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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is method proposed for programming the mind, often promoted for the use of self-help, therapy, NLP modeling, new age spirituality, and remote ESP influence. NLP promotes the use of body language and NLP language to find the patterns of how someone performs(whether to model them or help them change). NLP also claims to teach processes for influencing patterns of thought, state management, changing beliefs (O'Connor and McDermot, 1996), examining intentions and values, and changing habits.

The developers claim that NLP is based on the communication patterns of three psychotherapists. NLP adheres to the notion that people have visual, auditory, and kinesthetic elements of thinking, and communicate non verbally. Some NLP techniques include behaviour change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas through techniques such as reframing (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994) and linguistic NLP "meta-modeling". The methods of NLP involve programming and reprogramming habits and mental associations, which some NLP practioners consider to involve the altering of engrams (Sinclair, 1992; Overdurf & Silverthorn, 1995; Drenth, 2003) . NLP has been applied to a variety of contexts including business, sports performance, the development of psychic abilities, and covert seduction techniques.

NLP is most often considered to be a pseudoscientific development by psychologists and psycholinguists (Lilienfeld et al 2003; Drenth 2003). Scientific research on specific NLP processes generally concludes that NLP is scientifically unsupported (Heap 1988; Sharpley 1987; Lilienfeld et al, 2003). This has led to NLP being classed as pseudoscientific (Eisner, 2000; Lilienfeld et al, 2003) and that it uses "dubious" ways to find out how minds work (Morgan 1993, personal opinion).

Overview

NLP is most widely known as a self help development. NLP’s promotion through the advertisement and sale of books and seminars has become increasingly widespread through the popular psychology sections of bookshops and various media including infomercials and the Internet. NLP change methods are promoted in various contexts including quick fix or lay therapy, some management training programs, and for more fringe practices such as seduction, and psychic or occult practices.

NLP emphasizes the mind-body connection (and some also include the spirit connection). The term "neuro-linguistic programming" includes three ideas:

1. Assumes that from birth, our unconscious creates and develops behavioral programs. Sometimes named automata, these programs are called thus in reference to the operation of the computers.
2. Any behavioral program rests on a neuronal basis; the product of an engram resulting from our sensory perceptions.
3. Language is a manifestation of the internal states of the person, internal states resulting from the neuronal or engram programs. NLP is thus proposed as a study of the way in which the human beings structure perceptions.

Some NLP proponents avoid theory to explain neuro-linguistic programming (Singer & Lalich, 1996); focusing on modeling or mimicking. However, once modeled, some processes have been related to existing theories (or new theories have been developed). Robert Dilts asserts that NLP "is theoretically rooted in the principles of neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics, and communication theory" (Dilts et al 1980). Sinclair (1992) theorises that NLP processes are explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams of the mind/body connection (Drenth, 2003) in order to effect change, to develop unconscious competence, and to treat trauma (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994). Some users explain anchoring as a form of pavlovian conditioning. Rex and Carolyn Sikes describe anchoring as "consciously creating the placebo effect". And NLP works through reframing and belief change methods (O'Connor and McDermot, 1996).

The engram is the neural network that represents past experience, and is sometimes thought of as a kind of hologram containing information from the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch) and the present thoughts (Schacter, 1997). According to Sinclair (1992) engrams give a patterned response which has been stabilised at the level of unconscious competence, which involve beneficial automatic activities as well as pernicious ones like addictive behaviour.

For example, the Swish pattern and chaining states and anchors, are primarily focused on the perceptive aspects of engrams (Derks & Goldblatt, 1985). These patterns involve the memory trace which can be located through the direction of gaze in space, and then can be accessed and manipulated using changes in internal visuo-spatial imagery.

