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| :''This article is about suicide attacks for political and/or military reasons.'' | |||
| HIGH FIVE BOMBMERS!!!!! | |||
| :''For criminal, personal, and/or non-political killings ending in suicide, see ] or ]. | |||
| ] on the ] in May 1945]] | |||
| ] on the ] in December 2000]] | |||
| {{terrorism}} | |||
| A '''suicide attack''' is an attack upon a military or civilian target, in which an attacker intends to kill others, knowing that he or she will either certainly or most likely die in the process (see ]). The means of attack have included vehicles filled with explosives, passenger planes carrying large amounts of fuel, and individuals wearing vests filled with explosives. Synonyms include suicide-homicide bombing, martyrdom operations, predatory martyrdom. Strictly speaking, an attack may not be considered a suicide attack if the attacker is not killed (although they might hope and plan to be), or if there is some question as to whether their intention is to be killed (even if the attack is certain to kill them). | |||
| Although use of suicide attacks has occurred throughout history — particularly with the Japanese ] pilots of ] — its main notoriety as a specific kind of attack began in the 1980s and involved explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise. Following the success of a ] that killed 300 and helped drive American and French ] troops from Lebanon, the tactic spread to insurgent groups like the ] of ], and ] groups such as ]. | |||
| During this time the number of suicide attacks has grown rapidly, from an average of less than five a year in the 1980s to 180/year in the first half of the 00s,<ref> Figure 1, p.128</ref> and from 81 suicide attacks in 2001 to 460 in 2005.<ref> Figure 2, p.129</ref> Particularly hard-hit by attacks have been military and civilian targets in ], Israeli targets in ] since April 1993, and ]is since the ]. | |||
| Observers believe suicide attacks have become popular because of their lethal effectiveness, but attackers motivation is disputed. One scholar, ], attributes over 90% of attacks prior to the Iraq Civil War to a goal of withdrawal of an occupying forces;<ref>Pape's tabulation of suicide attacks runs from 1980 to early 2004. (Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005))</ref> while another, ], argues that since 2004 the overwhelming majority of bombers have been motivated by the ideology of ], and that these attacks have been much more numerous. In just two years - 2004-2005 - there have been more suicide attacks, "roughly 600, than in Pape's entire sample."<ref> p.131, 133</ref> | |||
| == Frequency and verification of suicide attacks == | |||
| {{Unreferencedsection|date=March 2008}} | |||
| Determining the exact number of suicide bomber attacks is a nearly impossible task. Attacks are so frequent that neither the global media, nor native police forces forensically and exhaustively investigate each attack. Even if reporters were to follow up, most incidents that are attributed to suicide bombers are unverifiable (as the alleged bomber will have destroyed himself in the blast and any remains will be over-mixed with other human remains). In most reports, troops or police of the targeted state are the sole source for the allegation of a suicide bomber attack, and eyewitness accounts are, understandably, unreliable<ref>Global Politician, Mac Haque, 12/9/2005 "9. Media and eye witness accounts about bomb attacks are unreliable as onus is not to report facts, but to advance colorfully convoluted theories aimed at convincing people at large, that this was a suicide bomb or bomber."http://www.globalpolitician.com/21463-bangladesh</ref>. | |||
| Further muddying the waters are reports that have surfaced of undercover intelligence operatives arrested<ref>New Statesman, John Pilger 03 Oct. 2005 http://www.newstatesman.com/200510030009</ref> with explosives and remote control detonators as part of ] operations<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=viewArticle&code=BOW20050923&articleId=990 |title = British Uncover Operation in Basra: Agents Provocateurs? |author= William Bowles|date= 2005-9-23|accessdate = 2008-06-17}}</ref>. This raises the possibility that at least some of these attacks are remotely detonated bombs and not suicide attacks. | |||
| == Tactical advantages == | |||
| A major reason for the popularity of suicide attacks despite the sacrifice involved for its perpetrators is its tactical advantages over other types of terrorism. The ability to conceal weapons, make last-minute adjustments, increased ability to infiltrate heavily guarded targets, lack of need for remote or delayed detonation, escape plans or rescue teams. Robert Pape observes: "Suicide attacks are an especially convincing way to signal the likelihood of more pain to come, because if you are willing to kill yourself you are also willing to endure brutal retaliation. "... The element of suicide itself helps increase the credibility of future attacks because it suggests that attackers cannot be deterred."<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win,'' (2005), p.28-9</ref> | |||
| It must also be realized that in the military calculus of kill ratios, when suicide bombing missions are the only way to kill more of the enemy's forces than the enemy will kill of your forces, then they are highly likely to be used. In Iraq, the kill ratio of coalition forces versus all others is around 100:1, although it has dropped since the early days of the war. That is a dramatically higher ratio than was experienced between armies with muskets fighting peoples armed with bows and arrows and spears. It is unprecedented historically. Military calculation for the insurgent forces is the primary driving force behind the bombing tactics in Iraq. In other engagements where the enemy was not invulnerable, the same forces have not use suicide bombing attacks, but instead used classical military methods. | |||
| ==Types and tactics== | |||
| <!-- Unsourced image removed: ] of a Palestinian suicide bomber, captured by the Israeli police. Anti-terrorism ] claims such suicide bomber ] is designed by a person they call ].]] --> | |||
| The attacks can be either a military tactic, a political one, or a mixture of the two. It may qualify as ] when the intention is to kill, maim or terrorise a predominantly civilian target population, or fall within the definition of an act of war when it is committed against a military target under war conditions. Suicide attacks often target poorly-guarded, non-military facilities and ]. | |||
| Examples of different suicide attacks include: | |||
| * Suicide attack on foot: ], ] | |||
| * Attempted suicide attack with a plane as target: ] on ] | |||
| * Suicide ]: ], Sri Lankan ], ] | |||
| * Suicide attack by a boat with explosives: ], attacks in Sri Lanka by the LTTE ]. | |||
| * Suicide attack by a submarine with explosives (human-steered ]): ], used by Japan in ] | |||
| * Suicide attack by a plane with explosives: ] | |||
| * Suicide attack by donkey: Donkey bombs were a speciality of the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1988/HJV.htm |title = Insurgency In Peru: The Shining Path |accessdate = 2008-06-17}}</ref> | |||
| * Suicide attack by a woman (]) wearing a belt with explosives: Assassination of Indian Prime Minister ] by ] (LTTE) | |||
