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The many disparate phenomena that have been labeled "anti-Americanism" have little in common other than some degree of opposition to the US. It is misleading to place together under one label all people, ideologies, and attitudes opposed to various US policies or habits, particularly since America's people themselves hold very diverse values.

Some people believe anti-Americanism is rooted in envy as much as in any legitimate grievance, although often anti-Americanism is also attributed to Americans themselves. But in regard to non-Americans, these people claim that similar feelings have been held towards every other nation that has gained prominence over its contemporaries. Examples include Spain (Black Legend), Great Britain, Imperial China, and the Roman Empire.

"It's quite easy to explain why America is unpopular in Europe. It's because you are rich, powerful and unbeatable. Everyone hates you if you are rich, powerful and unbeatable. A hundred years ago everyone hated the British Empire because it ruled the world. Now it is the turn of the Americans. It comes with the job. The only difference is that we British seemed to quite enjoy being disliked, whereas you Americans don't like it at all." (Malcolm Muggeridge, circa 1958)

In other words, while all countries are criticised at certain times, the United States is more apt to be disliked due to its world position. For this reason, criticism of America probably does not immediately fall into the category of xenophobia. Many critics of the United States, however, have many very specific criticisms, listed below.

Possible causes of Anti-American feelings:

American economic philosophy

America has always been a capitalist nation with a strong focus on self-sufficiency, competitive markets, and individualism. Some countries and people do not share these philosophies, and believe American capitalism is a deeply flawed system that creates massive inequalities. They accuse America of perpetuating and promoting this flawed economic system across the globe, and fighting against the forces of socialism, Marxism, and communism. During the Cold War this was often the primary criticism of the United States, especially in countries with Communist, or pro-Communist regimes. However, not all criticism of American economic philosophy is rooted in support for Marxism/Communism. Some believe, for example, that America is not always as committed to free trade as it professes to be. The introduction of tariffs on foreign steel imports was seen by many people outside the US as an instance of America failing to practice what it preaches in terms of free trade.

American domestic policy

In some countries, particularly in Europe, American retention of capital punishment contributes to the general view that the United States continues to engage in barbarous practices. All European countries except Belarus have abolished capital punishment. Europeans often profess being shocked by the widespread popular support it continues to have in the United States. Especially in Europe, people perceive a contradiction between America's insistence on human rights around the world and refusing to abolish the death penalty domestically.

There is also a widespread belief outside America, that American society is obsessed by violence. Foreigners, especially Europeans, are often perplexed by America's liberal laws on gun ownership, and interpret this, along with the relatively high rates of murder and violent crime, plus the often violent content of American films and television programs, as meaning that American society has widespread tolerance and acceptance of violence.

The War on Drugs is also considered an oppressive activity by many who are socially liberal, both within and outside of the United States. It has resulted in an enormous prison population, much of it composed of nonviolent and lower-class drug offenders. A significant minority of the American population views the War on Drugs as a second Prohibition. It has also resulted in damaging international pressure and intervention directed against other countries involved in the drug trade, such as Colombia.

Americans have the highest per-capita consumption of resources and energy in the world, and the fact that the U.S. government does not take decisive action to curb this use creates hostility.

American foreign policy

One of the major reasons for anti-Americanism is American foreign policy. Both before and after it became the most powerful nation in the world, America has often opposed or attacked governments and countries, while sometimes changing its position towards a country or government over time.

While the interference with foreign countries itself has angered many, apparent inconsistency in the policies - seemingly to fit American political or economic interests - has angered many more. Often cited is the United States support of Iraqi president Saddam Hussein during his war against Iran. When the Senate passed a bill to condemn the Iraqi use of poison gas then president Ronald Reagan threatened to veto the bill if it passed the House. They also remark that the United States supported the Afghan Mujahedeen during that country's occupation by the Soviet Union. The U.S. would argue that changes in its policy come about because of changing conditions, such as the end of the threat of communism.

Another major cause of anti-American sentiment, especially in the Muslim world, is what many people around the world see as America's blind support for Israel. American intervention in the Arab-Israeli conflict is widely seen as being unfair and biased towards Israel and against the Palestinians. For instance, as they see it, America is quick to criticise Palestinian terror attacks against Israeli civilians, but usually turns a blind eye towards attacks by the Israeli army against Palestinian civilians, and refuses to criticise Israeli wrongdoings. This issue causes huge anger and resentment against America throughout the Muslim world, who believe that America is, as they see it, propping up Israeli tyranny against Muslims. There is also a widespread belief in the Arab world that America's support for Israel is motivated by a racist bias against Arabs or that the American government is controlled by Zionists.

