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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cougar<ref name=MSW3/>
| status = NT
| trend = down
| status_system = iucn3.1
| status_ref =<ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2006|assessors=Cat Specialist Group|year=2002|id=18868|title=Puma concolor|downloaded=11 May 2006}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is near threatened</ref>
| image = Mountain lion.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = ]ia
| phylum = ]
| classis = ]ia
| ordo = ]
| familia = ]
| genus = '']''
| species = '''''P. concolor'''''
| binomial = ''Puma concolor''
| binomial_authority = (], 1771)
| range_map = Puma range.png
| range_map_width = 240px
| range_map_caption = Cougar range map
| synonyms = ''Felis concolor''
}}
The '''Cougar''' (''Puma concolor''), also '''Puma''', '''Mountain Lion''', or '''Panther''', is a ] of the ] family, native to the ]. This large, solitary cat has the greatest ] of any terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere other than humans,<ref name="diet"/> extending from ] in ] to the southern ] of ]. An adaptable, ] species, the Cougar is found in every major ] ] type. It is the second heaviest cat in the New World, after the ], and the fourth heaviest in the world, after the ], ], and Jaguar, although it is most closely related to smaller felines.

A capable stalk-and-ambush ], the Cougar pursues a wide variety of prey. Its primary food is ]s such as ], particularly in the northern part of its range, but it hunts species as small as ]s and ]. It prefers habitats with dense underbrush for stalking, but it can live in open areas.

The Cougar is ] and persists at low population densities. Individual territory sizes depend on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While it is a large predator, it is not always the ] in its range, as when it competes for prey with animals such as the ]. It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids people. Attacks on humans remain rare, despite a recent increase in frequency.<ref name="Med"/>

Due to persecution as a dangerous pest animal following the ], and continuing human development of Cougar habitat, populations have dropped in many parts of its historical range. In particular, the Cougar was ] in eastern ], except an isolated ]; the animal may be recolonizing parts of its former eastern territory. With its vast range, the Cougar has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of the ] and in contemporary culture.

==Naming and etymology==
The Cougar has over 40 names in English, of which ''Puma'' and ''Mountain Lion'' are popular. Other names include '''Catamount''', '''Panther''', '''Painter''', and '''Mountain Screamer'''. In North America, "Panther" is used most often to refer the ] sub-population. In South America, "Panther" refers to both the spotted and black color morphs of the ], while it is also broadly used to refer to the Old World ].

"Cougar" is borrowed from the ] ''çuçuarana'', via ]; the term was originally derived from the ]. A current form in Brazil is ''suçuarana''. "Puma" comes from the ] of Peru.<ref>, and
{{cite web | url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=jaguar | title = ''Jaguar'' at the Online Etymology Dictionary | date = 2001 | publisher = Douglas Harper | accessdate = 2006-08-06}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and evolution==
The Cougar is the largest of the small cats. While its bulk characteristics are similar to the species of '']'', it is more closely related to small- and mid-sized felines. Its ], ], is believed to have originated in ] approximately 11 million years ago. Taxonomic research on felids remains partial and should be treated cautiously. Much of what is known about felid evolutionary history is based on ] analysis,<ref>{{cite news |first=Nicholas |last=Wade |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=DNA Offers New Insight Concerning Cat Evolution |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/06/science/06cats.html?ex=1294203600&en=4b75c4da1cdc2167&ei=5090 |work=] |publisher= |date= 2006-01-06 |accessdate=2007-06-03}}</ref> as cats are poorly represented in the ],<ref name="Johnson2006"/> and there are significant ] with suggested dates.

According to a 2006 ] study of Felidae, an ancestor of today's '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'' lineages migrated across the ] into the Americas approximately 8 to 8.5 million years ago. The lineages subsequently diverged in that order.<ref name="Johnson2006">{{cite journal |author=Johnson, W.E., Eizirik, E., Pecon-Slattery, J., Murphy, W.J., Antunes, A., Teeling, E. & O'Brien, S.J. |date=6 January 2006 |number=5757 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/311/5757/73 |title=The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment |journal=] |volume=311 |issue=5757 |pages=73–77 |doi=10.1126/science.1122277 |accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> The Cougar was originally thought to belong in ''Felis'', a genus which includes the ], but it is now placed in ''Puma'' along with the ], a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight.

