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Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom located in the northern Korean Peninsula and southern Manchuria. It is one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla. Both North and South Korea consider Goguryeo as an important ancestral kingdom and helped forge Korean history, culture and ethnic identity. The People's Republic of China considers it an important regional kingdom in Manchuria that played a tributary role in the Chinese cultural sphere. Goguryeo was a powerful kingdom that was an active participant in the power struggle between the Three Kingdoms of Korea as well as the foreign affairs of associated Chinese kingdoms.

The Samguk Sagi, a Goryeo text, indicate that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo, although there is archaeological evidence that suggests Goguryeo culture was in existence since the 2nd century BCE around the fall of Gojoseon. Other small states in the former Gojoseon territory included Buyeo, Okjeo and Dongye, all of which were later conquered by Goguryeo. It was a major regional power of East Asia until it was defeated by a Silla-Tang alliance in 668 CE. After its defeat, it was later divided between the Tang Dynasty, Unified Silla and Balhae; some of the territory might have also been taken by the Khitan, still in tribal form at this point.

The modern English name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo Dynasty (935-1392), which itself took one of the various names by which Goguryeo had used in diplomatic language with its neighbours. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.

Recent controversial claims on Goguryeo and its historic legacy by the People's Republic of China through their Northeast Project has sparked diplomatic disputes with South Korea..

History

Founding

According to the Samguk Sagi, a 12th century Korean history, Jumong (posthumously called King Dongmyeongseong) founded the state in 37 BCE in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Yalu and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border. However, Kim Busik, the chief compiler of the Samguk Sagi and a direct descendant of Silla nobility, is widely thought to have been justifying Silla's unification of the Three Kingdoms by retroactively claiming Goguryeo was founded later than Silla.

Many modern scholars believe Goguryeo was actually founded in the 2nd century BCE. In the Book of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 BCE, a local confederacy which may have included Goguryeo made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the Amnok River valley.

The Goguryeo people originated from Bukbuyeo and integrated with existing chiefdoms. In the aftermath of the disintegration of Gojoseon and Buyeo, various small tribes coalesced into five chiefdoms along the banks of the Yalu River, and these five were eventually led by the king of Goguryeo.

Jumong (Dongmyeongseong)

Goguryeo was founded by Jumong, who migrated south from Buyeo. Jumong is a Korean name transcribed in hanja as 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모). Although his family name is recorded as Go (meaning "high" in Hanja), this is thought to be a posthumous change from the original family name of Hae, the royal surname of Buyeo.

Jumong is said to be descended from Hae Mosu, the son of the Sun-god (hae in modern Korean means sun). According to legend, Jumong left Dongbuyeo ("Eastern Buyeo") for Jolbon Buyeo, where he married the daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a group of his followers from his native country.

Goguryeo maintained a close early relationship with Dongbuyeo until it was absorbed into Goguryeo. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 BCE, Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 BCE, and North Okjeo in 28 BCE.

Centralisation

Goguryeo developed into an ancient state in the first century and expanded its power in the region. In the time of Taejo of Goguryeo in 53, five local tribes were reorganised into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Taejo successfully expanded Goguryeo by attacking Han China's commanderies of Lolang, Xiantu, and Liaodong, becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies.

Continuing its expansion to the northwest, Goguryeo began large-scale, organized attacks against China, as well as conquering neighboring polities such as Okjeo and Dongye. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.

Further expansion

As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was destroyed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313, and from that time the Three Kingdoms dominated the Korean Peninsula.

The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, Former Yan, a Sixteen Kingdoms state of Xianbei ethnicity, (Some Goguryeo royal family members were seized by Former Yan, and one of them, Gao Yun, briefly ruled Former Yan's successor state Northern Yan from 407 to 409.) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern Ji'an, Jilin), and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, Pyongyang, and killed King Gogukwon of Goguryeo in battle.

Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學). By 391, the kingdom's rulers had achieved undisputed control of all of Manchuria and eastern inner Mongolia, as well as of the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.

