World War I: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively ← Previous edit Next edit →Content deleted Content addedVisual WikitextInline

Revision as of 19:09, 11 May 2007 view sourceJeremyA (talk \| contribs)Extended confirmed users26,343 editsm rv further--to last version by JeremyA← Previous edit		Revision as of 19:19, 11 May 2007 view source Aznboi168 (talk \| contribs)1 edit ←Replaced page with 'It was south korea'Next edit →
Line 1:		Line 1:
			It was south korea
	{{toolong}}

	{{Redirect\|The Great War }}
	<!--This is a long article. If you have more information regarding World War I, please consider adding it to one of the articles referenced by this article that deal with specific areas of World War I rather than to this article. Thank you.-->{{Infobox Military Conflict
	\|conflict = World War I
	\|partof =
	\|image = ]
	\|caption = '''Clockwise from top''': ] on the ]; a ] ] crossing a trench; ] ] ] sinking after striking a ] at the ]; a ] crew with ]s, and a ] ]
	\|date = ] ] - ] ]
	\|place = ], ] and the ] (briefly in ] and the ])
	\|casus = ] (]) followed by Austrian declaration of war on Serbia (]) and Russian mobilisation against Austria-Hungary (]). Also nationalism, militarism and imperialism.
	\|result = Allied victory. End of the ], the ], the ], and the ]. Creation of many new countries in ] and ].

	\|combatant1 = ]:<br>{{flagicon\|Russia}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|France}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861-state}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|United States\|1912}} ]<br>]
	\|combatant2 = ]:<br>{{flagicon\|Austria-Hungary}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|German Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Ottoman Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Bulgaria\|1878}} ]

	\|commander1 = {{flagicon\|Russia}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Russia}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|France}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|France}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|France}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|France}} ] <br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} ] <br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861-state}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861-state}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861-state}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|United States\|1912}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|United States\|1912}} ]<br>

	\|commander2 = {{flagicon\|Austria-Hungary}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Austria-Hungary}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|German Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|German Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|German Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|German Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|German Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Ottoman Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Ottoman Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Ottoman Empire}} ]<br>{{flagicon\|Bulgaria\|1878}} ]

	\|casualties1 = '''Military dead:''' <br> 5,525,000 <br>'''Military wounded:''' 12,831,500 <br>'''Military missing:''' 4,121,000<ref name=Evans>Evans, David. Teach yourself, the First World War, Hodder Arnold, 2004.p.188</ref><br>
	\|casualties2 = '''Military dead: ''' <br> 4,386,000 <br>'''Military wounded''': 8,388,000 <br>'''Military missing:''' 3,629,000<ref name=Evans/><br>
	}}{{Campaignbox World War I}}
	'''World War I''', also known as the '''Great War''' and "'''The War To End All Wars'''," was a ] ] which took place primarily in Europe between 1914 and ]. More than nine million soldiers and civilians died. The conflict had a decisive impact on the history of the 20th century.

	The ], led by ], ], the ], ], and, from 1917, the ], defeated the ], led by ], ], and the ].

	The fighting that took place along the ] occurred along a system of trenches and fortifications separated by an area known as ]. These series of fortifications ran from the ] to ]. On the ], the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate. But the scale of the conflict was just as large. The Middle East and the Italian Front saw heavy fighting as well. Hostilities also occurred at sea and, for the first time, in the air.

	The war caused the disintegration of four empires: the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman and Russian. Germany lost its ] and states such as ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] gained independence.

	World War I marked the end of the old world order, which had emerged after the ]. The result of the conflict was an important factor in the outbreak of ].

	==Causes==
	{{main\|Causes of World War I}}
	{{seealso\|Black Hand}}
	On ] ], ], a Bosnian Serb student, killed ], the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in ]. Princip was a member of ], a group whose aims included the unification of the ] and independence from Austria-Hungary. The ] set into motion a series of ] that escalated into a full-scale war. Austria-Hungary demanded action by ] to punish those responsible. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, when it deemed it had failed to comply. Major European powers were at war within a matter of weeks because of overlapping agreements for ] and the complex nature of international alliances. Though the assassination was the event that started the war, it was the last in a long succession of complex causes and events that pitted the nations of Europe against each other.

	===Arms race===
	The naval race between Britain and Germany was intensified by the 1906 launch of ]. It was a revolutionary warship, which rendered all previous ships obsolete. Britain had also maintained a large naval lead in other areas particularly over Germany and Italy. ] pointed out that both nations believed in ]'s thesis that ] was vital to great nation status.

	] described the armaments race as "a self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness." David Herrmann viewed the shipbuilding rivalry as part of a general movement in the direction of war. ], however, argued that Britain's ability to maintain an overall lead signified that it was not a factor in the oncoming conflict.

	===Plans, distrust and mobilization===
	Closely related is the thesis adopted by many ] that the mobilization plans of Germany, France and Russia automatically escalated the conflict. ] emphasized the inherently aggressive nature of the ], which outlined a two-front strategy. Fighting on two fronts meant Germany had to eliminate one opponent quickly, before taking on the other. It called for a strong right ], to seize Belgium and cripple the ] by pre-empting its mobilization.

	After the attack, the ] would rush east by railroad and quickly destroy the slowly mobilizing Russian forces.

	France's ], envisioned a quick thrust into Germany’s industrial heartland, the ]. This would cripple Germany's ability to wage war.

	Russia's ], foresaw a mobilisation of its armies against both Austria-Hungary and Germany.

	All three blueprints created an atmosphere where speed was of the determining factors for victory. Elaborate timetables were prepared. Once mobilisation had begun, there was little possibility of turning back. Diplomatic delays and poor communications exacerbated the problems.

	===Militarism and autocracy===
	] ] of the United States and others blamed the war on ].<ref> ] ] in ], ''Ordeal of Wo<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/search/?title=User:Lupin/navpop.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css&dontcountme=s">odrow Wilson'' p. 47 </ref> ]s and military elites had too much power in Germany, Russia and Austria, it was argued. War was a consequence of their desire for ] and disdain for ]. This theme figured prominently in ] propaganda. Consequently, supporters of this theory called for the abdication of rulers such as ]. They advocated an end to aristocracy and militarism. This was used to justify Americans entry into the war, when Czarist Russia surrendered in 1917.

	Wilson hoped the ] and ] would secure a lasting peace. He also acknowledged that variations of militarism, in his opinion, existed within the British and French Empires.

	There was some validity to this view, as the Allies consisted of Great Britain and France, both democracies, fighting the Central Powers, which included the autocracies of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. Russia, one of the Allied Powers, was an empire until 1917, but it was opposed to the subjugation of ] by Austro-Hungary. Thus, the view of the war as one of democracy versus dictatorship had some validity, but it lost credibility as the conflict dragged on.