Studies have indicated that the Cougar and Jaguarundi are most closely related to the modern ] of Africa and western Asia,<ref name="Johnson2006"/><ref name="Culver">{{cite journal |author=Culver, M. |coauthors=Johnson, W.E., Pecon-Slattery, J., O'Brein, S.J. |date=2000 |title=Genomic Ancestry of the American Puma |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=186–97 |url=http://www.coryi.org/Florida_panther/Miscellaneous_Panther_Material/Genomic%20ancestry%20of%20the%20American%20puma.pdf |format = PDF}}</ref> but the relationship is unresolved. It has been suggested that ancestors of the Cheetah diverged from the ''Puma'' lineage in the Americas and migrated back to Asia and Africa,<ref name="Johnson2006"/><ref name="Culver"/> while other research suggests the Cheetah diverged in the Old World itself.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ross |last=Barnett |coauthors=Ian Barnes, Matthew J. Phillips, Larry D. Martin, C. Richard Harington, Jennifer A. Leonard, and Alan Cooper |date=9 August 2005 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982205008365 |title=Evolution of the extinct Sabretooths and the American cheetah-like cat |journal=Current Biology |volume=15 |issue=15 |pages=R589-R590 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.07.052 |accessdate=2007-06-04}}</ref> The outline of ] migration to the Americas is thus unclear (see also ]).

Recent studies have demonstrated a high level of genetic similarity among the North American Cougar populations, suggesting that they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group. Culver ''et al.'' suggest that the original North American population of ''Puma concolor'' became extinct during the ] some 10,000 years ago, when other large mammals such as ] also disappeared. North America was then repopulated by a group of South American cougars.<ref name="Culver"/>

===Subspecies===
Until the late 1990s, as many as 32 ] were recorded; however, a recent ] study of mitochondrial DNA<ref name="Culver"/> found that many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a molecular level. Following the research, the canonical '']'' (3rd edition) recognizes six subspecies, five of which are solely found in ]:<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Wozencraft |pages=544–45}}</ref>

; Argentine Puma {{nobold|(''Puma concolor cabrerae'')}} : includes the previous subspecies and synonyms ''hudsonii'' and ''puma'' (Marcelli, 1922);
; ] {{nobold|(''Puma concolor costaricensis'')}}
; Eastern South American Cougar {{nobold|(''Puma concolor anthonyi'')}} : includes the previous subspecies and synonyms ''acrocodia'', ''borbensis'', ''capricornensis'', ''concolor'' (Pelzeln, 1883), ''greeni'' and ''nigra'';
; ] {{nobold|(''Puma concolor couguar'')}} : includes the previous subspecies and synonyms ''arundivaga'', ''aztecus'', ''browni'', ''californica'', ''coryi'', ''floridana'', ''hippolestes'', ''improcera'', ''kaibabensis'', ''mayensis'', ''missoulensis'', ''olympus'', ''oregonensis'', ''schorgeri'', ''stanleyana'', ''vancouverensis'' and ''youngi'';
; Northern South American Cougar {{nobold|(''Puma concolor concolor'')}} : includes the previous subspecies and synonyms ''bangsi'', ''incarum'', ''osgoodi'', ''soasoaranna'', ''soderstromii'', ''sucuacuara'' and ''wavula'';
; Southern South American Puma {{nobold|(''Puma concolor puma'')}} : includes the previous subspecies and synonyms ''araucanus'', ''concolor'' (Gay, 1847), ''patagonica'', ''pearsoni'' and ''puma'' (Trouessart, 1904).

