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Moksha
Mokshan
мокшень кяль mokšəń käĺ
Pronunciation	['mɔkʃənʲ kælʲ]
Native to	Russia
Region	European Russia
Ethnicity	253,000 Mokshas (2010 census)
Native speakers	23,000 (2020 census)
Language family	Uralic Mordvinic Moksha
Writing system	Cyrillic
Official status
Official language in	Mordovia (Russia)
Regulated by	Mordovian Research Institute of Language, Literature, History and Economics
Language codes
ISO 639-2	mdf
ISO 639-3	mdf
Glottolog	moks1248
ELP	Moksha
Mordvin languages at the beginning of the 20th century
Moksha is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Moksha (мокшень кяль, mokšəń käĺ, pronounced ['mɔkʃənʲ kʲælʲ]) is a Mordvinic language of the Uralic family, spoken by Mokshas, with around 130,000 native speakers in 2010. Moksha is the majority language in the western part of Mordovia. Its closest relative is the Erzya language, with which it is not mutually intelligible. Moksha is also possibly closely related to the extinct Meshcherian and Muromian languages.

History

Cherapkin's Inscription

There is very little historical evidence of the use of Moksha from the distant past. One notable exception are inscriptions on so-called mordovka silver coins issued under Golden Horde rulers around the 14th century. The evidence of usage of the language (written with the Cyrillic script) comes from the 16th century.

МОЛИ

moli

Моли

АНСИ

ansi

аньцек

ОКАНП

okan

окань

ЄЛКИ

pelki

пяли

(Inscription, Old Moksha)

(Transcription)

(Interpretation, Moksha)

МОЛИ АНСИ ОКАНП ЄЛКИ

moli ansi okan pelki

Моли аньцек окань пяли

Goes only for half gold

Indo-Iranian Influence

Sociolinguistics

Dialects

The Moksha language is divided into three dialects:

• Central group (M-I)
• Western group (M-II)
• South-Eastern group (M-III)

The dialects may be divided with another principle depending on their vowel system:

• ä-dialect: Proto-Moksha *ä /æ/ is retained: śeĺmä /sʲelʲmæ/ "eye", t́äĺmä /tʲælʲmæ/ "broom", ĺäj /lʲæj/ "river".
• e-dialect: Proto-Moksha *ä is raised and merged with *e: śeĺme /sʲelʲme/ "eye", t́eĺme /tʲelʲme/ "broom", ĺej /lʲej/ "river".
• i-dialect: Proto-Moksha *ä is raised to /e/, while Proto-Moksha *e is raised to /i/ and merged with *i: śiĺme /sʲilʲme/ "eye", t́eĺme /tʲelʲme/ "broom", ĺej /lʲej/ "river".

The standard literary Moksha language is based on the central group with ä (particularly the dialect of Krasnoslobodsk).

Official status

Moksha is one of the three official languages in Mordovia (the others being Erzya and Russian). The right to one's own language is guaranteed by the Constitution of the Mordovia Republic. The republican law of Mordovia N 19-3 issued in 1998 declares Moksha one of its state languages and regulates its usage in various spheres: in state bodies such as Mordovian Parliament, official documents and seals, education, mass-media, information about goods, geographical names, road signs. However, the actual usage of Moksha and Erzya is rather limited.

Use in literature

Before 1917 about 100 books and pamphlets mostly of religious character were published. More than 200 manuscripts including at least 50 wordlists were not printed. In the 19th century the Russian Orthodox Missionary Society in Kazan published Moksha primers and elementary textbooks of the Russian language for the Mokshas. Among them were two fascicles with samples of Moksha folk poetry. The great native scholar Makar Evsevyev collected Moksha folk songs published in one volume in 1897. Early in the Soviet period, social and political literature predominated among published works. Printing of Moksha language books was all done in Moscow until the establishment of the Mordvinian national district in 1928. Official conferences in 1928 and 1935 decreed the northwest dialect to be the basis for the literary language.