	===Economic imperialism===
	] asserted that ] was responsible for the war. He drew upon the ] of ] and English economist ], who predicted that unlimited competition for expanding markets would lead to a global conflict.<ref>“Imperialism" (1902) </ref> This argument was popular in the wake of the war and assisted in the rise of ]. Lenin argued that the banking interests of various capitalist-imperialist powers orchestrated the war.<ref></ref>

	===Trade barriers===
	], US Secretary of State under ] made a statement some years after World War I that ]s were the ] of both World War I and World War II. Around 1943-44, he designed the ] to reduce trade barriers and eliminate what he saw as the cause of the conflicts.

	===Ethnic and political rivalries, both old and new===
	A ] war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was considered inevitable, as Austria-Hungary’s influence waned and the ] movement grew. The rise of ethnic nationalism coincided with the growth of Serbia, where anti-Austrian sentiment was perhaps most fervent. Austria-Hungary had occupied the former Ottoman province of ], which had a large Serb population, in 1878. It was ] by Austria-Hungary in 1908. Increasing nationalist sentiment also coincided with the decline of the ]. Russia supported the Pan-Slavic movement. It was motivated by ethnic and religious loyalties and a rivalry with Austria, dating back to the ], but recent events, such as the ] and a century-old dream of a ] also motivated St. Petersburg.<ref> </ref>

	Germany's position as a central European power, led to the conclusion that the only viable defense was an active offensive, thus the formulation of the ]. At the same time, the loss of ] and ], as a result of the ], influenced the French policy of ] or revenge. France allied itself with Russia and a ] now became a distinct possibility for Germany.
	{{see also\|Powder keg of Europe}}

	==July crisis and declarations of war==
	{{mainarticle\|Causes of World War I}}
	Following the assassination of ], the Austro-Hungarian government used the assassination as a pretext to deal with the Serbian question. Germany supported the action. On ], an ] was sent to Serbia with demands so extreme that it was rejected. The Serbians, relying on support from Russia, ordered mobilization. Austria-Hungary issued a declaration of war on ]. Initially, Russia ordered partial mobilization, directed at the Austrian frontier. On ], after the Russian General Staff informed the Czar that partial mobilization was logistically impossible, a full mobilization was ordered. The ], which relied on a quick strike against France, could not afford to allow the Russians to mobilize without launching an attack. Thus, the Germans declared war against Russia on ] and on France two days later. Next, Germany violated Belgium's neutrality by the German march through it to Paris. With this, five of the six European powers were now involved in the largest continental European conflict since the ].<ref>Joll, James. ''The Origins of the First World War'', 2nd ed. (Harlow, 1992), pp. 10-38</ref>

	==Chronology==
	===Opening hostilities===
	] purplish-red, ] grey and neutral countries yellow]]

	====Confusion among the Central Powers====
	The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary’s invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing the majority of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the ] to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts.

	====African campaigns====
	{{main\|African theatre of World War I}}
	Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French and German colonial forces in Africa. On ], French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of ]. On ] German forces in ] attacked ]. Sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the remainder of the war.
	], France, 1917]]

	====Serbian campaign====
	{{main\|Serbian Campaign (World War I)}}
	The Serbian army fought the ] against the invading Austrians, beginning on ]. The Serbians occupied defensive positions on the south side of the ] and ] rivers. Over the next two weeks Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses. This marked the first major Allied victory of the war. Austrian expectations of a swift victory were dashed. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, which weakened their efforts against Russia.

	====German forces in Belgium and France====
	{{main\|Western Front (World War I)}}
	] in France during World War I. The post card reads, ''"Gentlemen of India marching to chasten German hooligans"'']]

	Initially, the Germans had great successes in the ] (] – ]). Russia, however, attacked in ] and diverted German forces intended for the ]. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the Second ] (] – ]). This diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not allowed for by the German ]. Originally, the Schlieffen Plan called for the right flank of the German advance to pass to the west of Paris. However, the capacity and low speed of horse-drawn transport hampered the German supply train, allowing French and British forces to finally halt the German advance east of Paris at the ] (] – ]), thereby denying the Central Powers a quick victory and forcing them to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance for an early victory.

	====Asia and the Pacific====
	{{main\|Asian and Pacific theatre of World War I}}
	] occupied ] (later Western Samoa) on ]. On ] the ] landed on the island of ] (later New Britain), which formed part of ]. ] seized Germany’s ]n colonies and after ], the German coaling port of ], in the Chinese ] peninsula. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific.

	===Early stages===
	]s, ], 1917]]

	====Trench warfare begins====
	{{main\|Western Front (World War I)}}
	Military tactics in the early part of World War I failed to keep pace with advances in technology. New technology allowed the building of impressive defenses, which out of date tactics could not break through. ] was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances; ], vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with ], made crossing open ground a nightmare. The Germans introduced ]. It soon became a weapon used by both sides. Poison gas never won a battle. Its effects were brutal, however, causing slow and painful deaths. It became one of the most feared and remembered horrors of the war. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaking through entrenched positions, without massive casualties. Technology, however, began to yield new offensive weapons. The ] was a wartime invention designed by the British to break the trench warfare stalemate. Both Britain and France were the primary users of tanks, while the Germans employed captured Allied tanks, as well some of their own design.

	After the ], both ] and German forces began a series of outflanking maneuvers to try to force the other to retreat, in the so-called ]. Britain and France soon found themselves facing entrenched German forces from ] to Belgium’s ] coast. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended occupied territories. One consequence was that German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy. Anglo-French trenches were only intended to be "temporary" before their forces broke through German defenses. Some hoped to break the stalemate by utilizing science and technology. In April 1915, the Germans used ], for the first time, in violation of the ]. They opened a 6 kilometer (4 mile) hole in the Allied lines, when British and French colonial troops retreated. ] soldiers closed the breach at the ]. At the ], ] took the village of ].

	On ] ], the ] of the ], the ] saw the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties and 19,240 dead. Most casualties occurred in the first hour of the attack. The entire offensive cost the British Army almost half a million dead.

	Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years, though protracted German action at ] throughout 1916, and the Entente’s failure at the ], in the summer of 1916, brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts at frontal assault—with a rigid adherence to unimaginative maneuver—came at a high price for both the British and the French ] (infantry) and led to widespread mutinies especially during the time of the ] in the spring of 1917.
	] at the ]]]

	Throughout 1915–17, the British Empire and France suffered far more casualties than Germany. However, while the Germans only mounted a single main offensive at ], each failed attempt by the Entente to break through German lines was met with an equally fierce German counteroffensive to recapture lost positions. Around 800,000 soldiers from the British Empire were on the Western Front at any one time. 1,000 battalions, occupying sectors of the line from the ] to the ], operated on a month-long four-stage rotation system, unless an offensive was underway. The front contained over 9,600 kilometers (6,000 miles) of trenches. Each battalion held its sector for about a week before moving back to support lines and then further back to the reserve lines before a week out-of-line, often in the ] or ] areas.

	In the British-led ] during the 1917 campaign, the only military success was the capture of ] by ] under ] and ]. It provided the allies with a great military advantage and had a lasting impact on the war. The ] is considered by many historians to be one of the ] of Canada.

	===Naval War===
	{{Main article\|Naval Warfare of World War I}}
	At the start of the war, the German Empire had ]s scattered across the globe. They were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British ] systematically hunted them down. At the ], in December 1914, Germany lost 2 armoured cruisers, 2 light cruisers and 2 transports ships.

	Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a Naval ], preventing supplies from reaching German ports. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated the generally accepted international law codified by several international agreement of the past two centuries. A blockade of stationed ships within a three mile radius is considered legitimate, however Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this illegal tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.

	The 1916 ] (German: ''Skagerrakschlacht'', or "Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest naval battle of the war. Remarkably, it was the only full-scale clash of battleships. The Battle of Jutland was fought on ]–], ], in the ] off ]. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral ], squared off against the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir ]. The engagement was a standoff, as the Germans, outmaneuvered by the larger British fleet, managed to escape. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war.

	German ] attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest and Germany modified its rules of engagement. After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship ] in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. Britain armed its merchant ships. Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of ], realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes, before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas.

	The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered ]s escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets. The accompanying destroyers might sink a submerged submarine with ]. The losses to submarine attacks became quite small. But the convoy system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.

	The First World War also saw the first use of ] in combat, with ] launching ] in a successful raid against the ] hangars at ] in July 1918.

	===Southern theatres===
	====Ottoman Empire====
	{{main\|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I}}
	The ] joined the Central Powers. The secret ] was signed in August 1914. It threatened Russia’s ] territories and Britain’s communications with ] via the ]. The British and French opened overseas fronts with the ] (1915) and ] campaigns. In Gallipoli, the ] successfully repelled the British, French and ] (ANZACs). In ], by contrast, after the disastrous ] (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured ] in March 1917. Further to the west, in the ], initial British setbacks were overcome when ] was captured in December 1917. The ], under Field Marshal ], broke the Ottoman forces at the ] in September 1918.

	Russian armies generally had the best of it in the ]. ''Vice-Generalissimo'' ], supreme commander of the Turkish armed forces, was ] and dreamed of conquering ]. But he was a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops. Insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter, he lost 86% of his force at the ].

	The Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, General ], drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories.

	In 1917, Russian ] assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from ] to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. But, in March 1917, (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar was overthrown in the ] and the ] began to fall apart. In this situation, the army corps of ] realigned themselves under the command of General ], with ] as a civilian commissioner of the ]. The frontline had three main divisions: ], ] and ]. Another regular unit was under Colonel Korganian. There were Armenian ] (more than 40,000<ref name="bogus">] the president of the "]" declared to ] through a letter to French Foreign Office - December 3, 1918</ref>) accompanying these main units.

	====Italian participation====
	{{main\|Italian Campaign (World War I)}}
	Italy had been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882. Italy, however, had its own designs on Austrian territory in ], ] and ]. ] had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the ] was defensive in nature, while Austria-Hungary was the aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality. It offered the French colony of ] in return. Italy, however, joined the ] in April 1915 and declared war on Austria-Hungary in May. Fifteen months later, it declared war on Germany.

	Militarily, the Italians had numerical superiority. This advantage, however, was squandered (along with the size and quality of its artillery, which by 1917, rivaled the British and French). ] ] insisted on attacking the ]. Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking ] and threatening ]. It was a ] plan, which had no realistic chance of success, in an age of barbed wire, poison gas and machine guns. Cadorna unleashed eleven offensives (]) with total disregard for his men's lives. The Italians also went on the offensive to relieve pressure on other Allied fronts. On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the ] terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian ] and ] and Italian ] engaged in bitter hand to hand combat throughout the summer and winter. The Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in the ], towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 ('']''). But they made little progress.

	Beginning in 1915, the Italians mounted eleven offensives along the ], north of ]. These became known collectively as the ](Soška fronta). All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, the Italians captured the town of ]. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives. In the fall of 1917, thanks to the improving situation on the Eastern front, the Austrians received large numbers of reinforcements, including German ]s. The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on ], spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at ]( The miracle near Kobarid). The Italian army was routed and retreated more than 100 km (60 miles). They were able to reorganise and stabilize the front at the ]. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians repeatedly failed to break through, in a series of battles on the ]. They were decisively defeated in the ]. Austria-Hungary surrendered in November 1918.

	====War in the Balkans====
	{{main\|Balkans Campaign (World War I)\|Serbian Campaign (World War I)\|Macedonian front (World War I)}}
	Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only one third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, ]. Serbian counterattacks, however, succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by convincing ] to join in attacking Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of ], ] and ] provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Troops from the Balkans invaded Serbia, as well as fighting Russia and Italy. ] allied itself with Serbia. The Serbs occupied ].

	Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month. The attack began in October, when the Central Powers launched an offensive from the north. Four days later the Bulgarians joined the attack from the east. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into ]. They halted only once, to make a stand against the Bulgarians. The Serbs suffered defeat near modern day ] in ]. Serbian forces were evacuated by ship to ].

	In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at ] in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure the government to declare war against the Central Powers. Unfortunately for the Allies, the pro-German ] dismissed the pro-Allied government of ], before the allied expeditionary force could arrive.

	The Salonica Front proved static. It was joked that Salonica was the largest German ] camp of the war.{{Fact\|date=May 2007}} Only at the end of the conflict were the Entente powers able to break through, which was after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The ] suffered their only defeat of the war, at the ]. Days later, however, they decisively defeated British and ] forces at the ]. Thus, Bulgaria avoided occupation. Bulgaria signed an ] on ], ].

