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The Battle of the Alamo
Part of the Texas Revolution
Plan of the Alamo, by José Juan Sánchez-Navarro, 1836.
Date February 23–March 6, 1836 Location San Antonio, Texas Result Mexican victory
Belligerents
Republic of Mexico	Republic of Texas
Commanders and leaders
Antonio López de Santa Anna	William Travis† Jim Bowie†
Strength
2,400	180–260
Casualties and losses
400–600 killed or wounded	182–257 killed

The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 – March 6, 1836) is the most famous battle of the Texas Revolution. After an insurgent army of Texian settlers and adventurers from the United States drove all Mexican troops out of Mexican Texas, Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led an invasion to regain control of the area. Mexican forces arrived in San Antonio de Bexar on February 23 and initiated a siege of the Texian forces garrisoned at the Alamo Mission.

In the early morning hours of March 6 the Mexican army launched an assault on the Alamo. The outnumbered Texians repulsed two attacks, but were unable to fend off a third. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texian soldiers retreated into the long barracks or the chapel. Several small groups who were unable to reach these points attempted to escape and were killed outside the walls by the waiting Mexican cavalry. The Mexican soldiers fought room-to-room and soon had control over the Alamo. Between five and seven Texians may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed on Santa Anna's orders. Most eyewitness accounts reported between 182 and 257 Texian dead, while most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. Of the Texians who fought during the battle, only two survived: Joe, spared because he was a slave, and Brigido Guerrero, a Mexican Army deserter who convinced Mexican soldiers he had been imprisoned. Women and children, primarily family members of the Texian soldiers, were questioned by Santa Anna and then released.

On Santa Anna's orders, three of the survivors were sent to Gonzales to spread word of the Texian defeat. After hearing this news, Texian army commander Sam Houston ordered a retreat; this sparked the Runaway Scrape, a mass exodus of citizens and the Texas government towards the east (away from the Mexican army). News of the Alamo's fall prompted many Texas colonists to join Houston's army. On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's forces in the Battle of San Jacinto. During the battle many Texians shouted "Remember the Alamo!" Santa Anna was captured and forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the area, which subsequently became the Republic of Texas.

By March 24 a list of names of the Texians who died at the Alamo had begun to be compiled. The first history of the battle was published in 1843, but serious study of the battle did not begin until after the 1931 publication of Amelia W. Williams's dissertation attempting to identify all of the Texians who died at the Alamo. The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was published in 1948. The battle was first depicted in film in the 1911 silent film The Immortal Alamo, and has since been featured in numerous movies, including one directed by John Wayne. The Alamo church building has been designated an official Texas state shrine, with the Daughters of the Republic of Texas acting as permanent caretakers.

Background

In 1835 federalists across Mexico began to revolt against the increasingly dictatorial reign of President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In October, settlers in Mexican Texas launched an armed uprising against the Mexican government. Santa Anna immediately began preparations to invade Texas and end the Texas Revolution. His invasion force, named the Army of Operations in Texas, was comprised primarily of raw recruits, including conscripts and convicts.

As Santa Anna assembled his forces in Mexico, the Texians systematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. After the surrender of Santa Anna's brother-in-law, General Martin Perfecto de Cos, on December 9, no Mexican troops remained in Texas. Unprepared for a long campaign, many Texas settlers had left the Texian Army; by the time Cos surrendered, the Texian Army was dominated by recent arrivals to the region, primarily adventurers from the United States. According to historian Alwyn Barr, their presence "contributed to the Mexican view that Texian opposition stemmed from outside influences".

Angered by what he perceived as American interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Anna directed the Mexican Congress to authorize the army to treat any foreigners found fighting in Texas as pirates. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war; in this time period, captured pirates were executed immediately. Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States President Andrew Jackson. The letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the American recruits serving in the Texian Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war.