Use in education

The first few Moksha schools were established in the 19th century by Russian Christian missionaries. Since 1973, Moksha has been allowed to be used as the language of instruction for the first three grades of elementary school in rural areas, and as an elective subject. Classes in universities in Mordovia are in Russian, but the philological faculties of Mordovian State University and Mordovian State Pedagogical Institute offer a teacher course of Moksha. Mordovian State University also offers a course in Moksha for other humanitarian and some technical specialities. According to annual statistics from the Russian Ministry of Education for 2014-2015, there were 48 Moksha-medium schools (all in rural areas) where 644 students were taught, and 202 schools (152 in rural areas) where Moksha was studied as a subject by 15,783 students (5,412 in rural areas). Since 2010, the study of Moksha in Mordovian schools is not compulsory, but can be chosen only by parents.

Revitalisation efforts in Mordovia

Policies regarding the revival of the Moksha and Erzya languages in Mordovia started in the late 1990s, when the Language, and Education Laws were accepted. From the early 2000s on, the policy goal has been to create a unified Mordvin standard language despite differences between Erzya and Moksha.

However, there have been no executive programmes for the implementation of the Language Law. Only about a third of Mordvin students had access to Mordvin language learning, the rest of whom are educated through Russian. Moksha has been used as the medium of instruction in some rural schools, but the number of students attending those schools is in rapid decline. In 2004, Mordovian authorities attempted to introduce compulsory study of the Mordvin/Moksha as one of the Republic's official languages, but this attempt failed in the aftermath of the 2007 education reform in Russia.

Phonology

Vowels

There are eight vowels with limited allophony and reduction of unstressed vowels. Moksha has lost the original Uralic system of vowel harmony but maintains consonant-vowel harmony (palatalized consonants go with front vowels, non-palatalized with non-front).

There are some restrictions for the occurrence of vowels within a word:

1. is an allophone of the phoneme /i/ after phonemically non-palatalized ("hard") consonants.
2. /e/ does not occur after non-palatalized consonants, only after their palatalized ("soft") counterparts.
3. /a/ and /æ/ do not fully contrast after phonemically palatalized or non-palatalized consonants.
   • Similar to /e/, /æ/ does not occur after non-palatalized consonants either, only after their palatalized counterparts.
   • After palatalized consonants, /æ/ occurs at the end of words, and when followed by another palatalized consonant.
   • /a/ after palatalized consonants occurs only before non-palatalized consonants, i.e. in the environment /CʲaC/.
4. The mid vowels' occurrence varies by the position within the word:
   • In native words, /e, o/ are rare in the second syllable, but common in borrowings from e.g. Russian.
   • /e, o/ are never found in the third and following syllables, where only /ə/ occurs.
   • /e/ at the end of words is only found in one-syllable words (e.g. ве /ve/ "night", пе /pe/ "end"). In longer words, word-final ⟨е⟩ always stands for /æ/ (e.g. веле /velʲæ/ "village", пильге /pilʲɡæ/ "foot, leg").

Unstressed /ɑ/ and /æ/ are slightly reduced and shortened and respectively.

Consonants

There are 33 consonants in Moksha.

/ç/ is realized as a sibilant before the plural suffix /-t⁽ʲ⁾/ in south-east dialects.

Palatalization, characteristic of Uralic languages, is contrastive only for dental consonants, which can be either "soft" or " hard". In Moksha Cyrillic alphabet the palatalization is designated like in Russian: either by a "soft sign" ⟨ь⟩ after a "soft" consonant or by writing "soft" vowels ⟨е, ё, и, ю, я⟩ after a "soft" consonant. In scientific transliteration the acute accent or apostrophe are used.

All other consonants have palatalized allophones before the front vowels /æ, i, e/ as well. The alveolo-palatal affricate /tɕ/ lacks non-palatalized counterpart, while postalveolar fricatives /ʂ~ʃ, ʐ~ʒ/ lack palatalized counterparts.