| * Suicide attack by a bicycle with explosives: Assassination of Sri Lankan President ] by ] (LTTE) | |||
| * Suicide attack by a hijacked plane with fuel: ], possibly ] and attempted by ] | |||
| * Suicide attack by diverting a bus to an abyss: ] | |||
| * Suicide attack with guns: Muslim Kashmiri insurgents on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 killing 15 people. | |||
| In some cases a nuclear attack on a nuclear power may be considered a suicide attack in the wider sense, with the attacking country being sure or almost sure of suffering many fatalities in a retaliation. This is called ]. | |||
| {{seealso|Suicide weapon}} | |||
| ==Profile and motivation of attackers== | |||
| ===Pathology as cause=== | |||
| One initial reaction to contemporary suicide bombing was to assume that the bombers were motivated by despair, and likely to come from a ], neglected segment of ]. This has been expressed by president ] and the ] among others. | |||
| The results of at least one study are consistent with despair being a cause of the attacks. A 2007 study in ], one country with a growing number of suicide bombings, found "80%" of the suicide attackers had some kind of physical or mental disability. A study of the remains of 110 suicide bombers for the first part of 2007 by Afghan pathologist Dr. ], found 80% were missing limbs, suffered from cancer, leprosy, or some other ailments. Also in contrast to earlier findings of suicide bombers, the Afghan bombers were "not celebrated like their counterparts in other Arab nations. Afghan bombers are not featured on posters or in videos as martyrs."<ref></ref> | |||
| Many subsequent studies of suicide attackers' backgrounds have not shown such a ]. Forensic psychiatrist Marc Sageman found a lack of antisocial behavior, mental illness, early social trauma or behavioral disorders such as rage, paranoia, narcissism among the 400 members of the ] terror network he studied.<ref>Sageman, Marc, | |||
| ''Understanding Terror Networks,'' University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004, 81-90</ref> | |||
| ] ] found in a 2003 study that this is not a justifiable conclusion.<ref></ref> A recently published paper by ] Professor of Public Policy ] "cast doubt on the widely held belief that terrorism stems from poverty, finding instead that terrorist violence is related to a nation's level of political freedom."<ref name="povterr.pdf"></ref> More specifically this is due to the transition of countries towards democratic freedoms. "Intermediate levels of political freedom are often experienced during times of political transitions, when governments are weak, political instability is elevated, so conditions are favorable for the appearance of terrorism".<ref></ref><ref name="povterr.pdf"/> | |||
| <!--(needs sources) Some suicide bombers are educated, with ] or ] experience, and come from ] homes. Most suicide bombers do not show signs of ]. Indeed, leaders of the groups who perpetrate these attacks search for individuals who can be trusted to carry out the mission; those with mental illnesses are not ideal candidates.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}--> | |||
| Use of suicide terror against civilian targets has differing effects on the attackers' goals (see reaction below). Some ] suggest that this tactic goes beyond symbolism and is actually a response to commodified, controlled, or ] lives, as the suicide attackers apparently consider family prestige and financial compensation from the community as compensation for their own lives.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Whether such motivation is significant as compared to political or religious feeling remains unclear. | |||
| ===Idealism as motivation=== | |||
| The ] of ] views suicide attacks as a result of an imbalance of power, in which groups with little significant power resort to suicide bombing as a convenient tactic (see advantages noted above) to demoralize the targeted civilians or government leadership of their enemies. Suicide bombing may also take place as a perceived response to actions or policies of a group with greater power. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Groups which have significant power have no need to resort to suicide bombing to achieve their aims; consequently, suicide bombing is overwhelmingly used by guerrillas, and other ]. Among many such groups, there are religious overtones to martyrdom: attackers and their supporters may believe that their sacrifice will be rewarded in an ]. Suicide attackers often believe that their actions are in accordance with moral or social standards because they are aimed at fighting forces and conditions that they perceive as unjust. | |||
| According to Robert Pape, director of the Chicago Project on suicide terrorism and expert on suicide bombers, 95% of suicide attacks in recent times have the same specific strategic goal: to cause an occupying state to withdraw forces from a disputed territory. Pape found the targeted countries were ones where the government was democratic and public opinion played a role in determining policy. Other characteristics Pape found were a difference in religion between the attackers<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.128</ref> and the occupiers and grassroots support for the attacks.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.92</ref> Attackers were disproportionately from the educated middle classes.<ref> p.130</ref> Characteristics which Pape thought to be correlated to suicide bombing and bombers included: Islam, especially the influence of Salafi Islam;<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.110-3</ref> brutality and cruelty of the occupiers;<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.60</ref> competition among militant groups; and poverty, immaturity, poor education, past history of suicide attempts, or social maladjustment of the attackers.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.200-216</ref> | |||
| Other researchers have argued that Pape's analysis of the data is fundamentally flawed, however, particularly his contention that democracies are the main targets of such attacks.<ref>Sara Jackson Wade and Dan Reiter, "Does Democracy Matter? Regime Type and Suicide Terrorism," Journal of Conflict Resolution 51:2 (April 2007).</ref> ] found that non-Islamic groups have carried out very few bombings since 2003, while bombing by Muslim or Islamist groups associated with a "global ideology" of "martyrdom" has skyrocketed. In one year, in one Muslim country alone - 2004 in Iraq - there were 400 suicide attacks and 2000 casualties.<ref> p.131</ref> Still others argue that perceived religious rewards in the hereafter are instrumental in encouraging Muslims to commit suicide attacks.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Some aspects of suicide bombing vary. Suicide operatives are overwhelmingly male in most groups, but among the Chechen rebels and the ] (PKK) women form a majority of the attackers.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win,'' (2005), p.209</ref>. So too some groups use teams all or most of the time (Al-Qaeda and Chechen), and others infrequently or never (Palestinians, Lebanese, and ]). The ritualistic communion of the ] groups to which they belong ("lone wolf" suicide bombers are rare), in addition to their strongly-held beliefs, helps motivate their decision to commit suicide.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} | |||
