref> | |||
| Reagan is credited with restoring America's power and prosperity after a period of ] in the wake of the ] and the withdrawal from ]. He rejected ] and escalated the ] with the ] through a military build-up and a firm foreign policy of "peace through strength", but also negotiated with ] to shrink both countries' nuclear arsenals and help bring a peaceful end to the ]. | |||
| Reagan's persuasive ] speaking style earned him the ] '''"The Great Communicator"''', while his survival of numerous scandals earned him the nickname '''"The Teflon President"'''.<ref name="usatoday-reagan-teflon president"> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2006 | url = http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2004-06-06-schroeder_x.htm | title = Teflon President | format = | work = Associated Press | publisher = New York Times | accessdate = 2006-12-28}}</ref> Notable appointments included Supreme Court Justice ], the first woman appointed to the Supreme Court, and Federal Reserve Chairman ]. | |||
| After leaving office, Reagan wrote a well-received autobiography titled ''An American Life.'' In several recent ] of American presidents, Ronald Reagan ranked highly.<ref>]</ref> After suffering from ] for at least a decade, he ] in 2004 at the age of 93 in ], California. He is the second longest-lived president in U.S. history, just behind ] by 45 days. | |||
| Reagan was a devoted ] believer, attending ] in his later years.<ref> - ], ], ].</ref> | |||
| ==Early life== | |||
| ] | |||
| Reagan was born in a flat above the local bank building in Tampico, Illinios, on ], ] to John Edward Reagan (]–]), an ] Catholic, and Nelle Clyde Wilson (]–]), who was of Scottish, Canadian, and English descent. His mother was a member of the ] Church, and she raised her son accordingly. Reagan's father was a ] and sporadically unemployed. | |||
| His paternal great-grandfather, Michael Reagan, came to the United States from ], ], in the 1860s, and the rest of his paternal family also immigrated from ] in the 1800s. Prior to his immigration, the family name was spelled ''Regan''. His maternal great-grandfather, John Wilson, immigrated to the United States from ], ], in the 1840s and married Jane Blue, a Canadian from Queens, ]. Reagan's maternal grandmother, Mary Anne Elsey, was born in ], ]. | |||
| Reagan's family lived in several small Illinois towns and, briefly, ] during Reagan's earliest years. In ], when Reagan was nine years old, the Reagan family settled in the small town of ]. The Midwestern "small universe" made a lasting impression on Reagan "where I learned standards and values that would guide me the rest of my life", Reagan recounted in his autobiography. "I learned that hard work is an essential part of life - that by and large, you don't get something for nothing - and that America was a place that offered unlimited opportunity to those who did work hard. I learned to admire risk takers and entrepreneurs, be they farmers or small merchants, who went to work and took risks to build something for themselves and their children, pushing at the boundaries of their lives to make them better. I have always wondered at this American marvel."<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| In Dixon, Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed a gift for storytelling and acting. In ], Reagan's first job was that of a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park, near Dixon. He was credited with saving 77 lives during the seven summers he worked there.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| After High School, Reagan attended ], where he majored in ] and ]. He was a member of the ] fraternity, and was very active in sports.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| ==From radio announcer to Hollywood star== | |||
| ] | |||
| In ], after graduating from Eureka, Reagan worked at radio stations ] in ], and then ] in ] as an announcer for ] ] games, getting only the bare outlines of the game from a ] and relying on his imagination to flesh out the game. Once, during the ninth inning of a game, the wire went dead but Reagan smoothly improvised a fictional play-by-play (in which hitters on both teams fouled off numerous pitches) until the wire was restored. As a Headline radio announcer, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with the ] studio. Reagan's clear voice, easy-going manner, and athletic physique made him popular with audiences; the majority of his screen roles were as the leading man, beginning with "B" films and carrying on through "A" films. His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie '']''. By the end of ], he had appeared in 19 films. Before '']'' in ], he played the role of ] in the film '']''. From this role he acquired the nickname ''the Gipper'', which he retained the rest of his life. Reagan considered his best acting work to have been in '']'' (]). He played the part of a young man whose legs were amputated. He used a line he spoke in this film, "Where's the rest of me?", as the title for his autobiography. Other notable Reagan films include ''International Squadron'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', ''Hong Kong'', ''The Winning Team'', '']'', ''Cattle Queen of Montana'', ''Storm Warning'', '']'' (1964 remake), and Prisoner of War movie. His many leading ladies included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> He has a star on the ]. | |||
| On May 25, 1937, Reagan was appointed a ] in the Officers' Reserve Corps of the ]. He served with Troop B, 322nd Cavalry.<ref></ref> After the ], on April 18, 1942, Lieutenant Reagan was ordered to active duty, but because of his ] was prevented from serving overseas.<ref name="USSRR"></ref> He was first assigned to the ] Port of Embarkation at ], California, as a liaison officer for the Port and Transportation Office.<ref name="USSRR" /> At the request of the ], he applied for a transfer from the Cavalry to the Army Air Force.<ref name="USSRR" /> In June 1942, was assigned to the ], which made training and education films for the war effort.<ref name="USSRR" /> Reagan recalled in his first autobiography ''Where's the Rest of Me'' that he witnessed inefficiencies in his Army department because bureaucrats wanted to protect their own jobs and budgets. That's when his enthusiasm for government efforts began to wane and his enthusiasm for free markets - and competition - began to rise, he recalled. Reagan remained in Hollywood for the duration of the war. | |||
| ] | |||
| Reagan's film roles became fewer in the late 1950s; he moved to television as a host and frequent performer for '']''. Reagan appeared in over 50 television dramas. Reagan served as the president of the ] (SAG) from 1947 until 1952, and again from 1959 to 1960. In 1952, a Hollywood dispute raged over his granting of a SAG blanket waiver to ], which allowed it to both represent and employ talent for its burgeoning ]. He went from host and program supervisor of ''General Electric Theater'' to producing and claiming an equity stake in the TV show itself. At one point in the late 1950s, Reagan was earning approximately $125,000 per year ($800,000 in 2006 dollars). His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the popular '']'' television series. Reagan's final big-screen appearance came in the 1964 film '']'', a remake of an earlier version, based on a short story by ]. Reagan portrayed a mob chieftain. This film, the first made-for-TV movie, was originally produced for NBC, but the network's censor found it too violent. Reagan's co-stars were ], ], and Angie Dickinson.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| In 1989, after leaving office, Reagan was contacted by the producers of the Back To The Future film trilogy about taking the role of the mayor of the fictional town of Hill Valley, "Mayor Hubert" in the third installment. According to Reagan's agent Lew Wasserman, he contemplated taking the role before eventually turning it down. | |||
| ==Marriages== | |||
| ] Blue Room.]] | |||
| Reagan married actress ] on ], ]; they had a daughter, ] in 1941; an adopted son, ] in 1945, and a second daughter, Christine, born and died ], ]. They divorced on ], ].<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> Reagan is the only United States President to date to have been divorced. | |||
| Reagan married actress ] on ], ]. His best man was ]. Their daughter ] was born on ] of the same year. In 1958, they had a second child, ].<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| From the very start of their marriage, Ronald and Nancy Reagan were "soul mates." He often called her "Mommy"; she called him "Ronnie."<ref>Berry, Deborah Barfield (June 6, 2004) Newsday.com.</ref> This deep relationship was with the Reagans throughout all of their married life. While ] and ], the Reagans frequently displayed their affection for each other in public, and in private.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> Even when the President was debilitated by ], Nancy Reagan reaffirmed their love for each other, stating: "We were very much in love, and still are." | |||