	====Fighting in India====

	Although the conflict in India cannot be explicitly said to have been a part of World War One, it can certainly be said to be significant in terms of the wider strategic context, because the British attempt to subjugate the tribal leaders who had rebelled against their British overlords drew away much needed troops from other theaters, in particular, of course, the Western Front, where the real decisive victory would be made. The reason why some Indian and Afgani tribes rose up simply comes down to years of discontent which erupted, probably not coincidentally, in WWI. It is likely that the tribal leaders were aware that Britain would not be able to field the required men, in terms of either number or quality. However, India, despite being located far away from the epicenter of the conflict, was still strategically important since it provided a bounty of men for the fronts; its produce was required for the war effort, and many trade routes running to other profitable areas of the Empire ran through India. Therefore, although the British were not able to send the men that they wanted, they were able to send enough to push the resolve of the tribesmen through a gradual but effective counter-guerilla war. However, the fighting would continue into 1919, and in some areas beyond; and that is why it has been left out of the wider understanding and appreciation of the Great War.

	===Eastern Front===
	====Initial actions====
	{{main\|Eastern Front (World War I)}}
	While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in the east. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian ] and German East Prussia. Although Russia's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, they were driven back from East Prussia by ] and ] at ] and the ] in August and September 1914. Russia's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership was instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated into Galicia, and in May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on ]s southern frontiers. On ] they captured ] and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland. This became known as the "Great Retreat" in Russia and the "Great Advance" in Germany.

	====Ukrainian oppression====

	During World War I the western ] were trapped between Austria-Hungary and Russia. Often villages were torn apart and destroyed because the front cut through their land. Some people where sent to fight for each side when all they wanted was their own freedom. The Ukrainians usually sided with Austria-Hungary to fight off the Eastern Front and then revolt and form an independent state.

	However, Austro-Hungarian authorities subjected Ukrainians in ] who sympathized with Russia to repression. Over twenty thousand supporters of Russia were arrested and placed in an Austrian concentration camp in ], ], and in a fortress at ] (now in the ]).

	{{main\|Ukraine after the Russian Revolution\|Soviet Union}}
	]

	With the Russian and Austrian empires' collapse following ] and the ], Ukrainian national movement for self-determination emerged again. During 1917–20 several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]. However, with the defeat of the latter in the ] and the failure of the Polish ] of the ], the ] concluded in March 1921 between ] and ] left Ukraine divided again. The western part of Ukraine had been incorporated into newly organized ], and the larger, central and eastern part, established as the ] in March 1919, later became a constituent republic of the ], when it was formed in December 1922.

	====Russian Revolution====
	{{main\|Russian Revolution of 1917}}
	Dissatisfaction with the Russian government's conduct of the war grew, despite the success of the June 1916 ] in eastern ]. The success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces revived only temporarily with ]s entry into the war on ]. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austrian units in ] and ] fell to the Central Powers on ]. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the ] remained at the front. ]'s increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, ], at the end of 1916.
	]]]

	In March 1917, demonstrations in ] culminated in the abdication of ] and the appointment of a weak ]. It shared power with the socialists of the ]. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective.

	The war and the government became more and more unpopular. Discontent led to a rise in popularity of the ] ], led by ]. He promised to pull Russia out of the war and was able to gain power. The ] in November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused to agree to the harsh German terms. But when Germany resumed the war and marched with impunity across ], the new government acceded to the ] on ], ]. It took Russia out of the war and ceded vast territories, including ], the ], parts of ] and ] to the Central Powers.

	The publication by the new Bolshevik government of the secret treaties signed by the tsar was hailed across the world, either as a great step forward for the respect of the will of the people, or as a dreadful catastrophe which could destabilise the world. The existence of a new ] in Russia led to the reinforcement in many countries of ].

	After the Russians dropped out of the war, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion of Russia. The intent was primarily to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources and, to a lesser extent, to support the Whites in the ]. Troops landed in ] (see ]) and in ].

	===1917–1918===
	]es: ] in a communications trench on the ], ] ]]]

	Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918. The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the ] convinced ] ] to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. Tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the reintroduced ] system became extremely effective in neutralizing the ] threat. Britain was safe from starvation, and the German industrial output fell.

	The victory of Austria-Hungary and Germany at the ] led the Allied at the ] to form the ] to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands.

	In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia. This released troops for use in the west. Ironically, German troop transfers could have been greater if their territorial acquisitions had not been so dramatic. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the final outcome was to be decided on the Western front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war. But they held high hopes for a quick offensive. Furthermore, the leaders of the Central Powers and the Allies became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory.

	====Entry of the United States====
	] ]]]

	The United States pursued a policy of ], avoiding conflict whilst trying to broker a peace. This resulted in increased tensions with Berlin and London. When a German U-boat sank the British liner ] in 1915, with 128 Americans aboard, the U.S. President ] vowed that "America was too proud to fight" and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. He repeatedly warned that America would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law and American ideas of human rights. Wilson was under pressure from former president ], who denounced German acts as "piracy."<ref>H. W. Brands, ''T. R.'' (1997) p. 756. </ref> In January 1917, after the Navy pressured the Kaiser, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. Berlin's ] to join the war as Germany's ally against the U.S. angered Americans. After submarines sank seven American merchant ships, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the ] declared on ] ].<ref>(see: '']'' on ]).</ref>

	The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power". America had a small army, but it drafted 4 million men and by summer 1918 was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. Germany had miscalculated that it would be many more months before they would arrive or that the arrival could be stopped by U-boats.<ref> William John Wilgus, ''Transporting the A. E. F. in Western Europe, 1917-1919'' p. 52</ref>

	]

	The ] sent a battleship group to ] to join with the ], several ] to ], ], and several ] to help guard convoys. Several regiments of ] were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The Americans rejected the first proposition, and accepted the second. General ], ] (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as reinforcements for British Empire and French units (though he did allow ] combat units to be used by the French). Pershing ordered the use of frontal assaults, which had been discarded by that time by British Empire and French commanders because of the large loss of life sustained throughout the war.

	====German Spring Offensive of 1918====
	{{main\|Spring Offensive}}
	]]]

	German General ] drew up plans (] ]) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to strike a decisive blow before significant U.S. forces arrived. Before the offensive began, Ludendorff left the elite ] in Russia and sending over only a small portion of the German forces to the west.

	Operation Michael opened on ] ]. British forces were attacked near ]. Ludendorff wanted to split the British and French armies. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometers (40 miles). For the first time since 1914, the maneuver was successful on the battlefield. {{Fact\|date=May 2007}}

	British and French trenches were penetrated using novel ], also named ''Hutier'' tactics, after General ]. Attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive, the German Army used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.

	The front moved to within 120 kilometers (75 mi) of ]. Three heavy ] ]s fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared ] a ]. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or ], the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains.

	American divisions, which Pershing had sought to field as an independent force, were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on ]. A supreme command of Allied forces was created at the ]. ] was appointed as supreme commander of the allied forces. Haig, Petain and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies.