When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Bexar (now San Antonio, Texas), Texian soldiers established a garrison at the Alamo Mission, a former religious outpost now used as a makeshift fort. Described by Santa Anna as an "irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name", the Alamo had been designed to withstand an attack by native tribes, not artillery. The complex sprawled across 3 acres (1.2 ha), providing almost 1,320 feet (400 m) of perimeter to be defended. An interior plaza was bordered on the west by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks. A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings. The east side of the plaza contained the two-story Long Barracks, formerly the convent. At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen, with a horse corral between it and the plaza. The walls surrounding the complex were at least 2.75 feet (0.84 m) thick and ranged from 9–12 ft (2.7–3.7 m) high.

Texian engineer Green B. Jameson made many improvements to the fortifications. To compensate for a lack of firing ports, Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, would leave the shooter's upper body exposed. Mexican forces had left behind 19 cannon, including an 18-pounder, which Jameson installed along the walls. He boasted to Texian army commander Sam Houston that the Texians could "whip 10 to 1 with our artillery".

The Texian garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100 soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836. Colonel James C. Neill, the acting Alamo commander, wrote to the provisional government: "If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it". Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely unable to withstand a siege greater than four days. The Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance. Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army; on Janury 14 Neill approached Houston for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition.

Prelude to battle

Realizing that it would be difficult for the Texians to hold the Alamo, Houston ordered Colonel James Bowie to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex. Bowie soon discovered that the Alamo garrison lacked draft animals, making it impossible to transport the artillery. Neill was unwilling to abandon the fortress and persuaded Bowie of the location's strategic importance. In a letter to Governor Henry Smith, Bowie argued that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Bexar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine." The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy." Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder". Smith ordered a cavalry officer, William B. Travis, to reinforce the Alamo. Travis arrived in Bexar with 30 men on February 3. Five days later, Davy Crockett arrived.

On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, likely to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies for the garrison. He transitioned command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison. Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader. The men instead elected Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated his election by getting very drunk and creating havoc in Bexar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis.

The Texians were unaware that Santa Anna had begun invasion preparations the year before. By late December, however, the Mexican Army of Operations had begun marching north; on February 12 they crossed the Rio Grande. Progress was slow, and rations ran short. Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15–16 inches (38–41 cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, and Comanche raiding parties took a large toll on the Mexican soldiers.

As early as February 16, residents of Bexar began warning the Texians of the Mexican approach. Travis disregarded the rumors. On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of the Medina River, 25 miles (40 km) from Bexar. With no idea that the Mexican army was so close, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Bexar residents at a fiesta on February 22 to celebrate George Washington's birthday. After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered General Ramirez y Sesma to seize the unprotected Alamo; sudden rains halted the raid.

Siege

Investment

Unlike Travis, Bexar residents believed that the Mexican army would arrive imminently. On February 23, the town emptied as residents fled. Travis stationed one of his soldiers in the San Fernando church bell tower to watch for any signs of the Mexican army. Several hours later, he sent several men to scout the surrounding area; they returned quickly, having seen Mexican troops 1.5 miles (2.4 km) outside the town. The garrison was completely unprepared for the Mexican army arrival. The Texians quickly herded cattle into the Alamo and scrounged for food in some of the recently abandoned houses. A few members of the garrison brought their families into the Alamo for safety. Among these were Alamaron Dickinson, who fetched his wife Susanna and their daughter Angelina, and Bowie, who brought his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury and Alsbury's young son into the fort.

Travis quickly dispatched couriers to Gonzales and Goliad with pleas for reinforcements. By late afternoon Bexar was occupied by about 1500 Mexican troops, who immediately raised a blood-red flag signifying no quarter. Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon. Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna. Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own emissary. The men met with Colonel Juan Almonte and Jose Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texians asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional. On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again.

The first night of the siege was relatively quiet. The Mexican cavalry was stationed to the north and east of the Alamo to prevent the arrival of Texian reinforcements. The next day, 600 more troops arrived, allowing Santa Anna to post a company of soldiers east of the Alamo, on the road to Gonzales. Days later, Santa Anna stationed Almonte and 800 dragoons along the road to Goliad to intercept rumored Texian reinforcements.

In the first few days of the siege, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1000 feet (300 m) from the south and east walls of the Alamo. A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.

Skirmishes

The Mexican army kept up a consistent barrage of artillery shells. During the first week of the siege over 200 Mexican cannon shots landed in the Alamo plaza. The Texians often picked up the cannonballs and reused them. At first the Texians matched Mexican artillery fire, but on February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot.