| ==Early political career== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Reagan was originally a ], a supporter of ] and his ], and a lifelong admirer of ]'s leadership skills. In the late 1940s, Reagan was still a visible speaker defending President ]. But his political loyalties shifted to the ].<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| His first major political role was as president of the ] (SAG), the labor union that represented most Hollywood actors. In this position, he testified before the ] (HUAC) on suspected communist influence in the motion picture industry. The Screen Actors Guild, he claimed, was being infiltrated by communists. In private he and his first wife, Jane Wyman, met with FBI agents in 1947 to name "suspected subversives". Among those he allegedly fingered were actors ], ], and ], each of whom was later called before HUAC and subsequently blacklisted in Hollywood. (This information was not revealed until a 2002 ] request.)<ref> - ], ], ] and '']''.</ref> FBI files allegedly show that he continually gave the FBI names of people he suspected of communist ties. | |||
| Now a staunch anti-communist, Reagan supported the presidential candidacies of ] (1952;1956) and ] (1960), while remaining a registered Democrat. Through these years, Reagan read about American history, the ], and free market economics. (Reagan had also majored in economics in college.) After reading Nobel Prize-winner ]'s '']'', Reagan came to believe that socialism was a threat to the American way of life. Witnessing what he believed to be inefficient and overreaching government programs firsthand, Reagan believed that liberals were naively leading the country down a road to serfdom.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| Following the election of ], he formally ] to become a Republican in 1962 — in time to mount the 1964 bandwagon of conservative Presidential contender ]. Speaking on Goldwater's behalf, Reagan revealed his ideological motivation: "The Founding Fathers knew a government can't control the economy without controlling people. And they knew when a government set out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose. So we have come to a time for choosing."<ref>Quoted by ] in the Congressional Record, June 9, 2004.</ref> | |||
| "I didn't leave the Democratic Party", he claimed. "The party left me."<ref></ref> Reagan later explained in his autobiography ''An American Life'' that Franklin D. Roosevelt warned that welfare programs could destroy the work ethic like "a narcotic," and that Roosevelt liquidated the temporary welfare programs designed to aid the country through the Great Depression once the Depression had passed (though the programs would be revived after his death). Reagan implied that Roosevelt would have also disapproved of the change in the ].<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| ==Governor of California== | |||
| In 1966, he was elected the 33rd ], defeating two-term governor ], after working with UC Regent ] to crack down on anti-war protesters at ]. He was re-elected in 1970, defeating "Big Daddy" ] but chose not to seek a third term. Ronald Reagan was sworn in as governor of California on ], ]. In his first term, he froze government hiring but also approved tax hikes to balance the budget. Reagan quickly squelched protest movements of the era. During the ] in 1969, he sent 2,200 ] troops to the Berkeley campus of the ]. In a speech in April 1970, he stated, "If it's to be a bloodbath, let it be now. Appeasement is not the answer."<ref>''Los Angeles Times,'' April 8, 1970, page 3. Later in April 1970, a young man who was aiding police was accidentally shot during a riot in ]. Reagan then blamed the death of the young man on the rioters; ''Los Angeles Times'', April 22, 1970, page 1.</ref> | |||
| ] in Sacramento.]] | |||
| He worked with Democratic Assembly Speaker ] to reform ] in 1971. Reagan also opposed the construction of a large federal dam, the Dos Rios, which would have flooded a valley of ] ranches. Later, Reagan and his family took a summer backpack trip into the high ] to a place where a proposed trans-Sierra highway would be built. Once there, he declared it would not be built. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned ]. He had campaigned as a strong supporter; however, his efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the ] issued its '']'' decision, which invalidated all ]s issued in California prior to 1972, although the decision was quickly overturned by a ]. Despite his support for the death penalty, Reagan granted two clemencies and a temporary reprieve during his governorship. ], no other clemency has been granted to a condemned person in California. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on ], ], when Aaron Mitchell was executed by the state in ]'s gas chamber. There was not another execution in California until 1992. When the ] kidnapped ] in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor, Reagan suggested that it would be a good time for an outbreak of ].<ref>Los Angeles Times, Mar. 7, 1974, p. A25.</ref> After the media reported on the comment, he apologized. | |||
| Reagan promoted the dismantling of the public ] system, proposing that community-based housing and treatment replace involuntary hospitalization, which he saw as a violation of ] issue. Critics allege that the community replacement facilities have never been adequately funded, either by Reagan or his successors. Reagan was strongly influenced by the ]. When asked in an interview in ] which economists were influential on him, he replied: "] and ], and ] and ]–I’m one for the classical economists."<ref> http://reason.com/7507/int_reagan.shtml </ref> | |||
| Reagan was the first governor to use a corporate business jet for official travel. ] received one of the first ] jets manufactured. His pilot, Bill Paynter, changed his Democratic voting registration to Republican within six months of meeting Reagan. Paynter often told listeners the Reagan on TV was the same Reagan in person, a man who walked his talk. Reagan would often ask his flight crew if it would be any inconvenience to change the published flight schedule because he did not want to keep his support staff from being with their families and any family planned events.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===1976 presidential campaign=== | |||
| Reagan first tested the Presidential waters in 1968 as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement which included those from the party's left led by then-] Governor ]. Reagan managed to win the pledges of some 600 delegates, but ] quickly steamrolled to the nomination; Reagan urged the convention to nominate Nixon unanimously.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| In 1976, Reagan challenged incumbent President ], a moderate. Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate; like-minded organizations such as the ] became the key components of his political base. He relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager ] of winning a few primaries early to seriously damage the liftoff of Ford's campaign, but the strategy quickly disintegrated. Poor management of expectations and an ill-timed speech promising to shift responsibility for federal services to the states without identifying any clear funding mechanism caused Reagan to lose ] and later ]. Reagan found himself cornered, desperately needing a win to stay in the race.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref><ref>''My Turn'', Nancy Reagan (1989).</ref> | |||
| Reagan's stand in the North Carolina primary was a do-or-die proposition. Hammering Ford on the ], ] with the Soviet Union, busing of school children, and ]'s performance as ], Reagan won 53% to 47%. He used that bit of momentum to add the major states of ] and ], but then fell back from losing efforts in ], ], ], and ]. As the party's convention in Kansas City neared, Ford appeared close to victory, thanks to New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania delegates ostensibly under the control of Ford's liberal Vice President Rockefeller. Acknowledging the strength of his party's moderate and liberal wing, Reagan balanced his ticket by choosing as his running mate moderate Republican Senator ] of ]. Nonetheless, Ford squeaked by with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070. Reagan's concession speech was a stirring exhortation, emphasizing the dangers of nuclear war and the moral threat posed by the Soviet Union. Although Reagan lost the nomination, he received 307 write-in votes in ], 388 votes as an Independent on ]'s ballot, and an electoral delegate from ] voted for him in the November election.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref><ref>''My Turn'', Nancy Reagan (1989).</ref> | |||
| ===1980 presidential campaign=== | |||
| {{main|United States presidential election, 1980}} | |||
| In ], Reagan won the Republican nomination for president, handily winning most of the primaries after an early defeat in the ]es. In the general election, he received 50.7% of the popular vote while incumbent President ] received 41% and independent John Anderson received 6.7%. During the convention, Reagan proposed a complex power-sharing arrangement with Gerald Ford as Vice President, but nothing came of it. Instead, Reagan selected his opponent in the primaries, ], who had extensive international experience.<ref>''My Turn'', Nancy Reagan (1989).</ref> | |||
| The presidential campaign, led by ], was conducted in the shadow of the ]; every day during the campaign the networks reported on Carter's unavailing efforts to free the hostages. Most analysts argue this weakened Carter's political base, and gave Reagan the opportunity to attack Carter's ineffectiveness. On the other hand, Carter's inability to deal with double-digit inflation and unemployment, lackluster economic growth, instability in the petroleum market leading to gasoline shortages, and the perceived weakness of the U.S. national defense may have had a greater impact on the electorate. Adding to Carter's woes was his use of the term "misery index" during the 1976 election, which he defined as the sum of the inflation and unemployment rates. This so-called "misery index" had considerably worsened during his term, which Reagan used to his advantage during the campaign.<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> With respect to the economy, Reagan said, "I'm told I can't use the word depression. Well, I'll tell you the definition. A recession is when your neighbor loses his job; depression is when you lose your job. Recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his." | |||