Devoicing

Unusually for a Uralic language, there is also a series of voiceless liquid consonants: /l̥ , l̥ʲ, r̥ , r̥ʲ/ ⟨ʀ, ʀ́, ʟ, ʟ́⟩. These have arisen from Proto-Mordvinic consonant clusters of a sonorant followed by a voiceless stop or affricate: *p, *t, *tʲ, *ts⁽ʲ⁾, *k.

Before certain inflectional and derivational endings, devoicing continues to exist as a phonological process in Moksha. This affects all other voiced consonants as well, including the nasal consonants and semivowels. No voiceless nasals are however found in Moksha: the devoicing of nasals produces voiceless oral stops. Altogether the following devoicing processes apply:

For example, before the nominative plural /-t⁽ʲ⁾/:

• кал /kal/ "fish" – калхт /kal̥t/ "fish"
• лем /lʲem/ "name" – лепть /lʲeptʲ/ "names"
• марь /marʲ/ "apple" – марьхть /mar̥ʲtʲ/ "apples"

Devoicing is, however, morphological rather than phonological, due to the loss of earlier voiceless stops from some consonant clusters, and due to the creation of new consonant clusters of voiced liquid + voiceless stop. Compare the following oppositions:

• калне /kalnʲæ/ "little fish" – калхне /kal̥nʲæ/ (< *kal-tʲ-nʲæ) "these fish"
• марьне /marʲnʲæ/ "my apples" – марьхне /mar̥ʲnʲæ/ ( < *marʲ-tʲ-nʲæ) "these apples"
• кундайне /kunˈdajnʲæ/ "I caught it" – кундайхне /kunˈdaçnʲæ/ ( < *kunˈdaj-tʲ-nʲæ) "these catchers"

Stress

Non-high vowels are inherently longer than high vowels /i, u, ə/ and tend to draw the stress. If a high vowel appears in the first syllable which follow the syllable with non-high vowels (especially /a/ and /æ/), then the stress moves to that second or third syllable. If all the vowels of a word are either non-high or high, then the stress falls on the first syllable.

Stressed vowels are longer than unstressed ones in the same position like in Russian. Unstressed vowels undergo some degree of vowel reduction.

Writing systems

Moksha has been written using Cyrillic with spelling rules identical to those of Russian since the 18th century. As a consequence of that, the vowels /e, ɛ, ə/ are not differentiated in a straightforward way. However, they can be (more or less) predicted from Moksha phonotactics. The 1993 spelling reform defines that /ə/ in the first (either stressed or unstressed) syllable must be written with the "hard" sign ⟨ъ⟩ (e.g. мъ́рдсемс mə́rdśəms "to return", formerly мрдсемс). The version of the Moksha Cyrillic alphabet used in 1924-1927 had several extra letters, either digraphs or single letters with diacritics. Although the use of the Latin script for Moksha was officially approved by the CIK VCKNA (General Executive Committee of the All Union New Alphabet Central Committee) on June 25, 1932, it was never implemented.

Grammar

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2014)

Morphosyntax

Like other Uralic languages, Moksha is an agglutinating language with elaborate systems of case-marking and conjugation, postpositions, no grammatical gender, and no articles.

Case

Moksha has 13 productive cases, many of which are primarily locative cases. Locative cases in Moksha express ideas that Indo-European languages such as English normally code by prepositions (in, at, towards, on, etc.).

However, also similarly to Indo-European prepositions, many of the uses of locative cases convey ideas other than simple motion or location. These include such expressions of time (e.g. on the table/Monday, in Europe/a few hours, by the river/the end of the summer, etc. ), purpose (to China/keep things simple), or beneficiary relations. Some of the functions of Moksha cases are listed below:

• Nominative, used for subjects, predicatives and for other grammatical functions.
• Genitive, used to code possession.
• Allative, used to express the motion onto a point.
• Elative, used to code motion out of a place.
• Inessive, used to code a stationary state, in a place.
• Ablative, used to code motion away from a point or a point of origin.
• Illative, used to code motion into a place.
• Translative, used to express a change into a state.
• Prolative, used to express the idea of "by way" or "via" an action or instrument.
• Lative, used to code motion towards a place.