The first fatality of the siege occurred on February 24, when Texians killed a Mexican scout. The following morning, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed the San Antonio River and took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls. Several Texians ventured out to burn the huts, and Texians within the Alamo provided cover fire. After a two-hour skirmish the Mexican troops retreated to Bexar. Two Mexican soldiers were killed and four wounded; no Texians were injured.

A blue norther blew in that evening and dropped the temperature to 39 °F (4 °C). Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures. Several Texians ventured out to gather firewood but returned empty-handed after encountering Mexican troops. On the evening of February 26, the Texians burned more huts. Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Bringas to engage the Texians, and according to Edmondson, one Texian was killed.

Texian troop movements

The sudden arrival of the Mexican army caught several Texians outside the fort. Most did not try to sneak past Mexican lines, but on the night of February 23, Gregorio Esparza and his family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel to join the Texians. At some point on Wednesday, February 24, Bowie collapsed from illness, leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison. That afternoon Travis wrote a letter addressed To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World, which is, according to historian Mary Deborah Petite, "considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism". Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas, and it was eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.

Travis sent multiple other letters pleading for reinforcements. As news of the siege spread throughout the colonies, settlers gathered in Gonzales to wait for Colonel James Fannin, commander of the only other garrison of Texian troops, to arrive with more troops. Impatient with waiting, on February 27, some of the men from Gonzales began their march towards Bexar. That same night, Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales "to hurry up reinforcements". According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian soon found the group from Gonzales and volunteered to lead them to the Alamo. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving off four of the men, including Bastian. In the darkness, the Texians fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the defenders to open the gates.

After days of indecision, Fannin had finally decided to offer assistance. On the morning of February 26, he led 320 men, 4 cannon, and several supply wagons on the 90 miles (140 km) march from Goliad to the Alamo. By the end of the day, they had traveled less than 1 mile (1.6 km). The following day the group returned to Presidio La Bahia. Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers, claiming they requested the journey's cancellation after learning that General Urrea's army was marching towards Goliad. The officers and men in the expedition maintained that Fannin decided on his own to abort the mission.

According to Lindley, after Fannin's aborted rescue mission up to 50 of his men, most of whom had belonged to the New Orleans Greys, left Goliad to rescue their former mates in the Alamo. On March 3, these men joined a group waiting at Cibolo Creek for Fannin. After Mexican reinforcements arrived in Bexar that day, Travis sent three men, including Davy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which they still believed was en route. Lindley stated that just before midnight, Crockett reached Cibolo Creek and found the force of Texians waiting 20 miles (32 km) from the Alamo. Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force managed to break through the Mexican lines and enter the Alamo. A second group was driven across the prairie by Mexican soldiers. Almonte's journal reported that there was an engagement that night, but that the Mexican troops had repulsed the assault.

Assault preparations

On March 3, The Texians watched from the walls as approximately 1000 Mexican troops, attired in dress uniform, marched into Bexar's military plaza to reinforce Santa Anna. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under General Jose de Urrea had soundly defeated Texian Colonel Frank W. Johnson at the Battle of San Patricio on February 27. Most of the Texians in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Bexar to almost 2,400.

On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna called his senior officers together and proposed an assault of the fort. Many of the participants recommended that the battle wait for the two 12 lb (5.4 kg) cannons, anticipated to arrive on March 7. A local woman, likely Juana Navarro Alsbury, approached Santa Anna that evening and attempted to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo defenders. According to many historians, this visit likely increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, "there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory". The following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6.

That evening, James Allen became the last courier to leave the Alamo. He carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men. Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was likely imminent, and that the Mexican Army would prevail. He supposedly drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the Texian cause to cross and stand alongside him. A bedridden Bowie requested that Crockett and several others carry his cot over the line, leaving only one man, Louis "Moses" Rose on the other side. Explaining that he was not yet ready to die, Rose deserted that evening. This episode was first mentioned in a newspaper article written thirty-five years later by a reporter who said his parents heard the story directly from Rose. The reporter later admitted to embellishing pieces of the article, and as Rose had died by the time the story was published, the story could not be authenticated. Years after the story was published, Alamo survivors Susannah Dickinson and Enrique Esparza mentioned the incident, but many details conflicted.