| Reagan's showing in the ] boosted his campaign. He seemed more at ease, deflecting President Carter's criticisms with remarks like "There you go again." His most influential remark was a closing question to the audience, during a time of skyrocketing prices and high interest rates, "Are you better off now than you were four years ago?" (a phrase he would successfully reuse in the 1984 campaign).<ref>''An American Life'', Ronald Reagan (1990).</ref> | |||
| ==Presidency== | |||
| {{main|Reagan Administration}} | |||
| {| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2" style="float: left; margin:1em 1em 1em 0; border:1px solid #000000;font-size:85%;" align="left" | |||
| !bgcolor="#dcdcdc" colspan="3"|The Reagan Cabinet | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM''' | |||
| |- | |||
| !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3" | | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left" |'''Ronald Reagan'''||align="left"|1981–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| !bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"| | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1982 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1982–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1985 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1988 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1988–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1987 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1987–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1985 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1988 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1988–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1983 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1983–1985 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1987 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1987–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1985 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1987 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1987–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1986 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1986–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1983 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1983–1985 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1984 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1988 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1988–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1982 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1983–1987 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1987–1989 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"|]||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1981–1982 | |||
| |-]]''''''''']]</math></nowiki>]]]]]]]]]|align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1982–1985 | |||
| |- | |||
| |align="left"| ||align="left"|''']'''||align="left"|1985–1989 | |||
| |} | |||
| ===First Term=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Reagan Presidency began in a historic manner. The first major event happened just thirty minutes into his presidency on ], ]. As he was delivering his inaugural address, ], were set free.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ===Assassination attempt=== | |||
| Main article: ] | |||
| On March 30, 1981, only sixty-nine days into the new administration, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, and two others were struck by gunfire from a deranged would-be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr.. Missing Reagan’s heart by less than one inch, the bullet instead pierced his left lung, which likely spared his life. In the operating room, Reagan joked to the surgeons, "I hope you're all Republicans"<ref> http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/weekly/aa120197b.htm </ref> (though they were not, Dr. Joseph Giordano replied, "Today, Mr. President, we're all Republicans"). Reagan later famously told his wife, "Honey, I forgot to duck" (borrowing Jack Dempsey's line to his wife). On ], ] escorted the President home from the hospital.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref><ref> "My Turn" Nancy Reagan (1989) </ref> | |||
| ===Federal Air Traffic Controllers' strike=== | |||
| Only a short time into his administration, Federal Air Traffic Controllers went on strike. Reagan held a press conference in the White House Rose Garden, where he stated that if "they did not return to work within forty-eight hours, they have forfieted their jobs, and will be terminated." On ], ], Reagan fired 11,359 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order to return to work, notwithstanding the fact that the strike was illegal under federal law. This painted a new picture of Reagan for many Americans.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ==="Reaganomics" and the Economy=== | |||
| When Ronald Reagan entered office, the American economy faced the highest rate of inflation since ], and this was considered the nation's principal economic problem. Reagan was considered a small-government conservative and supported income tax cuts, cuts to domestic government programs, and deregulation, but no one knew what concrete steps he meant to take, or whether the House (controlled by ]) would support him.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| When President Reagan returned from the hospital, he focused on reviving the economy exhibiting stagflation, a high rate of inflation combined with an economic recession.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> Partially based on supply-side economics (derided by opponents as "trickle down economics"), Reagan's policies sought to stimulate the economy with large across-the-board tax cuts. The tax cuts were to be coupled with commensurate reductions in social welfare spending; it was also anticipated that economic growth would offset projected revenue losses from lower marginal tax rates.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| After less than two years in office, Reagan rolled back a large portion of his corporate income tax cuts. Not only did Reagan retreat from proposed cuts in the Social Security budget, but he also appointed the Greenspan Commission, which resolved the solvency crisis through reforms including acceleration of previously-enacted increases in the payroll tax. Although Reagan achieved a marginal reduction in the rate of expansion of government spending, his overall fiscal policy was expansionary. Social programs grew apace at the behest of the Democrat-controlled Congress. Reagan's fiscal policies soon became known as "Reaganomics", a nickname used by both his supporters and detractors.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| President Reagan's tenure marked a time of economic prosperity for the wealthy in the United States. GDP growth recovered strongly after the 1982 recession. Unemployment peaked at over 11 percent in 1982 then dropped steadily, and inflation dropped even more significantly & wages fell.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> This economic growth generated greater tax revenue, although the new revenue did not cover an increased federal budget that included the military buildup and expansions of social programs, in violation of the doctrine of fiscal conservatism. The result was greater deficit spending and a dramatic increase in the national debt, which tripled in unadjusted dollar terms during Reagan's presidency. The U.S. trade deficit expanded significantly, particularly with buoyant Japan. | |||
| There is disagreement over how much Reagan's policies contributed to the severe recession that took place in 1982, the strong economic expansion that began late in his first term and ran throughout his second term, and the unequal distribution of the benefits of economic growth among the rich and the poor. | |||
| ==="War on Drugs"=== | |||
| Reagan's policies in the "War on Drugs" emphasized imprisonment for drug offenders while cutting funding for addiction treatment. This resulted in a dramatic increase in the U.S. prison population. Critics charged that the policies did little to actually reduce the availability of drugs or crime on the street while resulting in a great financial and human cost for American society. Due to this policy, and various cuts in spending for social programs during his Presidency, some critics regarded Reagan as indifferent to the needs of poor and minority citizens. Nevertheless, some surveys showed that illegal drug use among Americans declined significantly during Reagan's presidency, leading supporters to argue that the policies were successful.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> Reagan's ], ], even took on the War on Drugs as her main cause, by founding the "]" anti-drug association. Even today, there are thousands of "Just Say No" clinics around the country, aimed a helping and rehabilitating kids and teens with drug problems.<ref> "My Turn" Nancy Reagan (1989) </ref> | |||
| ===The Judiciary=== | |||
| ], the first female Supreme Court Justice.]] | |||