The status of the Florida Panther, here collapsed into the North American Cougar, remains uncertain. It is still regularly listed as subspecies ''Puma concolor coryi'' in research works, including those directly concerned with its conservation.<ref name=improving>{{cite journal |first=Michael J. |last=Conroy |coauthors=Paul Beier; Howard Quigley; Michael R. Vaughan |year=2006 |month=January |url=http://www.wildlifejournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-pdf&file=i0022-541X-70-1-1.pdf |title=Improving The Use Of Science In Conservation: Lessons From The Florida Panther |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1-7 |doi=10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70%5B1:ITUOSI%5D2.0.CO;2 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-06-11}}</ref> Culver ''et al.'' themselves noted ] variation in the Florida Panther, possibly due to inbreeding;<ref name=Culver/> responding to the research, one conservation team suggests "the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the results of Culver ''et al.'' and the proposed change in taxonomy is not resolved at this time."<ref name=FloridaRecovery>{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/verobeach/Florida%20panther%20files/Panther%20Recovery%20Plan%202006_01_31%20-%20no%20figures.pdf |title=Florida Panther Recovery Program (Draft) |accessdate=2007-06-11 |author=The Florida Panther Recovery Team |date=January 31, 2006 |format=PDF |publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref>

==Biology and behavior==
===Physical characteristics===
], it is about the same size as an adult human.]]

The Cougar is a slender and agile cat. The length of adult males is around 2.4&nbsp;m (8&nbsp;ft) long nose to tail, with overall ranges between 1.5 and 2.75&nbsp;meters (5 and 9&nbsp;feet) nose to tail suggested for the species in general.<ref name="Texas">{{cite web |url=http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/mlion/ |title=Mountain Lion (''Puma concolor'') |accessdate=2007-03-30 |publisher=Texas Parks and Wildlife}}</ref><ref name="NY">{{cite web |url=http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/endspec/eacofs.html |title=Eastern Cougar Fact Sheet |accessdate=2007-03-30 |publisher=New York State Department of Environmental Conservation}}</ref> Males have an average weight of about 53 to 72&nbsp;kilograms (115 to 160&nbsp;pounds). In rare cases, some may reach over 120&nbsp;kg (260&nbsp;lb). Female average weight is between 34 and 48&nbsp;kg (75 and 105&nbsp;lb).<ref name="CAP">{{cite paper |author=Nowell, K. and Jackson, P |title=Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland |year=2006 |url=http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-27 }}</ref> Cougar size is smallest close to the ], and larger towards the ].<ref name="diet">{{cite journal |author=J. Agustin Iriarte, William L. Franklin, Warren E. Johnson, and Kent H. Redford |year=1990 |title=Biogeographic variation of food habits and body size of the America puma |journal=] |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=185 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/nvk62r701822qq17/ |accessdate=2007-04-04}}</ref>

The head of the cat is round and the ears erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey. It has five retractable claws on its forepaws (one a ]) and four on its hind paws. The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey.<ref name="WhosWho">{{cite web |url=http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?pid=1&id=87&cid=8 |title=Cougar |work=Hinterland Who's Who |accessdate=2007-05-22 |publisher=] and ]}}</ref>

The Cougar can be as large as the Jaguar, but is less muscled and powerful; where their ranges overlap, the Cougar tends to be smaller than average. The Cougar is on average heavier than the Leopard. Despite its size, it is not typically classified among the "]," as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized ] and ] apparatus of ''Panthera''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weissengruber |first=GE |coauthors=G Forstenpointner, G Peters, A Kübber-Heiss, and WT Fitch |title=Hyoid apparatus and pharynx in the lion (Panthera leo), jaguar (Panthera onca), tiger (Panthera tigris), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) and domestic cat (Felis silvestris f. catus) |work=Journal of Anatomy |publisher=Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland |pages=195–209 |volume=201 |issue=201 |year=2002 |month=September |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1570911 |doi=10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00088.x |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Like the Domestic Cat, the Cougar vocalizes low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles. It is well known for its screams, referenced in some of its common names, although these may often be the misinterpreted calls of other animals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.easterncougar.org/pages/abouteasterncougars.htm |title=About Eastern Cougars |accessdate=2007-06-03 |publisher=Eastern Cougar Foundation}}</ref>