| {{suicide}} | |||
| In his book, ''Dead for Good,''<ref>Hugh Barlow, ''Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber,'' (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2007)</ref> Hugh Barlow describes recent suicide attack campaigns as a new development in the long history of martyrdom, that he dubs ''predatory martyrdom''. Some individuals who now act alone are inspired by emails, radical books, the internet, various new electronic media, and a general public tolerance of extreme teachers and leaders with ] agendas. | |||
| ===Religious motivation=== | |||
| {{Mainarticle|Istishhad}} | |||
| 224 of 300 suicide terror attacks from 1980 to 2003 compiled by the ] involved Islamist groups or terrorist acts in Muslim-majority lands.<ref>from Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005), computed from Table 1 on p15</ref> Another tabulation found a massive increase in suicide bombings in the two years following Papes study and that the overwhelming majority of these bombers were motivated by the ideology of Islamist martyrdom.<ref> p.131, 133</ref> According to still another estimate, as of early ], 1,121 Muslim suicide bombers have blown themselves up in ] alone.<ref> "month-long investigation by The Independent, culling four Arabic-language newspapers, official Iraqi statistics, two Beirut news agencies and Western reports"</ref> | |||
| ====Muslim views==== | |||
| Some ] scholars reject suicide.<ref name="about_terrorism_suicide"></ref> However, some top authorities do support suicide attacks on perceived enemies of Islam. Sheikh ], sometimes called "the world's most quoted independent Islamic jurist",<ref name="FaisalB_God">{{cite web | |||
| |last = Bodi | |||
| |first = Faisal | |||
| |year = 2001 | |||
| |url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,543164,00.html | |||
| |title = Bombing for God | |||
| |work = Special report: Israel and the Middle East | |||
| |publisher = Guardian Newspapers Limited | |||
| |accessdate = 2006-07-19 | |||
| }} - "In the Muslim world, then, we celebrate what we call the martyr-bombers. To us they are heroes defending the things we hold sacred. Polls in the Middle East show 75% of people in favour of martyr-bombings."</ref> has called martyrdom operations: | |||
| <BLOCKQUOTE>the greatest of all sorts of Jihad in the Cause of Allah. A martyr operation is carried out by a person who sacrifices himself, deeming his life less value than striving in the Cause of Allah, in the cause of restoring the land and preserving the dignity. <Ref></ref></BLOCKQUOTE> | |||
| Other clerics have supported attacks mainly in connection with Palestine. Sunni Iraqi Cleric, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Qubeisi has proclaimed that "those who commit martyrdom operations who are, by Allah, the greatest martyrs in Islamic history..."<ref>Dubai TV, May 5, 2004</ref> Amongst others the Imam of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Abd Al-Rahman Al-Sudayyis,<ref>On Saudi TV Channel 1, April 2, 2004,</ref>, the former President of Al-Azhar University, Ahmad 'Omar Hashem<ref>On Channel 1 of Egyptian TV, April 23, 2004</ref> and Cleric, Sheikh Ibrahim Mudeiris of Gaza<ref>Palestinian Authority TV, May 21, 2004</ref> have all urged on suicide operations by Muslims. Sayed Mohammed Musawi, head of the World Islamic League in London, condemning the ], but insisted "there should be a clear distinction between the suicide bombing of those who are trying to defend themselves from occupiers, which is something different from those who kill civilians, which is a big crime."<ref name="wp_london_tough"></ref> There have been conflicting reports about the stand of Sheikh ], the top Egyptian cleric of ] University, and the mufti of Egypt, Sheikh Dr. Ahmad Al Tayyeb. Shortly after 9/11 the Sheikh Tantawy issued a statement apposing suicide attacks.<ref name="bbc_sheikh_condemns"></ref> But a translation from ] website quotes him as supporting suicide attacks on Jews in Israel as part of the Palestinian struggle "to strike horror into the hearts of the enemies of Islam." Then in mid-2003 he was quoted again as saying "groups which carried out suicide bombings were the enemies of Islam."<ref></ref> | |||
| According to Professor Charles A. Kimball, chair of the Department of Religion at ] in ], "There is only one verse in the Qur'an that contains a phrase related to suicide", Verse 4:29 of the ].<ref></ref> It reads ''O you who believe! Do not consume your wealth in the wrong way-rather through trade mutually agreed to, and do not kill yourselves. Surely God is Merciful toward you.'' Some commentators believe that the phrase "do not kill yourselves" is better translated "do not kill each other", and some translations (e.g. ]) reflect that view. | |||
| Mainstream Islamic groups such as the European Council for Fatwa and Research use the Quran'ic verse Al-Anam 6:151 (''And take not life, which Allah has made sacred, except by way of justice and law'') as further reason to prohibit suicide.<ref></ref> In addition, the '']'' unambiguously forbid suicide.<ref></ref> | |||
| A contrary view is presented by Faisal Bodi who has written in ] that, "in the Muslim world, then, we celebrate what we call the martyr-bombers. To us they are heroes defending the things we hold sacred. Polls in the Middle East show 75% of people in favour of martyr-bombings."<ref name="FaisalB_God"/> Nevertheless, Islamist militant organisations (including ], ] and ]) continue to argue that suicide operations are justified according to Islamic law, despite Islam's strict prohibition of suicide and murder.<ref name="jeeran_ruling_martyrdom"></ref><ref name="jeeran_fatwa"></ref> ], in a conversation with one leader of Islamic Jihad noted their ideology. | |||
| <blockquote>"What's the difference between suicide, which the Koran condemns, and martyrdom?" I asked. "Suicide," he replied, "is done out of despair. But remember: most of our martyrs today were very successful in their earthly lives." In short, there was a future to live for--and they detonated it anyway.</blockquote> | |||
| Since the four suicide bombings in London, there have been many scholastic refutations of suicide bombings from Sunni Muslims. Ihsanic Intelligence, a London-based Islamic think-tank, published their two-year study into suicide bombings in the name of Islam, titled 'The Hijacked Caravan',<ref></ref> which concluded that, "The technique of suicide bombing is anathema, antithetical and abhorrent to Sunni Islam. It is considered legally forbidden, constituting a reprehensible innovation in the Islamic tradition, morally an enormity of sin combining suicide and murder and theologically an act which has consequences of eternal damnation."<ref name="hijacked_caravan"></ref> The Oxford-based Malayist jurist, Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti, issued his landmark fatwa on suicide bombing and targeting innocent civilians, titled 'Defending the Transgressed, by Censuring the Reckless against the Killing of Civilians', where he states suicide bombing in its most widespread form, is forbidden: 'If the attack involves a bomb placed on the body or placed so close to the bomber that when the bomber detonates it the bomber is certain to die, then the More Correct Position according to us is that it does constitute suicide. This is because the bomber, being also the Maqtul , is unquestionably the same Qatil = Qatil Nafsahu "<ref></ref> | |||