| During his 1980 campaign, Reagan pledged that if given the opportunity, he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of ]. In his second term, Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren Burger as chief justice and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat. All of these appointments were confirmed by the Senate with relative ease. However in 1987 Reagan lost a significant political battle when the Senate rejected the nomination of Robert Bork. Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| Reagan also nominated a large number of judges to the United States district court and United States court of appeals benches: most of these nominations were not controversial, although a handful of candidates were singled out for criticism by civil rights advocates and other liberal critics, resulting in occasional confirmation fights. | |||
| Both his Supreme Court nominations and his lower court appointments were in line with Reagan's express philosophy that judges should interpret law as enacted and not "legislate from the bench". By the end of the 1980s, a conservative majority on the Supreme Court had put an end to the perceived "activist" trend begun under the leadership of Earl Warren. Critics pointed out that the conservatives justices were equally activist, but showed sympathy to corporate America. However, general adherence to the principle of stare decisis along with minority support, left most of the major landmark case decisions (such as Brown, Miranda, and Roe v. Wade) of the previous three decades still standing as binding precedent.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ===Invasion of Grenada, 1983=== | |||
| United States Forces invaded the island of ] in 1983, to free kidnapped American hostages. The operation was a success.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ===1984 presidential campaign=== | |||
| {{main|United States presidential election, 1984}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In the ], Reagan was re-elected over former Vice President ], winning 49 of 50 states. Mondale carried only his home state of ] (by 3800 votes) and the ]. Reagan received nearly 60% of the popular vote. His chances of winning were not harmed when, at the ], Mondale accepted the party nomination with a speech that was regarded as a self-inflicted mortal wound to his presidential aspirations. In it, Mondale remarked "Mr. Reagan will raise taxes, and so will I. He won't tell you. I just did."<ref> - transcript, ]</ref> | |||
| Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in ], on a wave of good feeling bolstered by the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the ] that summer. He became the first American President to open a summer Olympic Games held in the United States.<ref> http://www.sok.se/inenglish/losangeles1984.4.18ea16851076df63622800011008.html </ref> | |||
| Despite a weak performance in the first debate,<ref> "My Turn" Nancy Reagan (1989) </ref> Reagan recovered in the second and was considerably ahead of Mondale in polls taken throughout much of the race. Reagan's landslide win in the 1984 presidential election is often attributed by political commentators to be a result of his conversion of the "]s", the traditionally Democratic voters who voted for Reagan in that election.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> <!--He was also considering Republican party but decided not to.--> | |||
| ===Second Term=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Reagan was sworn in as President for the second time on ], ], in the ] of the ]. The 20th of January fell on a Sunday, so no public celebration was held until the next day, which was the coldest day on record in ]. Because of that, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol.<ref> "My Turn" Nancy Reagan (1989) </ref> Reagan's Second Term consisted mostly of Foreign Affairs.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| On ], ], Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon, causing the first-ever invocation of the Acting President clause of the 25th Amendment. On January 5, 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for prostate cancer which caused further worries about his health, but which significantly raised the public awareness of this "silent killer."<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| In 1986, the U.S. sold arms to Iran to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua, leading to the Iran-Contra scandal. Reagan professed ignorance of the plot's existence and quickly called for an Independent Counsel to investigate. Ten officials in the Reagan Administration were convicted, and others were forced to resign.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> Secretary of Defense Casper Weinberger was indicted for perjury and later received a presidential pardon from George H.W. Bush, days before the trial was to begin. In 2006, historians ranked the Iran-Contra affair as the ninth-worst mistake by a U.S. president. | |||
| ===The Cold War=== | |||
| Reagan escalated the Cold War with the Soviet Union, marking a sharp leaving behind the policy of détente by his predecessors ], ], and ]. The Reagan Administration implemented a new policy towards the Soviet Union through NSDD-32 (National Security Decisions Directive) to confront the USSR on three fronts: decrease Soviet access to high technology and diminish their resources, including depressing the value of Soviet commodities on the world market; increase American defense expenditures to strengthen the U.S. negotiating position; and force the Soviets to devote more of their economic resources to defense. Most visible was the massive American military build-up.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| The administration revived the B-1 bomber program that had been canceled by the Carter administration and began production of the MX "Peacekeeper" missile.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing II missile in West Germany to gain a stronger bargaining position to eventually eliminate that entire class of nuclear weapons. Reagan's position was that if the Soviets did not remove the SS-20 missiles (without a concession from the US), America would simply introduce the Pershing II missiles for a stronger bargaining position, and both missiles would be eliminated.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| One of Reagan's more controversial proposals was the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a program of state-subsidies for private industry, under the cover of a defense project.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> Reagan believed this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible,<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> but the unlikelihood that the technology could ever work led opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars." Critics of SDI argued that the technological objective was unattainable, that the attempt would likely accelerate the arms race, and that the extraordinary expenditures amounted to a military-industrial boondoggle. Supporters responded that SDI gave Reagan a stronger bargaining position. Indeed, Soviet leaders became genuinely concerned, and SDI ended up playing a major role in ending the Cold War.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| Reagan supported anti-communist groups around the world. In a policy which became known as the ], his administration funded "freedom fighters" such as the Contras in Nicaragua, the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, RENAMO in Mozambique, and UNITA in Angola. When the Polish government suppressed the Solidarity movement in late 1981, Reagan imposed economic sanctions on the People's Republic of Poland.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| Reagan argued that the American economy was on the move again while the Soviet economy had become stagnant. For a while the Soviet decline was masked by high prices for Soviet oil exports, but that crutch collapsed in the early 1980s. In November 1985, the oil price was $30/barrel for crude, in March 1986 it had fallen to $12.<ref> Glenn E. Schweitzer, ''1989 Techno-Diplomacy: U.S.-Soviet Confrontations in Science and Technology '' (1989) 63ff, 81. </ref> | |||
| Reagan's militant rhetoric inspired dissidents in the Soviet Empire, but also startled allies and alarmed critics. In a famous address on ], ], he called the Soviet Union an "evil empire" that would be consigned to the "ash heap of history." After Soviet fighters downed Korean Airlines Flight 007 on ], ], he labeled the act an "act of barbarism... inhuman brutality."<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| On March 3 of 1983, Reagan predicted that Communism would collapse: "I believe that communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose — last pages even now are being written."<ref> http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-reagan,1,4780792.story?page=6&coll=la-news-obituaries&ctrack=1&cset=true </ref> He elaborated on June 8 of 1982 to the British Parliament. Reagan argued that the Soviet Union was in deep economic crisis, and stated that the Soviet Union "runs against the tide of history by denying human freedom and human dignity to its citizens." | |||
| All This was before a reformer, ] rose to power in 1985. Reagan later wrote in his autobiography "An American Life" that he did not see the profound changes that would occur in the Soviet Union after Gorbachev rose to power. To confront the Soviet Union's serious economic problems, Gorbachev implemented bold new policies for freedom and openness called ''glasnost'' and ''perestroika''. | |||