Cougar coloring is plain (hence the ] ''concolor'') but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the under body including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails;<ref name="CAP"/> juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks.<ref name="NY"/> Despite anecdotes to the contrary, all-black coloring (]) has never been documented in the Cougar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news-tribune.net/features/cnhinsoutdoors_story_032111454.html |title=Black cougar more talk than fact |date=February 01, 2006|accessdate=2007-05-20 |publisher=Tahlequah Daily Press|quote=]: Never in the history of the United States has there ever been, in captivity or in the wild, a documented black mountain lion}}</ref> The term "]" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly the Jaguar and the Leopard. White and spotted individuals have been reliably reported and photographed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.messybeast.com/genetics/mutant-pumas.html |title=Mutant Pumas}}</ref>

The Cougar has large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family.<ref name="CAP"/> This physique allows it great leaping and short-sprint ability. An exceptional vertical leap of 5.4&nbsp;m (18&nbsp;ft) is reported for the Cougar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-puma.html |title=Mountain Lion (Puma, Cougar) |accessdate=2007-04-02 |work=San Diego Zoo.org |publisher=]}}</ref> Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12&nbsp;m (20 to 40&nbsp;ft). The Cougar can run as fast as 55&nbsp;km/h (35&nbsp;mph),<ref name="CanGeo">{{cite web |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Magazine/mj04/indepth/justthefacts.asp |title=Cougars in Canada (Just the Facts) |accessdate=2007-04-02 |publisher=]}}</ref> but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade ] competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.<ref name="Sierra">{{cite web |url=http://arizona.sierraclub.org/conservation/mt-lion/index.asp |title= Mountain Lion, Puma concolor |accessdate=2007-05-20 |publisher=]}}</ref>

===Hunting and diet===
]

A successful ] ], the Cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from ]s to large ]. Like all cats, it is an ], feeding only on meat. Its most important prey species are various deer species, particularly in North America; ], ], ], and even the large ] are taken by the cat. A survey of North America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates, especially deer. Only the Florida Panther showed variation, often preferring feral ] and ]s.<ref name="diet"/> Investigation in ] showed Elk followed by Mule Deer were the Cougar's primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's ], with whom the Cougar competes for resources.<ref name="Yellowstone">{{cite web |title=Wildlife: Wolves |publisher=] |url=http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm |accessdate=2007-04-08}}<br />* {{cite web |author = Holly Akenson, James Akenson, Howard Quigley |title=Winter Predation and Interactions of Wolves and Cougars on Panther Creek in Central Idaho |url=http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm}}<br />* {{cite web |author=John K. Oakleaf, Curt Mack, Dennis L. Murray |title=Winter Predation and Interactions of Cougars and Wolves in the Central Idaho Wilderness |url=http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/wolves.htm}}</ref> Another study on winter kills (November–April) in ] showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the Cougar diet. Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed ], while others relied heavily on the species.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=R. |coauthors=Jalkotzy, MG., Festa-Bianchet, M. |date=May 1993 |title=Cougar predation on bighorn sheep in southwestern Alberta during winter |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=771–75 |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=4321651 |accessdate=2007-04-08}}</ref>

In the Central and South American Cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the ]. Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger Jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items.<ref name="diet"/> Other listed prey species of the Cougar include ], ], and ]s. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America.<ref name="diet"/>

Though capable of sprinting, the Cougar is typically an ]. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique.

Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around 15 months.<ref name="CAP"/> The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the Cougar is a non-] and will rarely consume prey it has not killed; but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California, suggesting more opportunistic behavior.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bauer |first=Jim W. |coauthors=Kenneth A. Logan, Linda L. Sweanor, Walter M. Boyce |date=December 2005 |title=Scavenging behavior in Puma |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=466–471 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1894%2F0038-4909(2005)050%5B0466%3ASBIP%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>

===Reproduction and lifecycle===
]

Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half and three years of age. They typically average one ] every two to three years throughout their reproductive life;<ref name="Utah">{{cite web |url=http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/pdf/cmgtplan.pdf |title=Utah Cougar Management Plan (Draft) |accessdate=2007-05-02 |author=Cougar Discussion Group |date=January 27, 1999 |year= |month= |format=PDF |work= |publisher=Utah Division of Wildlife Resources}}</ref> the period can be as short as one year.<ref name="CAP"/> Females are in ] for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the ] is approximately 91 days.<ref name="CAP"/> Females are sometimes reported as ],<ref name="CanGeo"/> but this is uncertain and ] may be more common.<ref name="UWSP">{{cite web |author=Matthew Hamilton |coauthors= Peter Hundt, Ryan Piorkowski |url=http://www.uwsp.edu/wildlife/carnivore/Mountain%20Lion%20Natural%20History_files/Mountain%20Lion%20Natural%20History_copy(1).htm |title=Mountain Lions |accessdate=2007-05-10 |publisher=]}}</ref> Copulation is brief but frequent.

Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their kittens, and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as grizzly bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves which offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own.<ref name="Utah"/> Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter.<ref name="CAP"/>

Sub-adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males tend to leave sooner. One study has shown high morbidity amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars ("intraspecific" conflict).<ref name="Utah"/> Research in ] has shown that "males dispersed significantly farther than females, were more likely to traverse large expanses of non-cougar habitat, and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sweanor |first=Linda |coauthors=Kenneth A. Logan, Maurice G. Hornocker |year=2000 |month=June |title=Cougar Dispersal Patterns, Metapopulation Dynamics, and Conservation |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=798–808 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99079.x |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99079.x |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on ].<ref name="CAP"/> Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity. Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting. ], an endemic ]-like disease in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar.<ref name="Dispersal">{{cite journal |last=Biek |first=Roman |coauthors=Allen G. Rodrigo, David Holley, Alexei Drummond, Charles R. Anderson Jr., Howard A. Ross, and Mary Poss |year=2003 |month=September |title=Epidemiology, Genetic Diversity, and Evolution of Endemic Feline Immunodeficiency Virus in a Population of Wild Cougars |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=77 |issue=17 |pages=9578–89 |doi=10.1128/JVI.77.17.9578-9589.2003 |url=http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/77/17/9578 |accessdate=2007-05-22}}</ref>

===Social structure and home range===
Like almost all cats, the Cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is secretive and ], being most active around dawn and dusk.

Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly.
'']'' reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 ]s (58 to 386&nbsp;]) with female ranges half the size.<ref name="CanGeo"/> Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25&nbsp;km² (10&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) but an even greater upper limit of 1300&nbsp;km² (500&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) for males.<ref name="Utah"/> In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in ] and the ] of the northern ], in excess of 775&nbsp;km² (300&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi).<ref name="Dordt">{{cite web |url=http://homepages.dordt.edu/~mahaffy/mtlion/mtlionshort_behaviour.html |title=Behavior of cougar in Iowa and the Midwest |accessdate=2007-05-11 |last=Mahaffy |first=James |year=2004 |month=December |publisher=]}}</ref> Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, ], and ] are used to mark territory and attract mates. Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory.<ref name="Sierra"/>

Home range sizes and overall Cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance.<ref name="Utah"/> One female adjacent to the ] mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 215&nbsp;km² (83&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance.<ref name="Dispersal"/> Research has shown Cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 100&nbsp;km² (38&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi).<ref name="CAP"/>

Because males disperse further than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a sub-adult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father.<ref name="Dordt"/> When males encounter each other, they hiss and spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down.<ref name="UWSP"/> Hunting or relocation of the Cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sinapu.org/PDF/Front%20Range%20lion%20study.pdf |format=PDF |title=Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) study on Boulder Open Space |accessdate=2007-05-11 |date=March 22, 2007 |work=Letter to the Parks and Open Space Advisory Committee, Boulder, Colorado |publisher=Sinapu}}</ref>

==Ecology==
===Distribution and habitat===
The Cougar has the largest range of any wild cat in the world, and spans 110 degrees of ], from northern ] in Canada to the southern ]. This is also the largest range of any land animal in the ]. It is one of only three cat species, along with the ] and ], endemic to Canada.<ref name="WhosWho"/> Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type: it is found in all forest types as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts. Studies show that the Cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can live with little vegetation in open areas.<ref name="iucn"/> Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush.<ref name="Sierra"/>

], Tucson, Arizona.]]