At 10 pm, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had planned, the exhausted Texians soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many had gotten since the siege began.

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Aftermath

Casualties

According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texians surrendered. Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors. Weeks after the battle, stories began to circulate that Crockett was among those who surrendered. However, Ben, a former American slave who served one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by "no less than sixteen Mexican corpses". Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate.

Santa Anna ordered that the face of every corpse be wiped clean so that they could positively identify which soldiers were Mexican and which were Texian. According to Francisco Ruiz, possibly the alcade of Bexar, he was ordered by Santa Anna to identify the bodies of Travis, Bowie, and Crockett. Joe was also asked to point out Travis's body. With the identifications complete, Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned. The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza, whose brother Francisco served in Santa Anna's army and received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.

In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texians had been killed, with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded. His secretary, Ramon Martinez Caro, later remarked that he had not wished to make a false report but had done so under Santa Anna's orders. Other eyewitnesses counted between 182–257 Texians killed. Some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier.

The ashes were left where they fell until February 1837, when Juan Seguin returned to Bexar to examine the remains. At Seguin's behest, the bells at the San Fernando Cathedral pealed all day. A simple coffin inscribed with the names Travis, Crockett, and Bowie was filled with ashes from the funeral pyres. According to a March 28, 1937 article in the Telegraph and Texas Register, Seguin buried the coffin under a peach tree grove. The spot was not marked and cannot now be identified. However, in 1899 Seguin claimed that he had placed the coffin in front of the altar at the San Fernando Cathedral. In July 1936 a coffin was discovered buried in that location, but according to historian Wallace Chariton it is unlikely to actually contain the remains of the Alamo defenders. Fragments of uniforms were found in the coffin, and it is known that the Alamo defenders did not wear uniforms.

Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle "was but a small affair". Another officer, however, remarked that "with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil". Estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60–2000, with an additional 250–300 wounded. Most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards". Santa Anna ordered that the Mexican soldiers be buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo. Ruiz claimed that the graveyard was near full and that he instead threw some of the corpses in the river. However, Sam Houston reported on March 13 that all Mexicans were buried.

Texian survivors

Santa Anna spared several of the Texians found at the Alamo. He freed both Travis's slave, Joe, and Bowie's freedman, Sam, because they were or had been slaves, and he hoped the act of mercy would convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion. The surviving noncombatants were interviewed individually by Santa Anna on March 7. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Susanna Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury for her son who was of similar age. Each woman was given a blanket and two silver pesos. The Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Bexar; Dickinson, her daughter, and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben. Before they were allowed to leave, Santa Anna ordered that the surviving members of the Mexican army parade in a grand review, in the hopes that Joe and Dickinson would deliver a warning to the remainder of the Texian forces that his army was unbeatable.

Impact on revolution

Within hours of the end of the battle, the new Texas provisional government received Travis's March 3 dispatch. Unaware that the fort had fallen, delegate Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in Washington-on-the-Brazos to develop a constitution. After being reappointed commander of all Texian troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400 volunteers who had gathered to reinforce the Alamo. Shortly after his arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived to report that the Alamo had fallen with all men slain. Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. By the end of the day, however, Susannah Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales. On hearing their news, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered the army to retreat. This sparked a mass exodus of Texians from the Anglo settlements; even the government fled east.

Despite their losses at the Alamo the Mexican army in Texas outnumbered the Texian army by almost 6 to 1. Santa Anna assumed that all Texian resistance would crumble, and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory. News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to Houston's army. The New York Post editorialized that "had treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren".

On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's camp near Lynchburg Ferry. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and the Battle of San Jacinto was essentially over after 18 minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texian soldiers repeatedly cried "Remember the Alamo!" Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: "That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished." Houston replied, "You should have remembered that at the Alamo". Santa Anna was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and giving some legitimacy to the new Republic of Texas.

