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| {{dablink|For other uses such as ], see ]}} | |||
| ] performing Yogic meditation]] | |||
| '''Yoga''' (]: योग ''Yoga'', {{IPA2|joːgə}}) is a group of ancient spiritual practices originating in ]. According to Gavin Flood, Academic Director of the ]<ref> Note: Definition given by Gavin Flood, Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies </ref> it has been defined as referring to "technologies or disciplines of ] and ] which are thought to lead to spiritual experience and profound understanding or insight into the nature of existence."<ref>Flood (1996), p. 94.</ref> Yoga is also intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of the other ]. | |||
| Outside India, Yoga is mostly associated with the practice of ] (postures) of ] or as a ], although it has influenced the entire ] family and other spiritual practices throughout the world.<ref name=Knitter/> | |||
| ] discussing different aspects of yoga include the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and many others.<ref name=Knitter>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13)</ref><ref>Qigong: Essence of the Healing Dance - Page 268 by Garri Garripoli</ref> | |||
| Major branches of Yoga include: ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name=yogaTrads1_042007>Pandit Usharbudh Arya (1985). The philosophy of hatha yoga. Himalayan Institute Press; 2nd ed.</ref> <ref name=yogaTrads2_042007>Sri Swami Rama (2008) The royal path: Practical lessons on yoga. Himalayan Institute Press; New Ed edition.</ref> <ref name=yogaTrads_3042007>Swami Prabhavananda (Translator), Christopher Isherwood (Translator), Patanjali (Author). (1996). Vedanta Press; How to know god: The yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. New Ed edition.</ref> Raja Yoga, established by the ], and known simply as Yoga in the context of ], is one of the six orthodox (]) schools of thought. | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| The ] term ''yoga'' has a wide range of different meanings.<ref>For a list of 38 different meanings of the word "yoga" see: Apte, p. 788.</ref> It is derived from the Sanskrit root ''yuj'', "to control", "to yoke", or "to unite".<ref>For "yoga" as derived from the Sanskrit root "yuj" with meanings of "to control", "to yoke, or "to unite" see: Flood (1996), p. 94.</ref> Common meanings include "joining" or "uniting", and related ideas such as "union" and "conjunction".<ref>For meaning 1. joining, uniting, and 2., union, junction, combination see: Apte, p. 788.</ref> Another conceptual definition is that of "mode, manner, means"<ref>For "mode, manner, means", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 5.</ref> or "expedient, means in general".<ref>For "expedient, means in general", see: Apte, p. 788, definition 13.</ref> | |||
| ==History of Yoga== | |||
| ===Indus Valley seals=== | |||
| ], showing a figure in meditation posture.]] | |||
| Several seals discovered at ] (c. 3300–1700 BC) sites depict figures in a yoga or meditation like posture. There is considerable evidence to support the idea that the images show "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga"<ref>Possehl (2003), p. 144</ref> according to archaeologist ]. He points to sixteen other specific "yogi glyptics"<ref>Possehl (2003), p. 145</ref> in the corpus of Mature Harappan artifacts as pointing to Harappan devotion to "ritual discipline and concentration." These images show that the yoga pose "may have been used by deities and humans alike." Possehl suggests that yoga goes back to the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref>Possehl (2003), p. 144</ref> | |||
| The most widely known of these images was named the "]"<ref>Marshall, Sir John, ''Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization'', London 1931</ref> by its discoverer, ], who believed that it represented a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref> Many modern authorities discount the idea that this "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> represents a Shiva or Rudra figure.<ref>Keay, p. 14.</ref><ref>Possehl (2003), p. 143</ref> Gavin Flood also characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the 'Pashupati' seal that the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.</ref> Authorities who support the idea that the 'Pashupati' figure shows a figure in a yoga or meditation posture include Archaeologist ], current Co-director of the Harappa Archaeological Research Project in Pakistan<ref>Kenoyer describes the figure as "seated in yogic position" with "the heels...pressed together under the groin." </ref><ref></ref> and Indologist ].<ref>Zimmer describes the figure as "seated like a yogi." Zimmer, Heinrich, ''Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization''. Princeton University Press; New Ed edition (May 1, 1972). ISBN:978-0691017785</ref> | |||
| In 2007, terracotta seals were discovered in the ] in Pakistan. Punjab University Archaeology Department Chairman Dr. Farzand Masih described one of the seals as similar to the previously discovered Mohenjodaro seals, with three pictographs on one side and a "yogi" on the other side.<ref></ref><ref>''Ruins identical to Mohenjodaro, Harappa possibly exist in Pakistan'', Malaysia Sun, May 8, 2007</ref> | |||
| ===Literary sources=== | |||
| {{See also|History of Yoga}} | |||
