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{| border="1" width="325" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em;margin-bottom:1em"
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffff99"| '''The Vietnam War'''
|-
|Conflict||Vietnam War, part of the ''']'''
|-
|Date||]–]
|-
|Place||]
|-
|Result||&bull; Capitulation of South Vietnam<br>&bull; Reunification of Vietnam under Communist rule<br>
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffff99"|Major Combatants
|-
| width="50%" valign="top" style="text-align:center"|]<br><br/>]<br><br><br>]<br><br />]
| width="50%" valign="top" style="text-align:center"|]<br><br>]<br><br>]<br><br />]<br><br />
|-
!colspan="2" |Strength
|-
|~1,200,000 (1968)
|~420,000 (1968)
|-
!colspan="2" |Casualties
|-
|'''Total dead:''' 287,232<br>'''Wounded:''' 1,496,037
|'''Total dead:''' Official Vietnamese estimate: 1,100,000 <br>'''Wounded:''' 600,000
|-
!colspan="2" |'''Civilian Casualties: ''' c. 2&mdash;4 million
|-
!colspan="2" |'''Victor: ''' North Vietnam
|-
!colspan="2" |Categories
|-
!colspan="2"| ]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]
|}
The '''Vietnam War''' was fought from ] to ] between ] and ]-supported Vietnamese nationalist and ] forces and an array of ] and pro-Western forces, most notably the ]. The war was fought to decide whether Vietnam would be united under a Communist government, or would remain indefinitely partitioned into the separate countries of North and South Vietnam. The war ended in ] with a Communist victory and the unification of the country under a government controlled by the ]. In ], the conflict is known as '''the American War''' (] '''Chi&#x1EBF;n Tranh Ch&#x1ED1;ng M&#x1EF9; C&#x1EE9;u N&#432;&#x1EDB;c''', which literally means "War Against the Americans to Save the Nation.")

==Overview==
A precise timeline of the Vietnam War is difficult to determine. Some consider the Vietnam War to have been a continuous conflict beginning with the French attempt to re-establish colonial control in ] and continuing until the fall of Saigon in 1975. Others divide the conflict into two separate wars, the ] between the French and the ] and the '''Second Indochina War''' between ] and ] and its the American allies. Many experts consider the Vietnam War to have been just be one front in the larger ].

The ] may be said to have begun in 1946 with the writing of the Vietnamese constitution and to have ended in 1954 with the Geneva Peace Accord.

The American involvement in the conflict is less distinct. The United States had supported Vietnamese guerillas against the Japanese during ], and provided aid to the French in the early 1950s. An American military presence was established in South Vietnam following the 1954 Peace Accord. As American advisors were drawn into battles between North and South Vietnamese forces the American involvement escalated.

Many Americans view the Vietnam War as beginning with the ] in 1965.

The ground war was fought in South Vietnam and the border areas of ] and ] (''see'' ]). The air war was fought there and in the ] (''see'' ]) of North Vietnam. Commando raids or secret operations were conducted by U.S or South Vietnamese forces in the north but there was never any full-scale ground fighting north of the 17th paralel (For more details of the events during the war, see: ].)

A ] of forces fought for South Vietnam, including its army the ] (or ARVN), the ], ], ], ], ], and the ]. Participation by the ]n military was financed by the ], but ] and ] fully funded their own involvement. Other countries normally allied with the ] in the Cold War, including the ] and ], did not participate in the war militarily, although a few of their ]s volunteered to join the US forces and Canada led peace talks between the two countries for years.

The North Vietnamese government directed the fighting against that of South Vietnam, using forces including their ] (PAVN, better known to Americans as the NVA) and the ] forces of the ], better known as the ]. The ] provided military and financial aid, along with ] to the North Vietnamese as did the ].


==Background==
{{main|Background to the Vietnam War}}

France had gained control of Indochina in a series of colonial wars beginning in the 1840s and lasting until the 1880s. During World War II, ] had collaborated with the occupying ]ese forces. Vietnam was under effective Imperial Japanese control, as well as de facto Japanese administrative control, although the Vichy French continued to serve as the official administrators until ]. After the Japanese surrender Vietnamese nationalists hoped to achieve to formal independence from France.
On ], ], ] spoke at a ceremony heralding an independent Vietnam. In his speech he cited the American ] and a band played "]." Ho had hoped that the United States would be an ally of a Vietnamese independence movement based on speeches by U.S. President ] against the continuation of European ] after World War II. However the death of Roosevelt, the development of the Cold War, and Ho's ] sympathies led to U.S. support being given to the French.

Indochina had been in the ] theater of operations during the war. The French prevailed upon the British to turn control of the region back over to them, setting the stage for the ] in which France attempted to re-establish Vietnam as part of a French overseas colony. In a gradual process, accelerated by the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the Vietnamese nationalist army, the Viet Minh, gradually wrested control of the country from France.

After the Viet Minh's historic victory over the French at the ] all of Indochina was granted independence, including ], ], and Vietnam. However, Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel, above which the former Viet Minh established a Communist state and below which an anti-communist state was established under the Emperor ]. As dictated in the ] of ] the division was meant to be temporary pending free elections for national leadership. Neither of the two Vietnamese countries signed the election clause in the agreement. The United States, fearing a Communist takeover of the region, supported ], who had ousted Bao Dai, as leader of South Vietnam while ] became president of the North.

== The War Begins==
=== NLF in the South ===
Communist forces initiated guerilla activities in South Vietnam in ]. Two years later these forces named themselves the National Liberation Front (NLF). Although considered by many to have been composed of northern agents under the control of Hanoi, ostensibly the NLF was an organization of South Vietnamese communists committed to establishing a communist state in South Vietnam. By ] the Hanoi government were supplying the NLF via the ], a supply route running from North Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia (a violation of neutrality) into South Vietnam. Further supplies were sent by sea to Sihanoukville in Cambodia until that outlet was closed by ] in ]. The Ho Chi Minh Trail was steadily expanded to become the vital lifeline for communist forces in South Vietnam, which included the North Vietnamese Army in the 1960s when it became a major target of American air operations.