	Following Operation Michael, Germany launched ] against the northern ] ports. The Allies halted the drive with limited territorial gains for Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted ], broadly towards Paris. Operation Marne was launched on ], attempting to encircle ] and beginning the ]. The resulting Allied counterattack marked their first successful offensive of the war. By ], the Germans were back at their Kaiserschlacht starting lines, having achieved nothing. Following this last phase of the war in the West, the German Army never again regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained stormtroopers.

	Meanwhile, at home Germany was falling apart. ] marches become frequent, and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was 53% of 1913 levels.

	====New states under war zone====
	In 1918, internationally recognized ], ] boardering the Ottoman Empire and not recognized ], ] was established.

	In 1918, the ]s of ] declared the ] (DRA) through the ] (unified form of ]s) after the dissolution of ]. ] become the first Commander-in-chief of DRA. Enver Pasha ordered the creation of a new army to be named the ]. He ordered the Army of Islam into DRA, with the goal of taking ] on the ]. This new offensive was strongly opposed by the ]. In early May, 1918, the Ottoman army attacked the newly declared DRA. Although the Armenians managed to inflict one defeat on the Ottomans at the ], the Ottoman army won a later battle and scattered the Armenian army. The Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the ] in June, ].

	====Allied victory: summer and autumn 1918====
	{{main\|Hundred Days Offensive\|Weimar Republic}}
	] in September 1918]]

	The Allied counteroffensive, known as the ], began on ] ]. The ] developed with III Corps ] on the left, the ] on the right, and the ] and ] spearheading the offensive in the centre. It involved 414 ]s of the ] and ] type, and 120,000 men. They advanced 12 kilometers (7 miles) into German-held territory in just seven hours. ] referred to this day as the "Black Day of the German army".

	Supply problems caused the offensive to lose momentum. British units had encountered problems when all but seven tanks and trucks ran out of fuel. On ] ] called a halt and began planning a new offensive in ]. The ] began on ]. Some 130,000 U.S. troops were involved, along with soldiers from ] and ] British Armies. It was an overwhelming success. The ] was pushed back over a 55 kilometer (34 mile) front. By ], the Germans were back to the ], their starting point in 1914.

	The Allied ] began on ]. 260,000 American soldiers went "over the top". All initial objectives were captured; the ], which met stiff resistance at ], took an extra day to capture its objective. The U.S. Army stalled because of supply problems because its inexperienced headquarters had to cope with large units and a difficult landscape.

	At the same time, French units broke through in Champagne and closed on the Belgian frontier. The most significant advance came from Commonwealth units, as they entered Belgium (liberation of Ghent). The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear-guard actions. This probably saved the army from disintegration but was devastating for morale.

	By October, it was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defense. They were increasingly outnumbered, with the few new recruits. Rations were cut. Ludendorff decided, on ], that Germany had two ways out—total annihilation or an armistice. He recommended the latter at a summit of senior German officials. Allied pressure did not let up.

	Meanwhile, news of Germany’s impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of ] was rife. Admiral ] and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valor" of the German Navy. Knowing the government of ] would veto any such action; Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at ]. Many rebelled and were arrested, refusing to be part of a naval offensive which they believed to be suicidal. Ludendorff took the blame—the Kaiser dismissed him on ]. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. The reserves had been used up, but the Americans kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day.<ref> Stevenson, ''Cataclysm'' (2004) p 383.</ref>

	With power coming into the hands of new men in Berlin, further fighting became impossible. With 6 million German casualties, Germany moved toward peace. ] took charge of a new government. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the vain hope that better terms would be offered than with the British and French. Instead Wilson demanded the abdication of the Kaiser. There was no resistance when the ] ] on ] declared Germany to be a republic. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born: the ].<ref> Stevenson, ''Cataclysm'' (2004) ch 17.</ref>

	===End of war===
	]

	The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice on ] ]. On ], the ] capitulated.

	On ] the Italians began a push which rapidly recovered territory lost after the ]. This culminated in the ], which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague and Zagreb. On ], the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine and Trieste. On ] Austria-Hungary sent a ] to ask for an ]. The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian Commander and accepted. The ] was signed in the Villa Giusti, near ], on ]. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the ].

	Following the outbreak of the ], a republic was proclaimed on ]. The ] fled to the Netherlands. On ] ] was signed in a railroad carriage at ]. At 11 a.m. on ] ] — the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month — a ceasefire came into effect. Opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions. Canadian ] is traditionally regarded as the last soldier killed in the Great War: he was shot by a German sniper and died at 10:58.

	A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until signing of the ] with Germany on ], ]. Later treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and The Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the ]) and a final peace treaty was signed between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the ], at ] on ] ].

	Some ]s date the end of the war as being when the Versailles treaty was signed in 1919; by contrast, most commemorations of the wars end concentrate on the armistice of ] ]. Legally the last formal peace treaties were not signed until 1923. Some also treat the Versailles treaty as the prelude to World War II.
	{{further\|]}}

	==Prisoners of war==
	]
	About 8 million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the ] on fair treatment of ]. In general, a POW's rate of survival was much higher than their peers at the front.<ref>Geo G. Phillimore and Hugh H. L. Bellot, "Treatment of Prisoners of War", ''Transactions of the Grotius Society'' Vol. 5, (1919), pp. 47-64.</ref> Individual surrenders were uncommon. Large units usually surrendered en mass. At the ] 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of ] surrendered in 1915, 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Over half of Russian losses were prisoners (as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed); for Austria 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost between 2.5 and 3.5 million men as prisoners.) From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners.<ref>Niall Ferguson, ''The Pity of War'' (1999) p 368-9 for data.</ref>

	Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.9 million, and Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just prior to the Armistice. The U.S. held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, in general, conditions were satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the ] and inspections by neutral nations. Conditions were terrible in Russia, starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15-20% of the prisoners in Russia died. In Germany food was in short supply, but only 5% died.<ref> Richard B. Speed, III. ''Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy of Captivity'' (1990); Ferguson, ''The Pity of War'' (1999) ch 13; Desmond Morton, ''Silent Battle: Canadian Prisoners of War in Germany, 1914-1919'' 1992</ref>.

	The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the ], in ], in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity.<ref>{{cite web\|publisher=British National Archives\|title=The Mesopotamia campaign\|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/battles/mesopotamia.htm\|accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> Although many were in very bad condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) to ]. A survivor said: "we were driven along like beasts, to drop out was to die."<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/stolenyears/ww1/turkey/story2.asp\|publisher=Australian War Memorial\|title=Stolen Years: Australian Prisoners of War. Men of Kut ''Driven along like beasts''\|accessdate=2007-03-10}} </ref> The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the ].