Goals

The NLP user's goal may include changing a state of mind or "re-programming" beliefs and self concept. By detecting automatic body changes such as skin color changes, muscle tension, and eye movements, as well as other physiological responses, the NLP user attempts to discern how a client/subject or themselves perceive and relate to identity, life and personal beliefs, and life goal issues. NLP users claim to be able to help clients or themselves to replace false or negative perceptions, with positive, life affirming beliefs. Grinder describes NLP as "an accelerated learning approach for modeling human excellence" (Grinder, 2003).

NLP processes have also been applied to replace false beliefs, though the same process could be used to create false beliefs. NLP has been applied to therapy, coaching, self development, hypnotherapy, sports performance, business, and the New Age. NLP has also been applied to LGATs or large awareness training seminars (taught by NLP users such as Anthony Robbins), seduction workshops, and other more fringe practices such as shamanism, and psychic development.

Principles and Presuppositions

The principles and presuppositions of NLP are sometimes described as an epistemology. NLP claims to study how people access information via sensory channels, filter it with beliefs and values, and respond.

NLP calls some of these principles "presuppositions" - Presuppositions are background beliefs. The presuppositions are not necessarily true, but a practitioner may act "as if" it is true when working with a subject, with the intent to increase the effectiveness of change work.

Two fundamental presuppositions are: (Dilts et al, 1980)

• The map is not the territory. "NLP epistemology" follows Alfred Korzybski and Gregory Bateson's postulations that there is no such thing as "objective experience." The subjective nature of our experience never fully captures the objective world. NLP claims to study these "maps of the world" from which we are supposed to operate.
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and the operating environment are systemic. Our bodies, our societies, and our planet form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other.

The other most commonly related presuppositions are:

• Behind every behavior is a positive intention. This is a model taken from Virginia Satir's belief system, and means that whatever a person does, a positive intent is being fulfilled on some level (of which a person may not be aware). Assuming that the current behaviour represents the best choice available at the time, generating alternative choices to fulfil this intention is a systemic way to change unwanted or undesirable behaviours or traits.

• There is no failure, only feedback. If you think you have failed, consider instead what you have learned and how you might do it better next time (do not dwell unnecessarily on the failure).(This is a principle of feedback loop, borrowed from information theory. see, Asbby, Cybernetics).

• We already have all the resources we need to succeed. It is argued that this is useful for the subject to believe when attempting a change. An NLP trainer, Christina Hall claims that successful change work involves organising internal resources (states, outcomes, representations, etc.).

• Multiple descriptions are better than one. This makes use of the perspective of self, another involved individual, and a detached third person in that situation. By moving between perceptual positions it is claimed that one can develop new choice of responses (Bostic & Grinder, 2002 p.247).

Other more specific presuppositions can also be adopted for change in NLP. For example it has been claimed that the presuppositions of Jesus of Nazareth have been identified using NLP modeling:.

NLP Modeling

NLP modeling is a method of copying somebody's behavior, and is considered to be at the core of NLP.

NLP Modeling involves attempting to enter a special state of mind ("know nothing" or "stop the world state") as a clean slate to begin modeling. This is partly to avoid preconceptions or projection. The aim is to discover how people perform in a given niche, initially through observation and imitation. NLP modeling can be thought of as the process of discovering relevant distinctions within these experiential components, as well as relevant sequencing of these components necessary to achieve a specific result.

Several methods of modeling are being practicised within the NLP community, which often are combined while doing a modeling project. Analytic Modeling means applying the distinctions which are often used in NLP, such as the meta model, meta programs, values, beliefs, representation systems, etc in order to analyze the behavior of a model. When combined with research methodology from psychology, analytical modeling can be used for scientific research (e.g. see the discussion of Models of Excellence on jobEQ.com).

Many trainers stress that fully identifying with the model, which could be called embodied modeling is an essential part of the modeling process. However, when NLP practitioners do any modeling at all in practice, it is often "Analytic Modeling", wich Grinder now wants to exclude from his limited view on what may be called "NLP modeling". (announced October 17 2005-).