Legacy

Within Mexico, perceptions of the battle have often mirrored the country's view of Santa Anna. Many of the Mexican officers who participated in the battle left memoirs, although some were not written until decades later. Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many of the memoirs or other accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or became, outspoken critics. Petite, and many other historians, believe that many of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna. In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by the Mexican-American War of the 1840s.

In San Antonio de Bexar, the largely Tejano population viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battlesite; it represented decades of assistance—as a mission, a hospital, or a military post. As the English-speaking population increased, the battle gained more importance. Focus has become centered primarily on the Texian defenders, with little emphasis given to the role of the Tejano soldiers who served in the Texian army or the actions of the Mexican army. The Texas Legislature eventually purchased the property and appointed the Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) as permanent caretakers of what is now an official state shrine to the Texian defenders. In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a cenotaph, designed by Pompeo Coppini, which commemorates the Texians and Tejanos who died during the battle. According to Bill Groneman's Battlefields of Texas, the Alamo has become "the most popular tourist site in Texas".

The first histories of the battle were written and published by Texas Ranger and amateur historian John Henry Brown. The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter's The Fall of the Alamo, published in The Magazine of American History in 1878. Potter based his work on interviews with many of the Mexican survivors of the battle. The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was not published until 1948, when John Myers Myers's The Alamo was released.

According to Todish et al., "there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books, but from the various movies made about the battle." The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911, when Gaston Melies directed The Immortal Alamo. The battle gained a larger popularity after it was featured in the 1955 miniseries Walt Disney's Davy Crockett: King of the Wild Frontier, which was largely based on myth. Within several years, John Wayne directed and starred in one of the best-known, but least accurate, film version, 1960's The Alamo. In 2004 another film, also called The Alamo, was released. CNN described it as possibly "the most character-driven of all the movies made on the subject".

A number of songwriters have also been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo. Tennessee Ernie Ford's "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" spent 16 weeks on the country music charts, peaking at number 4 in 1955. Marty Robbins recorded a version of the song "The Ballad of the Alamo" in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts, peaking at number 34.

See also

• List of Alamo defenders
• List of Texan survivors of the Battle of the Alamo
• List of Texas Revolution battles
• Notable last stands

Notes

1. The plaza covered an area 75 feet (23 m) long and 62 feet (19 m) wide. The Low Barracks was 114 feet (35 m) long, and the Long Barracks was 186 feet (57 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide. (Myers (1948), pp. 180–1.)
2. A week after Neill sent his letter, the Texian provisional legislature impeached the governor, who in turn disbanded the legislature. The interim constitution had given neither party the authority to take those actions, and no one in Texas was entirely sure who was in charge. (Todish et al (1998), pp. 30–1.)
3. Houston, James Fannin, Frank W. Johnson, and Dr. James Grant (Todish et al (1998), p. 30.)
4. The Sabine River marked the eastern border of Mexican Texas.
5. Volunteers in the Texian Army asserted the right to choose their own leaders; most were unwilling to serve under officers in the regular army.
6. Although Santa Anna later reported that the cannon fire killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others, no other Mexican officer reported fatalities from that day. (Todish et al (1998), p. 40., Edmondson (2000), p. 304.)
7. Colonel Juan Almonte's journal did not mention any skirmishes that evening. In 1837, Santa Anna's secretary Roman Martinez Caro did report "two small reinforcements from Gonzales that succeeded in breaking through our lines and entering the fort. The first consisted of four men who gained the fort one night, and the second was a party of twenty-five". (Lindley (2003), p. 131.)
8. These Texian reinforcements were later dubbed the Immortal 32.
9. Susannah Dickinson mentioned this party in an interview in 1876.
10. Edmondson speculates that these men might have been sick or wounded and were therefore unable to fight. (Edmondson (2000), p. 373)
11. According to Petite (1998), p. 124, "Every account of the Crockett surrender-execution story comes from an avowed antagonist (either on political or military grounds) of Santa Anna's. It is believed that many stories, such as the surrender and execution of Crockett, were created and spread in order to discredit Santa Anna and add to his role as villain."
12. Lindley believes that Ruiz was not in Bexar at the time. Lindley (2003), p. 278.
13. Cremating bodies was anathema at the time, as most people believed that a body could not be resurrected unless it were whole. (Petite (1998), p. 139.)
14. The identify of this officer is disputed. Edmondson (2000), p. 374 claims that this remark was made by Colonel Juan Almonte, and overheard by Almonte's cook, Ben. Todish et al (1998), p. 55. attributes the remark to Lieutenant Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro.
15. The convention had declared independence on March 2.
16. Historians J. Frank Dobie and Lon Tinkle demanded that they not be listed as historical advisors in the credits of The Alamo because of its disjunction from reality. (Todish et al, p. 188.)