The Diem government was initially able to cope with the insurgency with the aid of American advisors, and by ] seemed to be winning. Senior U.S. military leaders were receiving positive reports from the American commander, Gen. ] of the ]. However outside Saigon large areas of the country were not under government control. In ] a Communist offensive beginning with the ] inflicted major defeats on the South Vietnamese army, while disorganization reigned in the Saigon government.

===John F. Kennedy and Vietnam===
In June ], ] met with Soviet premier ] in ], where Khrushchev sought to bully him over key U.S.-Soviet issues. Kennedy left the meeting convinced that the Russians were committed to conflict. This led to the conclusion that Southeast Asia would be an area where Soviet forces would test America's committment to the ] policy.

Although Kennedy's election campaign had stressed long-range missile parity with the Soviets, Kennedy was particularly interested in ]. Originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional invasion of Europe, it was quickly decided to try them out in the "brush fire" war in Vietnam.

The Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the ]. Furthermore in ] Kennedy found himself faced with a three-part crisis that seemed very similar to that faced by Truman in ]-]. 1961 had already seen the failure of the ] invasion, the construction of the ], and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of ] and the ] Communist movement. Fearing that another failure on the part of the United States to stop Communist expansion would fatally damage the West's position and his reputation, Kennedy was determined to prevent a Communist victory in Vietnam.

The Kennedy administration grew increasingly frustrated with Diem. In 1963 a violent crackdown by Diem's forces against ] monks protesting government policies prompted ] by monks, leading to embarrassing press coverage. The most famous event is the self-burning of ] to protest the goverment's violence against ]. Vietnam was a largely Buddhist nation, while Diem and much of his administration were ], and Diem was criticized as being out of touch with his citizens. The U.S. attempted to pressure Diem by asking South Vietnamese generals to act against the excesses. The South Vietnamese military interpreted these messages as tacit U.S. support for a '']'' which overthrew and killed Diem on ], ].

Initially the death of Diem made the South more unstable. The new military rulers were ]ly inexperienced and unable to provide the strong central authority of Diem's rule and a period of coups and counter-coups followed. The communists, meanwhile, stepped up their efforts to exploit the vacuum.

Kennedy himself was assassinated three weeks after Diem's death, and the newly sworn-in president, former Vice President ], confirmed on ] ] that the United States intended to continue supporting ].

=== The propaganda campaign ===

The nature and identity of the opposing forces was as always a major political focus of the war. The U.S. depicted a war in which an independent country was fighting international Communist aggression, thus depicting the NLF and even the PAVN as puppet armies.

The North Vietnamese portrayed the conflict as one between an imperialist United States and an indigenous South Vietnamese insurgency that was receiving the noncombat support of North Vietnam and its allies. This view presented the South Vietnamese as puppets of the U.S.

These conflicting stances influenced early peace talks in which arguments were made over "the shape of the negotiating table," with each side seeking to depict itself as a group of distinct allies opposing a single entity, ignoring the other's "puppet".

===Escalation===
The U.S. involvement in the war has been described as an ''escalation''. This is typically meant to refer to the incremental increase in forces in response to greater need, rather than an intentional strategy. However a key element was that there was no traditional ] which would have involved a national committment to using all available means to secure victory.

Instead U.S. involvement increased over several years, beginning with the deployment of non-combatant military advisors to the South Vietnamese army, followed by the use of special forces for ]-style operations, followed by the introduction of regular troops for defensive purposes, until regular troops were used in offensive combat. Once U.S. troops were engaged in active combat, escalation meant the addition of increasing their numbers.

The escalation of the war complicated its ambiguous legal status. The treaty agreements between the U.S. and South Vietnam allowed each escalation to be seen as simply another step in helping an ally resist Communist aggression. This allowed the ] to vote appropriations for war operations without requiring the Johnson Administration to meet the ] mandated requirement that Congress declare war.

Successive U.S. administrations also hoped that by limiting its involvement it could support South Vietnam without provoking a major response from ] or the ], as had happened in the ]. President Johnson maintained the Kennedy administration's position that South Vietnam's independence was a crucial U.S. defense against Soviet aggression, while at the same time trying to avoid provoking direct participation in the conflict by the ].

The situation caused friction between the American armed services and the civilian authorities in Washington. Military officials such as General ] resented the ]'s restraints on their operations but feared making outspoken policy criticisms lest they suffer the same fate as General ] who had been dismissed by Truman on such grounds during the ].

The relatively slow process of escalation also tended to mute U.S. political debate, since no individual instance of escalation dramatically increased the level of U.S. involvement. However in ] the Johnson Administration considered increasing in-country troop levels from approximately 550,000 to about 700,000. When this possibility was made public popular criticism caused the idea to be abandoned. Presidential candidate ] called for a decrease in U.S. troop levels and by the end of ], under his new administration, they were reduced by 60,000 from their wartime peak.

==American Intervention==

===Johnson and the Gulf of Tonkin===
{{main|Gulf of Tonkin Incident}}
Johnson raised the level of U.S. involvement on ], ] when 5,000 additional US military advisors were ordered to South Vietnam. This brought the total number of US forces in Vietnam to 21,000.

On ], ], the American destroyer ], was in international waters conducting a reconnaissance mission in the Gulf of Tonkin. Critics of President Johnson have suggested that the purpose of the mission was to provoke a reaction from North Vietnamese coastal defense forces as a pretext for a wider war. North Vietnamese torpedo-boats attacked the ''Maddox'' and in response, with the help of air support from the nearby carrier ], she destroyed one of the torpedo-boats, damaging two others. The ''Maddox'' suffered only superficial damage and retired to South Vietnamese waters where she was joined by ].

]

On ], GVN again attacked North Vietnam; the Rhon River estuary and the Vinh Sonh radar installation were bombarded under cover of darkness.

On ], a new ] patrol to the North Vietnam coast was launched, with ''Maddox'' and ''C. Turner Joy''. The latter got radar signals later claimed to be another attack by the North Vietnamese. For some two hours the ships fired on radar targets and maneuvered vigorously amid electronic and visual reports of torpedoes. Later, Captain ] admitted that it was nothing more than an "overeager sonarman" who "was hearing the ship's own propeller beat".