Sometimes strategy elicitation and modeling someone is done through biographies. For instance, Robert Dilts published models of Jesus of Nazareth's, Sherlock Holmes's, Albert Einstein's and Nikola Tesla’s internal strategies. Some NLP proponents have criticised this activity, and proclaim that with no access to the model (nor quality video), it is not possible to test whether the model is accurate. Similarly, scientists have criticised NLP modeling on the whole, stating that it is impossible to determine a "correct" model, applying one particular model to everyone is over-simplistic, and will be no substitute for hard earned expertise (Carroll, 2003).

Background

One of the earliest influences on NLP were General Semantics (Alfred Korzybski) as a new perspective for looking at the world which included a kind of mental hygiene. This was a departure from the Aristotelian concepts of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind that NLP includes.

General semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s, self-help organizations such as EST, Dianetics, and Scientology had become financially successful, receiving attention and promotion from human potential thinkers such as Fritz Perls who had a great interest in the engram concept, and during this period, promoted and operated a Dianetics clinic (Clarkson and Mackewn 1993). Hubbard's methodology provide raw material for Frederick Perls' Gestalt therapy (Joyce 1989). The Esalen human potential seminars in California began to attract people, such as the aforementioned Fritz Perls, as well as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, and Milton Erickson.

The first 3 people Grinder and Bandler modeled were

• Fritz Perls (Gestalt Therapy)
• Virginia Satir (Family therapy)
• Milton Erickson (Ericksonian Hypnosis)

(source Andreas & Faulkner, 1994)

Two other people were later modeled:

• Frank Farrelly (see eg. Provocative Therapy, a lesser known 4th model for NLP).
• Feldenkrais (eg. Feldenkrais Method, Bandler & Grinder modeled Feldenkrais, some says this is the NLP for the body).

These individuals were considered by Grinder and Bandler to be highly competent therapists. The verbal and nonverbal patterns detected by Bandler & Grinder became the basis of NLP, along with influences from Korzybski and Bateson (who coined the NLP expressions "The map is not the territory", and "the difference that makes the difference", respectively). Grinder and Bandler analyzed the speaking patterns, voice tones, word selection, gesticulations, postures, and eye movements of these individuals and related this information to the internal thinking process of each participant.

The practice of neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first although it eventually attracted business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall, 1994). As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into a book, Frogs into Princes. This became a popular NLP book; demand for seminars increased, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991).

NLP's core methods and hypotheses have been tested over the period from the early 1980's to the present and are scientifically unsupported, and as such, scientists class NLP as a pseudoscientific self-help development in the same mould as that of Dianetics and EST (Lilienfeld, 2003; Drenth, 2003; Levelt, 1995; Barrett, 1997; Carroll, 2003; Eisner, 2000; Raso, 1994).

Following the influence of the Esalen Institute, NLP is often promoted in combination with New Age developments such as biofeedback, neurofeedback, intuition development, remote viewing, and psychic development.

Basic Tenets

The basic tenets of NLP are thought of as 5 elements that NLP proponents claim will indicate an individual's internal strategies. These all refer to a single notion of internal strategies being either visual, auditory, or kinesthetic (with a less likely extra olfactory and gustatory).

1. body posture,
2. breathing,
3. gestures towards eyes ears or body,
4. eye movements (See eye accessing cues and PRS), and
5. language patterns (meta-model) and predicates such as "I see!" "Sounds right! or "I feel that..."(Dilts et al, 1980; Dilts, 1998).

Eye accessing cues and the preferred representational system (PRS)

According to this core NLP tenet, upward eye movements indicate visual processing, eye movements down indicate somatic or kinesthetic (feeling) processing, and eye movements to the sides indicate auditory (hearing) processing. Also, eye movements to the left, or right indicate if a representation was recalled or constructed (created) respectively. NLP proponents also use other cues to try to understand the preferred representational system (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) of the person. For example, the posture of a person could be; head up and erect, swaying or tilted, rounded and head down to indicate visual, auditory or kinesthetic respectively (O'Connor and McDermot, 1996).