| Ascetic practices ('']'') are referenced in the ] (900 BCE and 500 BCE),<ref>Flood, p. 94.</ref> early commentaries on the vedas. In the Upanishads, an early reference to meditation is made in ],<ref>Flood, p. 94.</ref> one of the earliest Upanishads (approx. 900 BCE). The main textual sources for the evolving concept of Yoga are the middle ], (ca. 400 BCE), the ] (5th c. BCE) including the ] (ca. 200 BCE), and the ] (200 BCE-300 CE). | |||
| ====Bhagavad Gita==== | |||
| {{Main|Bhagavad Gita}} | |||
| The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term ''yoga'' extensively in a variety of senses. Of many possible meanings given to the term in the Gita, most emphasis is given to these three:<ref>Flood, p. 96.</ref> | |||
| *]: The yoga of action | |||
| *]: The yoga of devotion | |||
| *]: The yoga of knowledge | |||
| The influential commentator ] (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita's eighteen chapters into three sections, each of six chapters. According to his method of division the first six chapters deal with Karma yoga, the middle six deal with Bhakti yoga, and the last six deal with Jnana (knowledge).<ref> Gambhirananda, p. 16.</ref> This interpretation has been adopted by some later commentators and rejected by others. | |||
| ====Yoga Sutras of Patanjali==== | |||
| {{main|Raja Yoga|Yoga Sutras of Patanjali}} | |||
| In ], Yoga is the name of one of the six ] philosophical schools.<ref>For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453-487.</ref><ref>For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.</ref> The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the ] school.<ref>For close connection between Yoga philosophy and Samkhya, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.</ref> The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.<ref>For Yoga acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.</ref><ref>For Yoga as accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.</ref> The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that ] says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."<ref>Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.</ref> The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by ]: | |||
| <blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;"> | |||
| These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. {{IAST|Sāṅkhya}} provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (''bandha''), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (''{{IAST|mokṣa}}''), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (''kaivalya'').<ref>Zimmer (1951), p. 280.</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| The sage Patanjali is regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.<ref>For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called Yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.</ref> The ] are ascribed to Patanjali, who, may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."<ref>Müeller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", pp. 97-98.</ref> Indologist Axel Michaels is dismissive of claims that the work was written by Patanjali, characterizing it instead as a collection of fragments and traditions of texts stemming from the second or third century.<ref>For the Yoga Sutras as a collection dating to second or third century, see: Michaels, p. 267.</ref> Gavin Flood cites a wider period of uncertainty for the composition, between 100 BCE and 500 CE.<ref>For dating between 100 BCE and 500 CE see: Flood (1996), page 96.</ref> | |||
| Patanjali's yoga is known as ], which is a system for control of the mind.<ref>For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Flood (1996), pp. 96-98.</ref> Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his entire work: | |||
| <blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">''{{IAST|'''योग: चित्त-वृत्ति निरोध:''' <br> ( yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ ) }}''<br>- Yoga Sutras 1.2</blockquote> | |||
| This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (''{{IAST|nirodhaḥ}}'') of the modifications (''{{IAST|vṛtti}}'') of the mind (''{{IAST|citta}}'')".<ref>For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind" see: Taimni, p. 6.</ref> ] translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."<ref>Vivekanada, p. 115.</ref> Gavin Flood translates the sutra as "yoga is the cessation of mental fluctuations".<ref>For "yoga is the cessation of mental fluctuations" see: Flood (1996), p. 96.</ref> | |||
| ] yogi in the ], ]]] | |||
| Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to it as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29<sup>th</sup> Sutra of the 2<sup>nd</sup> book became a feature of Raja yoga, and is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today.The Eight Limbs of yoga practice are: | |||
| :(1) '']'' (The five "abstentions"): nonviolence, truth, non-covetousness, chastity, and abstain from attachment to possessions. | |||
| :(2) '']'' (The five "observances"): purity, contentment, austerities, study, and surrender to ] | |||
| :(3) '']'': Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to seated positions used for meditation. Later, with the rise of Hatha yoga, asana came to refer to all the "postures" | |||
| :(4) '']'' ("Lengthening Prāna"): ''Prāna'', life force, or vital energy, particularly, the breath, "āyāma", to lengthen or extend | |||
| :(5) '']'' ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects. | |||
| :(6) '']'' ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object | |||