In consequence the ] approved the ] on ] ], which gave broad support to President Johnson to escalate U.S. involvement in the war "as the President shall determine". In a televised address Johnson claimed that "the challenge that we face in South-East Asia today is the same challenge that we have faced with courage and that we have met with strength in Greece and Turkey, in Berlin and Korea, in Lebanon and in Cuba." ] members, including ], ], and ] agreed on ], ] to recommend that President Johnson adopt a plan for a two-stage escalation of bombing in North Vietnam.

=== Operation Rolling Thunder ===
{{main|Operation Rolling Thunder}}
Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name for bombing raids in North Vietnam conducted by the United States armed forces during the Vietnam War. Its purpose was to destroy the will of the North Vietnamese to fight, to destroy industrial bases and air defenses (SAMs), and to stop the flow of men and supplies down the ].

Starting in March ] Operation Rolling Thunder gradually escalated in intensity to force the Communists to negotiate. Although half North Vietnam's bridges were destroyed and many supply depots hit, its Communist allies were always able to resupply it. The two principal areas where supplies came from, Haiphong and the Chinese border, were off limits to aerial attack. Restrictions on the bombing of civilian areas also enabled the North Vietnamese to use them for military purposes, siting anti-aircraft guns on schools.

In March ] Operation Rolling Thunder was suspended after the North agreed to negotiate in the aftermath of the Tet Offensive.

===U.S. Forces Committed===
In ] of ] the U.S. base at Pleiku was attacked twice killing over a dozen Americans. This provoked the reprisal airstrikes of ] in North Vietnam, the first time an American airstrike was launched because its forces had been attacked in South Vietnam. That same month the U.S. began independent airstrikes in the South. An American HAWK team was sent to Da Nang, a vulnerable airbase if Hanoi intended to bomb it. One result of ] was the shipment of anti-aircraft missiles to North Vietnam which began in a few weeks from the Soviet Union.

On ], ], 3,500 ] became the first American combat troops to land in South Vietnam, adding to the 25,000 US military advisers already in place. The air war escalated as well; on ], ], four ]s escorting a bombing raid at ] became the targets of ]s in the first such attack against American planes in the war. One plane was shot down and the other three sustained damage. Four days later Johnson announced another order that increased the number of US troops in Vietnam from 75,000 to 125,000. The day after that, ], the first 4,000 ] paratroopers arrived in Vietnam, landing at ].

On ], ], ] began as the first major American ground battle of the war when 5,500 US Marines destroyed a Viet Cong stronghold on the ] peninsula in ]. The Marines were tipped-off by a Viet Cong deserter who said that there was an attack planned against the US base at ]. The Vietcong learned from their defeat and tried to avoid fighting a US-style war from then on.

The North Vietnamese committed regular army troops to South Vietnam beginning in late ] to use guerilla and regular forces to wear down and destroy the South Vietnamese Army. However some North Vietnamese officials favored an immediate invasion, and a plan was drawn up to use ] forces to split South Vietnam in two at the Central Highlands, and then to defeat each half. However in the Battle of the ] the ] was defeated, prompting a return to guerilla tactics.

] told President Johnson on ], ] that if planned major sweep operations needed to neutralize Viet Cong forces during the next year were to succeed, the number of American troops in Vietnam needed to be increased from 120,000 to 400,000. By the end of 1965, 184,000 US troops were in Vietnam. In February 1966 there was a meeting between the commander of the U.S. effort, head of the ] General ] and Johnson in ]. Westmoreland argued that the US presence had prevented a defeat but that more troops were needed to take the offensive, he claimed that an immediate increase could lead to the "cross-over point" in Vietcong and NVA casualties being reached in early 1967. Johnson authorized an increase in troop numbers to 429,000 by August 1966.

On ] ] US ] ] stated during a news conference that proposals by the ] for peace initiatives were futile because of North Vietnam's opposition. Johnson then held a secret meeting with a group of the nation's most prestigious leaders ("the Wise Men") on ] and asked them to suggest ways to unite the American people behind the war effort. Johnson announced on ] that, while much remained to be done, "We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking...We are making progress." Following up on this, General ] on ] told news reporters: "I am absolutely certain that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning, today he is certainly losing." Nevertheless it was recognized that although the communists were taking a major beating, true victory could not come until the country was pacified.

]

==The Tet Offensive==
General Westmoreland had asserted that American forces were on the verge of victory, infamously claiming he "could see the light at the end of the tunnel." As a result it was a considerable shock to public opinion when on ], ] NLF and NVA forces mounted the ] (named after ], the lunar new year festival which is the most important Vietnamese holiday) in South ] attacking nearly every major city in South Vietnam.

Although the Communists' military objectives had not been achieved, the propaganda effect was considerable and had a profound impact on public opinion. Many Americans felt that the government was misleading the American people about a war without a clear end. When General Westmoreland called for still more troops to be sent to Vietnam, ], a member of Johnson's own cabinet, came out against the war.

===Tet Aftermath===
Soon after Tet, Westmoreland was replaced by his deputy, General ]. Abrams pursued a very different approach than Westmoreland's, favoring more openness with the media, less indiscriminate use of airstrikes and heavy artillery, elimination of bodycount as the key indicator of battlefield success, and more meaningful co-operation with ARVN forces. His strategy, although yielding positive results, came too late to influence U.S. public opinion.

Facing a troop shortage, on ], ] the ] announced that the ] and Marines would be sending about 24,000 troops back to Vietnam for involuntary second tours. Two weeks later on ], citing progress with the ] peace talks, US President ] announced what became known as the ] when he ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval, and artillery bombardment of ]" effective ]. Peace talks eventually broke down, however, and one year later, on ], ], then President ] addressed the nation on ] and ] asking the "silent majority" to join him in solidarity on the Vietnam War effort and to support his policies.

The credibility of the government suffered when '']'', and later '']'' and other newspapers, published '']''. This top-secret historical study of Vietnam, contracted by the Pentagon, presented a pessimistic view of victory in the Vietnam War and generated additional criticism of U.S. policy.

==Opposition to the war==
{{main|Opposition to the Vietnam War}}
], which became a symbol of the international movement against U.S. involvement in Vietnam. <small>(© ]/The ])</small>]]

Small scale opposition to the war began in ] on college campuses. This was happening during a time of unprecedented leftist student activism, and of the arrival at college age of the demographically significant ].