	The most curious case occured in Russia, where the prisoners from the ] of the Austro-Hungarian army, were released in 1917. They re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.

	==War crimes==
	===Armenian Genocide===
	{{main\|Armenian Genocide}}
	The ] of ] during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is widely considered a ]. The Turks accused the ] Armenians of preparing to ally themselves with Russia, and saw the entire Armenian population as an ]. The exact ] of deaths is unknown. Most estimates are between 800,000 and 1.5 million<ref>1.5 estimate retrieved from . Data collected by the ]</ref>. Turkish governments have consistently ] charges of genocide, often arguing that those who died were simply caught up in the fighting or that killings of Armenians were justified by their individual or collective ]. These claims have often been labeled as ] by western scholars.

	===Rape of Belgium===
	{{main\|Rape of Belgium}}
	In Belgium, German troops, in fear of French and Belgian guerrilla fighters, or '']'', massacred townspeople in ] (211 dead), ] (384 dead), and ] (612 dead). The victims included women and children. On ] ], the Germans set fire to the town of ], burned the library containing about 230,000 books, killed 209 civilians and forced 42,000 to evacuate. These actions brought worldwide condemnation.<ref> Keegan, John. The First World War. 1998. pp82-83</ref>.

	==Economics and manpower issues==
	] (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and U.S.), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the main three Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire reached 30 to 40%. In Austria, for example, most of the pigs were slaughtered and, at war's end, there was no meat.

	All nations had increases in the government’s share of GDP, surpassing fifty percent in both Germany and France and nearly reaching fifty percent in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its massive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on ]. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but with war imminent with Germany, he allowed a massive increase in ] lending to the Allies. After 1919, the U.S. demanded repayment of these loans, which, in part, were funded by German reparations, which, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid.

	One of the most dramatic effects was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the ] of the British Empire. In order to harness all the power of their societies, new government ministries and powers were created. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the ]; many of which have lasted to this day.

	At the same time, the war strained the abilities of the formerly large and bureaucratised governments such as in Austria-Hungary and Germany. Here, however, the long-term effects were clouded by the defeat of these governments.

	Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost laborers sent to war. This aided the struggle for ].

	As the war slowly turned into a ], ] was implemented in some countries. This issue was particularly explosive in Canada and Australia. In the former it opened a political gap between French-Canadians — who claimed their true loyalty was to Canada and not the British Empire — and the ] majority who saw the war as a duty to both Britain and Canada. Prime Minister ] pushed through a ] that caused the ]. In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Prime Minister ], caused a split in the ] and Hughes formed the ] in 1917 to pursue the matter. Nevertheless, the ], the ] and ] expatriates successfully opposed Hughes' push to introduce conscription, which was ].

	In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918 and was limited to meat, sugar and fats (butter and ]), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918 trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million. Work stoppages and strikes became frequent in 1917-18 as the unions expressed grievances regarding prices, liquor control, pay disputes, "dilution", fatigue from overtime and from Sunday work, and inadequate housing. Conscription put into uniform nearly every physically fit man, six million out of ten million eligible in Britain. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives and 1,700,000 were wounded. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers.

	Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become difficult from traditional sources. Geologists, such as ], were called upon to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of ], used in munitions production, in the ].<ref>John Frederick Norman Green, 'Obituary: Albert Ernest Kitson', ''Geological Society, Quarterly Journal'' no 94, 1938, p. CXXVI</ref>.

	==Technology==
	{{seealso\|Technology during World War I}}
	], 1917]]

	The First World War began as a clash of 20th-century ] and 19th-century ], with inevitably large casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of ], ]s, ], and ] ]. Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of maneuver. Instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favored. Artillery also under went a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, ] with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was responsible for the majority of casualties. ] missions became commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging enemy artillery.

	Much of the combat involved ], where hundreds often died for each yard gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during the First World War. Such battles include ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The ] of ] was employed to provide the German forces with a constant supply of gunpowder, in the face of British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head-wounds caused by exploding shells and ] forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel ]. The French, who introduced the ] in 1915, led this effort. It was quickly followed by the ], worn by British Imperial and U.S. troops, and in 1916 by the German '']'', the distinctive steel helmet, which, with improvements, is still in use today.

	There was ] and ], both of which were outlawed by the 1907 ]. Both were of limited tactical effectiveness.

	The widespread use of chemical warfare, was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included ], ], and ]. Only a small proportion of total war casualties were caused by gas. Effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as ]s.

	The most powerful land based weapons were naval guns weighing hundreds of tons apiece and nicknamed ]s by the British. They could only be moved by rail. The largest Allied guns were severely out-ranged by these.

	] were ]. They were initially used for ] and ]. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and ] were developed. ] were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used ]s as well.

	Towards the end of the conflict, ] were used for the first time, with ] launching ] in a raid against the Zepplin hangars at ] in 1918.

	]

	German ]s or (]), were deployed after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, they were employed by the ] in a strategy to deprive the ] of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchantmen and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of ] (1916), ] (passive ], 1917), ]s, ] submarines (HMS ''R 1'', 1917), ], and dipping hydrophones (both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the ] until World War II revived the need.

	Trenches, the ], air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with ]s helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The infantry was armed mostly with magazine fed ] rifles, but the machine gun, with the ability to fire hundreds of ], blunted most infantry attacks. The British sought a solution with the creation of the tank and ]. The ] were used during the ] on ] ]. Mechanical reliability became an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds and showed their potential during the ] in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while ] teams captured 8000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Light ] also were introduced, such as the ] and ].

	Manned ]s, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with ]s. In the event of an enemy air attack, the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too bulky to be used by pilots of aircraft and smaller versions would not be developed until the end of the war. Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets of enemy aircraft. To defend against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft. Blimps and balloons contributed to air-to-air combat among aircraft because of their reconnaissance value. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines.

	Another new weapon sprayed jets of burning fuel: ]. First used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, they were a powerful, demoralizing weapon and caused terror on the battlefield. It was a dangerous weapon to wield, as its heavy weight made operators vulnerable targets. Despite Hollywood's portrayal, however, there was little actual danger of the fuel tank exploding if shot.

	==Opposition to the war==
	{{main\|Opposition to World War I}}
	The ] and ] movements had long voiced their opposition to a war, which they argued, meant only that workers would kill other workers in the interest of ]. Once war was declared, however, the vast majority of socialists and trade unions backed their governments. The exceptions were the ]s and the ], and individuals such as ], ] and their followers in Germany. There were also small anti-war groups in Britain and France. Other opposition came from ]s - some socialist, some religious - who refused to fight. In Britain 16,000 {{Fact\|date=February 2007}} people asked for conscientious objector status. Many suffered years of prison, including ] and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply". Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included ] in the United States and ] in Britain.

