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| Though divorce and remarriage of divorcees is allowed in Manu Smriti, Widow remarriage is sanctioned only if the marriage has not been consummated, otherwise the widow (or widower) are to practice ]. If the widow has to continue the family line, they are either to adopt children or apply to a contract called 'niyoga', where a chosen man fathers children for her husband's lineage (in verse IX: 77). | Though divorce and remarriage of divorcees is allowed in Manu Smriti, Widow remarriage is sanctioned only if the marriage has not been consummated, otherwise the widow (or widower) are to practice ]. If the widow has to continue the family line, they are either to adopt children or apply to a contract called 'niyoga', where a chosen man fathers children for her husband's lineage (in verse IX: 77). | ||
| "A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases | |||
| him. Or a man of twenty-four a girl of eight years of age. If (the | |||
| performance of) his duties would otherwise be impeded, he must marry | |||
| sooner." (IX.94) | |||
| "By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be | |||
| done independently, even in her own house.” (Manusmriti V.147) | |||
| Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in | |||
| youth, and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for | |||
| independence." (IX.3) | |||
| "Women have no right to study the Vedas. That is why their Sanskaras | |||
| are performed without Veda Mantras. Women have no knowledge of | |||
| religion because they have no right to know the Vedas. The uttering of | |||
| the Veda Mantras is useful for removing sin. As women cannot utter the | |||
| Veda Mantras, they are as unclean as the untruth." (IX.18) | |||
| "A Brahman, Kshatriya, or Vaishya Man can sexually exploit any shudra | |||
| woman." (IX.25) | |||
| === Miscellaneous Verses === | === Miscellaneous Verses === | ||
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The Manusmriti (Sanskrit मनुस्मृति), translated smriti of Manu is regarded as an important work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society. It is one of the eighteen Smritis of the Dharmasastra; and is a part of the Smriti literature. It contains laws, rules and codes of conduct to be applied by individuals, communities and nations. Some of these laws codify the Hindu caste system and discuss the "stages of life for a twice-born man". It explains itself as a discourse given by Sage Manu to rishis having begged him to enlighten them on the topic.
The Manusmriti is held with high esteem by traditional orthodox Hindus. At first glance, it appears to be a copy of various Dharma Shastra verses. Yet there is much new and original material not found in any other Sanskrit text that gives it a place of importance.
The book is ascribed to Manu, according to the Hindu mythology, the forefather of all humans. The text as preserved is generally dated to ca. the 1st century CE
It is one of the most controversial works of Hindu literature owing to its alleged discrimination of women and shudras (based upon western translations). Hindu scholars have however argued that the revelance or awareness of the scripture was not considerable until the British brought it into the limelight as an important Hindu scripture. It is however agreed upon that the scripture doesn't sanction support for outcastes such as Harijans or Chandaals, but bears caste discrimination of Shudras.
There are 2,031 verses (laws) of Manusmrti.
Quotations from the Manusmriti
The interpretations of Hindu scriptures especially Manusmriti and Shruti are known to be greatly contrasting, the reformist interpretations (such as those of Swami Dayananda being more holistic and humanistic. It should however be kept in mind while reading manusmriti that the scripture is no longer consistent with contemporary views, nor is it clear the scripture's views were held dominant at point of time in Indian history. Note that the following verses are interpretations and not direct translations.
Education
"A student should observe Brahmacharya and study the Vedas with their subsidiary subjects for 9, 18, 36 years, or until they are completely mastered" (III: 1)
"A wise man would do well to practise both Yamas(abstentions) and Niyamas(observances) and He who practices one without the other, never makes any progress, on the contrary he simply degenerates, in other words, leads a degraded life in this world." (IV: 204)
"A man of low character can never succeed in acquiring knowledge of the Veda; in keeping up his vows of celibacy, truthfulness, etc.; nor in fulfilling his duties towards man and God, keeping control over his passions and desires, being steadfast in his devotion to truth and righteousness, and performing good deeds." (II: 97)
"Both state and society should make it compulsory upon all to send their children (both male and female) to school after the 5th or 8th year. It should be made a penal offence to keep a child at home after that age." (VII: 152)
Marriage
"Let a maid wait for three years after she is marriageable (has begun to menstruate) and then let her choose for herself a husband, who is her equal." (IX: 90)
"Let a student who has not violated his vows of Brahmacharya and has conducted himself righteously according to the advice of his preceptor, enter married life after he has studied with their subsidiary sciences, the four Vedaas, three Vedas, two Vedas, or at least one Veda." (III: 2)
Let a twice-born man after having obtained the consent of his teacher and taken the ceremonial bath, return home and espouse a maid, of his own Class, endowed with excellent qualities." (III: 4)
"It is better that men and women should remain single till death rather than marry unsuitables (i.e, incompatible qualities, characteristics and temperaments)." (IX: 89)