The Cougar, or panther, was ] across its much eastern North American range with the exception of Florida in the two centuries after European colonization and faced grave threats in the remainder. Currently, it ranges across most western American states, the Canadian provinces of ] and ], and the Canadian ]. There have been widely-debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/master.html?http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/0305/0305_selections.html |title=Bookshelf |last=Marschall |first=Laurence A. |date= |year=2005 |month=March |work=Natural Selections |publisher=] |accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lfpress.ca/newsstand/News/Local/2007/05/24/4205568.html |first=Joe |last=Belanger |title=DNA evidence of cougars found in southern Ontario |date=May 24, 2007 |publisher=] |accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref> while a consolidated map of Cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western ] through to ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cougarnet.org/bigpicture.html |title=The "Big" Picture |accessdate=2007-05-20 |author= | date=2004| publisher=The Cougar Network}} ''The Cougar Network methodology is recognized by the .''</ref> The only unequivocally known eastern population is the ], which is critically endangered.

South of the ], the ] (IUCN) lists the cat in every ] and ] country except ] and ].<ref name="iucn"/> While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America, much less is known about the cat in its southern range.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.nwf.org/cats/pdfs/cougarfacts.pdf | format = PDF | title = Cougar facts | accessdate = 2007-05-20 | publisher=]}}</ref>

The Cougar's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50,000 by the IUCN, with a declining trend.<ref name="iucn"/> U.S. state-level statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting Cougar populations have rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population of 5,000 was reported in 2006, exceeding a target of 3,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife/cougar/ |title=Cougar Management Plan |accessdate=2007-05-20 |year=2006 |work=Wildlife Division: Wildlife Management Plans |publisher=Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife}}</ref> California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000.<ref name="California">{{cite web |url=http://www.dfg.ca.gov/news/issues/lion.html |title=Mountain Lions in California |accessdate=2007-05-20 |year=2004 |publisher=California Department of Fish and Game}}</ref>

===Ecological role===
Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild. The cat is not, however, the ] throughout much of its range. In its northern range, the Cougar interacts with other powerful predators such as the ] and Gray Wolf (although a lone wolf poses little threat to an adult cougar). In the south, the Cougar must compete with the larger Jaguar.

] (4&nbsp;]) long.<ref name="GovBC"/>]]

The ] ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter-predator interaction in North America. Of the three large predators, the massive Brown Bear appears dominant, often although not always able to drive both the Gray Wolf and the Cougar off their kills. One study found that Brown or ] Bears visited 24% of Cougar kills in Yellowstone and ]s, usurping just 10% of carcasses.<ref>{{cite paper |author=COSEWIC. Canadian Wildlife Service |title=Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos) |publisher=] |year=2002 |url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-166-2002E.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-08 }}</ref>

The Gray Wolf and the Cougar compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While individually more powerful than the Gray Wolf, a solitary Cougar may be dominated by the pack structure of the canines. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of fourteen wolves killing a female Cougar and her kittens. Conversely, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and have been reported killed by cougars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A2158-2003May17&notFound=true |title=In Yellowstone, it's Carnivore Competition |last=Gugliotta |first=Guy |date=May 19, 2003 |publisher=] |accessdate=April 9, 2007}}</ref> Wolves more broadly affect Cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the Cougar by wolves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greateryellowstonescience.org/topic/wolves/wolvesoverview.html |title=Overview: Gray Wolves |accessdate=2007-04-09 |publisher=Greater Yellowstone Learning Center}}</ref> One researcher in Oregon notes: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens&nbsp;… A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oregonwild.org/press-room/press-clips/turf-wars-in-idaho-s-wilderness |title=Turf wars in Idaho's wilderness |last=Cockle |first=Richard |date=October 29, 2006 |publisher=] |accessdate=April 9, 2007}}</ref> Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as ]s and ]s and tend to suppress their numbers.<ref name="Yellowstone"/>

In the southern portion of its range, the Cougar and Jaguar share overlapping territory.<ref name="HAMDIG">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecology.info/ecology-jaguar-puma.htm |first=Paul |last=Hamdig |title=Sympatric Jaguar and Puma |publisher=Ecology Online Sweden |accessdate=August 30 |accessyear=2006}}</ref> The Jaguar tends to take larger prey and the Cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the Cougar's size.<ref name="diet"/> Of the two felines, the Cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey.<ref name="foodhabits">{{cite journal |author=Rodrigo Nuanaez, Brian Miller, and Fred Lindzey |year=2000 |title=Food habits of jaguars and pumas in Jalisco, Mexico |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=252 |issue=3 |pages=373 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=58851 |accessdate=2006-08-08}}</ref>