	==Aftermath==
	{{main\|Aftermath of World War I}}
	] Memorial at ]]]

	No other war had changed the map of Europe so dramatically—four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and the Russian. Four defunct dynasties, the ]s, the ], ]s and the ] together with all their ancillary aristocracies, all fell after the war. Belgium was badly damaged, as was France with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly effected. The war had profound economic consequences. In addition, a ] that started in ] in the latter months of the war, killed millions in Europe and then spread around the world. Overall, the ] killed at least 50 million people.<ref></ref><ref> </ref>

	===Peace Treaties===
	After the war, the Allies imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers. The 1919 ] ended the war with Germany. Germany was kept under blockade until it signed the treaty, which declared that Germany was responsible for the war. The treaty required Germany to pay enormous ], which it did by borrowing from the United States, until the reparations were suspended in 1931. The "Guilt Thesis" became a controversial explanation of events in Britain and the United States. ] caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which nationalist movements, especially the ]s, exploited. (See ]). The treaty contributed to one of the worst economic collapses in history of Germany, sparking runaway inflation.

	The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the ] in 1920. The treaty, however, was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the ]. This led to the ] and, ultimately, to the 1923 ].

	Austria-Hungary was also partitioned, largely along ethnic lines. The details were contained in the ] and the ].

	===New national identities===
	] reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. ] and ] were entirely new nations. Russia became the ] and lost ], ], ] and ], which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by ] and several other countries in the Middle East.

	In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In ] and ] the ] became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the ]. ], commemorating the ], celebrates this defining moment.

	This effect was even greater in Canada. Canadians proved they were a nation and not merely subjects of a distant empire. Indeed, many Canadians refer to Canada as a nation "forged from fire". ] had proved themselves on the battlefield and were respected internationally for their accomplishments. When Canada entered the war it was a Dominion of the British Empire. When the war came to a close, Canada emerged as a fully independent nation. Canadian diplomats played a significant role in negotiating the ]. Canada was an independent signatory of the treaty, whereas other Dominions were represented by Britain. Canadians commemorate the war dead on ]. In French Canada, however, the ] left bitterness in its wake.

	===Social trauma===
	The experiences of the war led to a collective trauma for all participating countries. The ] of the 1900's was gone and those who fought in the war became known as the ]. For the next few years, much of Europe mourned. Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. The soldiers returning home from World War I suffered greatly from the horrors they had witnessed. Although it was called ] at the time, many returning veterans suffered from ].

	The social trauma caused by years of fighting manifested itself in different ways. Some people were revolted by ] and its results. They began to work toward a more ] world, supporting organisations such as the ]. ] became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and ] could be relied upon in a chaotic and inhumane world. ] views were an outgrowth of the many changes taking place in society. The rise of ] and ] included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the '']'' was a testament to the ] of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. The myth of betrayal became common and the aggressors came to see themselves as victims. The popularity of the ] myth played a significant role in the outbreak of ] and the ]. A sense of ] and ] became pronounced, with ] growing in popularity. This disillusionment for humanity found a cultural climax with the ]ist ]. Many believed that the war heralded ] as they had known it, including the collapse of ] and ]. ] and ] movements around the world drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a level of popularity they had never known before. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war.
	] of Canada, who wrote the poem ''In Flanders Fields'', died in 1918 of ]]]

	In 1915, ] John McCrae of Canada wrote the memorable poem '']'' as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. It is still recited today, especially on ] and ].

	==Other names==
	World War I has also been called "The Great War" (a title previously used to refer to the ]) or sometimes "the ]" until ]. "War of the Nations" and "War in Europe" were commonly employed as descriptions during the war itself and in the 1920s. In France and Belgium it was also sometimes referred to as ''La Guerre du Droit'' ('the War for Justice') or ''La Guerre Pour la Civilisation'' / ''de Oorlog tot de Beschaving'' ("the War to Preserve Civilisation"), especially on medals and commemorative monuments. The term used by official histories of the war in Britain and Canada is ''First World War'', while American histories generally use the term ''World War I''. In Italy it is often referred to as "La Guerra del '15 - '18" ("The 1915 - 1918 War"), and more seldom as "The Fourth War of Independence", following the other three conflicts waged against the Austrian Empire in the 19th century.

	In many European countries, it appears that the current usage is tending back to calling it "the Great War" / ''la Grande Guerre'' / ''de Grote Oorlog'' / ''der Große Krieg'', because of the growing historical awareness that, of the two 20th-century world wars, the 1914-1918 conflict caused more social, economic and political upheaval. It was also one of the prime factors in the outbreak of Second World War.

	==Historical era==
	{{start box}}
	{{succession box\|title=World History\|before=]\|after=]\|years=1914-1918}}
	{{end box}}

	==See also==
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	{{Portal\|World War I}}

	===Media===
	{{multi-video start}}
	{{multi-video item\|filename=Bombers of WW1.ogg\|title=Bombers of WWI\|description= Video clip of allied bombing runs over German lines.\|format=]}}
	{{multi-video item\|filename=Tanks of WWI.ogg\|title=Tanks of WWI\|description=Primitive WWI tanks help the Allies with an advance in Langres, France (1918).\|format=]}}
	{{multi-video end}}