There is controversy about the status of the three remaining cases in Moksha. Some researchers see the following three cases as borderline derivational affixes.

• Comparative, used to express a likeness to something.
• Caritive (or abessive), used to code the absence of something.
• Causal, used to express that an entity is the cause of something else.

Relationships between locative cases

As in other Uralic languages, locative cases in Moksha can be classified according to three criteria: the spatial position (interior, surface, or exterior), the motion status (stationary or moving), and within the latter, the direction of the movement (approaching or departing). The table below shows these relationships schematically:

Pronouns

Common expressions

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References

1. Moksha language at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
2. "Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2020 года. Таблица 6. Население по родному языку" [Results of the All-Russian population census 2020. Table 6. population according to native language.]. rosstat.gov.ru. Retrieved 2023-01-03.
3. Rantanen, Timo; Tolvanen, Harri; Roose, Meeli; Ylikoski, Jussi; Vesakoski, Outi (2022-06-08). "Best practices for spatial language data harmonization, sharing and map creation—A case study of Uralic". PLOS ONE. 17 (6): e0269648. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1769648R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269648. PMC 9176854. PMID 35675367.
4. Rantanen, Timo, Vesakoski, Outi, Ylikoski, Jussi, & Tolvanen, Harri. (2021). Geographical database of the Uralic languages (v1.0) . Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4784188
5. Encyclopædia Britannica
6. Janse, Mark; Sijmen Tol; Vincent Hendriks (2000). Language Death and Language Maintenance. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. A108. ISBN 978-90-272-4752-0.
7. Зайковский Б. В. «К вопросу о мордовках» Труды Нижне-Волжского областного научного общества краеведения. Вып. 36, часть 1. Саратов, 1929 г
8. Вячеслав Юрьевич Заварюхин. Памятники нумизматики и бонистики в региональном историко-культурном процессе, автореферат диссертации, 2006
9. Vershinin 2009, p. 431
10. ^ Vershinin 2005, p. 307
11. Vershinin 2005
12. (in Russian) Статья 12. Конституция Республики Мордовия = Article 12. Constitution of the Republic of Mordovia
13. (in Russian) Закон «О государственных языках Республики Мордовия»
14. Kreindler, Isabelle T. (January–March 1985). "The Mordvinians: A doomed Soviet nationality?". Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique. 26 (1): 43–62. doi:10.3406/cmr.1985.2030.
15. (in Russian) Кафедра мокшанского языка Archived 2015-06-12 at the Wayback Machine
16. ^ (in Russian) Исполняется 15 лет со дня принятия Закона РМ «О государственных языках Республики Мордовия» Archived 2015-06-14 at the Wayback Machine // Известия Мордовии. 12.04.2013.
17. "Статистическая информация 2014. Общее образование". Archived from the original on 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2020-04-07.
18. (in Russian) Прокуратура борется с нарушением законодательства об образовании = The Prosecutor of Mordovia prevents violations against the educational law. 02 February 2010.
19. Zamyatin, Konstantin (2022-03-24), "Language policy in Russia: The Uralic languages", The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages, Oxford University Press, pp. 79–90, doi:10.1093/oso/9780198767664.003.0005, ISBN 978-0-19-876766-4, retrieved 2022-10-18
20. Feoktistov 1993, p. 182.
21. Feoktistov 1966, p. 200.
22. Feoktistov 1966, p. 200–201.
23. Feoktistov 1966, p. 220.
24. Raun 1988, p. 100.
25. Raun 1988, p. 97.
26. Omniglot.com page on the Moksha language
27. ^ (in Finnish) Bartens, Raija (1999). Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys. Helsinki: Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seura. ISBN 9525150224. OCLC 41513429.