References

1. Todish et al (1998), p. 6.
2. ^ Barr (1990), p. 56.
3. Hardin (1994), p. 98.
4. Hardin (1994), p. 99.
5. Todish et al (1998), p. 20.
6. Barr (1990), p. 63.
7. Scott (2000), p. 71.
8. Scott (2000), pp. 74–5.
9. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 129.
10. Edmondson (2000), p. 128.
11. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 131.
12. ^ Myers (1948), p. 181.
13. Todish et al (1998), p. 10.
14. Edmondson (2000), p. 364.
15. Myers (1948), p. 180.
16. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 31.
17. Hardin (1994), p. 111.
18. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 29.
19. Todish et al (1998), p. 30.
20. Hopewell (1994), p. 112.
21. Hopewell (1994), p. 114.
22. ^ Hopewell (1994), p. 115.
23. Hardin (1994), p. 117.
24. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 32.
25. Hopewell (1994), p. 116.
26. Hardin (1994), p. 120.
27. Meyers (1948), p. 131.
28. Hardin (1994), p. 102.
29. Lord (1961), p. 73.
30. Hardin (1994), p. 103.
31. Hardin (1994), p. 105.
32. Lord (1961), pp. 86–7.
33. Hardin (1994), p. 121.
34. Lord (1961), p. 89.
35. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 36.
36. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 76.
37. Edmondson (2000), p. 299.
38. Edmondson (2000), p. 301.
39. Lord (1961), p. 95.
40. ^ Todish et al (1998), pp. 40–41.
41. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 78.
42. Todish et al (1998), p. 40.
43. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 308.
44. Edmondson (2000), p. 310.
45. Lord (1961), p. 107.
46. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 43.
47. Scott (2000), p. 102.
48. Nofi (1992), p. 81.
49. Petite (1999), p. 34.
50. ^ Hardin (1994), p. 132.
51. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 42.
52. ^ Tinkle (1985), p. 118.
53. Lord (1961), p. 109.
54. ^ Tinkle (1985), p. 119.
55. Tinkle (1985), p. 120.
56. Nofi (1992), p. 83.
57. Todish et al (1998), p. 44.
58. Edmondson (2000), p. 325.
59. Lord (1961), p. 14
60. Lindley (2003), p. 89.
61. Lord (1961), p. 105.
62. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 80.
63. Petite (1998), p. 88.
64. Petite (1998), p. 90.
65. Myers (1948), p. 200.
66. Tinkle (1985), p. 162.
67. ^ Lindley (2003), p. 130.
68. Lindley (2003), p. 131.
69. Edmondson (2000), p. 340.
70. Edmondson (2000), p. 324.
71. Nofi (1992), p. 95.
72. Scott (2000), p. 100.
73. Scott (2000), p. 101.
74. Lindley (2003), p. 137.
75. Lindley (2003), p. 138.
76. Lindley (2003), p. 140.
77. Lindley (2003), p. 142.
78. Lindley (2003), p. 143.
79. Todish et al (1998), p. 47.
80. Edmondson (2000), p. 349.
81. Todish et al (1998), p. 48.
82. Edmondson (2000), p. 355.
83. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 49.
84. Edmondson (2000), p. 360.
85. Hopewell (1994), p. 126.
86. Chariton (1992), p. 195.
87. Groneman (1996), pp. 122, 150, 184.
88. Todish et al (1998), p. 51.
89. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 373.
90. ^ Petite (1998), p. 123.
91. Hardin (1994), p. 148.
92. Tinkle (1985), p. 214.
93. ^ Petite (1998), p. 124.
94. Tinkle (1985), p. 220.
95. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 374.
96. Hardin (1994), p. 156.
97. Nofi (1992), p. 133.
98. Edmondson (2000), p. 407.
99. Groneman (1990), p. 119.
100. Petite (1998), p. 131.
101. ^ Chariton (1990), p. 78.
102. Petite (1998), p. 132.
103. Lord (1961), p. 167.
104. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 55.
105. Hardin (1961), p. 155.
106. Nofi (1992), p. 136.
107. Lindley (2003), p. 277.
108. Petite (1998), p. 128.
109. Petite (1998), p. 127.
110. Edmondson (2000), p. 377.
111. Edmondson (2000), p. 375.
112. Nofi (1992), p. 138.
113. Edmondson (2000), p. 376.
114. Todish et al (1998), p. 67.
115. Todish et al (1998), p. 68.
116. Lord (1961), p. 190.
117. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 378.
118. Hardin (1994), p. 158.
119. Lord (1961), p. 169.
120. Todish et al (1998), p. 69.
121. ^ Todish et al (1998), p. 70.
122. ^ Glaser (1985), p. 98.
123. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 211.
124. Schoelwer (1985), p. 18.
125. Schoelwer (1985), pp. 52, 56.
126. Todish et al (1998), p. 199.
127. ^ Groneman (1998), p. 52.
128. Groneman (1998), p. 56.
129. ^ Lindley (2003), p. 106.
130. Cox, Mike (March 6, 1998), "Last of the Alamo big books rests with 'A Time to Stand'", The Austin-American Statesman
131. Todish et al (1998), p. 187.
132. ^ Nofi (1992), p. 213.
133. Todish et al (1998), p. 188.
134. Culpepper, Andy (April 8, 2004), A different take on 'The Alamo', CNN, retrieved 2008-05-22
135. Todish et al (1998), p. 194.
136. Todish et al (1998), p. 196.

