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Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of ], some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, have more sexual partners, engage in a wider variety of sexual activities and have more ]. They are also prone to ] and are more likely to have ].<ref>Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187</ref><ref></ref> Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment, and their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by the next generation.<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of ], some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, have more sexual partners, engage in a wider variety of sexual activities and have more ]. They are also prone to ] and are more likely to have ].<ref>Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187</ref><ref></ref> Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment, and their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by the next generation.<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref>

The study of ] (CBN) reports that women show more interest in sexual acts and men focus on faces. Scientists tested both women and men on visual response to ] photographs, which included ] to understand the nature of sexual urges and its influence on health. Researchers used eye-tracking technology that shows the visual focus on various body parts. The results illustrated that women were more attracted to sexual acts in the first place and men would pay attention to faces.<ref></ref>


== See also == == See also ==

Revision as of 22:54, 19 December 2007

Features such as a symmetrical face, full lips, and low waist-hip ratio, are commonly considered physically attractive when part of a female, because they are thought to indicate physical health and high fertility to a potential mate.

Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness, cuteness, and physique. Judgment of attractiveness of physical traits is partly universal to all human cultures, partly dependent on culture or society or time period, and partly a matter of individual subjective preference.

Despite the existence of universally agreed upon signs of beauty in both genders, both heterosexual and homosexual men tend to place significantly higher value on physical appearance in a partner than women. This can be explained by evolutionary psychology as a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness (for example, symmetrical features) enjoying greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners, although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was probably signalled less by physical features.

Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage. In many cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it. Physical attractiveness is distinct from, but can include, sexual attractiveness. For example, humans often regard children and young individuals—both human and animal—as being highly attractive or "cute" for various reasons, but without sexual attraction.

Universal correlates of beauty

Strong correlations between attractiveness and particular physical properties have been found across cultures. Despite significant variation, there nonetheless exists a tremendous degree of agreement among cultures as to what is perceived as attractive when it is associated with human health. Healthier looking skin is universally associated with attractiveness. Infants, who presumably have not yet been affected by culture, tend to prefer the same faces considered attractive by adults. These findings are used to imply that a large part of attractiveness is determined by inborn human nature - not nurture.

Determinants of male physical attractiveness

Physique

The Carlson Twins are typically judged as being highly physically attractive for their slim waists and muscular chests.

Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females. Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulders as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.

Preference can also emerge for muscularity, though research has shown that Western men have a tendency to overestimate the amount of muscle considered ideal by women by as much as thirty pounds, whereas Asian men collectively do not exhibit such a misconception.

A normal level of the hormone testosterone is a possible indicator of good sexual health. In the absence of normal testosterone levels, a man may exhibit physical symptoms of less muscle development and physical height reduction.

A near-universal sexually attractive feature of a man is a v-shaped torso: a relatively narrow waist offset with broad shoulders. While some cultures prefer their males huskier and others leaner, the rule of a v-shaped torso generally holds true.

Facial features

It has been shown that women prefer more masculine men during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and more feminine men during other parts of the cycle. This distinction supports the sexy son hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are traditionally masculine rather than the best caregivers. Masculine facial features are characterized by a strong brow, a high forehead and a broad jaw whereas feminine features are less pronounced.

Height

Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the height of the man. Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing. This preference can be explained by evolutionary psychology as the fact that ancestral women who were attracted to tall, physically powerful men benefited from better protection and therefore gained evolutionary fitness. Additionally, height in men is associated with status in nearly all cultures, which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). Cosmopolitan Magazine has also published an article stating that women are most attracted to men who are 1.1 times her own height. In addition, it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their menstrual cycle at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves or taller, other factors also determine male attractiveness.

Determinants of female physical attractiveness

The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for reproduction and sustenance. These include correlates of fertility such as youth, waist-hip ratio, mid upper arm circumference, body mass proportion and facial symmetry.

Signals of youth

Actress Karina Bacchi's youthful features, such as full lips and clear skin, add to her physical attractiveness.

Since a woman's reproductive value declines steadily with age after twenty, evolutionary selection has favored men who are attracted to youth in a mate. One study across 37 cultures showed men desire, on average, a woman 2.5 years younger than themselves for a wife with men in Nigeria and Zambia at the far extreme, desiring their wives to be 6.5 to 7.5 years younger. As men age, they also desire a larger age gap from their mates.

This preference for youth has also led to a preference of neotenic and youthful-appearing features. Full lips, clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women. Large breasts have also been shown to be attractive to men in Western societies, with the explanation that larger breasts will more explicitly show the aging process, hence an "honest" indicator of fertility.

Proportion of body mass to body structure

The Body Mass Index (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty. The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing. Men don't seem to have evolved to hold a particular build as more attractive, but rather to be drawn to whichever build associates with social status.

However, it should be noted that, in the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices, though when American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, they (the men) chose figures of average build, indicating that women are misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.

The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.

Waist-hip ratio

Main article: waist-hip ratio

Notwithstanding wide cultural differences in preferences for female build, scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of any build is very strongly correlated to attractiveness across all cultures. Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren, and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7. In other cultures, preferences vary, ranging from 0.6 in China, to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa, and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.

Height

Most males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves, and studies indicate that women of below average height have greater reproductive success. An advantage to smaller size may be that smaller size may be seen as more youthful, and males find pedomorphic characteristics in females attractive. Another possible (but unproven) explanation is that shorter females may reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts.

Prototypicality as beauty

See also: Koinophilia

Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more familiar a face seems, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive, an example of the mere exposure effect. Also, when many faces are combined into a composite image (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite. One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the prototype. The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This reveals an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous". However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens sharp facial features.

Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this prototypicality. This shows the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explains the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a gene pool.

Skin tone

Another feature is skin color on the spectrum of dark to light. As with most determinants of attractiveness, there are cultural differences: lighter tones are preferred by some cultures, while in others, tanned or darker skin is preferred.

For some time after the Victorian era, lighter skin was preferred, as it was considered a marker of a more "cultured" individual or "gentlewoman" who did not have to engage in outdoor labor.

In the 20th and 21st century Western world, tanned skin has often been considered highly attractive for both men and women. Here, the tan has come to carry with it connotations of having an active outdoor lifestyle or frequent vacations in the sun, thus better (implied) physical health or wealth.

In eastern parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia, this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In East Asia in particular, fair skin is associated with youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of neoteny. Thus, sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. A preference for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. In those periods, Chinese brides were often described and praised to suitors as being fair-skinned, a trait usually only associated with girls from royalty or nobility who could afford to stay indoors most of the time.

Social effects of attractiveness

When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, assumptions are brought into play. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy, and attractive people do tend to have these characteristics. However, this is probably due to self-fulfilling prophecy; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics. Of course, the effects of the extra attention could be opposite as well, as attractive persons may become too self-centered and prone to vanity or narcissism.

Physical attractiveness can have real effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive. People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. Another study indicated that physical attractiveness in men plays an even larger role for salary than it does for women, contributing as much as 40% to earnings. It is thought that these figures are similar around most of Europe, including France, Germany and Spain. It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance.

The discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is referred to as Lookism.

Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those that are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions, receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system, having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships, and marrying into families with more money.

Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of sexual behavior, some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, have more sexual partners, engage in a wider variety of sexual activities and have more casual sex. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships. Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment, and their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by the next generation.

The study of Center of Behavioral Neuroscience (CBN) reports that women show more interest in sexual acts and men focus on faces. Scientists tested both women and men on visual response to erotic photographs, which included sexual acts to understand the nature of sexual urges and its influence on health. Researchers used eye-tracking technology that shows the visual focus on various body parts. The results illustrated that women were more attracted to sexual acts in the first place and men would pay attention to faces.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Buss, David (2003) . The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 57, 58, 60–63. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  2. Lorenz, Kate. (2005). "Do Pretty People Earn More?" CNN.com
  3. Langlois et al, 1990.
  4. ^ Physical attractiveness: The influence of selected torso parameters" in Archives of Sexual Behavior Volume 10, No 1 1981
  5. http://www.parapundit.com/archives/002608.html
  6. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article855409.ece Women seduced by ‘V man’ with a matted chest from timesonline.com
  7. "Women's choice of men goes in cycles". BBC News. Retrieved 30 November. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  8. http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases/2003/Oct03/r102203
  9. Pierce C. A. 1996; Cunningham, M.R. 1990; Pawlowski B, Dunbar RI, Lipowicz A 2000
  10. Buss, David (2003) . The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 38–40. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  11. Sohn, E. Health, Nov2005, Vol. 19 Issue 9,
  12. ^ Buss, David (2003) . The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 51–54. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  13. Singh, D 1993
  14. Girl power; Human evolution.(Mothers, malnutrition and daughters) Economist (US), The, May, 22, 2003
  15. ^ Tovee MJ, Reinhardt S, Emery JL, Cornelissen PL. 1998
  16. ^ Berscheid and Reis, 1998
  17. Fink, B. & Penton-Voak, I.S. (2002)
  18. http://www.uoregon.edu/~sugiyama/docs/LSsugiyama-buss_c09CEforrequests.pdf Lawrence S. Sugiyama
  19. Cunningham, M.R., Roberts, A.R., Barbee, A.P., Druen, P.B., & Wu, C.H. 1995
  20. ^ Buss, David (2003) . The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 55, 56. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  21. Furnham, Adrian, Melanie Dias, and Alastair McClelland 1998
  22. http://www.focused-on-fitness.com/health/bmi-waist-hip-ratio.php
  23. Fisher, M.L. (June 2006). "The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness". J Cosmet Dermatol. 5 (2): 190–4. PMID 17173598. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. Dixson, B.J. (January 2007). "Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China". Am J Hum Biol. 19 (1): 88–95. PMID 17160976. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. Marlowe, F. (2001). "Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 30 (3): 481–489. Retrieved 2007-08-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. Marlowe, F.W. (2005). "Men's Preferences for Women's Profile Waist-Hip-Ratio in Two Societies" (PDF). Evolution and Human Behavior. 26: 458–468. Retrieved 2007-08-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. Dixson, B.J. (June 2007). "Human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon". Arch Sex Behav. 36 (3): 369–75. PMID 17136587. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. Freedman, R.E. (Aug. 2007). "Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?". Eat Behav. 8 (3): 319–33. PMID 17606230. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. Freedman, R.E. (July 2004). "Ethnic differences in preferences for female weight and waist-to-hip ratio: a comparison of African-American and White American college and community samples". Eat Behav. 5 (3): 191–8. PMID 15135331. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ BBC News: “Tall men ‘top husband stakes’”
  32. Buss, David (2003) . The Evolution of Desire (second ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 54, 55. {{cite book}}: |format= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  33. ^ Cash, T.F; Gillen, B; & Burns, D.S; 1977
  34. ^ Clark, M.S; & Mills, J. (1979)
  35. http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/Careers/07/08/looks/ Do Pretty People Earn More from cnn.com
  36. De Santis, A; and Kayson, W. A; 1999
  37. Etcoff pp.50-53,185-187
  38. uexpress.com
  39. biology.about.com
  40. evoyage.com
  41. breastoptions.com
  42. time.com
  43. Men look at face, women look down there

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