To exacerbate matters, George W. Bush's use of the word "crusade", in its modern sense, to characterize his war on terrorism caused many Muslims to associate it with the Crusades.

Another cause of resentment against America in the Middle East is that America supports regimes in many Middle-Eastern countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan that are unpopular with many people in those countries, and are seen as oppressive and tyrannical.

America has frequently supported undemocratic governments, coups, or insurgent movements in Latin America, and has on many occasions even invaded Latin American countries for the stated reason of preventing the spread of Communism in the Americas or of stemming the drug trade. This self-appointed role as regional power has roots that go back to the Monroe Doctrine.

Many believe that the American CIA provided significant support for the 1973 military coup in Chile by General Augusto Pinochet, whose regime went on to commit many human rights abuses. This coup was particularly resented by leftists who were fond of Salvador Allende, the elected Marxist president whom Pinochet deposed. The CIA has denied any involvement in the coup, but the belief remains widespread. The tendency, or even desire, to believe the worst about the U.S. in this and other cases could itself be considered a symptom of anti-Americanism.

The U.S. provided support for the Contras, a guerilla force which attempted to overthrow Nicaragua's Sandinista government. U.S. President Ronald Reagan, after failing to achieve necessary Congressional support to legally fund the Contras, resorted to funding them through arms sales to Iran, in violation of U.S. law, resulting in the Iran Contra Affair. These incidents, again, have fueled resentment especially of American conservatives. Reagan and the Iran-Contra Affair have been seen as symbols of the evils of American conservatism.

The official (American government) view, which is shared by many Americans -- particularly more conservative Americans -- is that American influence (or interference) in Latin American countries was necessary to stop the spread of tyrannical Communism. Others, especially on the far left, charge that America's main primary interest was economic, and that it was willing to do anything to further American corporate interests in the region.

America's treatment and use of international institutions such as the United Nations and World Trade Organization is often seen as self-serving and hypocritical in other countries. Critics point to non-payment of UN dues and refusal to heed to International Court of Justice decisions against America on the one hand, and to enthusiastic embrace of international trials against foreign war criminals and UN sanction mechanisms against official enemies on the other. America's veto power in the United Nations Security Council has repeatedly been used to prevent censure of Israel, thereby angering Arab countries and those supporting them in the Israel-Arab conflict.

Some countries, such as France, also dislike very much the fact America has used the veto power in the United Nations Security Council more often than any other country, but consider it an offensive move when their allies use the veto against an American proposition. These countries claim that being allies does not necessarily imply accepting any American proposition.

The continuing embargo against Cuba is seen by a broad range of people as vindictive - and hypocritical in the face of mainland China retaining most-favoured-nation trading status. In 1996 the U.S. passed the Helms-Burton Act, which included a controversial provision which, roughly, allows lawsuits against foreigners who do business with Cuban companies which use property stolen from Americans in the 1959 Cuban Revolution. Some saw this as an offense against other nations' sovereignty and a violation of World Trade Organization rules. And while President Clinton suspended the lawsuit portion of that act, and President Bush has continued its suspension, the act's mere existence is offensive to many.

The U.S. government annually certifies whether other countries cooperate in its War On Drugs; countries which are judged uncooperative are sanctioned economically and diplomatically. This annual review is seen as offensive by many foreign countries, most notably by Mexico.

Many small and poor countries -- which lack nuclear weapons -- consider America's efforts to prevent the further proliferation of nuclear weapons to be a thinly veiled attempt to maintain its military advantage. America and most Western countries counter that these efforts benefit all because proliferation would destabilize many conflict regions, most of them involving poor countries.

Some countries, in particular the People's Republic of China, resent U.S. involvement in what it considers its internal affairs. For example, the U.S. selling weapons to Taiwan and its deep involvement in the Taiwan issue has been seen as offensive by the Chinese government. China is also not happy that the U.S. government often criticizes China's human rights practices, and accuses the U.S. of ignoring similar questionable practices in other countries, including the United States itself.

The United States was also criticized for meddling in the internal politics of some of its democratic allies. For instance, the US government funded some French unions through the National Endowment for Democracy, including some with links to far-right violent groups.