"Marriage is of eight kinds - brahma (mutual consent of both the bride and groom), deva (gift of richly adorned daughter to an officiating priest of a great yajna), arsha (daughter in lieu of consideration given by the groom), prajapathi (mutual consent of families), asura (marriage upon bribing of the bride and groom), gandharva (intercourse of maiden and her lover out of sexual desire), rakshasa (forceful abduction of bride), pisacha (where bride is intoxicated, sleeping, mentally disordered), in the order of piety of the marriage." (III: 21 to 34)
The Varna System
"Studying and teaching (vedas), performing and assisting in Yajna, giving alms and receiving gifts - these six are duties of a Brahmin." (I: 88)
"To protect people by perfect justice; to bestow gifts; to perform Homam and other Yajnas; to study the Veda and other scriptures; to abstain from sensual gratification - these are the duties of a Kshatriya" (I: 89)
"To keep herds of cattle, to bestow gifts, To perform Yajnas, to study the Veda and other Shastras (sciences) 5. To lend money on interest 6. To cultivate land. These are the duties and qualifications of a Vaishya" (I: 90)
"To serve the twice-born, without showing disrespect, jealousy or conceit. This one thing alone is a Shudra's duty and qualification." (I: 91)
Status of Women
"If the husband does not please his wife, she being unhappy, the whole family is unhappy and miserable; but if the wife be quite contended with her husband, the whole family enjoys felicity." (III: 62)
"Let women be always propitiated (worshipped) by their fathers and brothers, by their husbands and the brothers of their husbands, in other words, they should speak sweetly to them and provide them with good food, nice clothes and ornaments, and thereby keep them happy. Those who seek great prosperity and happiness should never inflict pain on women." (III: 55)
"Where women are honored (worshipped), in that family great men are born; but where they are not honored, there all acts are fruitless. Where women pass their days in misery and sorrow because of the misdeed (such as adultery) of their husbands that family soon entirely perishes, but where they are happy because of the good conduct of their husbands, the family continually prospers." (III: 56,57)
"Let women, therefore, be always honored by being given presents of clothes an ornaments, and supplied with good food at festivals, jubilees and he like occasions, and thereby made happy by those men who are desirous of wealth and prosperity." (III: 59)
Though divorce and remarriage of divorcees is allowed in Manu Smriti, Widow remarriage is sanctioned only if the marriage has not been consummated, otherwise the widow (or widower) are to practice Brahmacharya. If the widow has to continue the family line, they are either to adopt children or apply to a contract called 'niyoga', where a chosen man fathers children for her husband's lineage (in verse IX: 77).
"A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases him. Or a man of twenty-four a girl of eight years of age. If (the performance of) his duties would otherwise be impeded, he must marry sooner." (IX.94)
"By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house.” (Manusmriti V.147) Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in youth, and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence." (IX.3)
"Women have no right to study the Vedas. That is why their Sanskaras are performed without Veda Mantras. Women have no knowledge of religion because they have no right to know the Vedas. The uttering of the Veda Mantras is useful for removing sin. As women cannot utter the Veda Mantras, they are as unclean as the untruth." (IX.18)
"A Brahman, Kshatriya, or Vaishya Man can sexually exploit any shudra woman." (IX.25)
Miscellaneous Verses
"A Dwija as well as his children who, instead of studying the Veda, wastes his time in doing other things soon goes down to the level of a Shoodra (lowest in character)." (II: 168)
"Look down while you walk. Filter your water before you drink it. Speak in accordance with truth. Think well before you act." (VI: 46)
"As skilful driver keeps his horses under control , even so should a wise man keep his senses - which are apt to lead both mind and soul into the pursuit of wicked objects - under complete control." (II: 88)
"Verily, that man alone can achieve his heart's desire who is a master of his senses; he who allows himself to become their slave soon loses his character." (II: 93)
"The Vedaas, the Smrities, the practice of men, good and true, in conformity with the Vedas - the Word of God, and the satisfaction of one's own soul - these undoubtedly, are the four criteria of true religion, which enable one to distinguish between Right and Wrong" (II: 12)
"He is an atheist, and a slanderer of the Vedas, who disparages their teachings, as well as the writings of true teachers in conformity with the Vedas. He should be excluded from good society, aye, even expelled out of the country." (II: 11)
Criticism and controversy
Manusmriti is one of the most heavily criticised of the scriptures of Hinduism, having been attacked by colonial scholars, Dalit advocates and Marxists as well as Hindu Nationalists. Manusmriti has been burned by several of these groups.
Manusmriti was quoted, especially by the British Colonial rulers of India as "the law-book" of the Hindus. Many Hindus allege that the colonial rulers, like Robert Clive and Lord Macaulay, found it a useful tool to exploit and suppress Hindus and Hinduism. It should to be noted that most of these accusations are based upon western interpretations (thus debatable), such as "Sacred Books of the East" by G. Buhler, regarding the status of women and caste discrimination, mainly favouring the Brahmins. It is accused that the generated misconceptions are mainly generated due to quote mining, and are addressed by studying the adjacent quotes. It is also demanded that the critics frequently cite ancient Brahmanic sources should note subsequent developments in Hindu thought, and to consult contemporary Hindu authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Hindu beliefs.