Protests against the draft began on ] ] when the student-run ] staged the first public burning of a ] in the United States. The first ] since ] in the United States was held on ] ] and was met with large protests and a great deal of controversy; statistical analysis indicated that the methodology of the lotteries unintentionally disadvantaged men with late year birthdays.

This issue was treated at length in a ] ] '']'' article titled "Statisticians Charge Draft Lottery Was Not Random".

U.S. public opinion became polarized by the war. Many supporters of the war argued for what was known as the ], which held that if the South fell to communist guerillas, other nations, primarily in Southeast Asia, would succumb like falling dominoes. Military critics of the war pointed out that the conflict was political and that the military mission lacked clear objectives. Civilian critics of the war argued that the government of South Vietnam lacked political legitimacy and that support for the war was immoral. Some anti-war activists were themselves ], as evidenced by the organization ]. Some of the Americans opposed to the Vietnam War, as for instance ], stressed their support for ordinary Vietnamese civilians struck by a war beyond their influence. President Johnson's undersecretary of state, ], was one of the lone voices in his administration advising against war in Vietnam.

The growing anti-war movement alarmed many in the US government. On ], ] the ] began investigations of Americans who were suspected of aiding the NLF. Anti-war demonstrators disrupted the meeting and 50 were arrested.

On ] ], a suspected NLF officer was captured near the site of a ditch holding the bodies of as many as 34 police and their relatives, bound and shot, some of whom were the families of General ]'s deputy and close friend. General Loan, a South Vietnamese National Police Chief, summarily shot the suspect in the head on a public street in front of journalists. The ] was filmed and photographed and provided another iconic image that helped sway public opinion in the United States against the war.

] executes Viet Cong Captain ]]]

On ] ], hundreds of thousands of people took part in ] antiwar demonstrations across the United States. A second round of "Moratorium" demonstrations was held on ].

On ], ], ] became the first Vietnam veteran to testify before Congress about the war, when he appeared before a Senate committee hearing on proposals relating to ending the war. He spoke for nearly two hours with the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in what has been named the ], after the Chairman of the proceedings, Senator ]. Kerry presented the conclusions of the ], where veterans had described personally committing or witnessing ].

In 1968, ] Lyndon Johnson began his re-election campaign. A member of his own party, ], ran against him for the nomination on an antiwar platform. McCarthy did not win the first primary election in ], but he did surprisingly well against an incumbent. The resulting blow to the Johnson campaign, taken together with other factors, led the President to make a surprise announcement in a March 31 televised speech that he was pulling out of the race. He also announced the initiation of the ] with Vietnam in that speech. Then, on ], ], US representative ] and North Vietnamese representative ] began secret peace negotiations at the apartment of ] intermediary ] in ]. This set of negotations failed, however, prior to the 1972 North Vietnamese offensive.


]

==Pacification and the "Hearts and Minds"==
The U.S. realized that the South Vietnamese government needed a solid base of popular support if it was to survive the insurgency. In order to pursue this goal of "winning the hearts and minds" of the Vietnamese people, units of the ] ], referred to as "]" units, were extensively utilized for the first time for this purpose since ].

Civil Affairs units, while remaining armed and under direct military control, engaged in what came to be known as "]": constructing (or reconstructing) schools, public buildings, roads and other physical infrastructure; conducting medical programs for civilians who had no access to medical facilities; facilitating cooperation among local civilian leaders; conducting hygiene and other training for civilians; and similar activities.

This policy of attempting to win the "]" of the Vietnamese people, however, often was at odds with other aspects of the war which served to antagonize many Vietnamese civilians. These policies included the emphasis on "]" as a way of measuring military success on the battlefield, the accidental bombing of villages (symbolized by journalist ]'s famous quote, "it was necessary to destroy the village in order to save it"), and the killing of civilians in such incidents as the ]. In ] the documentary ] sought to portray the devastation the war was causing to the South Vietnamese people, and won an ] for best documentary amid considerable controversy. The South Vietnamese government also antagonized many of its citizens with its suppression of political opposition, through such measures as holding large numbers of political prisoners, torturing political opponents, and holding a one-man election for President in ]. Despite this, the government captured a large percentage of the votes of the large percentage of the Vietnamese that participated.

=="Vietnamization"==
Nixon was elected President and began his policy of slow disengagement from the war. The goal was to gradually build up the South Vietnamese Army so that it could fight the war on its own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-called "]". As applied to Vietnam, the doctrine was called "Vietnamization". The stated goal of Vietnamization was to enable the South Vietnamese army to increasingly hold its own against the NLF and the North Vietnamese Army. The unstated goal of Vietnamization was that the primary burden of combat would be returned to ARVN troops and thereby lessen domestic opposition to the war in the U.S.

During this period, the United States conducted a gradual troop withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon continued to use air power to bomb the enemy, along with an American troop incursion in Cambodia. Ultimately more bombs were dropped under the Nixon Presidency than under Johnson's, while American troop deaths started to drop significantly. The Nixon administration was determined to remove American troops from the theater while not destabilizing the defensive efforts of South Vietnam.

Many significant gains in the war were made under the Nixon administration, however. One particularly significant achievement was the weakening of support that the North Vietnamese army received from the ] and ]. One of Nixon's main foreign policy goals had been the achievement of a "breakthrough" in U.S. relations with the two nations, in terms of creating a new spirit of cooperation. To a large extent this was achieved. China and the USSR had been the principal backers of the North Vietnamese army through large amounts of military and financial support. The eagerness of both nations to improve their own US relations in the face of a widening breakdown of the inter-Communist alliance led to the reduction of their aid to North Vietnam.

].]]

The morality of US conduct of the war continued to be an issue under the Nixon Presidency. In 1969, American investigative journalist ] exposed the ] and its cover-up, for which he received the ]. It came to light that Lt. ], a platoon leader in Vietnam, had led a massacre of several hundred Vietnamese civilians, including women, babies, and the elderly, at ] a year before. The massacre was only stopped after two American soldiers in a helicopter spotted the carnage and intervened to prevent their fellow Americans from killing any more civilians. Although many were appalled by the wholesale slaughter at My Lai, Calley was given a life sentence after his ] in ], and was later pardoned by President Nixon. Cover-ups or soft treatments of American war crimes also happened in other cases, e.g. as revealed by the ] winning article series about the ] by the ] in ]. But My Lai was the worst.