| In January of 2006, one of ]'s highest ranking ] clerics, ] also decreed a ] against suicide bombing, declaring it as a "terrorist act".<ref>Feb 2007 interview with ] of ]: </ref> | |||
| ===Nationalist motivation=== | |||
| Various scholars and analysts, however, dispute the claim that Muslim suicide bombers are driven by religion. | |||
| Research of Professor ] of the University of Chicago suggests that foreign occupation is the principal factor motivating suicide: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| Beneath the religious rhetoric with which is perpetrated, it occurs largely in the service of secular aims. Suicide terrorism is mainly a response to foreign occupation rather than a product of Islamic fundamentalism. ... Though it speaks of Americans as infidels, al-Qaida is less concerned with converting us to Islam than removing us from Arab and Muslim lands.<ref></ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| From 1980 to early 2004, 95% of suicide attacks had the central objective of compelling a democratic state with military forces on territory that the terrorists prize to take those forces out. | |||
| Much of the discourse that frames or responds to suicide bombing addresses or attempts to uncover the rationality of the action itself. Generally, the suicide bomber is understood as irrational —driven beyond the boundaries of rational thought by environmental, religious, political, and/or social factors —therefore capable of setting aside the "common sense" of self-preservation. ] released a study tasked with pinpointing motivation: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "His actions provide a win-win scenario for himself, his family, his faith and his God," The document explains. "The bomber secures salvation and the pleasures of Paradise. He earns a degree of financial security and a place for his family in Paradise. He defends his faith and takes his place in a long line of martyrs to be memorialized as a valorous fighter. And finally, because of the manner of his death, he is assured that he will find favor with Allah," the briefing adds. "Against these considerations, the selfless sacrifice by the individual Muslim to destroy Islam's enemies becomes a suitable, feasible and acceptable course of action." | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Recent published research on the rationale of suicide bombing as an effective technique to kill enemies has highlighted the importance of motivation as a driving force.<ref>Vincetto Olivetti,''Terror's Source''2002</ref><ref>Tariq Ali,''The Clash of Fundamentalism:Crusades, Jihads and Modernity''2002</ref><ref>John Esposito,""Unholy War:Terror in the Name of Islam''2003</ref>While some scholars uncover the interplay of such conduct with political and socio-economic factors,<ref>Nazih Ayubi,''Political Islam''1991</ref><ref>Mohammed Hafez,2003</ref>others agree that religion is a driving force to encourage suicide bombers.This mainstream puts forward that religion provides the framework for suicide bombing precisely because acting in the name of Islam is regarded as a form of martyrdom.Since "martyrdom"is widely seen as a step towards Heaven, those who commit suicide whilst discarding their community from a common enemy believe that they will reach an ultimate salvation after they die.<ref>Vincetto Olivetti,''Terror's Source'',2002</ref> | |||
| Terrorists claiming that bombers will be greeted by "72 virgins" are referring to ] and this is a common supposed motivation. | |||
| The briefing – produced by a little-known Pentagon intelligence unit called the ], or CIFA – cites a number of passages from the Quran dealing with jihad, or "holy" warfare, martyrdom and Paradise, where "beautiful mansions" and "maidens" await martyr heroes. In preparation for attacks, suicide terrorists typically recited passages from the Quran. | |||
| Various scholars and analysts, however, dispute the claim that Muslim suicide bombers are driven by religion. | |||
| ===Small-world factors and group dynamics=== | |||
| According to anthropologist ]<ref></ref> and former CIA case officer ] ,<ref>{{Cite book | |||
| | author = Sagemna, Marc | |||
| | title = Leaderless Jihad | |||
| | location = Philadelphia | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | year = 2007 | |||
| }}</ref>support for suicide actions is triggered by moral outrage at perceived attacks against Islam and sacred values, but this is converted to action as a result of small world factors. There are millions who express sympathy with global jihad (according to a 2006 Gallup study in involving more than 50,000 interviews in dozens of countries, 7 percent of the world's 1.3. billion Muslims - 90 million people - consider the 9/11 attacks "completely justified.") Nevertheless, only some thousands show willingness to commit violence (e.g., 60 arrested in the USA, 2400 in Western Europe, 3200 in Saudi Arabia). They tend to go to violence in small groups consisting mostly of friends, and some kin (although friends tend to become kin as they marry one another's sisters and cousins - there are dozens of such marriages among militant members of Southeast Asia's ]). These groups arise within specific "scenes": neighborhoods, schools (classes, dorms), workplaces and common leisure activities (soccer, paintball, mosque discussion groups, barbershop, café, online chat-rooms). | |||
| Three other examples: | |||
| 1. In ], about 70 percent join with friends, 20 percent with kin. Interviews with friends of the 9/11 suicide pilots reveal they weren't "recruited" into Qaeda. They were Middle Eastern Arabs isolated even among the Moroccan and Turkish Muslims who predominate in Germany. Seeking friendship, they began hanging out after services at the Masjad al-Quds and other nearby mosques in Hamburg, in local restaurants and in the dormitory of the Technical University in the suburb of Harburg. Three (], ], ]) wound up living together as they self-radicalized. They wanted to go to ], then ], only landing in a Qaeda camp in ] as a distant third choice. | |||
| 2. Five of the seven plotters in the ] who blew themselves up when cornered by police grew up in the tumble-down neighborhood of Jemaa Mezuak in Tetuan, Morocco: Jamal Ahmidan, brothers Mohammed and Rashid Oulad Akcha, Abdennabi Kounjaa, Asri Rifaat. In 2006, at least five more young Mezuaq men went to Iraq on "martyrdom missions": Abdelmonim Al-Amrani, Younes Achebak, Hamza Aklifa, and the brothers Bilal and Munsef Ben Aboud (DNA analysis has confirmed the suicide bombing death of Amrani in Baqubah, Iraq). All 5 attended a local elementary school (Abdelkrim Khattabi), the same one that Madrid’s Moroccan bombers attended. And 4 of the 5 were in the same high school class (Kadi Ayadi, just outside Mezuak). They played soccer as friends, went to the same mosque (Masjad al-Rohban of the Dawa Tabligh), mingled in the same restaurants, barbershops and cafes. | |||