Gwanggaeto the Great

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The greatest territorial expansion of Goguryeo began during the reigns of Goguryeo's Gwanggaeto Taewang (whose name literally means “great expander of territory”) and his son Jangsu Taewang.

Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and Wa (Japan). In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. His accomplishments are recorded on the Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 in southern part of Manchuria.

Jangsu Taewang, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north. Jangsu also advanced into the east, occupying part of Russia's Primorsky Krai.

During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and most of the Manchuria and the Russian maritime province. Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of Heaven. The title of the ruler, Taewang, while literally translated as the Greatest of the Kings, is often translated to mean Emperor.

In the late 5th century, it absorbed Bukbuyeo and more Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.

Internal strife

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, it began a steady decline. King Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother King Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as feudal lords with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero.

Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and manoeuvered to effectively sever the Silla-Baekje alliance.

Goguryeo-China wars

Throughout its history, Goguryeo had been aggressive in northeastern China and constantly invaded Chinese settlements. The presence of Goguryeo often caused the Chinese court to apply major military actions towards Goguryeo. Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties and was also at odds with Silla and Baekje, although Goguryeo considered Baekje as an ally several times. Most of the invasions ended as failures for China, and considerably weakened the Chinese state, such as Sui's invasion of Goguryeo. The Eastern Göktürk, a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, was an ally with Goguryeo and trading was done between the two states. Xueyantuo, a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when Goguryeo was attacked by a Silla-Tang alliance near the end of Goguryeo's rule.

Goguryeo-Sui Wars

The Sui Dynasty was founded in 581. It grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598 the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui was unsuccessful. The 612 campaign was terminated after tremendous losses -- reported to be at a greater than 99% casualty rate. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch -- the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang of Sui, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered peace and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), an associate of Yang Xuangan, who had fled to Goguryeo, for Emperor Yang to be able to execute Husi. Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state at that time was never able to launch it.

One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns was the campaign of 612, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General Eulji Mundeok, led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Chinese army and drowned nearly every Chinese soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China. Sui, attacked three more times, all of which were repulsed by Goguryeo.

The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.

Goguryeo-Silla, Tang war

After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the new dynasty that took its place, the Tang, attacked Goguryeo as well. Under Tang Taizong, the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Chinese, failing to capture strategic points.

The Tang also forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the Göktürks. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general Yeon Gaesomun, increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.

In 645, Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at Ansi Fortress. the central figure of a repulse was Yeon Gaesomun and Yang Manchun. In the end, Taizong was not able to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army was again sent to conquer Goguryeo in 661 and 662, but while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang was not able to conquer Goguryeo.

After numerous attacks, the Tang and Silla forces attacked Goguryeo on two fronts, totally exhausting Goguryeo's ability to fight. This subsequently brought the end of Goguryeo's rule.

Fall

Goguryo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 661; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons.

Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. Goguryeo's last king Bojang was captured and taken into exile by the Tang forces.

Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River.

In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, King Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually banished to Szechuan in 681, and died the following year.

Revival movements

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several others. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.

The revival movements were suppressed until the rise of Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general. Dae Joyeong reconquered most of Goguryeo's northern land, establishing the kingdom of Balhae in 698, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo. Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, while northern Korea and Manchuria were conquered by Balhae. Balhae stood as a successor state to Goguryeo. Not much is known about Balhae, although it is known that Balhae was conquered in 926 by the Khitans, after which many Goguryeo descent people migrated down to Goryeo. The time of Balhae and Unified Silla is called the North-South State period of Korea.

In the early 10th century, Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla, also claimed to be a successor to Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean peninsula.

Political Connections between Goguryeo and the Chinese Central Plains Dynasties

Template:Totally-disputed-section In addition to the almost incessant wars during its existence,Goguryeo also had close political connections with the Chinese Central Plains dynasties, manifested by tribute and the conferring of dynastic titles on Goguryeo kings. Goguryeo for a long time regularly paid tributes, such as horses and jewelries, to show its submissiveness to the Central Plains dynasties. And Goguryeo’s receiving of the titiles matter-of-factly was a demonstration of its subjugation to the Chinese dynasties.