In 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by Lon Nol in Cambodia, who became the chief of state. The Khemer Rouge guerillas with North Vietnamese backing began to attack the new regime. Nixon ordered a military incursion into Cambodia in order to destroy NLF sanctuaries bordering on South Vietnam and protect the fragile Cambodian government. This action prompted even more protests on American college campuses. Several students were ] during demonstrations at ].

One effect of the incursion was to push communist forces deeper into Cambodia, which destabilized the country and in turn may have encouraged the rise of the ], who seized power in ]. The goal of the attacks, however, was to bring the North Vietnamese negotiators back to the table with some flexibility in their demands that the South Vietnamese government be overthrown as part of the agreement. It was also alleged that American and South Vietnamese casualty rates were reduced by the destruction of military supplies the communists had been storing in Cambodia. All U.S. forces left Cambodia on ].

In an effort to help assuage growing discontent over the war, Nixon announced on ], ] that the United States would withdraw 40,000 more troops before ]. Later that month on ], the worst ] to hit Vietnam in six years caused large ]s, killed 293, left 200,000 homeless and virtually halted the war.

Backed by American air and artillery support, South Vietnamese troops invaded ] on ] ]. On ] of that year, ] and ] decided to withdraw their troops from Vietnam. The total number of American troops in ] dropped to 196,700 on ] ], the lowest level since January ]. On ], ] Nixon set a ] ] deadline to remove another 45,000 American troops from Vietnam.

In the ] election, the war was once again a major issue in the United States. An antiwar candidate, ], ran against President Nixon. Nixon's Secretary of State, ], declared that "peace is at hand" shortly before election day, dealing a death blow to McGovern's campaign, which was already far behind in opinion surveys. However, the peace agreement was not signed until the next year, leading many to conclude that Kissinger's announcement was just a political ploy. Kissinger's defenders assert that the North Vietnamese negotiators had made use of Kissinger's pronouncement as an opportunity to embarrass the Nixon Administration to weaken it at the negotiation table. ] Press Secretary ] on ] ] told the press that there would be no more public announcements concerning American troop withdrawals from Vietnam due to the fact that troop levels were then down to 27,000. The US halted heavy bombing of North Vietnam on ], ].

==The end of the war==
]

On ] ], citing progress in peace negotiations, President Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action in North Vietnam which was later followed by a unilateral withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam. The ] were later signed on ] ] which officially ended US involvement in the Vietnam conflict. This won the 1973 ] for Kissinger and North Vietnamese Politburo member and lead negotiator ] while fighting continued, leading songwriter ] to declare that ] had died. However, five days before the peace accords were signed, ], whose presidency was marred by the war, died. The mood during his ] was one of intense sadness and recrimination because the war's wounds were still raw.

The first American ] were released on ] and all US soldiers were ordered to leave by ]. In a break with history, soldiers returning from the Vietnam War were generally not treated as heroes, and soldiers were sometimes even condemned for their participation in the war.

The peace agreement did not last.

Nixon had promised South Vietnam that he would provide military support to them in the event of a crumbling military situation. Nixon was fighting for his political life in the growing ] at the time. Economic aid continued, but most of it was siphoned off by corrupt elements in the South Vietnamese government and little of it actually went to the war effort. At the same time aid to North Vietnam from the USSR and China began to increase, and with the Americans out, the two countries no longer saw the war as significant to their US relations. The balance of power had clearly shifted to the North.

In December 1974, Congress completed passage of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 that voted to cut off all military funding to the Saigon government and made unenforceable the peace terms negotiated by Nixon.

By 1975, the South Vietnamese Army stood alone against the powerful North Vietnamese. Despite Vietnamization and the 1972 victories against the PAVN offensive, the ARVN was plagued with corruption, desertion, low wages, and lack of supplies. Then in early March the PAVN launched a powerful offensive into the poorly defended Central Highlands, splitting the Republic of Vietnam in two. President Thieu, fearful that ARVN troops in the northern provinces would be isolated due to a PAVN encirclement, he decided on a redeployment of ARVN troops from the northern provinces to the Central Highlands. But the withdrawal of South Vietnamese forces soon turned into a bloody retreat as the PAVN crossed the DMZ. While South Vietnamese forces retreated from the northern provinces, splintered South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands fought desperately against the PAVN.

On ], ] Bumnethout fell to the PAVN. The attack began in the early morning hours. After a violent artillery barrage, 4,000- man garrison defending the city retreated with their families. On ], President Thieu ordered the Central Highlands and the northern provinces to be abandoned, in what he declared to lighten the top and keep the bottom. General Phu abandoned the cities of ] and ] and retreated to the coast in what became known as the column of tears. General Phu led his troops to Tum Ky on the coast, but as the ARVN retreated, the civilians also went with them. Due to already destroyed roads and bridges, the column slowed down as the PAVN closed in. As the column staggered down mountains to the coast, PAVN shelling attacked. By ], the column ceased to exist after 60,000 ARVN troops were killed.

On ], Thieu reversed himself and ordered ], Vietnam&#8217;s 3rd largest city be held out at all cost. But as the PAVN attacked, a panic ensued and South Vietnamese resistance collapsed. On ], the PAVN launched a siege on Hue, the civilians, remembering the 1968 massacre jammed into the airport, seaports, and the docks. Some even swam into the ocean to reach boats and barges. The ARVN routed with the civilians and some South Vietnamese shot civilians just to make room for themselves. On ], after a 3-day siege, Hue fell.

As Hue fell, PAVN rockets hit downtown Da Nang and the airport. By ], 35,000 PAVN troops were poised in the suburbs. On ], a World Airways jet led by Edward Daley landed in ] to save women and children, instead 300 men jammed onto the flight, mostly ARVN troops. On ], 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the PAVN marched victoriously through Da Nang on that Easter Sunday. With the fall of Da Nang, the defense of the Central Highlands and northern provinces collapsed. With half of South Vietnam under their control, PAVN prepared for its final phase in its offensive, the Ho Chi Minh campaign, the plan: By ], capture ] before South Vietnamese forces could regroup to defend it.

