| Revision as of 08:12, 30 May 2008 view sourceAkhtaBot (talk | contribs)10,976 editsm robot Adding: gan:紙← Previous edit | Revision as of 01:28, 31 May 2008 view source Cmbhogeorge (talk | contribs)12 edits ←Replaced content with 'RAZORFLAME WAS HERE!!! I EAT MY OWN POOP OUT OF MY BUTTHOLE!!!''Next edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| RAZORFLAME WAS HERE!!! I EAT MY OWN POOP OUT OF MY BUTTHOLE!!!' | |||
| {{Otheruses}} | |||
| ] | |||
| '''Paper''' is thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon or packaging. It is produced by the amalgamation of ]s, typically vegetable fibers composed of ], which are subsequently held together by ]ing. While the fibers are usually natural in origin, a wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as ] and ], may be incorporated into paper as a way of imparting desirable physical properties. The most common source of these kinds of fibers is ] from ] trees. ] materials such as ], ], ], and ] are also used. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ===Papyrus and parchment=== | |||
| Outside ], ] or ], made of processed ]skin or ]skin, replaced ] as the papyrus plant requires subtropical conditions to grow. | |||
| In ], archaeological evidence indicates that a similar parchment writing material was invented by the ]ns no later than the 5th century AD.<ref> Maya Codex and Paper Making</ref> Called ], it was in widespread use among ] cultures until the ]. The parchment is created by boiling and pounding the inner bark of trees, until the material becomes suitable for art and writing. | |||
| These materials are made from pounded reeds and bark and is technically not true paper, which is made from pulp, rags, and fibers of plants and cellulose. | |||
| ===Early papermaking in China=== | |||
| ]), the ] of AD 868, shows the widespread availability and practicality of paper in China.]] | |||
| ''']''' is considered to be one of the '']'', since the first papermaking process was developed in ] during the early ]. During the ] (]-]) and ] (]-]) dynasties of ], documents were ordinarily written on bone or ] (on tablets or on bamboo strips sewn and rolled together into scrolls), making them very heavy and awkward to transport. The light material of ] was sometimes used, but was normally too expensive to consider. While the ] ] court official ] is widely regarded to have invented the modern method of papermaking (inspired from wasps and bees) from ] in AD 105, the discovery of specimens bearing written ]s in ] at north-east China's ] province suggest that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai in 8 BC. Archeologically however, true paper without writing has been excavated in China dating to the reign of ] from the ], used for purposes of wrapping or padding protection for delicate bronze mirrors.<ref name="needham volume 4 122">Needham, Volume 4, 122.</ref> It was also used for safety, such as the padding of poisonous 'medicine' as mentioned in the official history of the period.<ref name="needham volume 4 122"/> Although paper used for writing became widespread by the 3rd century,<ref name="needham volume 4 1">Needham, Volume 4, 1.</ref> paper continued to be used for wrapping (and other) purposes. | |||
| ] was used in China by at least the 6th century AD.<ref name="needham volume 4 123">Needham, Volume 4, 123.</ref> In AD 589, the Chinese scholar-official ] (]-] AD) once wrote: "Paper on which there are quotations or commentaries from ] or the names of ]s, I dare not use for toilet purposes".<ref name="needham volume 4 123"/> An ] traveler to China once wrote of the curious Chinese tradition of toilet paper in AD 851, writing: "They (the Chinese) are not careful about cleanliness, and they do not wash themselves with water when they have done their necessities; but they only wipe themselves with paper".<ref name="needham volume 4 123"/> Toilet paper continued to be a valued necessity in China, since it was during the ]'s reign in AD 1393 that the Bureau of Imperial Supplies (Bao Chao Si) manufactured 720,000 sheets of toilet paper for the entire court (produced of the cheap rice-straw paper).<ref name="needham volume 4 123"/> For the emperor's family alone, 15,000 special sheets of paper were made, in light yellow tint and even ]d.<ref name="needham volume 4 123"/> Even at the beginning of the 14th century, during the middle of the ], the amount of toilet paper manufactured for modern-day ] province alone amounted to ten million packages holding 1000 to 10000 sheets of toilet paper each.<ref name="needham volume 4 123"/> | |||
| ]; ] in 1249, ]]] | |||
| During the ] (AD ]-]) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of ].<ref name="needham volume 4 122"/> During the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape.<ref name="needham volume 4 122"/> During the Chinese ] (AD ]-]) not only did the government produce the world's first known paper-printed money, or ] (''see ] and ]''), but paper money bestowed as gifts to deserving government officials were wrapped in special paper ]s.<ref name="needham volume 4 123"/> | |||
| Paper spread slowly outside of China; other ]n cultures, even after seeing paper, could not make it themselves. Instruction in the manufacturing process was required, and the Chinese were reluctant to share their secrets. The paper was thin and translucent, not like modern western paper, and thus only written on one side. The technology was first transferred to ] in ] and then imported to ] by Buddhist priests, around ], where fibres (called '']'') from the ] tree were used. | |||
| ===Papermaking arrives in the Middle East=== | |||
| After further commercial trading and the defeat of the Chinese in the ] in ], the invention spread to the ].<ref name="meggs58">Meggs, Philip B. ''A History of Graphic Design.'' John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ]. (pp 58) ISBN 0-471-291-98-6</ref> Production was started in ], where the Arabs invented a method to make a thicker sheet of paper. The manufacture had spread to ] by the time of the ] in ]; but the wars interrupted production, and it split into two centres. ] continued with the thicker paper. Iran became the centre of the thinner papers. It was also adopted in ]. | |||
| Some historians{{Who|date=December 2007}} speculate that paper was a key element in cultural advancement. According to this theory, Chinese culture was less developed than the West in ancient times prior to the ] because bamboo, while abundant, was a clumsier writing material than papyrus; Chinese culture advanced during the ] and subsequent centuries due to the invention of paper; and Europe advanced during the ] due to the introduction of paper and the ]. | |||