American Funding of paramilitary groups

America has a history of supplying funds for paramilitary groups which are called freedom fighters by the donors and their allies, but regarded as extremists or terrorists by the victims and their allies. Such funding may be provided by the government, by private citizens, or by a combination of the two.

It has been widely alleged that the American government has been arming and training right-wing paramilitary groups in Colombia who have been accused of widespread human rights violations, to deal with left-wing rebels who control much of that country.

Even a close ally like the United Kingdom has been the target of such action: there is a long history of Americans openly raising funds for both the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Real Irish Republican Army. Funds for these groups are commonly raised by Irish-Americans, such as (it has sometimes been alleged) members of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, who feel a patriotic sense of involvement in The Troubles in Northern Ireland. (It should be noted that no American government has ever approved of or supported this activity, and that, in general, America has tried to help resolve problems in Ireland, rather than add to them.)

American religious attitudes

Religion, especially in its more conservative or fundamentalist forms, is stronger in America than in much of the rest of the Western world. People who fear or dislike religious extremism, conservatism, or religion in general are believed by American conservatives to have anti-American attitudes as a result.

Some countries resent very much hearing some americans stating America moral superiority over the rest of the world, and reject the vision of some American leaders seeing the role of America as being the nation responsible for preserving the world from what they see as "Evil". They are further pushed by American Congress adopting the resolution of a day of prayer to ensure the divine protection of America against terrorism and its soldiers, which lead them to see Bush as a leading a religious crusade. They question the official position of separation of church and state.

In contrast, people from cultures that have still stronger religious beliefs, Islamic cultures in particular, find offensive the vision of an America religious tolerance and diversity, and its official separation of church and state.

American hypocrisy

US politicians and industrial leaders frequently cite principles such as free trade, free speech and democracy, which are held to be universally beneficial; but in practice their actions can somtimes be interpreted as contradicting these principles.

Poor countries often allege that America only supports free trade when it works in its favor, and that America forces them to open up their markets to the West without any reciprocal trade agreements.

Another contentious issue is the large subsidies the American government gives to its farmers, which, according to many poor countries and development and aid groups such as the Red Cross, harms the agricultural sectors of other nations' economies. A common argument is that subsidized American food exports are artificially cheap, making it impossible to compete against them in world markets, thus causing third world.

The countries of the European Union, however, have also been criticised for this practice.

Free trade is often perceived as being restricted by the protection of uncompetitive industry, e.g., the imposition of tariffs on steel of up to 30% in March 2002, or earlier examples for agricultural products. America's profession of support for democracy is undermined by American support for repressive regimes, as described above.

The United States, along with many other powers, campaigns against attemps to build weapons of mass destruction by countries such as Iraq, Iran, and North Korea, while at the same time holding the world's largest arsenal of such weapons, continuing development of new types of weapons, and ignoring similar programs by Israel. Supporters of US policy in this area, however, may argue that non-proliferation of dangerous weapons is good for all nations, and that the focus should not be on WMD per se, but on preventing WMD from getting into the hands of "rogue states". Of course, it is debatable whether America has always used its weapons responsibly.

American popular culture

Popular culture -- contemporary music, television, films, books, and more recently, web sites and other computer-based media -- is one of America's most successful and probably its most visible export. There is an enormous American "trade surplus" in cultural matters. In countries without strong cultural protection laws, American music, films, and television programmes appear far more frequently than other countries' music, films, and television programs appear in the United States.

In many countries, such media carry a large body of material that embodies values considerably different from those of much of the viewing public. From a common European intellectual perspective, many American dramatic narratives are overly violent, hypocritical about sex (combining prudery and exploitation), and portray simplistic attitudes to good and evil. In fairness, most of the American population agrees with them on at least some of such complaints. Also, there is some amount of ambivalence among Europeans on such issues.

Another concern is the sheer volume of American cultural export, irrespective of any specific concerns with content, which has profound homogenising effects on societies, limiting opportunities for diverse and original perspectives. Many contend that the market for films and television programs is an uneven playing field; for instance, foreign movies are hardly ever imported into the US for show in major theater circuits, while most other Western countries show far more imports. The usual American answer is that this is a sign of the high quality of American movies with respect to movies from countries such as France, allegedly uninteresting and funded by subsidies, and that Americans are not interested in seeing unknown foreign actors, or movies shot in a foreign language. Such explanations are often considered a sign of arrogance and provincialism on the part of the United States.