| ===End of the Cold War=== | |||
| ] | |||
| By the late years of the Cold War, Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as twenty-five percent of the Soviet Union's gross national product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. (LaFeber 2002, 332) But the size of the Soviet armed forces was not necessarily the result of a simple action-reaction arms race with the United States. (Odom) Instead, Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War commitments can be understood as both a cause and effect of the deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system, which accumulated at least a decade of economic stagnation during the Brezhnev years. (see Economy of the Soviet Union) Soviet investment in the defense sector was not necessarily driven by military necessity, but in large part by the interests of massive party and state bureaucracies dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges. (LaFeber 2002, 335) | |||
| As a result, of the USSR's horrible economy, Gorbachev offered major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces, nuclear weapons, and policy in Eastern Europe.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| Many US-Soviet experts and administration officials doubted that Gorbachev was serious about winding down the arms race (LaFeber, 2002), but Ronald Reagan recognized the real change in the direction of the Soviet leadership, and Reagan shifted to skillful diplomacy, using his sincerity and charm to personally push Gorbachev further with his reforms.<ref>''Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended'', Jack Matlock (2004).</ref> | |||
| ], and challenges ] to "Tear Down This Wall!"]] | |||
| Gorbachev agreed to meet Reagan in four summit conferences around the world. The first, in ], the second in ], the third, held in ], along with the fourth summit, in ].<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| Reagan sincerely believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to simply look at the prosperous American economy, they too would embrace free markets and a free society. Gorbachev, facing severe economic problems at home, was swayed.<ref>''President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime'', Lou Cannon (1991).</ref> | |||
| Speaking at the ], on ], ], Reagan pushed Gorbachev even further: "General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!"<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| The East-West tensions that had reached intense new heights earlier in the decade rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s. In 1988, the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Eastern Europe. In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan. | |||
| Reagan and Gorbachev built a close relationship. Gorbachev was awarded the first ], The ], and Time Magazine’s Man of the Decade. Reagan and Gorbachev signed the INF (International Nuclear Forces) Treaty in 1988, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons.<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Reagan's Secretary of State, ], a former economics professor at Stanford, privately instructed Gorbachev on free market economics. At Gorbachev’s request, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at Moscow University.<ref>''The Cold War: A New History'', John Lewis Gaddis (2005).</ref> | |||
| When Reagan visited Moscow, he was viewed as a celebrity by Russians. A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire. "No," he replied, "I was talking about another time, another era."<ref> - ], ], ]</ref> | |||
| In his autobiography "An American Life," Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction they charted, his warm feelings for Gorbachev, and his concern for Gorbachev's safety because Gorbachev pushed reforms so hard. "I was concerned for his safety," Reagan wrote. "I've still worried about him. How hard and fast can he push reforms without risking his life?"<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> Events would unravel far beyond what Gorbachev originally intended. | |||
| ===The Close of the Reagan Era=== | |||
| In ], Reagan's Vice President, George H. W. Bush, was elected President of the United States.On ], ], Reagan addressed the nation for the last time on television from the ] in the White House, nine days before handing over the presidency to ]. On the morning of ], ], Ronald and Nancy Reagan escorted the Bushes to the Capitol Building, where Bush took the Oath of Office. The Reagan's then boarded a Presidential helicopter, and flew to ] in ]. There, they boarded the Presidential Jet (in this instance, it was not called ]), where they flew home to ] - to their new home in the wealthy suburb of ] in ].<ref> "An American Life" Ronald Reagan (1990) </ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Positions=== | |||
| As a politician and as President, he portrayed himself as being: | |||
| *conservative | |||
| *anti-communist | |||
| *in favor of tax cuts | |||
| *in favor of smaller government (with the exclusion of the military) | |||
| *in favor of removing regulations on corporations | |||
| *in favor of the use of force to protect U.S. interests | |||
| *tried to abolish the Small Business Administration | |||
| *zero tolerance on crime | |||
| ===Policies and decisions=== | |||
| He is credited with: | |||
| *increasing spending on national defense and diplomacy which contributed to the end of the Cold War | |||
| *deploying U.S. Pershing II missiles in West Germany in response to the Soviet stationing of SS-20 missiles near Europe | |||
| *negotiating the INF Treaty to substantially reduce nuclear arms and initiating negotiations with the Soviet Union for the treaty that would later be known as START I | |||
| *proposing the Strategic Defense Initiative, a controversial plan to develop a missile defense system | |||
| *Embracing the reformer Mikhail Gorbachev and peacefully ending the Cold War | |||
| *re-appointing monetarists Paul Volcker and (later) Alan Greenspan to be chairmen of the Federal Reserve, ending the high inflation that damaged the economy under his predecessors Jimmy Carter and Gerald Ford | |||
| *lowering tax rates significantly (under Reagan, the top personal tax bracket dropped from 70% to 28% in 7 years ) and leading a major reform of the tax system | |||
| *providing arms and other support to anti-communist groups such as the Contras and the mujahideen | |||
| *selling arms to foreign allies such as Taiwan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq (see Iran-Iraq War) | |||
| *greatly escalating the "war on drugs" | |||
| *ordering the April 14, 1986 bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi in retaliation for an April 5 bombing of a West Berlin nightclub frequented by U.S. servicemen, in which the Libyan government was deemed complicit | |||
| *signing the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 which compensated victims of the Japanese American Internment during World War II | |||
| *firing air traffic controllers when they illegally went on strike | |||
| ===Major legislation approved=== | |||
| *Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 | |||
| *Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 | |||
| *Social Security Amendments of 1983 | |||
| *Tax Reform Act of 1986 | |||
| *Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 | |||
| *Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 | |||
| ===Criticism=== | |||
| A frequent objection by his critics was that his personal charm also permitted him to say nearly anything and yet prevail, a quality that earned him the nickname "]" (nothing sticks to him). His denial of awareness of the ] belied his signing a secret presidential "finding" describing the deal as "arms-for-hostages". Critics objected to his comparison of the contras to the Founding Fathers and to the French Resistance, which suggests that he viewed the Sandinistas as Communists who were akin to an occupying power.<ref>Cannon (2000) 313</ref> The ], in its ruling on '']'', found that the US had been involved in the "unlawful use of force" in Nicaragua due to its treaty obligations and the customary obligations of international law not to intervene in the affairs of other states. The US had not accepted the court's jurisdiction and did not argue the merits of its case, nor did the court accept and intervention on the behalf of the U.S. by ], to whose defense the US claimed it was coming by its actions in Nicaragua. Despite a ] resolution<ref> - ], ], ]</ref> demanding compliance, the U.S. never paid the required fine and since 1991, relations with Nicaragua were friendly. | |||
| Critics of the left charged that Reagan was unconcerned with income inequality and its effects, abandoning the egalitarian ideals that had come to be standard stated policy goals since the New Deal era.<ref> S.H. Danziger, D.H. Weinberg, "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty" in ''Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change'' (1994)</ref> Reagan's efforts to cut ] and income taxes became common flash points for critics who charged that this primarily benefited the wealthy in America, deriding these policies as "]", and a few in the business community that said it penalized all American job seekers. | |||
| In order to cover Reagan' federal budget deficits, the ] borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, and by the end of Reagan's second term the ] held by the public rose from 26 percent of ] in ] to 41 percent in 1989, the highest level since 1963. By 1988, the debt totaled $2.6 trillion. The country owed more to foreigners than it was owed, and the United States moved from being the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation. <Ref> Weisman, Jonathan (9 June 2004) "Reagan Policies Gave Green Light to Red Ink." Washington Post; A11.</Ref> | |||