Bibliography

• Barr, Alwyn (1996), Black Texans: A history of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (2nd ed.), Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 080612878X
• Chariton, Wallace O. (1990), Exploring the Alamo Legends, Dallas, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556222559
• Edmondson, J.R. (2000), The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1-55622-678-0
• Glaser, Tom W. (1985), Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast (ed.), Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience, Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press, ISBN 0870742132
• Groneman, Bill (1990), Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 089015757X
• Groneman, Bill (1996), Eyewitness to the Alamo, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1556225024
• Groneman, Bill (1998), Battlefields of Texas, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556225710
• Hardin, Stephen L. (1994), Texian Iliad, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-73086-1
• Hopewell, Clifford (1994), James Bowie Texas Fighting Man: A Biography, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 0890158819
• Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003), Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions, Lanham, MD: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1556229836
• Lord, Walter (1961), A Time to Stand, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803279027
• Manchaca, Martha (2001), Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans, The Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292752539
• Myers, John Myers (1948), The Alamo, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803257791
• Nofi, Albert A. (1992), The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History, Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, Inc., ISBN 0938289101
• Petite, Mary Deborah (1999), 1836 Facts about the Alamo and the Texas War for Independence, Mason City, IA: Savas Publishing Company, ISBN 188281035X
• Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast (1985), Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience, Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press, ISBN 0870742132
• Scott, Robert (2000), After the Alamo, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556226915
• Tinkle, Lon (1985), 13 Days to Glory: The Siege of the Alamo, College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 0890962383. Reprint. Originally published: New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958
• Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998), Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 9781571681522

Further reading

• Crisp, James E. (2005), Sleuthing the Alamo, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195163494
• Hardin, Stephen L. (2001), The Alamo 1836: Santa Anna's Texas Campaign, Osprey Campaign Series #89, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1841760900

External links

• Official website for the Alamo
• Alamo Sentry: The Popular Culture of The Alamo
• Alamo Studies

29°25′32″N 98°29′10″W / 29.42556°N 98.48611°W / 29.42556; -98.48611

• Battles of the Texas Revolution
• Conflicts in 1836
• History of San Antonio, Texas
• Sieges