The PAVN continued its attack as South Vietnamese forces and Thieu regime crumbled before their onslaught. On ], 3 PAVN divisions attacked ], 40 miles east of Saigon , where they met fierce resistance from the ARVN 18th Infantry division. For 2 bloody weeks. Severe fighting raged in the city as the ARVN defenders in a last-ditch effort tried desperately to save South Vietnam from military and economic collapse. Also, hoping Americans forces would return in time to save them. The ARVN 18th Infantry division used many advanced weapons against the PAVN, and it was in the final phase in which Saigon government troops fought well. But on ], the exhausted and besieged army garrison defending Xuan-loc surrendered. A bitter and tearful Thieu resigned on ], saying America had betrayed South Vietnam and he showed the 1972 document claiming America would retaliate against North Vietnam should they attack. Thieu left for ] on ], leaving control of the doomed government to General Minh.

By now PAVN tanks had reached Bienhoa, they turned towards Saigon, clashing with few South Vietnamese units on the way. The end was near.

=== '''Fall of Saigon''' ===
{{SectNPOV}}
{{main|Fall of Saigon}}
By April, the weakened South Vietnamese Army had collapsed on all fronts. The powerful PAVN offensive forced South Vietnamese troops on a bloody retreat that ended up as a hopeless siege at Xuan-loc, a city 40 miles from Saigon, and the last South Vietnamese defense line before Saigon. On ], the defense of Xuan-loc collapsed and PAVN troops and tanks rapidly advanced to Saigon. On ], 100,000 PAVN troops encircled Saigon, which was to be defended by 30,000 ARVN troops. On ], the US launched ], the largest helicopter evacuation in history. Chaos, unrest, and panic ensued as hectic Vietnamese scrambled to leave Saigon before it was too late. Helicopters began evacuating from the US embassy and the airport. Evacuations were held to the last minute because US Ambassador Martin thought Saigon could be held and defended. The operation began in an atmosphere of desperation as hysterical mobs of South Vietnamese raced to takeoff spots designated to evacuate, many yelling to be saved. Martin had pleaded to the US government to send $700 million dollars in emergency aid to South Vietnam in order to bolster the Saigon regime&#8217;s ability to fight and to mobilize fresh South Vietnamese units. But the plea was rejected. Many Americans felt the Saigon regime would meet certain collapse. President Ford gave a speech on ], declaring the end of the Vietnam War and the end of all American aid to the Saigon regime. The helicopter evacuation continued all day and night while PAVN tanks reached the outskirts of Saigon. In the early hours of ], the last US Marines left the embassy as hectic Vietnamese breached the embassy perimeter and raided the place. PAVN ]s moved into Saigon. The South Vietnamese resistance was light. Tank skirmishes began as ARVN ]s attacked the heavily armored Soviet ]s. PAVN troops soon dashed to capture the US embassy, the government army garrison, the police headquarters, radio station, presidential palace, and other vital targets. The PAVN encountered greater-than expected resistance as small pockets of ARVN resistance continued. By now, the helicopter evacuations that had saved 7,000 American and Vietnamese had ended. The presidential palace was captured and the Vietcong flag waved victoriously over it. President Duong Van Minh surrendered Saigon to PAVN colonel Bui Tin. The surrender came over the radio as Minh ordered South Vietnamese forces to lay down their weapons. Columns of South Vietnamese troops came out of defensive positions and surrendered. Saigon fell on ], ]. As for the Americans, many stayed in South Vietnam but by ], ] most Americans had fled, leaving the city of Saigon forever. The Vietnam War was America's most humiliating defeat, with over 58,000 dead and many left severely injured. As for the people of South Vietnam, over a million ARVN soldiers died in the 30-year conflict.

North Vietnam united both North and South Vietnam on ] ] to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. ] was re-named ] in honor of the former president of North Vietnam. Thousands of supporters of the South Vietnamese government were rounded up and executed, and many more were imprisoned. Communist rule continues to this day.

On ] ] American President ] pardoned nearly all Vietnam War draft evaders.

==Casualties==
{{SectNPOV}}

''Main article: ]

Estimating the number '''killed''' in the conflict is extremely difficult. Official records from North Vietnam are hard to find or nonexistent and many of those killed were literally blasted to pieces by bombing. For many years the North Vietnamese suppressed the true number of their casualties for '''propaganda''' purposes. It is also difficult to say exactly what counts as a "Vietnam war casualty"; people are still being killed today by ], particularly ]. More than 40,000 Vietnamese have been killed so far by landmines and unexploded ordnance.

Environmental effects from chemical agents and the colossal social problems caused by a devastated country with so many dead surely caused many more lives to be shortened.

The lowest casualty estimates, based on North Vietnamese statements which are now discounted by Vietnam, are around '''1.5 million Vietnamese killed'''. Vietnam's Ministry of Labor, War Invalids and Social Affairs released figures on ], ], reporting that '''1.1 million fighters -- Viet Cong guerrillas and North Vietnamese soldiers -- and nearly 2 million civilians in the north and the south were killed between 1954 and 1975.''' The number of wounded fighters was put at 600,000. It is unclear how many Vietnamese civilians were wounded.

Of the Americans, 58,226 were killed in action or classified as missing in action. A further 153,303 Americans were wounded to give total casualties of '''211,529'''. The United States Army took the majority of the casualties with 38,179 killed and 96,802 wounded; the Marine Corps lost 14,836 killed and 51,392 wounded; the Navy 2,556 and 4,178; with the Air Force suffering the lowest casualties both in numbers and percentage terms with 2,580 killed and 931 wounded.

American allies took casualties as well. South Korea provided the largest outside force and suffered something between 4400 and 5000 killed full details including ] and ] appear difficult to find. ] lost 501 dead and 3,131 wounded out of the 47,000 troops they had deployed to Vietnam. ] had 38 dead and 187 wounded. ] had 351 casualties. It is difficult to locate accurate figures for the losses of the Philippines. Although ] was not involved in the war, thousands of Canadians joined the American armed forces and served in Vietnam. The American fatal casualties include at least 56 Canadian citizens. It is difficult to estimate the exact number because some Canadians crossed the border to volunteer for service under false pretenses whereas others were permanent residents living in the United States who either volunteered or were drafted. See also ].