| The ] of the banking industry before Reagan took office meant savings and loan associations were given the flexibility to invest their depositors' funds in commercial real estate. Many savings and loan associations began making risky investments. As a result, the ], the federal agency that regulates the industry, tried to clamp down on the trend. In so doing, however, the Board clashed with the policy of permitting the deregulation of many industries, including the thrift industry. The resulting savings and loan scandal bailout ultimately cost the government $150 billion. {{seealso|Savings and Loan crisis}} | |||
| Reagan was criticized for the slow response of his Administration to the ]-] epidemic, until after the illness of movie star and national icon ] became public news in late July ], by which time 12,067 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 6,079 had died.<ref>Shilts, Randy: And The Band Played On, 1987 p580</ref> The White House was accused of ignoring an epidemic that had primarily affected gay men; many believing that it took Hudson's death to legitimize the need for action. | |||
| Some Jewish leaders criticized Reagan for deciding to visit a cemetery in ], after they discovered that 49 ] men are buried, and for stating that the German soldiers buried there, who were drafted into services in the later years of the war, were victims, just as were the Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps.<ref>Cannon</ref> In ] and again in ], Reagan told prominent Israelis and American Jews -- notably Prime Minister ] of Israel, ], and Rabbi ] of ] -- of his personal experience vis-a-vis the ], saying "I was there"; he was in a film unit in Hollywood that processed raw footage they received from Europe for newsreels, but he was not in Europe itself during the war. This incident has often inaccurately been used to describe Reagan as either confused or lying about his role in WWII.<ref>Morris, Edumund. Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan (2000) p.465. Cannon, Lou. ''President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime'' (2000) p. 428-30.</ref> | |||
| Reagan's foreign policies were criticized variously as aggressive, imperialist, putting the world at risk of nuclear war, and (towards the end of his administration) as too conciliatory to the Soviet Union. In Britain, though Reagan had the strong support of ], he was routinely attacked for his foreign policies. Left-wing critics denounced his opposition to ]'s dictatorship in ] and complained that he was ignoring ] in ], ] and ]. Although Reagan sought an end to ] and liberalization of South Africa, he opposed ] "on grounds that it would diminish influence on the South African government and create economic hardship for the very people in South Africa that the sanctions were ostensibly designed to help."<ref>Donald T. Regan, "For the Record"</ref> | |||
| ===Supreme Court nominations=== | |||
| Ronald Reagan nominated the following Justices to the ]: | |||
| *] ] to ] (1986-2005) | |||
| *Associate Justice ] (1981-2006) | |||
| *Associate Justice ] (1986-present) | |||
| *Associate Justice ] (1988-present) | |||
| ===Scandals and controversies=== | |||
| {{main|Reagan administration scandals}} | |||
| The '''Reagan administration''' saw several controversies unfold in their ranks which resulted in a number of administration staffers being convicted. The most well known, the ], involved a plan whereby weapons were sold to Iran and the profits diverted to fund the ]n ]. | |||
| ==Post presidential years== | |||
| ], ], ], Ronald Reagan, and ] at the dedication of the Reagan Presidential Library.]] | |||
| ] and ] attended the funeral of Richard Nixon on ], ], in Nixon's hometown of ]. From left: Bill Clinton, Hillary Clinton, George H. W. Bush, Barbara Bush, Ronald Reagan, Nancy Reagan, Jimmy Carter, Rosalynn Carter, Gerald Ford, Betty Ford.]] | |||
| Ronald and Nancy Reagan would enjoy the private life for the next five years, traveling from their Bel Air, California home, to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara every few months. | |||
| In the fall of 1989, ] of ] hired him to make two speeches and attend a few corporate functions. Reagan's fee during his nine-day visit was about $2 million, more than he had earned during eight years as President. Reagan made occasional appearances on behalf of the Republican Party, including a well-received speech at the ]. He publicly spoke in favor of a ], a ] requiring a ], and repealing the ], which prohibits a President from serving more than two terms. Reagan's final public speech was on ], ], during a tribute in ]. His last public appearance was at the funeral of fellow Republican President ] on ], ]. | |||
| ===The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum=== | |||
| {{main|Ronald Reagan Presidential Library}} | |||
| On November 4, 1991, ] was opened to the public. At the opening ceremonies, four former presidents, ], ], ], and Reagan, and the current president, ], were all in attendance, as well as five former first ladies, ], ], ], ], and ], plus the current First Lady, ]. Currently, the library is the largest of all of the Presidential Libraries. Notable exhibits include ones on the Reagan's Ranch, a full scale replica of the Oval Office, and the actual Boeing 707, ], that served President Reagan during his eight years in office. President Reagan is buried on the property. | |||
| ===Alzheimer's disease=== | |||
| On ], ], Reagan announced that he had been diagnosed with ]. Signs of his illness had become apparent in the years following his presidency. At the ], Reagan, a man known for his rhetorical talents, had difficulty reading and remembering a speech he was to deliver. He informed the nation of his condition via a hand-written letter shortly after his diagnosis. With his trademark optimism, he stated in conclusion: "I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life. I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God always bless you."<ref></ref> | |||
| As the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed his mental capacity, forcing him to live in quiet isolation. On ], ], Reagan reached the age of 90 and was, at the time, only the third former U.S. president to reach that age - the other two being ] and ] (] later becoming the fourth). Since the former president had a hip operation just three weeks earlier and had been suffering from Alzheimer's disease for seven years, his 90th birthday was a low-key celebration with his family at his home in ]. Nancy Reagan told CNN's Larry King that very few visitors were allowed access to her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was." | |||
| ==Death== | |||
| {{main|Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan}} | |||
| ] in ].]] | |||
| On ], ] Reagan, at age 93 and 120 days, died of ], at 1:09 PM PDT at his home in ], California. The morning of Reagan's death, news reports were released that stated the Former President's health was deteriorating. Reagan had been battling ] for a decade, so his death was not completely unexpected. | |||
| When the President died, his wife of fifty two years, ], was at his side, along with two of the three surviving Reagan children, ] and ]. | |||
| A few hours after Reagan died, Mrs. Reagan released a statement saying: "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has passed away after 10 years of ] at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers." The President's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in ] where well-wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American Flags in the grass. On ], Reagan's body was removed and taken to the ], where a brief family funeral service was held. His body laid in repose, in the library lobby, for the next twenty-four hours. In that amount of time, 108,000 people came to pay their respects to President Reagan. | |||
| ] to the Capitol Building.]] | |||
| The next day, Reagan's casket was removed, and flown to ], where he became the 10th ] to lie in state in the ] of the ]. In the twenty four hours it lied there, 105,000 people filed past the coffin, paying their respects. | |||
| On ], a ] was conducted in the ], and presided over by President ]. Eulogies included those from ], ], and both Presidents Bush. The service drew leaders and dignitaries from around the world, including ]. After the funeral service, the Reagan entourage was flown back to ] - the ] - where another service was held, and President Ronald Reagan was interred. | |||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| The noted presidential biographer Richard Reeves (Kennedy, Nixon) summarized in ''President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination'' that Reagan understood "how to be President, who knows that the job is not to manage the government but to lead a nation. In many ways, a quarter century later, he is still leading. As his vice president, George H.W. Bush, said after Reagan was shot and hospitalized in 1981: 'We will act as if he were here.' He is a heroic figure if not always a hero. He did not destroy communism, as his champions claim, but he knew it would self-destruct and hastened the collapse. No small thing. He believed the Soviet Union was evil and he had contempt for the established American policies of ] and ]. Asked about his own ] strategy, he answered: 'We win. They lose!' Like one of his heroes, Franklin D. Roosevelt, he has become larger than life."<ref>''President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination'', Richard Reeves (2005).</ref> | |||