Bibliography

• Aasmäe, Niina; Lippus, Pärtel; Pajusalu, Karl; Salveste, Nele; Zirnask, Tatjana; Viitso, Tiit-Rein (2013). Moksha prosody. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. ISBN 978-952-5667-47-9. Retrieved 2014-07-24.
• Feoktistov, Aleksandr; Saarinen, Sirkka (2005). Mokšamordvan murteet [Dialects of Moksha Mordvin]. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia (in Finnish). Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. ISBN 952-5150-86-0.
• Juhász, Jenő (1961). Moksa-Mordvin szójegyzék (in Hungarian). Budapest.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Paasonen, Heikki (1990–1999). Kahla, Martti (ed.). Mordwinisches Wörterbuch. Helsinki.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Raun, Alo (1988). "The Mordvin Language". In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences. BRILL. pp. 96–110. ISBN 90-04-07741-3.
• Kuznetsov, Stefan (1912), Russkaya istoricheskaya geografiya. Mordva (in Russian), Book on Demand Ltd, ISBN 5518066848
• Belyakov, Andrey (2013-03-12), Invisible Men in Russian Army in 16th century. Russian Army During the Reign of Ivan the Terrible. Materials of Academic Discussion Dedicated To 455th Anniversary of Beginning of the Livonian War. Part I. Is.2 (in Russian), Saint-Petersburg{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Fedorov-Davydov G.A.; Tsirkin A.V. (1966), Novye dannye ob Ityakovskom gorodishche v Temnikovskom r-ne Mordovskoy ASSR . Issledovaniya po arkheologii i etnografii Mordovskoy ASSR: Trudy Mordovskogo IYaLIE Is. 30 (in Russian), Saransk{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Filjushkin, Alexander (2008). Ivan the Terrible: A Military History. Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1848325043.
• Geraklitov, Aleksandr (2011). Selected Works. Vol. 1. Mordovsky belyak (in Russian). Mordovia Republic Humanities Research Institute. ISBN 978-5-900029-78-8.
• Zaikovsky, Bogdan (1929), Back To Mordovkas' Problem (in Russian), Saratov: Nizhne-Volzhskaya Oblast scientific and historical society review
• Serebrenikov, B.A.; Feoktistov, A.P.; Polyakov, O.Y., eds. (1998) . Moksha-Russian Dictionary (in Russian). Digora. ISBN 5-200-02012-3.
• Semenkovich, Vladimir (1913). Geloni and Mordva: Historical Geography Of Upper Don And Oka Materials and Research (in Russian). Yeltsin President Library.
• Orbelli, Iosif (1982). Folklore And Traditions of Moks (in Russian). Nauka.
• Popov, M.M. (2005), Seliksa Mordvas (PDF) (in Russian), Saransk: Republic of Mordovia Government Research Institute of Humanities
• Akhmetyanov, Rifkat (1981). Common Spiritual Culture Vocabulary Of Middle Volga Peoples (in Russian). Nauka.
• Setälä, Eemil; Smirnov, Ivan (1898). East Finns. Ivan Smirnov's Historical And Ethnographical Essays (in Russian). Sankt Peterburg: Yeltsin President Library.
• Melnikov, Pavel (1879). In The Mountains (in Russian).
• Stetsyuk, Valentin (2022). "Ancient Greeks And Italics In Ukraine And Russia".
• Fyodorova, Marina (1976). Slavs, Mordvins And Antes (in Russian). Voronezhg: Voronezh University Publishing.
• Palchan Israel (2018). The Khazar story: The Tail of Two Languages: Russian Hebrew and the Khazar story. ISBN 978-9789659081. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
• Belinsky, Vladimir (2007). Moxel Country (in Russian). Smolensk: Posokh. ISBN 978-966-7601-91-1.
• Mierow, Charles Christopher, ed. (1915), The Gothic History of Jordanes, Princeton, Univ. Press
• Minorsky, Vladimir (1952), The Alān Capital *Magas and the Mongol Campaign, Cambridge University Press, JSTOR 608675
• Minorsky, Vladimir; al-ʿĀlam, Ḥudūd (1952), Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam. The regions of the world: a Persian geography, 372 A.H./982 A.D para 52. The Alān Capital *Magas and the Mongol Campaign, Cambridge University Press
• Fournet, Arnaud (2008), Le vocabulaire Mordve de Witsen. Une forme ancienne du dialecte Zubu-Mokša. Études finno-ougriennes, tome 40
• Beekes, R.S.P.; Beekfirst2=L.V. (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Vols. 1 & 2.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