| :(7) '']'' ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation | |||
| :(8) '']'' ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation | |||
| They are sometimes divided into the lower and the upper four limbs, the lower ones being parallel to the lower limbs of ], while the upper ones being specific for the ]. | |||
| The upper three limbs practiced simultaneously constitute the ]. | |||
| It details every aspect of the meditative process, and the preparation for it. The book is available in as many as 40 English translations, both in-print and on-line. | |||
| ====Hatha Yoga Pradipika==== | |||
| {{Main|Hatha yoga}} | |||
| Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by ], a yogic sage of the 15th century in India, and compiler of the ]. Hatha Yoga is a development of — but also differs substantially from — the ] of Patanjali, in that it focuses on '']'', the purification of the physical as leading to the purification of the mind (''ha''), and '']'', or vital energy (''tha'').<ref>Living Yoga: Creating a Life Practice - Page 42 by Christy Turlington (page 42)</ref><ref>Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers - Page 10 by Nancy Gerstein </ref> In contrast, the Raja Yoga posited by Patanjali begins with a purification of the mind (''yamas'') and spirit (''niyamas''), then comes to the body via '']'' (body postures) and '']'' (breath). Hatha yoga contains substantial ] influence,<ref>Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind - Page 6 by Frank Jude Boccio</ref><ref>Yoga: The Indian Tradition By Ian Whicher, David Carpenter (page 8)</ref> and marks the first point at which ] and ] were introduced into the yogic canon. Compared to the seated asanas of Patanjali's Raja yoga which were seen largely as a means of preparing for meditation, it also marks the development of asanas as full body 'postures' in the modern sense.<ref name=Burley>Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice By Mikel Burley (page 16)</ref> | |||
| Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that most people actually associate with the word "Yoga" today.<ref>Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). ''The Shambhala Guide to Yoga''. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.</ref> Because its emphasis is on the body through ''asana'' and ''pranayama'' practice, many western students are satisfied with the physical health and vitality it develops and are not interested in the other six limbs of the complete Hatha yoga teaching, or with the even older Raja Yoga tradition it is based on. | |||
| ==Yoga in other traditions== | |||
| ===Yoga and Buddhism=== | |||
| {{main | Yoga and Buddhism}} | |||
| Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of the ].<ref>The Yoga Tradition: its history, literature, philosophy and practice By Georg Feuerstein. ISBN 8120819233. pg 111</ref> The influence of Yoga is also visible in ], which is distinguished by its austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance states.<ref> Exact Quote : "The strong influence of Yoga can also be seen in Buddhism, which is notable for its austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance states."</ref><ref name=Heisig>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 22)</ref> | |||
| ====Yogacara Buddhism==== | |||
| ] (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga "<ref></ref> ), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in ] during the 4th to 5th centuries. | |||
| Yogacara received the name as it provided a ''yoga'', a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the ].<ref>Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun. Published 2002 (Routledge). ISBN 0700711864. pg 533</ref> The Yogacara sect teaches ''yoga'' in order to reach enlightenment.<ref name=Simpkins>Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0804831998</ref> | |||
| ====Ch`an (Zen) Buddhism==== | |||
| Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyana" via the Chinese "ch'an"<ref> The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by William Theodore de Bary. Pgs. 207-208.ISBN: 0-394-71696-5 - "The Meditation school, called ''Ch'an'' in Chinese from the Sanskrit ''dhyāna'', is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation ''Zen''"</ref>) is a form of ]. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.<ref name=Heisig/> In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.<ref> Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (Page xviii) </ref> This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices.<ref>Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter (page 13). | |||
| Translated by James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter. Contributor John McRae. Published 2005 World Wisdom. 387 pages. ISBN 0941532895 </ref> Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.<ref name=Knitter/> | |||
| ====Tibetan Buddhism==== | |||
| Yoga is central to ]. In the ] tradition, practitioners progress to increasingly profound levels of yoga, starting with ], continuing to ] and ultimately undertaking the highest practice, ]. In the ] traditions, the ] class is equivalent. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. Timing in movement exercises is known as ] or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies. The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of ]. | |||
| ===Yoga and Tantra=== | |||
| {{Main|Tantra}} | |||
| Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through ] practice an individual perceives reality as ], illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.<ref name=UCP>Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California Press, 1991. pp 313 </ref> | |||
| This particular path to salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of ], such as yoga, meditation, and social ], which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes.<ref name=UCP/> | |||
| During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly ]. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of ] for the purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart," for meditation and worship.<ref>Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published: University of California Press, 1991. pp 317 </ref> | |||
| ==Goal of Yoga== | |||
| There are numerous opinions on what the goal of Yoga may be. Goals can range from improving health and fitness, to reaching ]. | |||
| Within the ] schools of ] and ] this perfection takes the form of '']'', which is a liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (]) at which point there is a realisation of identity with the Supreme ]. For the dualistic ] schools of ], ''bhakti'' itself is the ultimate goal of the yoga process<ref> "Mukti, or liberation... is also not the ultimate goal... devotional service surpasses all other forms of liberation."</ref>, wherein perfection culminates in an eternal relationship with ] or one of his associated ]s such as ] or ].<ref> "Characterized by an emphasis on bhakti, its goal is to escape from the cycle of birth and death in order to enjoy the presence of Vishnu."</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{wiktionary}} | |||
| {{Yoga}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} (fourth revised & enlarged edition). | |||
| *{{cite book |series= |last=Chatterjee |first=Satischandra |authorlink= |coauthors=Datta, Dhirendramohan |title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy |year=1984 |publisher=University of Calcutta |location=Calcutta |edition=Eighth Reprint Edition }} | |||
| * Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005. | |||
| * Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications 1996. | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Flood | first = Gavin | year = 1996 | title = An Introduction to Hinduism| publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn=0-521-43878-0}} | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Gambhirananda | first = Swami | year = 1998 | title = Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā| publisher = ] Publication Department| location = Calcutta | isbn=81-7505-194-9}} | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Harinanda | first = Swami | coauthors= | year = | title = Yoga and The Portal | publisher = Jai Dee Marketing| location = | isbn=0978142950}} | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Jacobsen | first = Knut A. (Editor) | coauthors= Larson, Gerald James (Editor)| year = 2005 | title = Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| location = | isbn=9004147578}} (Studies in the History of Religions, 110) | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 }} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=0-691-08953-1 }} | |||
| * ] Asanas: 608 Yoga Poses. 1st ed. California: New World Library 2003. | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Müeller | first = Max | authorlink= Max Müller |year = 1899 | title = Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika| publisher = Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.| location = Calcutta | isbn=0-7661-4296-5}} Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of ''The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy''. | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Possehl |first=Gregory|authorlink=Gregory Possehl |coauthors= |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |year=2003 |publisher=AltaMira Press |location= |isbn=978-0759101722 }} | |||
| *{{cite book |series= |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |authorlink=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |coauthors=Moore, CA |title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy |year=1967 |publisher=Princeton |location= |isbn=0-691-01958-4 }} | |||
| * Saraswati, swami satyananda. November 2002 (12th edition). "Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha" ISBN 81-86336-14-1 | |||
| *{{cite book |series= |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |authorlink= |coauthors=|title=The Science of Yoga |year=1961 |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |location=Adyar, India |isbn=81-7059-212-7 }} | |||
| * Usharabudh, Arya Pandit. Philosophy of Hatha Yoga. 2nd ed. Pennsylvania: Himalayan Institute Press 1977, 1985. | |||
| *{{cite book |series= |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |authorlink=Swami Vivekananda |coauthors=|title=Raja Yoga |year=1994 |publisher=] Publication Department |location=Calcutta |isbn=81-85301-16-6 }} 21st reprint edition. | |||
| *{{cite book |series= |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |authorlink=Heinrich Zimmer |coauthors=|title=Philosophies of India |year=1951 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New York, New York |isbn=0-691-01758-1 }} Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell. | |||
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