| 3. ]'s most sustained suicide bombing campaign in 2003-4 involved several buddies from Hebron's Masjad (mosque) al-Jihad soccer team. Most lived in the Wad Abu Katila neighborhood and belonged to the al-Qawasmeh hamula (clan); several were classmates in the neighborhood's local branch of the Palestinian Polytechnic College. There ages ranged from 18 to 22. At least eight team members were dispatched to suicide shooting and bombing operations by the Hamas military leader in Hebron, Abdullah al-Qawasmeh (killed by Israeli forces in June 2003 and succeeded by his relatives Basel al-Qawasmeh, killed in September 2003, and Imad al-Qawasmeh, captured on October 13, 2004). In retaliation for the assassinations of Hamas leaders Sheikh ] (March 22, 2004) and ] (April 17, 2004), Imad al-Qawasmeh dispatched Ahmed al-Qawasmeh and Nasim al-Ja'abri for a suicide attack on two buses in Beer Sheva (August 31, 2004). In December 2004, Hamas declared a halt to suicide attacks. | |||
| On January 15, 2008, the son of ], the leader of Hamas in the ], was killed (another son was killed in a 2003 assassination attempt on Zahar). Three days later, Israel Defense Minister ] ordered ] to seal all border crossings with Gaza, cutting off the flow of vital supplies to the besieged territory in an attempt to stop rocket barrages on Israeli border towns. Nevertheless, violence from both sides only increased. On February 4, 2008, two friends (Mohammed Herbawi, Shadi Zghayer), who were members of the Masjad al-Jihad soccer team, staged a suicide bombing at at commercial center in Dimona, Israel. Herbawi had previously been arrested as a 17-year-old on March 15, 2003 shortly after a suicide bombing on Haifa bus (by Mamoud al-Qawasmeh on March 5, 2003) and coordinated suicide shooting attacks on Israeli settlements by others on the team (March 7, 2003, Muhsein, Hazem al-Qawasmeh, Fadi Fahuri, Sufian Hariz) and before another set of suicide bombings by team members in Hebron and Jerusalem on May 17-18, 2003 (Fuad al-Qawasmeh, Basem Takruri, Mujahed al-Ja'abri). Although Hamas claimed responsibility for the Dimona attack, the politburo leadership in Damascus and Beirut was clearly initially unaware of who initiated and carried out the attack. It appears that Ahmad al-Ja'abri, military commander of Hamas's ] in Gaza (and who is also originally from a Hebron clan) requested the suicide attack through Ayoub Qawasmeh, Hamas's military liaison in Hebron, who knew where to look for eager young men who had self-radicalized together and had already mentally prepared themselves for martyrdom.<ref></ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ===Background=== | |||
| The concept of self-sacrifice has long been a part of war. However, many instances of suicide bombing today has intended civilian targets, not military targets alone. "Suicide bombing as a tool of stateless terrorists was dreamed up a hundred years ago by the European anarchists immortalized in Joseph Conrad’s 'Secret Agent.'" <ref></ref> | |||
| An example of such self-sacrifice in warfare in medieval legend is ]. The earliest reference of a suicide attack outside a context of warfare has been suggested to be in the story of ] who died together with his victims as he collapsed a Philistine temple: | |||
| <blockquote>"Samson said, 'Let me die with the Philistines!' Down came the temple on the rulers and all the people in it. Thus he killed many more as he died than while he lived." (Judges 16:30).</blockquote> | |||
| Pedants argue over whether different historical figures were suicide attackers. Historical doubt surrounds the actions of legendary 14th century ] hero ], which was in any case an act in the heat of battle. Some have cited ]'s destruction of a ] temple (as recounted in the ]) as an ancient example of mass murder-suicide.<ref>], suggested in a 'Spectator' editorial on 23 July 2005 that, “As far as we can make out, there would be little to prevent the police leading the Archbishop of Canterbury off in chains for preaching on Samson’s bringing-down of the temple” if proposed laws against “indirect incitement of terrorist activities” were enacted, which the “Home Office Minister Hazel Blears has suggested … could be used to prosecute anyone who described a suicide-attacker as a ‘martyr’.”</ref> But it cannot qualify as such because Samson was directly dependent on God for the use of his enormous strength, as his temporary loss of it a short time earlier shows.) | |||
| An example is from the time of the ], when the ] destroyed one of their own ships, killing 140 Christians in order to kill ten times as many Muslims.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| In the late 17th century, ] official Yu Yonghe recorded that injured ] soldiers fighting against ]'s forces for control of ] in 1661 would use gunpowder to blow up both themselves and their opponents rather than be taken prisoner.<ref>Yu Yonghe. ''Small Sea Travel Diaries'', trans. Macabe Keliher, SMC Publishing Inc., 2004, ISBN 957-638-629-2. Page 196.</ref> | |||
| A modern example of suicide bombing occurred during the ], when the Dutch ] ] detonated his own ship in the ] of ] to prevent being captured by the Belgians. | |||
| During their revolts against the British in late the 1700s, 1818 and 1848 the Sinhalese conducted numerous suicide attacks against the British. The common tactic was to hide inside a hollowed Kitul Palm ] tree trunk and blow up oneself when the British troops came near. | |||
| Another example was the ] soldier Karl Klinke on 18 April 1864 at the ], when he blew a hole in a ] ]. | |||
| The act of deliberately destroying oneself to inflict harm on an enemy, especially civilians, is more restricted to modern times and the era of explosives. The line between the two is considered by some a matter of subjectivity, as in the argument that many WWII soldiers killed were "]s" (in the sense that they were to suffer for the sake of a principle, rather than dying as the penalty for refusing to renounce a belief) because their life expectancy in combat was very low—often averaging only two or three months. | |||
| Modern suicide bombing as a political tool can be traced back to the assassination of Czar ] in 1881. Alexander fell victim to a ] plot. While driving on one of the central streets of ], near the ], he was mortally wounded by the explosion of hand-made grenades and died a few hours afterwards. The Tzar was killed by the Pole ], who died while intentionally exploding the bomb during the attack. | |||
| ]'s suicide attack on a US ] in 1945]] | |||
| The ritual act of self-sacrifice during combat appeared in a large scale at the end of ] with the ]ese ] bombers. In these attacks, airplanes were used as flying bombs. Later in the war, as Japan became more desperate, this act became formalized and ritualized, as planes were outfitted with explosives specific to the task of a suicide mission. Kamikaze strikes were a weapon of asymmetric war used by the ] against ] and ] ]s, although the ] of the Royal Navy carriers diminished Kamikaze effectiveness. | |||
| The Japanese Navy also used both one and two man piloted ]es called '']'' on suicide missions. Although sometimes called ]s, these were modified versions of the unmanned torpedoes of the time and are distinct from the torpedo-firing midget submarines used earlier in the war, which were designed to ] ] defences and return to a ] after firing their torpedoes. Though extremely hazardous, these midget submarine attacks were not technically suicide missions, as the earlier kaitens had escape hatches. Later kaitens, by contrast, provided no means of escape. | |||