In Russian

• Аитов Г. Новый алфавит – великая революция на Востоке. К межрайонным и краевой конференции по вопросам нового алфавита. — Саратов: Нижневолжское краевое издательство, 1932.
• Ермушкин Г. И. Ареальные исследования по восточным финно-угорским языкам = Areal research in East Fenno-Ugric languages. — М., 1984.
• Поляков О. Е. Учимся говорить по-мокшански. — Саранск: Мордовское книжное издательство, 1995.
• Феоктистов А. П. Мордовские языки // Языки народов СССР. — Т.3: Финно-угроские и самодийские языки — М., 1966. — С. 172–220.
• Феоктистов А. П. Мордовские языки // Основы финно-угорского языкознания. — М., 1975. — С. 248–345.
• Феоктистов А. П. Мордовские языки // Языки мира: уральские языки. — М., 1993. — С. 174–208.
• Cherapkin, Iosif (1933). Moksha-Mordvin - Russian Dictionary. Саранск.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Vershinin, Valery (2009). Mordvinic (Erzya and Moksha languages) Etymological Dictionary (in Russian). Vol. 4. Yoshkar Ola.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Vershinin, Valery (2005). Mordvinic (Erzya and Moksha languages) Etymological Dictionary (in Russian). Vol. 3. Yoshkar Ola.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

In Moksha

• Девяткина, Татьяна (2002). Мокшэрзянь мифологиясь [Tatyana Devyatkina. Moksha-Erzya mythology] (in Moksha). Tartu: University of Tartu. ISBN 9985-867-24-6.
• Alyoshkin A. (1988). "Siyan Karks ". Moksha (in Moksha). 6.

Footnotes

External links

• Media related to Moksha language at Wikimedia Commons

• Mokshen Pravda newspaper
• Moksha – Finnish/English dictionary (robust finite-state, open-source)
• Periodicals, textbooks and manuscripts in Moksha language in National Library of Finland

v t e Uralic languages
List of Uralic languages
Finnic	Bjarmian languages Estonian Laiuse Romani Northeastern coastal South Estonian Seto Võro Mulgi Tartu Ludza Kraasna Leivu Finnish Fingelska Kven Meänkieli Siberian Finnish Ingrian Siberian Ingrian Finnish Karelian Karelian proper Livvi Ludic Livonian Veps Votic Krevinian Kukkuzi
Sámi	Eastern Sámi Akkala Inari Kainuu Kemi Kildin Skolt Ter Western Sámi Lule Northern Pite Southern Ume
Mordvinic	Erzya Shoksha dialect [de; ru] Moksha
Mari	Hill Mari Meadow Mari Northwestern Mari
Permic	Komi Komi-Yazva Komi-Permyak Udmurt
Ugric	Hungarian Ob-Ugric Khanty Northern Khanty Southern Khanty Eastern Khanty Mansi Northern Mansi Western Mansi Eastern Mansi Southern Mansi
Samoyedic	Enets Kamas Koibal Mator Taygi [ru] Karagas [ru] Nenets Forest Nenets Tundra Nenets Nganasan Selkup Yurats
Others	Merya Meshcherian Muromian
Reconstructed	Proto-Uralic homeland Proto-Finnic Proto-Sámi Proto-Samoyedic
Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

• Moksha language
• Finnic languages
• Languages of Russia
• Moksha people
• Agglutinative languages
• Subject–verb–object languages
• Definitely endangered languages