Research conducted by a Japanese scholar shows that from 32 BC to 666 AD Goguryeo paid 205 tributes to the Central Plains dynaties. From 32 BC to 391 AD, Goguryeo paid only 17 tributes, but between 423 AD and 666 AD, 188 tributes were paid. According to the analysis of Chinese historians, Goguryeo paid few tributes in its early stage because Goguryeo was treated as a local government of the Han dynasty, and did not need to pay tributes.

Both Korean and Chinese historical records state that the kings of Goguryeo regularly paid tributes to and were conferred titles by the Central Plains dynasties during its later era. According to both The Book Of Jin and Samguk Sagi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms), in 355 AD, the Yan dynasty conferred the title of “Lord of Lelang”(乐浪公) on King Gogugwon. In 413 AD, Eastern Jin Emperor Jinan conferred the titles of “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王), “Lord of Lelang” (乐浪公), and “Eastern Expedition General” (征东大将军) on King Jangsu. After King Jangsu died in 491 AD, the Northern Wei Dynasty conferred the following titles upon King Munjamyeong: “Eastern Expedition General”(征东将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公),and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王).

In 520 AD, Munjamyeong’s son, King Anjang, was conferred by Northern Wei the titles of “Pacifying East General”(安东将军), “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王),and “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公). After King Anjang died in 531 AD, the next year Northern Wei conferred on King Anwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). In 550 AD, the Northern Qi Dynasty conferred on King Yangwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). In 560 AD, King Pyeongwon was conferred by Northern Qi the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公) and “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王). In 590 AD, the Sui Dynasty conferred on King Yeongyang the title of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公). After the Tang Dynasty was established, Goguryeo King Yeongnyu was conferred by Tang the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公) and “King of Goryeo”(高丽王).

The last titles conferred on the king of Goguryeo was in 643 AD by Tang Emperor Taizong. He conferred the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡王) and “King of Goryeo” (高丽王) on King Bojang. The historical records in both Korean and Chinese ancient books show that title-conferring had been a way that the Central Plains tried to impose indirect rules over Goguryeo, and it had been institutionalized from the Eastern Jin dynasty to the Tang dynasty, with every Goguryeo king from Jangsu to Bojang holding titles conferred by the Chinese Central Plains dynasties.

Military

The military of Goguryeo has been known to be powerful, especially during the rule of King Gwanggetto. However, we do not know much of it or its exact number as there are not many records left.

The Goguryeo military was powerful and it grew in strength as Goguryeo began to conquer Manchuria. The Goguryeo cavalry was probably its largest asset. The common foot infantry wore padded armor and a helmet as well, highly unlike the common foot soldier of the later Chosun Dynasty, who had almost no armor.

Captains and higher ranking soldiers wore armor made of lamellar iron armor or scale mail. A helmet was adorned with fancy designs and often had horns to intimidate the enemy. Usually, the armor was fancy and strong as the rank of the soldier.

Weapons used were swords, spears, and axes. Archery was the preferred ranged weapon and there are no records of the usage of slings or crossbows.

Culture

The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.

Lifestyle

Goguryeo clothing was usually thick to help keep the wearer warm from the cold climate of Goguryeo. Men wore loose fitting jackets and trousers while women wore skirts and dresses. Higher class Goguryeo people often had beautiful clothing and adorned jewelry. Unlike common people during the Chosun Dynasty later, Goguryeo people wore colorful clothing.

The diet of the Goguryeo people included rice and barley. Beans were supplementary. Rice was cooked by boiling, similar to how it is cooked in Korea. Bulgogi's predeccessor, the maegjeok, was seasoned meat, and a common dish while eating.

Festivals and pastimes

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.

Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceromonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.

Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred. Horse riding was popular and Goguryeo developed strong military skills, as the cavalry was strong.

Religion

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.

Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The Korean phoenix and dragon were both worshipped upon, while the three-legged bird was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.

Buddhism was first introduced to Korea in 372. The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monastaries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism. Buddhism passed through Goguryeo to its neighboring Korean kingdoms, Silla and Baekje.

Cultural impact

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces were influenced by Chinese designs.

Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, Ondol, Goguryeo's unique floor heating system, and Hanbok, traditional clothes of Korea. A modernized version of Ondol can be found in the floor of every modern house in Korea, and Koreans wear Hanbok on traditional holidays and other special occasions.

Food such as bulgogi have left a unique culture in Korea. Bulgogi is seasoned meat.

Legacy

Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in China, for example at Onyeosan ("Five Maiden Peaks") near Ji'an in Manchuria along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral stele of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site

UNESCO added Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.

Language

Main article: Goguryeo language.

The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon. The government of Goguryeo used Chinese characters (Hanzi/Hanja) for its official documents, but no credible theory proposing that Goguryeo's language to be a Sino-Tibetan language has been made; rather, all sides agree that Chinese was only used as an official written script, not as the daily spoken language.

Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.

The American linguist Christopher Beckwith has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese. Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe).

Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.

See also: Korean language

Modern politics

Template:Totally-disputed-section

Goguryeo has been conventionally viewed as a Korean state, more specifically as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and is described as Korean by most non-Chinese sources. . For historical events occurred before Goryeo was founded (year 918), the Chinese characters referring to Goryeo were used to refer to Goguryeo.

Mark Byington at The Korea Institute, an autonomous non-departmental entity located at Harvard University, has suggested China's official position to be "flimsy," historically speaking, though notes it "accords with current practice in the PRC" in describing "a very vaguely defined greater Chinese nation of the remote past," and that their position is "one that must exist in order to fall into line with current Chinese views of the Chinese past" China has been viewing Goguryeo, especially the first half of Goguryeo's history before it moved its capital to the Korean peninsula, as a part of the regional history of China rather than of being solely or uniquely Korean. More recently, this effort has been evident in the Northeast Project. The rationales for the project include various controversial points, and created tensions in the China-South Korea relations.