| After aiming a two-person kaiten at their target, the two crew members traditionally embraced and shot each other in the head. Social support for such choices was strong, due in part to Japanese cultural history, in which ], honourable suicide, was part of ] ]. It was also fostered and indoctrinated by the Imperial program to ] the Japanese soldiers to commit these acts. | |||
| Suicide attacks were used as a military tactic aimed at causing material damage in war, during the ] in the Pacific as ] ships were attacked by ]ese ] pilots who caused maximum damage by flying their explosive-laden ] into military targets, not focused on civilian targets. | |||
| During the ] the Luftwaffe flew "Self-sacrifice missions" (''Selbstopfereinsatz'') against Soviet bridges over the ]. These 'total missions' were flown by pilots of the '']'' Squadron under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Heiner Lange. From ] until ] 1945, using any aircraft that were available, the Luftwaffe claimed that the squadron destroyed 17 bridges, however the military historian ] when writing about the incident thinks that this was exaggerated and that only the railway bridge at ] was definitely destroyed. He comments that "thirty-five pilots and aircraft was a high price to pay for such a limited and temporary success". The missions were called off when the Soviet ground forces reached the vicinity of the squadron's airbase at ].<ref>]. ''Berlin: The Downfall 1945'', Penguin Books, 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5. Page 238</ref> | |||
| Following World War II, ] "death volunteers" fought against the ] ] ] by using a long stick-like explosive to detonate French tanks, as part of their urban warfare tactics. | |||
| In 1972 in the hall of the ] in ], ], three Japanese used ]s and ]s to kill 26 people and wound many more.<ref></ref> The group belonged to the ] (JRA) a terrorist organization created in 1969 and ] to the ] (PFLP). Until then, no group involved in terrorism had conducted such a suicide operation in Israel. Members of the JRA became instructors in ] and ] operations at several training camps bringing the suicide techniques to the ] {{Fact|date=November 2007}}. | |||
| ===1980 to present=== | |||
| The first modern suicide bombing—involving explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise—was in 1981; perfected by the factions of the ] and especially by the ] of ], the tactic had spread to dozens of countries by 2005 . Those hardest-hit are Sri Lanka during ], ] during its ], ] and the ] since 1994 , and ] since the ]. | |||
| ] ] was the first and most high-profile victim of ]. Shown here is a mosaic commemorating Rajiv at the exact place where he was assassinated.]] | |||
| The ]'s ]ing of the Iraqi ] in ] in December 1981 and ]'s ] and ] in October 1983 brought suicide bombings international attention. Other parties to the civil war were quick to adopt the tactic, and by 1999 factions such as Hezbollah, the ], the ], and the ] had carried out around 50 suicide bombings between them. (The latter of these groups sent the ] recorded ] in 1985 . Female combatants have existed throughout human history and in many different societies, so it is possible that females who engage in suicidal attacks are not new.) Hezbollah was the only one to attack overseas, ] (and possibly the ]) in ]; as its military and political power have grown, it has since abandoned the tactic. | |||
| Lebanon saw the first bombing, but it was the LTTE ] in ] who perfected the tactic and inspired its use elsewhere<ref>{{cite web|url = http://washingtontimes.com/op-ed/20060819-095333-3607r.htm |title = The Washington Times Tending to Sri Lanka |accessdate = 2008-06-17}}</ref> . Their ] unit has committed between 76 and 168 (estimates vary) suicide bombings since 1987 , the higher estimates putting them behind more than half of the world's suicide bombings between 1980 and 2000<ref>http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml</ref> . The list of victims include former ]n Prime Minister, ], and the president of Sri Lanka, ]. | |||
| Suicide bombing has, since 1993, been a particularly popular tactic amongst some ] groups, including ], ], and the ]. Bombers affiliated with these groups often use so-called "]", ]s (often including ]) designed to be strapped to the body under clothing. In order to maximize the loss of life, the bombers may seek out cafés or city ]es crowded with people at ], or less commonly a military target (for example, soldiers waiting for transport at roadside). By seeking enclosed locations, a successful bomber usually kills a number of people. | |||
| Palestinian ] has aired a number of ] and announcements that ] ] reward for children who seek "'']''",<ref></ref> which ''Palestinian Media Watch'' has claimed is "Islamic motivation of suicide terrorists".<ref></ref> '']'' has documented the concern of Palestinian parents that their children are encouraged to take part in suicide operations.<ref></ref> Israeli sources have also alleged that Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Fatah operate "Paradise Camps," training children as young as 11 to become suicide bombers.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| The ] has also employed suicide bombings in the scope of its guerrilla attacks on Turkish security forces since the beginning of their insurgency against the Turkish state in 1984. Although the majority of ] activity is focused on ], gendarme, and military posts, they have employed suicide bombing tactics on tourist sites and commercial centers in Western Turkish cities, especially during the peak of tourism season. | |||
| The ] involved the ] of large passenger ]s which were deliberately flown into the towers of the ] in ] and ], killing everyone aboard the planes and thousands more in and around the targeted buildings. The passenger jets selected were required to be fully fueled to fly cross-country, turning the planes themselves into the largest suicide bombs in history. The 'September 11' attacks also had a vast economic and political impact: for the cost of the lives of the 19 hijackers and financial expenditure of around US$100,000, ], the ] ] group responsible for the attacks, effected a trillion-dollar drop in global markets within one week, and triggered massive increases in military and security expenditure in response. | |||
| In ] ], ] attempted to destroy the ] by the means of a bomb hidden in a shoe. He was arrested after his attempt was foiled when he was unable to light the bomb's ]. | |||
| After the ]-led ], ] carried out waves of suicide bombings. They attacked ] targets, although many civilian targets (eg. ] ]s, international offices of the ] and the ], Iraqi men waiting to apply for jobs with the new army and ] force) were also attacked. In the lead up to the ], on ], ], suicide attacks upon civilian and security personnel involved with the ]s increased, and there were reports of the insurgents co-opting disabled people as involuntary suicide bombers.<ref></ref> Professor Pape suggests that the bombings of Iraqis by Iraqis target those believed to be in the service of the American occupation. | |||
| Suicide bombings have occurred in more than 30 countries: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], the ], ], the ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. (Suicide planes were also used in the ]). | |||
| ] suicide bombers caught on CCTV at ] ] at 07:21 BST on July 7, 2005. From left to right, ], ], ], and ].<ref></ref> (Image: ])]] | |||
| ==Range of opinions== | |||