In reply to criticism of Shudras, verses critical of Shudras are proclaimed to be later interpolations, but not after times of Adi Shankara (7th-8th century CE). The law in Manu Smriti also is biased towards Brahmins (priests) such as concessions of fine and punishment. The stance of Manu Smriti about women is also an issue. While certain verses such as (III - 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify position of women, verses such as (IX - 3, 17) suppress the position and freedom of women. Education of women is also an issue. Verse (IX - 18) (certain interpretations) discourage women from reading vedic scriptures, the verse (II - 240) allows women to read vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX - 94) and (IX - 90).
The main argument however, goes beyond the Smriti and instead pertains to the authority the scripture commands upon Hindus. Though the scripture is known to be rarely used in Indian history, it is believed to have played a great role by British and Communist scholars. It is to be noted that according to Hindu tradition and scriptures, due to Manu Smriti not being a part of Shruti literature i.e., revealed knowledge, it cannot be held authoritative (nor has it been held so), and though a Smriti might be knowledgeable, can be subject to bias and whatever in Smriti is opposed by shruti, it can be rejected according to Hindu scriptures including Manu Smriti as well (II - 12, 13).
When it comes to stance of hereditary caste system, the verse below is believed to sanction support for vocational non-hereditary caste system.
"As the son of Shudra can attain the rank of a Brahmin, the son of Brahmin can attain rank of a shudra. Even so with him who is born of a Vaishya or a Kshatriya" (X: 65)
It must be pointed out that Manu smriti is questionable especially in that it is not a work that has ever been accepted or even known by traditional orthodox Brahmanis. The very existence of this smriti did not even come into the awareness of traditional Brahman communities in India until it was somehow discovered by the British in the 19th century.
Views pertaining to Manusmriti
Though majorly a source of criticism against Hinduism, it is considered to be an important book whose contents are utilised in sociology, political and historical studies.
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar in his book "Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India" says that Manusmriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha - believed to have persecuted many Buddhists and driven them out of India - had it composed during his rule in order to delegitimise Buddhism.However, mainstream historians, such as Romila Thapar, debunk these claims as gross exaggerations.She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra. Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Barhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas". Incidentally, it is also noted that Hinduism does not evangelize.
When it comes to racial theology, The Varna of Manusmriti has been widely regarded as 'race' by colonial British rulers and has been used for studies like pseudoscientific race analysis and phrenology. The Varna of Manusmriti has been widely regarded as 'class' by Marxist analysts and has been used to justify various postulates on history and civillization. It is believed that 'Dwija'(twice-born) are actually Aryans, while Shudras are Dravidians.
Views put forth by authors such as Madhu Kishwar is that the "British resurrected the Manusmriti and used it to frame the "Hindu Civil Code". Prior to colonization, the Manusmriti was nothing more than an obscure text, long-forgotten and rarely used to determine what was acceptable social practice. Because the numerical presence of the Britishers in India was not substantial, the Britishers had to rule largely by proxy. It was important that their agents did not face resistance or rebellion, even in the social realm. Owing to its allegedly repressive and divisive character, the Manusmriti helped in preventing both individual and collective resistance to local authorities, who were typically upper caste and often Brahmin. That the Manusmriti represented an archaic and outdated social code didn't matter."
Another view on the Manusmriti as explained by Subhash C. Sharma is that, since Hinduism is a personal religion, and there is no concept of canon, the Manusmriti can be regarded as an unimportant text and not reflective of the fundamental tenets of the religion. To quote Sharma:
"Smritis (e.g. the Manusmriti) generally present a biased and misleading socio-religious view expounded by a number of ancients. Some people still tend to wrongly assume them as being an important part or source of information on Hinduism."
Hinduism, does not have a highly organized ordained hierarchy of clergy. A counter-criticism from condemns the British colonialists to have made the world to regard the Manu Smriti as the supreme law book of the Hindus, so that they could ridicule the Hindu dharma and denigrate those of Indian origin.
Prominent Hindu figures such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Srila Prabhupada however hold the scripture to be authentic and authoritative, while widely appreciated by figures such as Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Nietszche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti."
Notes
- http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371223/Manu-smrti Encyclopedia Britannica Concise
- Manusmriti Dahan Day celebrated as Indian women's Liberation Day
- Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200
- John Marshall "A guide to Sanchi", p11
- HINDUISM
- Socialism, Secularism, and Democracy in India By K. V. Rao, Aditya Prasad Padhi (page 28 - page 30)
- Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and the Future of Humanity By Nagendra Singh (page 35)
- History of Social Relations in India: Caste and gender equations in Indian history
- General social, philosophical and religious misconceptions about Hinduism
- Manu, smriti and the medical paradox
- From Manusmriti to Madhusmriti Flagellating a Mythical Enemy
- The Will to Power, vol 1
References
- Translation by G. Bühler (1886). Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manu (Vol. XXV). Oxford.
- Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Light of Truth (Satyarth Prakash).
See also
External links
- The Laws of Manu translation by G. Buhler, vol. xxv, Oxford (1886)
- Light of Truth by Swami Dayananda Saraswati
- Indian History Project site