Notes

1. Austin Ramzy (2004). "Rewriting History" (HTML). TIME. Retrieved 2007-05-07.
2. Bruce Klingner (2004). "China shock for South Korea" (HTML). Asia Times. Retrieved 2007-05-07.
3. ^ "Koguryo" (HTML). Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-12. Cite error: The named reference "eb2007" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
4. Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A new history of Korea, tr. by Wagner & Shultz. Seoul: Ilchogak. p. 19. ISBN 89-337-0204-0.
7. "History" (HTML). Goguryeo. Proud History of Korea. Mygoguryeo.com. 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
14. 魏存成(Wei Chuncheng). “中原、南方政权对高句丽的管辖册封及高句丽改称高丽时间考(The Domination and Conferring Titles on Koguryo of the State Political Power of Central Plains and the Investigation on the Time of Changing the Name From Koguryo to Koryo).” 史学集刊(Collected Papers of History Studies), January 2004, No. 1, pp.73-79. http://www.wanfangdata.com.cn/qikan/periodical.articles/shixjk/shix2004/0401/040112.htm
15. Baidu Baike, a Chinese online and 💕, http://baike.baidu.com/view/5801.htm, s.v. “高句丽.”
16. Historical texts are seen in 《晋书•慕容隽载记》:高句丽王钊遣使谢恩，贡其方物。隽以钊为营州诸军事、征东大将军、营州刺史，封乐浪公，王如故。《三国史记•高句丽本纪》:十二月，王遣使诣燕，纳质修贡⋯⋯以王为征东大将军、营州刺史，封乐浪公，王如故。
17. Historical texts are seen in 《三国史记•高句丽本纪》:安帝封王高句丽王、乐安(浪)郡公。《南史•高句丽传》:晋安帝义熙九年，高丽王遣长史高翼奉表，献储白马，晋以琏为使持节、都督营州诸军事、征东将军、高丽王、乐浪公。
18. Historical texts are seen in 《魏书•高句丽传》:遣大鸿肪拜琏孙云使持节、都督辽海诸军事、征东将军、领护东夷中郎将、辽东郡开国公、高句丽王。
19. Historical texts are seen in 《魏书•高句丽传》: 拜安为安东将军、领护东夷校尉、辽东郡开国公、高句丽王。
20. Historical texts are seen in 《魏书•高句丽传》:出帝初，诏加延使持节、散骑常侍、车骑大将军、领护东夷校尉、辽东郡开国公、高句丽王。
21. Historical texts are seen in 《北齐书•文宣帝纪》:以散骑常侍、车骑将军、领东夷校尉、辽东郡开国公、高丽王成 为使持节、侍中、骑大将军、领护东夷校尉，王、公如故。
22. Historical texts are seen in 《北齐书•废帝纪》: 以高丽王世子汤为使持节、领东夷校尉、辽东郡公、高丽王。
23. Historical texts are seen in 《隋书•高丽传》:汤病卒，子元嗣立。高祖使使拜元为上开府、仪同三司，袭爵辽东郡公，赐衣一袭。元奉表谢恩，并贺祥瑞，因请封王。高祖优册元为王。
24. Historical texts are seen in 《I日唐书•高丽传》: 遣前刑部尚书沈叔安往册建武为上柱国、辽东郡公、高丽王。
25. Historical texts are seen in 《I日唐书•高丽传》: 太宗闻建武死⋯⋯。十七年，封其嗣王藏为辽东郡王、高丽王。
26. http://www.mygoguryeo.net/culture.htm
27. http://www.mygoguryeo.net/culture01.htm
28. Brown, Ju (2006). China, Japan, Korea Culture and Customs. BookSurge Publishing. p. 81. ISBN 1419648934. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
29. Beckwith, Christopher I. (August 2003). "Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean" (PDF). 13th Japanese/Korean Linguistics Conference. Michigan State University. Retrieved 2006-03-12. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
30. "Koguryo" (HTML). Encarta. MSN. 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
31. "Korea" (HTML). Columbia Encyclopedia. Bartleby.com. 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
32. "Korea, South" (HTML). CIA World Factbook. CIA. 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-27.
33. "Twenty-Four Histories"
34. Byington, Mark (2004-01-01). "Koguryo part of China?". Koreanstudies mailing list. Retrieved 2007-03-06. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in |work= (help)

References

• Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) (1999). 韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed. ISBN 89-445-9101-6.
• Koguryo (Encyclopedia Britannica; paid registration required to view full article)
• Korea - The Three Kingdoms Period (U.S. Library of Congress)
• Korea, 1-500 A.D. Metropolitan Museum
• Yonson Ahn: The Korea-China Textbook War What's It All About? (History News Network)
• Austin Ramzy: Rewriting History China and the Koreas feud over the ancient kingdom of Koguryo (Time Asia, August 16th, 2004)
• Bruce Klingner: China shock for South Korea (Asia Times, September 11th, 2004)
• Lost kingdom, modern spat Antiquities spark Korea-China row of historical proportions (JoongAng Daily, April 7th, 2006)

See also

• List of Korea-related topics
• Cheolli Jangseong

External links

Informational

• Template:En icon Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Template:En icon Encarta
• Template:En icon Columbia Encyclopedia
• Template:Ko icon Information about the ancient kingdom
• Template:En icon Goguryeo of Korea

Articles

• Template:En icon English Content and Conclusion of "History of Koguryo"(Korean) By Hyoung-Sik Shin, Ewha Womans University Press, Seoul, Korea 2003
• Template:En icon "The Forgotten Glory of Koguryo" by Lee Wha Rang

• Articles lacking sources from May 2007
• History of China
• History of Manchuria
• History of Korea
• Former countries in Korean history
• Goguryeo
• 1st millennium BC establishments
• 668 disestablishments