| World leaders, especially those of countries that experience suicide bombings, usually express resolve to continue on their previous course of affairs after such attacks. They denounce suicide bombings and sometimes vow not to let such bombings deter ordinary people from going about their everyday economic business. | |||
| Suicide bombings are sometimes followed by ]s. As a successful suicide bomber cannot be targeted, the response is often a targeting of those believed to have sent the bomber. In targeting such ]s, Israel often uses military strikes against organizations, individuals, and possibly ]. In the ] the ] formerly ] homes that belong to families whose children (or renters whose tenants) had volunteered for such missions (whether successfully or not),<ref name="demolition">'''' ], November 2004</ref> though an internal review starting in October 2004 brought an end to the policy.<ref> Ed Farrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs</ref> | |||
| The effectiveness of suicide bombings—notably those of the Japanese ]s, the Palestinian bombers, and even the September 11, 2001 attacks—is debatable. | |||
| Although kamikaze attacks could not stop the ] advance the ], they inflicted more casualties and delayed the fall of ] for longer than might have been the case using only the conventional methods available to the ]. Subsequently, Japanese leaders acknowledged the great cost in losing many of their best young men in these actions. The attacks reinforced the resolution of the ] Allies to destroy the Imperial force, and may have had a significant effect in the decision to use ] against ].{{Fact|date=May 2007}} | |||
| In the case of the September 11 attacks, the long-term effects remain to be seen, but in the short term, the results were negative for Al-Qaeda, as well as the ]. Furthermore, since the September 11 attacks, Western nations have diverted massive resources towards stopping similar actions, as well as tightening up ]s, and military actions against various countries that the ] and its allies believe to have been involved with terrorism. However, critics of the ] suggest that in fact the results were profoundly negative, as the proceeding actions of the ] and other countries has increased the number of recruits, and their willingness to carry out suicide bombings. | |||
| It is more difficult to determine whether Palestinian suicide bombings have proved to be a successful tactic. In the ], the suicide bombers were repeatedly deployed since the ].<ref></ref> | |||
| In 1996 , the Israelis elected the conservative candidate ] who promised to restore safety by conditioning every step in the ] on Israel's assessment of the ]'s fulfillment of its obligations in curbing violence as outlined in the Oslo agreements. | |||
| In the course of ] which followed the collapse of the ] summit between the ] and Israel, the number of suicide attacks drastically increased. In response, ] ] its army in order to seal off the ] and reinstate military control of the ], patrolling the area with ]s. The Israelis also began a campaign of targeted ]s to kill ] Palestinian leaders, using jets and ]s to deploy ]. | |||
| The suicide missions, having killed hundreds and maimed thousands of Israelis, are believed by some to have brought on a move to the political right, increasing public support for hard-line policies towards the Palestinians, and a government headed by the former ], ] ]. In response to the suicide bombings, Sharon's government has imposed restrictions on the Palestinian community, making commerce, travel, school, and other aspects of life difficult for the Palestinians, with the average Palestinian suffering due to the choices of the suicide bombers. The ] under construction seem to be part of the Israeli government's efforts to stop suicide bombers from entering Israel proper. | |||
| Social support by some for this activity remained, however, as of the calling of a truce at the end of June 2003 . This may be due to the economic or social purpose of the suicide bombing and the bombers' refusal to accept external judgements on those who sanction them. | |||
| If the objective is to kill as many people as possible, suicide bombing by terrorists may thus "work" as a tactic in that it costs fewer lives than any conventional military tactic and targeting unarmed civilians is much easier than targeting soldiers. As an objective designed to achieve some form of favorable outcome, especially a political outcome, most believe it to be a failure. Terrorist campaigns involving the targeting of civilians have never won a war. Analysts believe that in order to win or succeed, any guerrilla or terrorist campaign must first transform into something more than a guerrilla or terrorist movement. Such analysts believe that a terrorist cause has little political attraction and success may be achieved only by renouncing terrorism and transforming the passions into politics. | |||
| Israeli ultra-right politician and author Obadiah Shoher declared terrorism proper and efficient military tactics, and called for the Jews to answer in kind.<ref></ref> Shoher praised ] who massacred Palestinian worshippers inside a mosque. | |||
| Often extremists assert that, because they are outclassed militarily, suicide bombings are necessary. For example, the former leader of ] ] stated: "Once we have warplanes and missiles, then we can think of changing our means of legitimate self-defense. But right now, we can only tackle the fire with our bare hands and sacrifice ourselves."<ref>Quoted in ], ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005) p. 3-4.</ref> | |||
| Such views are challenged both from the outside and from within Islam. According to Islamic jurist and scholar ], | |||
| <blockquote>The classical jurists, nearly without exception, argued that those who attack by stealth, while targeting noncombatants in order to terrorize the resident and wayfarer, are corrupters of the earth. "Resident and wayfarer" was a legal expression that meant that whether the attackers terrorize people in their urban centers or terrorize travelers, the result was the same: all such attacks constitute a corruption of the earth. The legal term given to people who act this way was ''muharibun'' (those who wage war against society), and the crime is called the crime of ''hiraba'' (waging war against society). The crime of ''hiraba'' was so serious and repugnant that, according to Islamic law, those guilty of this crime were considered enemies of humankind and were not to be given quarter or sanctuary anywhere. | |||
| ... | |||
| Those who are familiar with the classical tradition will find the parallels between what were described as crimes of ''hiraba'' and what is often called terrorism today nothing short of remarkable. The classical jurists considered crimes such as assassinations, setting fires, or poisoning water wells - that could indiscriminately kill the innocent - as offenses of ''hiraba''. Furthermore, hijacking methods of transportation or crucifying people in order to spread fear and terror are also crimes of ''hiraba''. Importantly, Islamic law strictly prohibited the taking of hostages, the mutilation of corpses, and torture.<ref>]: ''The Great Theft. Wrestling Islam from the Extremists'' (HarperCollins 2005. ISBN 0-06-056339-7) p.243</ref></blockquote> | |||
| == Usage of "suicide bombing" and related terms == | |||