As with any predator at or near the top of its ], the Cougar impacts the population of prey species. Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region. For example, a study in British Columbia observed that the population of Mule Deer, a favored Cougar prey, was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed-upon White-tailed Deer was increasing.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Hugh S. |coauthors=Robert B. Wielgus, and John C. Gwilliam |year=2002 |title=Cougar predation and population growth of sympatric mule deer and white-tailed deer |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=556–68 |doi=10.1139/z02-025 |url=http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?journal=cjz&volume=80&year=&issue=&msno=z02-025&calyLang=fra |accessdate=2007-05-20 |quote=}}</ref> The ], an endangered species endemic to one region of dense Cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to Cougar and Gray Wolf predation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bryant |first=Andrew A. |coauthors=Page, Rick E. |year=2002 |title=Cougar predation and population growth of sympatric mule deer and white-tailed deer |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |year=2005 |month=May |volume=83 |issue=5 |pages=674–82 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/nrc/cjz/2005/00000083/00000005/art00006?crawler=true |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref>

==Conservation status==
]

The ] (IUCN) currently lists the Cougar as a "]" species. It has shifted the Cougar's status from "least concern," while leaving open the possibility that it may be raised to "]" when greater data on the cat's distribution becomes available.<ref name="iucn"/> The Cougar is regulated under Appendix&nbsp;I of the ] (CITES),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.shtml |title=Appendices I, II and III |accessdate=2007-05-24 |publisher=]}}</ref> rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts.

East of the ], the only unequivocally known Cougar population is the ]. The ] recognizes both an Eastern Cougar and the Florida Panther, affording protection under the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/endangered/i/a/saa48.html |title=Eastern Cougar |accessdate=2007-05-20 | work=Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book)| year=1991 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fws.gov/endangered/i/a/saa05.html |title=Florida Panther |accessdate=2007-06-07 | work=Endangered and Threatened Species of the Southeastern United States (The Red Book)| year=1993 |publisher=]}}</ref> Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the ], with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,<ref name="MSW3"/> while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists.<ref name=improving/> The most recent documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://myfwc.com/panther/news/pdf/FWC2002-2003PantherGeneticRestorationAnnualReport.pdf |format=PDF |title=Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2002–2003 Panther Genetic Restoration Annual Report |accessdate=2007-06-05}}</ref>

The Cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, Cougar hunting was prohibited in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. (Costa Rica and Panama are not listed as current range countries by the IUCN.) The cat had no reported legal protection in ], ], and ].<ref name="CAP"/> Regulated Cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada; it is permitted in every U.S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the ], with the exception of ]. Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs, until the animal is 'treed'. When the hunter arrives on the scene, he shoots it from the tree at close range. The Cougar cannot be legally killed in California except under very specific circumstances, such as when an individual is declared a public safety threat.<ref name="California"/>

Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal, degradation and fragmentation of its habitat, and depletion of its prey base. As with any large predator, ] and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of Cougar populations. Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200&nbsp;] (850&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) or more. As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence, foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beier |first=Paul |year=1993 |month=March |title=Determining Minimum Habitat Areas and Habitat Corridors for Cougars |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=94–108 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0888-8892%28199303%297%3A1%3C94%3ADMHAAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref>

==Attacks on humans==
]