Meanwhile, other societies, notably Islamic societies see popular Western culture, and popular American culture above all, as propaganda for a secular, sexually and socially libertine society. As such, they also object to American values portrayed in popular culture, though the American values they perceive as present are almost precisely the opposite of those which European cultural critics dislike.

Some non-Americans see trade barriers as a means of protecting their cultures, and view America's lobbying to remove them as insensitivity to this and even as cultural imperialism. Many believe that America's political and business establishment views culture as a commodity to be freely traded just like any other.

At least in part because popular culture products have become such a significant export industry for the United States, the United States has been steadily increasing the restrictiveness of its copyright laws to help support its entertainment industry at the expense of several previously protected rights. Examples include enforcing the use of DVD region coding to restrict the import of DVDs from foreign markets (permitted by "first sale" doctrine) or the use of "copy prevention" techniques on compact discs to prevent music from being converted to other formats for use by the CD's owner. This has led to significant pressures upon other nations to do likewise, to such an extent that in January 2002 the U.S. imposed punitive economic sanctions on Ukraine because they failed to pass stricter domestic copyright laws. China, on the other hand, continued to retain most-favored-nation trading status despite being widely recognized as the largest center of intellectual property violation in the world. See also: WIPO, Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act

The American way of life

Americans are well-known for their pride in their standard of living as well as their country's achievements, and for their allegiance to at least some of the ideals of the founders of the country, now often taken for granted in most of the industrialized world, such as freedom and equal justice under the law. It is not infrequently said that American patriotism is the first patriotism founded on a set of political ideals, rather than on nationalism or ethnicity. Patriotism in the U.S. often appears offensively arrogant to the rest of the world. For example, American politicians sometimes call America the "greatest nation that has ever existed on the face of the Earth".

It is worth noting in this connection that patriotism and nationalism exist all throughout the world, but is moderated in most countries by extensive foreign media content (something that the US does not have), and that no other country has been as successful in the wholesale export of its view through the modern mass media. Many, especially in Europe, contend that the American public is generally ignorant of foreign issues and lacks historical and geographical knowledge; a 2002 study made for National Geographic showed that "US young adults are lagging" in their geographical knowledge compared to young adults in other developed countries. Many contend that such ignorance is reinforced by the Americanocentrist coverage of the American media and the emphasis given in the educational system and the media on things American and the benefits of living in America, failing to mention that the same apply to all modern democratic countries.

The fact that girls in America are educated along with boys, that women can go out in public unescorted by male relatives, and that women have the same rights as men, including the right to vote and to serve in the armed forces, is also at odds with many religious or cultural traditions of some democratic and non-democratic countries. Such rights however are neither exclusive to, nor originated in, America but are common in much of the Western world, it is thus unlikely that such concerns are sufficient motivation for specifically anti-American sentiment.

America and the environment

The American way of life is often regarded by environmentalists as unnecessarily wasteful and environmentally irresponsible. For instance, statistics show that the 4% of the world's population that live within the United States uses a disproportionate share of the world's resources and creates 25% of the world's carbon dioxide emissions.

Many replies to these allegations are possible: that America does have stringent environmental laws, which, unlike in many countries, are actually enforced; that many "resources" such as food are not finite, and in fact America produces a great deal; that America pays for the resources it imports; and that America's rate of consumption is due to a high standard of living, which all nations aspire to.

Although critics contend that these replies fail to answer the allegation, that the American way of life is unecesarily wasteful and polluting, and point out that other industrialised countries use significantly less resources per-head of population than America and still retain a high standard of living.

In 1997, the U.S. Senate voted 95-0 that the United States should not become a party to the Kyoto Protocol unless developing nations such as the People's Republic of China (second in emissions), which are presently exempted, are also subject to scheduled limits or reductions of greenhouse gases. This refusal to ratify the Kyoto Protocol is often quoted as an example of America's irresponsibility in this area.

History of anti-Americanism in the United States

Modern Anti-Americanism abroad

See also:

• Cultural imperialism
• Anti-French sentiment

References

• Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire by Chalmers Johnson
• Anti-Americanism by Paul Hollander

External links

• After the attacks: America's new cold war by Anatol Lieven, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC
• The BBC: BNP questioned over US fund-raising
• Benjamin Netanyahu, former Israeli prime minister, explores the motives of the Islamic extremists hatred of the West and the U.S.
• Guardian article on The Great Divide between Europe and the United States
• Tony Judt about "The Paradox of American Power"
• Newsweek article explaining Anti-Americanism through history
• CBC News special: How do the world's nations relate to the new American Empire?