| ===European papermaking=== | |||
| The first paper mill in Europe was in ], at Xátiva (modern ]) in 1120. More mills appeared in ] ] in about the ], as an import from ]. They used ] and ] rags as a source of fibre. The oldest known paper document in the West is the ] ] from the ], probably written in the Islamic part of Spain. Paper is recorded as being manufactured in both ] and ] by 1400, just about the time when the ] ] technique was transferred from fabric to paper in the ] and ]. The first commercially successful paper mill in ] was opened by ] in ] near ] in ] and was initially reliant on German papermaking expertise.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} | |||
| ===Nineteenth Century advances in papermaking=== | |||
| Paper remained expensive, at least in book-sized quantities, through the centuries, until the advent of steam-driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make paper with ] from ]. Although older machines predated it, the ] paper making machine became the basis for most modern papermaking. ] of ], ], was granted a patent for a continuous paper making machine in 1799. At the time he was working for ] with whom he quarrelled over the ownership of the invention. Didot sent his brother-in-law, ], to meet Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, stationers of ], who agreed to finance the project. Gamble was granted British ] 2487 on ], ]. With the help particularly of ], a skilled and ingenious mechanic, an improved version of the Robert original was installed at ], ], in ], followed by another in ]. A third machine was installed at the Fourdriniers' own mill at ]. The Fourdriniers also bought a mill at ] intending to install two machines there and the process and machines continued to develop. | |||
| Together with the invention of the practical ] and the mass produced ] of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary ], wood based paper caused a major transformation of the ] economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by ]. Cheap wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters became possible and so, by ], the ], or writer, ceased to be a high-status job. | |||
| The original wood-based paper was acidic due to the use of ] and more prone to disintegrate over time, through processes known as ]. Documents written on more expensive rag paper were more stable. Mass-market paperback books still use these cheaper mechanical papers (see below), but book publishers can now use ] for ] and ] books. | |||
| ==Papermaking== | |||
| {{main|Papermaking}} | |||
| ===Chemical pulping=== | |||
| The purpose of a ] is to break down the chemical structure of ] and render it soluble in the cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the ] fibers. Because lignin holds the plant cells together, chemical pulping frees the fibres and makes pulp. The pulp must be ] to produce white paper for ], ] and ]. Chemical pulps tend to cost more than ]s, largely due to the low yield, 40-50% of the original wood. Since the process preserves fibre length, however, ]s tend to make stronger paper. Another advantage of chemical pulping is that the majority of the heat and ] needed to run the process is produced by burning the lignin removed during pulping. | |||
| Papers made from chemical wood-based pulps are also unhelpfully known as ''woodfree'' papers. | |||
| The ] is the most commonly practiced strategy for pulp manufacturing and produces especially strong, unbleached papers that can be used directly for bags and boxes but are often processed further, e.g. to make ]. | |||
| ===Mechanical pulping=== | |||
| There are two major mechanical pulps, ] (]) and ]. The latter is known in the USA as ]. In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam-heated refiners where the chips are squeezed and fibreized between two steel discs. In the ], debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones and fibreized. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, but also causes paper made from this pulp to yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibre lengths and produce weak paper. Although large amounts of ] are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than chemical pulp. | |||
| ===Recycled paper=== | |||
| ] processes can use either chemical or mechanical pulp. By mixing with water and applying mechanical action the ] bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre in the interests of quality. | |||
| There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:. | |||
| * Mill Broke or Internal Mill Waste - this incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made within the paper mill which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be repulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre. However, most paper mills have been recycling their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling become popular. | |||
| * Preconsumer Waste - this is offcuts and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope blank waste. This waste is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source. Also includes deinked preconsumer (recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications). <ref>Natural Resource Defense Council </ref> | |||
| * Postconsumer waste - this is fibre from paper which has been used for its intended end use and would include office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this paper has been printed (either digitally or by more conventional means such as litho or gravure), it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a de-inking process first. | |||
| Recycled Papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp. | |||
| Recycled papers are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from virgin pulp. | |||
| ===Additives=== | |||
| Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve the characteristics of the paper for printing or writing. Additives for ] purposes may be mixed into the pulp and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process. The purpose of sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit the ink or paint. | |||
| ===Drying=== | |||
| After the paper web is produced, the water must be removed from it by pressing and drying. | |||
| Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, felt (not to be confused with the traditional ]) is used to collect the water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used. | |||
| Drying involves using air and or heat to remove water from the paper sheet. In the earliest days of papermaking this was done by hanging the paper sheets like laundry. In more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These dryers can heat to temperatures above 200°F (93°C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans. The heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture. | |||
| ===Finishing=== | |||
| The paper may then undergo ] to alter its physical properties for use in various applications. | |||
| Paper at this point is ''uncoated''. ''Coated'' paper has a thin layer of material such as china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution ] screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by ]ing. Coated papers are divided into matt, semi-matt or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest ] in the printed image. | |||
| The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. | |||
| All paper produced by Fourdrinier-type machines is wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, ]s and wire patterns imitating hand-made ''laid'' paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine. | |||
| Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.<ref>"Document Doubles" in , a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada </ref> | |||
| ==Applications== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| *To write or print on: the piece of paper becomes a ]; this may be for keeping a record (or in the case of printing from a computer or copying from another paper: an additional record) and for ]; see also ]. | |||
| Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paperonweb.com/grade11.htm|title=Grades and uses of paper|accessdate=2007-10-12}}</ref> | |||
| *'''To represent a value:''' ], ], ], ] (see ]), ] and ] | |||
| *'''For entertainment:''' ], ], ], ], ], | |||
| *'''For packaging:''' ], ], ], ], ] and ] | |||
| *'''For cleaning:''' ], ]s, ]s, ] and ] | |||
| *'''For construction:''' ], ], ], Paper ], used as a core material in ]s, ], ] and ] | |||
| *'''Other uses:''' ], ], ], ], ] paper, ] and ] ]s (] 1.5 - 3) | |||
| ==Types and weight== | |||
| ] use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.]] | |||
| Paper is often characterized by weight. | |||
| In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8½ x 11" paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces. <ref> McKenzie, Bruce G., ''The Hammermill Guide to Desktop Publishing in Business'', p. 144, Hammermill Papers, 1989. </ref> In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock. | |||
| The 8.5" x 11" size stems from the original size of a vat that was used to make paper. At the time, paper was made from passing a fiber and water slurry through a screen at the bottom of a box. The box was 17" deep and 44" wide. That sheet, folded in half in the long direction, then twice in the opposite direction, made a sheet of paper that was exactly 8.5" x 11". | |||
| In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m<sup>2</sup> or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness; One ream of A4 (210mm x 297mm) size (approx 8.27" x 11.7") weighs 2.5 kilogrammes (approx 5.5 pounds). | |||
| The sizing system in Europe is based on common width to height ratios for different paper sizes. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero). Two sheets of A1, placed upright side by side fit exactly into one sheet of A0 laid on its side. Similarly, two sheets of A2 fit into one sheet of A1 and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets). | |||
| The ] of paper ranges from 250 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (16 lb/ft<sup>3</sup>) for tissue paper to 1500 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (94 lb/ft<sup>3</sup>) for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m<sup>3</sup> (50 lb/ft<sup>3</sup>).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paperonweb.com/density.htm|title=Density of paper and paperboard|publisher=PaperOnWeb|accessdate=2007-10-31}}</ref> | |||
| {{col-begin}} | |||
| {{col-break}} | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] (] fibres for electrical insulation) | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *]: glossy and matte surface | |||
| {{col-end}} | |||
| ==The future of paper== | |||
| Some manufacturers, notably ], have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging made out of paper, known commercially as ]. The packaging has very similar mechanical properties to some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper. | |||
| With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as ]) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on ] (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags. | |||
| Besides paperfoam, paper made from ] rather than trees is also emerging as a more ] alternative to regular paper made from trees or other alternatives as paperfoam.<ref></ref> This ] is available from companies as ] and ].<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Also, synthetics such as ] and ] have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper. | |||
| ==References and Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist}} | |||
| *Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemicals and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. (also published in Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986.) | |||
| ::also referred to as: | |||
| *Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin, '"Paper and Printing," vol. 5 part 1 of Needham, Joseph ''Science and Civilization in China:''. Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0521086906. (also published in Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986.) | |||
| *"Document Doubles" in , a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *], disambiguation page, paper in French or German | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{commonscat|Paper}} | |||
| * Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry | |||
| * at The ], ] ] | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Link FA|de}} | |||
| {{Link FA|vi}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 01:28, 31 May 2008
RAZORFLAME WAS HERE!!! I EAT MY OWN POOP OUT OF MY BUTTHOLE!!!'