Due to the growth of ] areas, Cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by humans. Attacks on humans are rare, as Cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not generally recognize humans as prey.<ref name="Med">{{cite journal |last=McKee |first=Denise |year=2003 |title=Cougar Attacks on Humans: A Case Report |journal=Wilderness and Environmental Medicine |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=169–73 |publisher=Wilderness Medical Society |url=http://www.wemjournal.org/wmsonline/?request=get-document&issn=1080-6032&volume=014&issue=03&page=0169 |accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the cat ] to humans. There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with twenty fatalities in North America since 1890, fifty of the incidents having occurred since 1991.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.azgfd.gov/w_c/mtn_lion_attacks.shtml |title=Confirmed mountain lion attacks in the United States and Canada 1890 — Present |accessdate=2007-05-20 |publisher=Arizona Game and Fish}}</ref><ref name="Beier">{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Beier |url=http://users.frii.com/mytymyk/lions/beier.htm |title=Cougar attacks on humans in United States and Canada |work=Wildlife Society Bulletin |date=1991 |accessdate=2007-05-20 |publisher=Northern Arizon University}}</ref> The heavily populated state of ] has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890 to 1985), including three fatalities.<ref name="California"/> Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory.<ref name="GovBC"/>

As with many predators, a Cougar may attack if cornered, if a fleeing human being stimulates its instinct to chase, or if a person "]". Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact, loud but calm shouting, and any other action to appear larger and more menacing, may make the animal retreat. Fighting back with sticks and rocks, or even bare hands, is often effective in spurring an attacking Cougar to disengage.<ref name="Med"/><ref name="GovBC">{{cite web |url=http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/documents/cougsf.htm |title=Safety Guide to Cougars |work=Environmental Stewardship Division |date=1991 |accessdate=2007-05-28 |publisher=], Ministry of Environment}}</ref>

When the Cougar does attack, it usually employs its characteristic neck bite, attempting to position its teeth between the ] and into the ]. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal.<ref name="Med"/> Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64% of all victims{{ndash}} and almost all fatalities{{ndash}} were children. The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in ], particularly on ] where Cougar populations are especially dense.<ref name="Beier"/>

==In mythology and culture==
]]]
The grace and power of the Cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the ]. The Inca city of ] is reported to have been designed in the shape of a Cougar, and the animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people. The ] people represented the puma often in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the ].'' New York: ], 1997.</ref> The sky and thunder god of the Inca, ], has been associated with the animal.<ref>{{cite web |first=Kulmar |last=Tarmo |url=http://folklore.ee/folklore/vol12/inca.htm |coauthors=Kait Realo (translator) |title=On the role of Creation and Origin Myths in the Development of Inca State and Religion |accessdate=2007-05-22 |work=Electronic Journal of Folklore|publisher=Estonian Folklore Institute}}</ref>

In North America, mythological descriptions of the Cougar have appeared in the writings of the ] ("Ho-Chunk" or "Winnebago") of ] and ]<ref>{{cite web |first=Jasper |last=Blowsnake |url=http://www.hotcakencyclopedia.com/ho.FourStepsOfCougar.html |title=The Four Steps of the Cougar |accessdate=2007-05-22 |work=Electronic Journal of Folklore |editor=Richard L. Dieterle |publisher=The Encyclopedia of Hotcâk (Winnebago) Mythology}}</ref> and the ], amongst others. To the ] and ] of ], the wail of the Cougar was harbinger of death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/nwrc/is/living/cougar.pdf |title=Living with Wildlife: Cougars |accessdate=2007-05-22 |format=PDF |publisher=]}}</ref>

The Cougar continues to be a symbol of strength and stealth. From ] and ] to ], both "Cougar" and "Puma" are widely used as ]. Various sports teams have also adopted the names, remarkably the ]. Many places, such as ], are also named after their association with cougars.<!--we don't need a massive list here, please-->

==See also==
* ]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
<!-- Should these be alphabetical, or are they in order of recommendation ? -->
{{wiktionary}}
{{commons|Puma concolor}}
{{wikispecies|Puma concolor}}
* {{cite book |last=Baron |first=David |title=The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature |year=2004 |publisher=W. W. Norton and Company |location=New York |isbn=0393058077}}
* {{cite book |last=Kobalenko |first=Jerry |title=Forest Cats of North America |year=1997 |publisher=Island Press |location=Buffalo, New York |isbn=1-55209-174-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Logan |first=Ken |coauthors=Linda Sweanor |title=Desert Puma: Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation of an Enduring Carnivore |year=2001 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=1-55963-866-4}}

==External links==
*
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Revision as of 04:09, 2 September 2007

For other uses, see Cougar (disambiguation) or Puma (disambiguation).Fuck all you white mutha fuckers