| Today, Ronald Reagan is one of America's most popular presidents. In several recent ] of American presidents, Ronald Reagan ranked high.<ref>]</ref> | |||
| ===Public opinion ratings=== | |||
| The ] took a poll in 2005 and asking respondents to name the greatest president in U.S. history. Ronald Reagan took the top spot with 18% of Americans polled. He ranked fifth in an ABC poll of the public in 2000. He was named the greatest president since ] by a Quinnipiac poll of the public in 2006, and he ranked six in a ] poll of viewers in 1999. On the Discovery Channel's show, ], Reagan was named The Greatest American.<ref>]</ref> | |||
| According to ABC News,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll_reagan010806.html|title=Improving With Age: Reagan Approval Grows Better in Retrospect|accessdate=2006-09-12|author=Dalia Sussman|last=Sussman|first=Dalia|date=2001-08-06|publisher=ABCNEWS.com|language=English}}</ref> by date: | |||
| ] in 2005, and again in 2006.]] | |||
| {| class="prettytable" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! | Date | |||
| ! | Event | |||
| ! | Approval (%) | |||
| ! | Disapproval (%) | |||
| |- | |||
| | | ] ] | |||
| | | Shot by Hinckley | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 73 | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 19 | |||
| |- | |||
| | | ] ] | |||
| | | High unemployment | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 42 | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 54 | |||
| |- | |||
| | | ] ] | |||
| | | Libya bombing | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 70 | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 26 | |||
| |- | |||
| | | ] ] | |||
| | | Iran-Contra affair | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 44 | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 51 | |||
| |- | |||
| | | ] ] | |||
| | | End of presidency | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | – | |||
| |- | |||
| ! n/a | |||
| ! '''Career Average''' | |||
| ! '''57''' | |||
| ! '''39''' | |||
| |- | |||
| | | ] ] | |||
| | | (Retrospective) | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 64 | |||
| | style="text-align: center" | 27 | |||
| |} | |||
| === Honors === | |||
| {{see|List of things named after Ronald Reagan}} | |||
| *In a 1995 poll of 2,307 coin collectors by the Littleton Coin Company, Reagan was ranked as the figure most likely to appear on a future U.S. coin (Reagan appeared on a non-circulating dime in 2006). | |||
| *On ], ], Washington National Airport was renamed ] by a bill signed into law by President Clinton. Three years later, the ] was christened by the ] and the ]. It is one of few ships christened in honor of a living person, and the first to be named in honor of a living former President. | |||
| In 2005, Reagan was given two posthumous honors: | |||
| *On ], ], along with the editors of '']'', named him the "most fascinating person" of the network's first 25 years.<ref> - ], ], ] ; also - transcript, ], ], ] </ref> '']'' also named Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century.<ref>http://www.time.com/time/time100/index_2000_time100.html</ref> | |||
| *On ], participating voters selected Reagan as the "]" during a live television special sponsored by ] and broadcast live on the ]. | |||
| These and other honors were, as one reporter noted, "a final win for the Gipper." | |||
| *In 1999, in San Antonio, Texas, a new high school was named after him, Ronald Reagan High School. | |||
| *In 2002, Congress authorized the creation of ] in ], pending federal purchase of the property. | |||
| *In 2004, the ] voted to rename ], which was formerly called the East-West Tollway, in his memory. | |||
| *In 2006, in Doral, Florida, a new high school was named after him. Its full name is Ronald W. Reagan High. | |||
| === Awards and achievements === | |||
| ] awarded to Ronald and Nancy Reagan]] | |||
| * Lifetime "Gold" membership in the ] | |||
| * ] ]. | |||
| * In 1989, Reagan received a ] British knighthood, ]. This entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters GCB but did not entitle him to be known as "Sir Ronald Reagan". He, ], and ] are the only American Presidents to have received the honor. | |||
| * ], ] 1989 | |||
| * Honorary Fellow of ] England | |||
| * ], 1993 | |||
| * On ], ] Nancy Reagan accepted the ], the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the President and herself. | |||
| ===Coinage=== | |||
| Reagan is scheduled to be featured on the $1 coin in 2016 during the ]. Congress considered placing Reagan's likeness on a currency; the ] became the most likely proposal, but the ] and ] were also considered. Congressional Republicans also proposed the ], which has the likeness of ], but Nancy Reagan rejected the idea.<ref> http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/12/05/dime/ </ref> | |||
| ==Facts and Trivia== | |||
| * Though there was an attempt made on his life (in March 1981), Reagan became the first President since 1840 to "break" the so-called ]. | |||
| * Reagan was the oldest man ever elected president at 69 years of age in 1980 and again at 73 years of age in 1984. He broke the record set in 1840 by ] who was elected at 67 years of age and inaugurated at 68 years of age. | |||
| * Reagan also was the oldest president to serve at 77, surpassing ], who was 70 when he left office in 1961. | |||
| * Reagan also had lived the longest of any former president until ] ], when he was surpassed by Gerald Ford. In 2001, Reagan had broken the previous record held by ] the second president who died on ] ]. | |||
| * Reagan was the first film or television actor to become U.S. president. As a card-carrying member of the ], Reagan also has the distinction of being the only ] member ever elected president. | |||
| * Reagan was the first president to be divorced. | |||
| * Reagan was the 40th president to serve, but in birth order was the 35th, born in 1911. ], born in 1908, was the 34th in birth order. Richard Nixon, born in 1913, was the 36th president in birth order, the 37th to serve and the 36th to die. | |||
| * Reagan was also older than the previous three former presidents (Nixon, Ford, and Carter) and one additional late president, ]. | |||
| * Reagan was ], although he was usually shown writing with his right hand. When throwing out the ceremonial first ball before baseball games, he threw with his right arm, like he did in the baseball film The Winning Team. | |||
| * For a 1964 film, '']'', Reagan was rejected for a part due to "not having the presidential look." | |||
| * Reagan was 6 feet 1 inch (185.5 cm) tall. | |||
| * Ronald Reagan was twice chosen by '']'' as the ]: in 1980 (after first winning the Presidency) and in 1983 (together with then ] leader ]). | |||
| * In ], Reagan was ranked the 15th most admired person in the ]. | |||
| * He had a well-known love of ]; the Jelly Belly blueberry flavor was launched in his honor, and a mosaic portrait made of the candies hangs in the Reagan Presidential library | |||
| * Reagan was the first United States president to die in the ]. | |||
| * Ronald Reagan has a star on the ], located at 6374 Hollywood Boulevard. | |||
| * Reagan once broke his hip-bone sliding into first base during a charity baseball game. | |||
| * Reagan had a jelly bean jar holder installed on ]. | |||
| ===Reagan documentaries=== | |||
| * "True Grit", Ronald Reagan (CMT), 2005. | |||
| * ''Ronald Reagan - An American President'' (The Official Reagan Library Tribute), ] ]. | |||
| * ''Great Speeches'', ] ]. | |||
| * ''Stand Up Reagan'', ] ]. | |||
| * ''NBC News Presents - Ronald Reagan'', ] ]. | |||
| * ''ABC News Presents Ronald Reagan - An American Legend'', ] ]. | |||
| * ''Ronald Reagan - His Life and Legacy'', ] ]. | |||
| * ''Ronald Reagan - His Life and Times'', ] ]. | |||
| * ''Ronald Reagan - A Legacy Remembered (History Channel)'', 2002. | |||
| * ''Ronald Reagan - The Great Communicator'', 2002. | |||
| * ''Salute to Reagan - A President's Greatest Moments'', 2001. | |||
| * ''American Experience - Reagan'', 1998. | |||
| * ''Tribute to Ronald Reagan'', 1996. | |||
| * ''The Reagan Legacy'', (Discovery Channel) 1996. | |||
| * ''In the Face of Evil: Reagan’s War in Word and Deed'', 2004. | |||
| ===Ronald Reagan as played by other actors=== | |||
| Among the actors who have portrayed him are: | |||
| * ] in the ] '']'' (2003) with ] as Nancy | |||
| * ] in The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001) with ] as Nancy | |||
| * ] has appeared several times as Reagan including ]'s ''Without Warning: The James Brady Story'' with ] as ]; and also in ''Guts and Glory: The Rise and Fall of Oliver North''. | |||
| * ] on ''The Tonight Show'' | |||
| * Both ] and ] on '']'' | |||
| * ] on numerous television appearances | |||
| * John Roarke on the sketch comedy series ''Fridays'' and on a Christmas episode of ] as one of the Banks' neighbors. | |||
| * ] on ] | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Ronald Reagan}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] The Briggs Initiative and Ronald Reagan's Legacy | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| ===Biographies=== | |||
| * Cannon, Lou. ''President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime '' Public Affairs. ISBN (2nd ed 2000) detailed biography | |||
| * Cannon, Lou. ''Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power'' Public Affairs. ISBN, detailed biography | |||