	==Notes==
	<div class="references-small">
	<references/>
	</div>

	==References==
	{{seealso\|List of World War I books}}
	*Coffman, Edward M. ''The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I'' (1998)
	*Cruttwell, C. R. M. F. ''A History of the Great War, 1914-1918'' (1934), general military history
	*Ellis, John and Mike Cox. ''The World War I Databook: The Essential Facts and Figures for All the Combatants'' (2002)
	*Esposito, Vincent J. ''The West Point Atlas of American Wars: 1900-1918'' (1997), despite the title covers entire war;
	*Falls, Cyril. ''The Great War'' (1960), general military history
	*Fussell, Paul. ''The Great War and Modern Memory'' (1975), on literature
	*Gray, Edwyn A. ''The U-Boat War, 1914-1918'' (1994)
	*Haber, L. F. ''The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War'' (1986)
	*Halpern, Paul G. ''A Naval History of World War I'' (1995)
	*Hardach, Gerd. ''The First World War 1914-1918'' (1977), economics
	*Henig, Ruth ''The Origins of the First World War'' (2002)
	*Herrmann, David G. ''The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War''(1996)
	*Herwig, Holger H. ''The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918'' (1996)
	*Higham, Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. ''Researching World War I: A Handbook'' (2003), historiography, stressing military themes
	*Howard, Michael. ''The First World War'' (2002), short (175 pp) general military history
	*Hubatsch, Walther. ''Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914-1918'' (1963)
	*Joll, James. ''The Origins of the First World War'' (1984)
	*]. ''The First World War'' (1999), general military history
	*Kennedy, David M. ''Over Here: The First World War and American Society'' (1982), covers politics & economics & society
	*Kennett, Lee B. ''The First Air War, 1914-1918'' (1992)
	*Lee, Dwight E. ed. ''The Outbreak of the First World War: Who Was Responsible?'' (1958), readings from multiple points of view
	*Lyons, Michael J. ''World War I: A Short History'' (2nd Edition), Prentice Hall, (1999)
	*Morton, Desmond, and ] ''Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914-1919'' (1989)
	*Pope, Stephen and Wheal, Elizabeth-Anne, eds. ''The Macmillan Dictionary of the First World War'' (1995)
	*Robbins, Keith. ''The First World War'' (1993), short overview
	*Silkin, Jon. ed. ''The Penguin Book of First World War Poetry'' (2nd ed. 1997)
	*]. ''Cataclysm: The First World War As Political Tragedy'' (2004), major reinterpretation, 560pp
	*]. ''The First World War and International Politics'' (2005)
	*Stokesbury, James. ''A Short History of World War I'' (1981)
	*]. ''The First World War: Volume I: To Arms'' (2004): the major scholarly synthesis. Thorough coverage of 1914; Also: ''The First World War'' (2004): a 385pp version of his multivolume history
	*] ''The First World War: An Illustrated History'', Hamish Hamilton, 1963
	*Tuchman, Barbara. '']'', tells of the opening diplomatic and military manoeuvres
	*Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (5 vol 2005), online at eBook.com
	*Tucker, Spencer, ed. ''European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia'' (1999)
	*Venzon, Anne ed. ''The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia'' (1995)
	*Winter, J. M. ''The Experience of World War I'' (2nd ed 2005), topical essays; well illustrated
	*van der Vat, Dan. ''The Atlantic Campaign.'' (1988). Connects submarine and antisubmarine operations between wars, and suggests a continuous war
	*Price, Alfred, Dr. ''Aircraft'' versus ''the Submarine''. Deals with technical developments, including the first dipping hydrophones

	==Literature and movies==
	<!--in chronological order-->
	{{main\|Literature of World War I}}

	===Poetry and songs===
	*] (2000), Song by ]
	*] (1990), Song by ]
	*] (also known as ''The Green Fields of France'' and ''Willie McBride'') (1976), song by ]
	*'']'' (1972), song by ]
	*] (1918), poem by ]
	*'']'' (1918), poem by ]
	*'']'' (1917), poem by ]
	*'']'' (1917), poem by ]
	*] (1917), poem by ]
	*'']'' (1917), theme song of the war by ]
	*'']'' (1915), poem by ]
	*'']'' (1914), poem by ]

	===Books and novels===
	*'']'' (1937), a highly regarded military textbook by ]
	*'']'' (1916), novel by ]
	*], autobiography of ]. First published 1920 and revised several times through 1961
	*'']'' (1920), novel by ], an account of the war as experienced by Canadian women of the time.
	*'']'' (1921), novel by ]
	*'']'' (1922), novel by ]
	*'']'' (1922), by ]
	*'']'' (1923), satirical novel by ]
	*'']'' (1929), novel written by ]
	*'']'' (1929), novel by ]
	*'']'' (1929), novel by ]
	*'']'' (1929), autobiography of ]
	*] semi-autobiographical series of three novels by ]
	*'']'' (1933), memoir by ]
	*'']'' (1935), novel by ]
	*'']'' (1972), memoir by ]
	*'']'' (1983), autobiography by Joseph N. Rizzi
	*] (1991), '']'', (1993); '']'', (1995) novels by ]
	*] (1993), novel by ]
	*''No Graves As Yet'' (2003), first volume of a trilogy of novels by ]
	*'']'' (2003), book written by ]
	*''A Long, Long Way'' (2005), novel by ]
	*'']'' (2005), novel by ]
	*''Turn Right at Istanbul'' novel by Tony Wright
	*''A World Undone'' (2006), novel by G. J. Meyer
	*] (1939), novel by ] later turned into a ] directed by the author.

	===Films, plays, television series and mini-series===
	*] (1921), movie directed by ], based on a novel by ]
	*] (1926), movie directed by Rex Ingram, based on a novel by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez
	*] (1927), directed by ], tells the story about two fighter pilots; only ] to win the Academy Oscar
	*'']'' (1928), play written by ]
	*'']'' (1930), movie directed by ], based on the novel by ] (1929)
	*''] (1930), movie directed by ]
	*''] (1937), directed by ]
	*'']'' (1941), movie directed by ]
	*'']'' (1942), directed by ]
	*'']'' (1957), movie directed by ], based on the novel by ] (1935)
	*'']'' (1961), Serbian ] about a Serbian artillery battalion in the ]
	*'']'' (1962), movie covering events surrounding ] in the pan-Arabian Theater, starring ], ], ], and ] and directed by ]
	* (1964), ] documentary narrated by ]
	* (1964), TV series by ] and others of
	*] (1965), movie by ], based on the novel by ], deals with Russia's involvement in the war and how it led to that country's Revolution.
	*'']'' (1966), movie directed by ], titled after the Prussian ], or ]
	*'']'' (1969), movie directed by ], from the 1963 ] by ]
	*'']'' (1971), movie of the ] directed by the book's author ]
	*] (1981), movie directed by ]
	*'']'', (1985), play by ]
	*'']'' (1987), movie directed by ]
	*'']'' (1989), TV series by ] and ]
	* (1996), ] documentary narrated by ]
	*] (1997), movie directed by ], based on the novel by ] (1991)
	*] (2001), movie and screenplay directed by ]
	*'']'' (2004), movie directed by ], based on the novel by ] (1991)
	*'']'' (2005), Based on the 1914 ].
	*] (2006), movie directed by and starring ]
	*'']'' (2006), Movie directed by ], tells the story of American pilots who volunteered for the ] before America entered World War I.

	==External links==
	{{Spoken Misplaced Pages-3\|2006-0624\|World_War_I_(part_1).ogg\|World_War_I_(part_2).ogg\|World_War_I_(part_3).ogg}}
	*
	*
	*

	]

	{{Link FA\|de}}
	{{Link FA\|eo}}
	{{Link FA\|he}}
	{{Link FA\|ro}}
	{{Link FA\|vi}}

	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]
	]

Revision as of 19:19, 11 May 2007

It was south korea