| The usage of the term "suicide bombing" dates back to at least 1940 . An ], ] ] article mentions the term in relation to ] tactics. A ], ] article refers to a Japanese attempt at a "suicide bombing" on an American carrier. ] (London) of April 15, 1947, page 2, refers to a new pilotless, radio-controlled rocket missile thus: "Designed originally as a counter-measure to the Japanese 'suicide-bomber,' it is now a potent weapon for defence or offence." | |||
| The quotes are in the original and suggest that the phrase was an existing one. An earlier article (Aug 21, 1945, page 6) refers to a ] plane as a "suicide-bomb." | |||
| The term with the meaning "an attacker blowing up himself or a vehicle to kill others" appeared in 1981 when it was used by Thomas Baldwin in an ] article to describe the bombing of the Iraqi Embassy in Beirut. | |||
| In order to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is sometimes referred to by different terms. Islamists often call the act a ''isshtahad'' (meaning '']''), and the suicide bomber a ''shahid'' (pl. ''shuhada'', literally 'witness' and usually translated as 'martyr'). The term denotes one who died in order to testify his faith in God (]), for example those who die while waging '']''; it is applied to suicide bombers, by the ] among others, in part to overcome Islamic strictures against suicide. This term has been embraced by ], ], ] and other Palestinian factions engaging in suicide bombings. (The title is by no means restricted to suicide bombers and can be used for a wide range of people, including innocent victims; ], for example, is among the most famous ''shuhada'' of the Intifada, and even a few non-Palestinians such as ] and ] have been called ''shahid''.) | |||
| ==="Homicide bombing"=== | |||
| Some effort has been made to replace the term ''suicide bombing'' with the term '''''homicide bombing''''' by conservative commentators and news outlets. The first such use was by ] ] in April 2002.<ref></ref> The '']'' and the '']'', both owned by ]'s ], are two media organizations that have adopted the term. Fox News began using the term after it was suggested by former ] ] during an interview. | |||
| Supporters of the term ''homicide bombing'' argue that since the primary purpose of such a bombing is to kill other people rather than merely to end one's own life, the term ''homicide'' is a more accurate description than ''suicide''. Others argue that ''homicide bombing'' is a less useful term, since it fails to capture the distinctive feature of suicide bombings, namely the bombers' use of means which they are aware will inevitably bring about their own deaths. For instance, ] and ] could both ostensibly be called "homicide bombers," but neither could be called a "suicide bomber." To this extent it has also been argued that most bombings are "homicide bombings", as loss of life is their inherent aim. | |||
| ==="Genocide bombing"=== | |||
| Another attempted replacement is '''''genocide bombing'''''. The term was coined in 2002 by Canadian member of parliament ], in an effort to replace the term ''homicide bomber'' as a substitute for "suicide bomber."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hfienberg.com/kesher/2002/06/genocide-bombing-two-months-after.html| title=Kesher Talk| year=June 24, 2002| accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref> The intention was to focus attention on the alleged intention of ] by militant ] in their calls to "Wipe Israel off the map."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/commentary/20040423-081806-2252r.htm| title=Washington Times Commentary|accessdate = 2006-05-13}}</ref> | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * ]'s | |||
| * ] | |||
| * | |||
| * {{PDFlink|}} | |||
| * by ] published in ], June 2003 | |||
| * Why do they do it, and what does Islam say about their actions? - ] | |||
| * Study refuting suicide bombing in Islam by Ihsanic Intelligence | |||
| * Fatwa against suicide bombing by Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti | |||
| * - Suicide bomber profile and info | |||
| * How suicide bombing became not just a means but an end by ] in ] June 2002 | |||
| * Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * - list of women terrorist-bombers. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * - A web article | |||
| * ''Warning: Graphic Images'' | |||
| * By Abdassamad Clarke | |||
| *- a television history by ex-CIA agent Robert Baer | |||
| * ] leading member | |||
| * | |||
| * Flash, various languages | |||
| ** Flash, images of bombings | |||
| * by ] | |||
| * | |||
| * Suicide Killers, by film maker Pierre Rehov | |||
| *Pierre Rehov's site | |||
| * * Advanced Research Network on Insurgency and Terrorism: articles on Suicide Terrorism in the Virtual Library | |||
| * in ], Attempted assassination of Sri Lankan Minister ] by ] | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * Sadik H. Kassim, Ph.D. "The Role of Religion in the Generation of Suicide Bombers".<ref>{{cite web|url = http://brief-treatment.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/mhn003?ijkey=fC2pz5cJgISvbKR&keytype=ref |title = The Role of Religion in the Generation of Suicide Bombers - Kassim 8 (2): 204 - Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention |author=Kassim, Sadik H.|date=2008-05-01|accessdate = 2008-06-17}}</ref> | |||
| * ] (2007), '''', (Washington, D.C.: ]) ISBN-13: 978-1-601270-04-7 | |||
| *Hugh Barlow (2007), ''Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber.'' (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers) ISBN 1-59451-324-4 | |||
| * Jayawardena, Hemamal., Forensic Medical Aspects of Terrorist Explosive Attacks (Paperback), Zeilan Press (2007),ISBN 978-09793-62422 | |||
| * Rex Hudson (2002), ''Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists'', Lyons Press, ISBN 1-58574-754-8 | |||
| * Mia Bloom (2005), ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'', Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-13320-0 | |||
| * ] (2005), '']'', Random House, ISBN 1-4000-6317-5 | |||
| * Diego Gambetta, Editor (2005), ''Making Sense of Suicide Missions'', OUP, ISBN 0-19-927699-4 | |||
| * Farhad Khosrokhavar, translated by David Macey (2005), ''Suicide Bombers: Allah's New Martyrs'', Pluto Press, ISBN 0-7453-2283-2 | |||
| *]. 1996. . | |||
| *]. 1966. ''Hell in a Very Small Place: The Siege of Dien Bien Phu''. Da Capo Press. (References to suicide bombers on pages 352 and 368). | |||
| * ] (2006), '']s'', McFarland Publishers, ISBN 0-7864-2615-2 | |||
| *M.R. Narayan Swamy. 1996. ''Tigers of Lanka: From Boys to Guerrillas'', 2nd Ed. Vijitha Yapa Bookshop (Colombo). | |||
| * Dr. Eyad Sarraj. "Why we have become Suicide Bombers". | |||
| * Gerhart Scheit. 2005. ''Suicide Attack'' ISBN 3-924627-87-8 (German) | |||
| * Reuter, Christoph trans. Ragg-Kirby, Helena. ''My Life is a Weapon: A Modern History of Suicide Bombing.'' Princeton University Press: Princeton, 2004. | |||
| * ] (2005). | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| |last = Davis | |||
| |first = Joyce M. | |||
| |year = 2004 | |||
| |title = Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East | |||
| |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | |||
| |id = ISBN 1-4039-6681-8 | |||
| }} | |||
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Revision as of 18:27, 7 July 2008
THESE GUYS ARE COOL!!!!!!!!!!! HIGH FIVE BOMBMERS!!!!!