| *Evans, Thomas W. ''The Education of Ronald Reagan: The General Electric Years'' (2006) | |||
| * Pemberton, William E. ''Exit with Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan'' (1998) biography by historian | |||
| * Reeves, Richard. ''President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination'' (2005) detailed analysis by historian | |||
| *Thomas, Tony. ''The Films of Ronald Reagan'' (1980) | |||
| ===Domestic issues === | |||
| * Berman, Larry, ed. ''Looking Back on the Reagan Presidency'' (1990), essays by academics | |||
| * Brownlee, W. Elliot and Hugh Davis Graham, eds. ''The Reagan Presidency: Pragmatic Conservatism and Its Legacies'' (2003) | |||
| * Campagna; Anthony S. ''The Economy in the Reagan Years: The Economic Consequences of the Reagan Administrations'' Greenwood Press. 1994 | |||
| * Cannon, Lou. ''Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio''. Public Affairs. ISBN | |||
| * Collins, Chuck, Felice Yeskel, and United for a Fair Economy. "Economic Apartheid in America: A Primer on Economic Inequality and Insecurity." (2000). on tax policies. | |||
| * Cook, Daniel M. and Polsky, Andrew J. "Political Time Reconsidered: Unbuilding and Rebuilding the State under the Reagan Administration." ''American Politics Research''(4): 577-605. ISSN 1532-673X Fulltext in SwetsWise. Argues Reagan slowed enforcement of pollution laws and transformed the national education agenda. | |||
| * Dallek, Matthew. ''The Right Moment: Ronald Reagan's First Victory and the Decisive Turning Point in American Politics.'' (2004). Study of 1966 election as governor. | |||
| * Denton Jr., Robert E. ''Primetime Presidency of Ronald eagan: The Era of the Television Presidency'' (1988) | |||
| * Ehrman, John. ''The Eighties: America in the Age of Reagan.'' (2005) | |||
| * Ferguson Thomas, and Joel Rogers, ''Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics'' 1986. | |||
| * Germond, Jack W. and Jules Witcover. ''Blue Smoke & Mirrors: How Reagan Won & Why Carter Lost the Election of 1980''. 1981. Detailed journalism. | |||
| * Greenstein Fred I. ed. ''The Reagan Presidency: An Early Assessment'' 1983 by political scientists | |||
| * Greffenius, Steven. ''The Last Jeffersonian: Ronald Reagan's Dreams of America''. June, July, & August Books. 2002. | |||
| * Hertsgaard Mark. ''On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency'' 1988. criticizes the press | |||
| * Haynes Johnson. ''Sleepwalking through History: America in the Reagan Years'' (1991) | |||
| * Houck, Davis, and Amos Kiewe, eds. ''Actor, Ideologue, Politician: The Public Speeches of Ronald Reagan'' (Greenwood Press, 1993) | |||
| * Lewis, William F. "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency", ''Quarterly Journal of Speech''): 280–302 | |||
| * Jones, Charles O. ed. ''The Reagan Legacy: Promise and Performance'' (1988) essays by political scientists | |||
| * Jones, John M. "'Until Next Week': The Saturday Radio Addresses of Ronald Reagan" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly.'' Volume: 32. Issue: 1. 2002. pp 84+. | |||
| * Kengor, Paul. ''God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life'' Regan Books, 2004. ISBN. | |||
| * Levy, Peter B. ''Encyclopedia of the Reagan-Bush Years'' (1996), short articles | |||
| * Meyer, John C. "Ronald Reagan and Humor: A Politician's Velvet Weapon", ''Communication Studies''): 76–88. | |||
| * Muir, William Ker. ''The Bully Pulpit: The Presidential Leadership of Ronald Reagan'' (1992), examines his speeches | |||
| * Patterson, James T. ''Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush vs. Gore.'' (2005), standard scholarly synthesis. | |||
| * Salamon Lester M., and Michael S. Lund. eds. ''The Reagan Presidency and the Governing of America'' 1985. articles by political scientists | |||
| * Salla; Michael E. and Ralph Summy, eds. ''Why the Cold War Ended: A Range of Interpretations'' Greenwood Press. 1995. | |||
| * Schmertz, Eric J. et al eds. ''Ronald Reagan's America'' 2 Volumes (1997) articles by scholars and officeholders | |||
| * Schmertz, Eric J. et al eds. ''Ronald Reagan and the World'' (1997) articles by scholars and officeholders | |||
| * ]. ''Reagan's War: The Epic Story of His Forty Year Struggle and Final Triumph Over Communism'' (2002) | |||
| * Shogan, Colleen J. "Coolidge and Reagan: The Rhetorical Influence of Silent Cal on the Great Communicator", ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 9.2 online at Project Muse; argues that Coolidge and Reagan shared a common ideological message, which served as the basis for modern conservatism. Even without engaging in explicitly partisan rhetoric, Reagan's principled speech served an important party-building function. | |||
| *Strock, James M. ''Reagan on Leadership: Executive Lessons from the Great Communicator'' (2001) Study of Reagan's Leadership Approach. | |||
| * Troy, Gill. ''Morning in America: How Ronald Reagan Invented the 1980s'' (2004). Study of Reagan's image. | |||
| * Wills, Garry. ''Reagan's America: Innocents at Home''. (1987) | |||
| * Weatherford, M. Stephen and Mcdonnell, Lorraine M. "Ronald Reagan as Legislative Advocate: Passing the Reagan Revolution's Budgets in 1981 and 1982." ''Congress & the Presidency''(1): 1-29. Fulltext in Ebsco; Argues RR ignored the details but played a guiding role in setting major policies and adjudicating significant trade-offs, and in securing Congressional approval. | |||
| ===Foreign affairs=== | |||
| * Arnson, Cynthia J. ''Crossroads: Congress, the Reagan Administration, and Central America'' Pantheon, 1989. | |||
| * Busch, Andrew E.; "Ronald Reagan and the Defeat of the Soviet Empire" in ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''. Vol: 27. Issue: 3. 1997. pp 451+. | |||
| * Dobson, Alan P. "The Reagan Administration, Economic Warfare, and Starting to Close down the Cold War." ''Diplomatic History''(3): 531-556. Fulltext in SwetsWise, Ingenta and Ebsco. Argues Reagan's public rhetoric against the USSR was harsh and uncompromising, giving rise to the idea that his administration sought to employ a US defense buildup and NATO economic sanctions to bring about the collapse of the USSR. Yet many statements by Reagan and Shultz suggest they desired negotiation with the Soviets from a position of American strength, not the eventual demise of the USSR. | |||
| * Fitzgerald, Frances. ''Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War''. political history of S.D.I. (2000). ISBN. | |||
| * Ford, Christopher A. and Rosenberg, David A. "The Naval Intelligence Underpinnings of Reagan's Maritime Strategy." ''Journal of Strategic Studies''(2): 379-409. Fulltext in Ingenta and Ebsco; Reagan's maritime strategy sought to apply US naval might against Soviet vulnerabilities on its maritime flanks. It was supported by a major buildup of US naval forces and aggressive exercising in seas proximate to the USSR; it explicitly targeted Moscow's strategic missile submarines with the aim of pressuring the Kremlin during crises or the early phases of global war. The maritime strategy represents one of the rare instances in history when intelligence helped lead a nation to completely revise its concept of military operations. | |||
| * Haftendorn, Helga and Jakob Schissler, eds. ''The Reagan Administration: A Reconstruction of American Strength?'' Berlin: Walter de Guyer, 1988. by European scholars | |||
| * ''Strategic Insights'', Volume III, Issue 8 (August 2004) | |||
| * Kyvig, David. ed. ''Reagan and the World'' (1990), scholarly essays on foreign policy | |||
| * Pach, Chester. "The Reagan Doctrine: Principle, Pragmatism, and Policy." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly''(1): 75-88. Fulltext in SwetsWise and Ingenta; Reagan declared in 1985 that the U.S. should not "break faith" with anti-Communist resistance groups. However, his policies varied as differences in local conditions and US security interests produced divergent policies toward "freedom fighters" in Afghanistan, Nicaragua, Mozambique, Angola, and Cambodia. | |||
| * ]. ''Victory: The Reagan Administration's Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union'', 1994 | |||
| * Wills, David C. ''The First War on Terrorism: Counter-Terrorism Policy during the Reagan Administration.'' 2004. | |||
| </div> | |||
| ===Primary sources=== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * FitzWater, Marlin . ''Call the Briefing! Bush and Reagan, Sam and Helen, a Decade with Presidents and the Press''. 1995. Memoir by press spokesman. | |||
| * ]. '']'' 2000. Reagan's authorized biographer. | |||
| * ] and Mickey Herskowitz. ''Behind the Scenes''. 1987. Memoir by a top aide. | |||
| * Reagan, Ronald. ''An American Life: The Autobiography'' (1990) | |||
| * Reagan, Ronald. ''Reagan, In His Own Hand: The Writings of Ronald Reagan That Reveal His Revolutionary Vision for America'' (2001) | |||
| * Stahl, Lesley. "Reporting Live" (1999) memoir by TV news reporter | |||
| * Noonan, Peggy. ''When Character Was King: A Story of Ronald Reagan'' (2001) Biography by former Reagan speech writer | |||
| </div> | |||
| === References === | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * 1980s Media Policies and PR:http://wethemedia.edublogs.org/1980s-wars-white-house-and-media-mergers/ | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Ronald Reagan}} | |||
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| *<!--this is the same site as reaganfoundation.org--> | |||
| * by ] | |||
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| *{{imdb name|id=0001654|name=Ronald Reagan}} | |||
| *{{nndb name|id=359|name=Ronald Reagan}} | |||
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