In the aftermath of the war many Americans came to believe that some of the 2,300 American soldiers listed as ] had in fact been taken prisoner by the DRV and held indefinitely. The Vietnamese list over 200,000 of their own soldiers missing in action, and bodies of MIA soldiers from ] and ] continue to be unearthed in Europe.

Both during and after the war, significant ] violations occurred. Both North and South Vietnamese had large numbers of ], many of whom were killed or ]. In ], two American congressmen visiting South Vietnam discovered the existence of "tiger cages", which were small prison cells used for torturing South Vietnamese political prisoners. After the war, actions taken by the victors in Vietnam, including firing squads, torture, ] and "re-education," led to the exodus of hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese. Many of these refugees fled by boat and thus gave rise to the phrase "]." They emigrated to Hong Kong, France, the United States, Canada, Australia, and other countries, creating sizable expatriate communities, notably in the ].

Among the many casualties of the war were the people of the neighboring state of ]. Approximately 50,000-300,000 died as a result of US bombing campaigns. The bombing campaigns also drove some Cambodians into the arms of the nationalist and communist ], who took power after America cut off funds for bombing them in ], and continued the slaughter of opponents or suspected opponents. About 1.7 million Cambodians were murdered or fell victim to starvation and disease before the regime was overthrown by Vietnamese forces in ].

==Domestic effects and aftermath in Indochina==

===Vietnam===
Virtually every Vietnamese was affected by the war, having endured relentless bombardments--not to mention it was a "People's War" to the northerners. And also to the northerners, fighting and hostility continued on with neighbouring countries until 1989. However, many Vietnamese lost relatives as a result of the war in general. The end of the war marked the first time that Vietnam was not engaged in substantial civil war or active military conflict with an external opponent in many years. North and South Vietnam were reunified under the Socialist Republic of Vietnam following the war.

However, fear of persecution caused many highly skilled and educated South Vietnamese connected with the former regime to flee the country during the ] and the years following, severely depleting ] in Vietnam. The new government promptly sent people connected to the South Vietnam regime to concentration camps for "re-education", often for years at a time. Others were sent to so-called "new economic zones" to develop the undeveloped land. Furthermore, the victorious Communist government implemented land reforms in the south similar to those implemented in North Vietnam earlier. However, it is as well to remember that large areas of land in South Vietnam had already been appropriated by the communists well before the end of the war&mdash;and their owners compensated for the loss by the South Vietnamese government. Persecution and poverty prompted an additional 2 million people to flee Vietnam as ] over the 20 years following unification. The problem was so severe that during the 1980s and 1990s the UN established refugee camps in neighboring countries to process them. Many of these refugees resettled in the United States, forming large ] emigrant communities with a decidedly anti-communist viewpoint.

The newly established ] promptly implemented currency reforms. The ] previously used in Vietnam was converted to the "liberation dong" at a rate of 500 old dongs to 1 liberation dong, essentially rendering much of the South Vietnamese money worthless. After unification in 1976, the liberation dong was abandoned in favor of a new unified dong. While the north exchanged at the 1:1 rate, the south had to exchange 10 liberation dong for each 8 unified dong. Private enterprises in the South were socialized. During much of the late 1970s and early 1980s, Vietnam underwent an economic depression and came close to famine.

Ravaged by war, Vietnam is still in the process of recovery. It remains one of the poorest countries in the world, and ] from overseas Vietnamese constitute a considerable part of the economy. Vietnamese people often make reference to events as happening "before 1975" or "after 1975", but life in South Vietnam before 1975 is rarely discussed because newspapers and movies published in the South prior to 1975 are forbidden from circulation. Many people were disabled during war, and continue to be killed and disabled by unexploded ordnance. ], used as a defoliant during the war, is alleged by the Vietnamese government to continue to cause ] in many children and still preventing any substantial environmental recovery in some areas.

The large number of people born after 1975 may be indicative of a post-war ], and despite the devastating effect of the civil war on their parents' generation, a general disinterest in politics and recent history among this post-war generation of Vietnamese is notable.

In the late 1980s the government instituted economic reforms known as ''&#273;&#7893;i m&#7899;i'' (renovation), which introduced some market elements, achieving modest results. The ] in 1991 left Vietnam without its main economic and political partner, and thus it began to seek closer ties with the West. After taking office, U.S. President ] announced his desire to heal relations with Vietnam. His administration lifted economic sanctions on the country in 1994, and in May 1995 the two nations renewed diplomatic relations, with the US opening up an embassy on Vietnamese soil for the first time since 1975.

===Cambodia===
In 1975, shortly before the end of the war, the Communist ] seized power in ] after a bloody civil war. This led to a genocide that collectively killed some 1.7 million people, one-fifth of the country's population. A month after taking power Khmer Rouge soldiers seized the SS ''Mayaguez'', an American merchant ship, which resulted in a tough response from President Ford who ordered airstrikes on Cambodian oil installations and the landing of troops at Kok Tang Island which resulted in the recapture of the ship and the freeing of the crew (see ]). The Khmer Rouge were driven from power in 1979 when Vietnam invaded and installed a pro-Vietnam government.

==Domestic effects and aftermath in the United States==
The Vietnam war had many long term repercussions for American society and foreign policy.

===War powers===
Criticism of the Vietnam War's planning and its enabling legislation led the U.S. Congress to reconsider how military deployments were authorized. After the U.S. withdrawal Congress passed the ] of ], which curtailed the President's ability to commit troops to action without first obtaining Congressional approval.

===Social impact===
The Vietnam War had a powerful impact on American socio-political opinion, especially that of the young Americans of the ]. For both supporters and critics these opinions generated political positions regarding American foreign and domestic policy. The Vietnam War was also significant in encouraging the belief that mass mobilization and protest can influence government policy.

The war and its aftermath led to a mass emigration from Vietnam, mostly to the United States and especially after the Communist takeover. During the post-war period over 1 million refugees arrived in the United States (see ]). They included Cambodians and Vietnamese of many ethnicities as well as ], the offspring of Vietnamese and Americans. The integration of these groups, particularly Vietnamese ethnic minorities, generated further social issues in the U.S.

===Social attitudes and treatment of veterans===
Service in the war was unpopular and opposition to the war generated negative views of veterans in some quarters. Some Vietnam veterans experienced social exclusion in the years following the war and some experienced problems readjusting to society. Negative stereotyping of veterans in popular culture was common in the 1970s. Eventually, however, a greater understanding of ], previously known as ], together with the development of Vietnam veterans associations, generated more sympathy for Vietnam veterans.

In contrast to the generous benefits afforded veterans of ], Vietnam veterans received benefits no better than those in the prior ]time service period.

Many veterans who had been exposed to the defoliation agent known as ] later developed health problems, resulting in ] lawsuits against the government. The U.S. department of Veterans Affairs awarded compensation to 1,800 of some 250,000 claimants.

Another important contrast to the post-World War II period is that the acceptability of avoiding service during the Vietnam War has resulted in an increasing majority of U.S. officials, including those elected to major positions, not being war- or even military service- veterans. Each of the eight Presidents from ] to ] was a war veteran (it is worth noting that even ], the ] Democratic candidate in 1972, was a highly-decorated B-24 bomber pilot.) Many who did perform military service during this period did not serve in the war itself, including U.S. President ]. Former President ], after enrolling in the ], successfully withdrew his commitment and did not serve at all.

In ], construction began on the ] in ] (also known as 'The Wall') designed by ]. It is located on the ] adjacent to the ]. ] statue was added later, in ].

Popular opinion regarding the war and its veterans changed slowly through the late 1970s and 1980s. Vietnam service has become more respected and has been an important feature of several election campaigns, notably U.S. Senators ] and ]. Kerry, the first Vietnam combat veteran to run as a major party candidate for president, made his service record a major issue in the ]. Although the specifics of his record proved controversial, the fact that he had actually served in combat in Vietnam was viewed as a major political asset.

==Common military medals of the Vietnam War==
{{main|Awards and decorations of the Vietnam War}}
During the war, a wide array of ]s for bravery, meritorious actions, and general service were created by both nations of Vietnam. The United States began issuing combat decorations which were last bestowed in the ] as well as several new service medals.

Most South Vietnamese decorations were issued to both members of the South Vietnamese military and the United States armed forces. As such, several of the current U.S. senior military officers, who served during the Vietnam War, can today still be seen wearing South Vietnamese medals on active duty uniforms. Since South Vietnam as a country no longer exists, such medals are in fact considered obsolete and may only be privately purchased.

==Lists==
{{main article|Vietnam War (lists)}}

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==External links==
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==Further reading==

===History texts===
*]. ]. ''Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975''
*]. ]. ''Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers''. New York: Viking Press.
*]. ]. ''Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and Americans in Vietnam''. Boston: Little Brown and Company.
*]. ]. '']''. New York. Ballantine Books.
*]. ]. ''The Tragedy of Vietnam'' New York: Harper Collins.
*]. ]. "America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975". Boston: McGraw-Hill.
*]. ]. ''Vietnam, A History''. New York: Viking Press, ISBN 0140265473
*]. ]. ''Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War''. New York, Houghton Mifflin Co., ISBN 061819312X
*]. ]. ''In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam''. (written with Brian VanDeMark) New York: Vintage Books.
*]. ]. ''A Grand Delusion: America's Descent into Vietnam''. New York: Basic Books.
*] (editor). ]. ''Dictionary of the Vietnam War''. New York: Greenwood Press, Inc.
*]. ]. ''A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941-1975''. New York: ] Press.
*]. ]. ''A Bright Shining Lie.'' New York: Vintage.
*]. ]. ''A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America's Last Years in Vietnam'' New York: Harcourt.
*]. ]. ''Anatomy of a war: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience'' London: Phoenix Press.

===Non-fiction===
*Fall, Bernard. 1967. "Hell in a Very Small Place: the Siege of Dien Bien Phu".
*Just, Ward. 1968. "To What End: Report from Vietnam."
*Oberdorfer, Don. 1971. "Tet: the Story of a Battle and its Historic Aftermath".
*Emerson, Gloria. 1976. "Winners and Losers: Battles, Retreats, Gains, Losses and Ruins from a Long War".
*Caputo, Philip. 1977. "A Rumor of War".
*Santoli, Al. 1981. "Everything We Had: an Oral History of the Vietnam War by 33 American Soldiers Who Fought It".
*Mason, Robert C. 1983. "Chickenhawk".
*Moore, LTG Harold G., and Galloway, Joseph L. 1992. "We Were Soldiers Once... and Young".
*O'Brien, Tim. 1973. "If I Die in a Combat Zone".
*Puller, Lewis B. Jr. 1991. "Fortunate Son".
*Woolf, Tobias. 1994. "In Pharaoh's Army".
*Langguth, A. J. 2000. "Our Vietnam: the War 1954-1975".
*Laurence, John. 2002. "The Cat from Hue: a Vietnam War Story".
*Dileo, David L. 1991. "George Ball, Vietnam, and the Rethinking of Containment".
*Davis, Peter. 1974. '''' Documentary film. Academy Award for Best Documentary. Available on DVD.
*Herrington, Stuart A. 2004. "Stalking The Vietcong".
*Dockery, Martin J. 2004. "Lost in Translation".
*Plaster, John L. 1998. "Sog: The Secret Wars of America's Commandos in Vietnam".
*Kelly, Daniel E. 1998. "Seawolves: First Choice".

===Fiction===
*]. 1967. "Incident at Muc Wa" (filmed 1976 as "Go Tell the Spartans")
*Greene, Graham. 1955. "The Quiet American".
*Herr, Michael. 1977. "Dispatches".
*O'Brien, Tim. 1978. "Going After Cacciato".
*Webb, James. 1978. "Fields of Fire".
*Heinemann, Larry. 1986. "Paco's Story".
*O'Brien, Tim. 1990. "The Things They Carried".
*Meyers, Walter Dean. 1988. "Fallen Angels".
*King, Stephen. 1988. "Hearts in Atlantis".
*Ninh, Bao. 1995. "The Sorrow of War'.
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Revision as of 00:57, 3 August 2005