Similarly, some authors (Bradbury, 1997) use internal Verbal/Auditory/Kinesthetic strategies in order to categorize people within a thinking strategies or learning styles framework, although these notions also lack scientific support. A empirical study published in Journal of Marketing Communications (Skinner & Stephens, 2003) found for most effect in TV advertising, express the message predominatly in a persons preferred preferred sensory representational system.

NLP advocates connect this with brain hemispheric science of left and right brain dominance for certain skills, such as logic and mathematics for engram traces in the left hemisphere, and creativity and imagination for engram traces in the right hemisphere (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a; O'Connor & McDermott, 1996). Some NLP proponents, such as Bandler and Grinder (1975b), Dilts (1998) and Lewis (1985) use left/right brain hemispheric differences to explain how the mind works in relation to eye accessing cues and preferred representational systems. However, scientific knowledge indicates that these are oversimplified and mythical popular psychology (Sala et al, 1999; Drenth, 2003).

Most evidence used by NLP users to promote the use of NLP appears to be unsubstantiated, uncorroborated or entirely anecdotal as testing of NLP "models" has shown that NLP has no significant scientific support (Heap, 1988; Platt, 2001). The conjecture that a person has a primary representational system (PRS) which is observed in the choice of words has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews (Platt, 2001). The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support (Heap, 1988; Platt, 2001). The assertion that matching PRS will increase rapport with the client has also been found to be false, and that therapists who try to match a clients' language using techniques proposed within NLP were rated by the client and external observers as being untrustworthy and ineffective (Heap, 1988). A personal opinion of NLP by hypnotherapist D. Morgan states that the methods of NLP are "devious, indirect, and dubious" (Morgan 1993).

Meta-model and Milton Model

The meta-model is a set of thirteen language patterns developed from Virginia Satir, and Fritz Perls designed to determine what a person believes about any given subject often in order to change those beliefs. These include distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a Ch3). The meta-model can be reduced to the asking a subject "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to gather more information as required.

The reverse set of the meta-model is the Milton-model; a collection of artfully vague language patterns elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson.

Together these 2 models form the basis for the all other NLP models.

Example 1: Distortions - Presuppositions

• Speaker: I'm afraid my son is turning out to be as lazy as my husband
• Challenge: Is your husband lazy?

Example 2: Generalizations - Lack of Referential Index (never, nobody, everybody, all, ...)

• Speaker: Nobody pays attention to anything I say.
• Challenge: Who doesn't pay attention to you?
• Speaker: My son and daughter.

Example 3: Deletions - Comparatives and Superlatives (best, worst, ...)

• Speaker: I'm feeling better.
• Challenged: Compared to what?

The meta-model has a close similarity to the original and earlier development of Cognitive Behavior Therapy's cognitive distortions.

Recent Developments

Since the mid 1990s, as NLP spread, and following the example of Richard Bandler (who attempted legal action to claim the bulk of the field as his own personal intellectual and commercial property because he could not resolve the dispute through the use of NLP (Salerno 2005). The dispute between Bandler and Grinder over trademarks and copyright was resolved in court of California in 2000 who deemed NLP a generic term (Salerno 2005)(Appendix, Grinder & Bostic, 2001). NLP has undergone some changes in the following directions:

1. Individual trainers have often introduced or idiosyncratically developed methods, concepts and labels, branding them under the "NLP" name (Carroll 2003)
2. Much is now targeted for niche markets (particularly commercialized, cut down or self-help usage), and these often involve disagreements within the NLP world, and may be more controversial or esoteric, sometimes charismatically or evangelistically taught, or are proprietary and customized packagings (Eisner 2000).
3. Further to this, NLP methodologies, have increasingly been used to model more controversial phenomenae, such as psychic power, magick, physical body changes and other reported states and abilities. Often the results are marketed as a shortcut way to achieve these oneself, using NLP's "brand" for credibility.
4. Some of the original developers, noteably Richard Bandler and the stage hypnotist Paul McKenna, have encouraged these trends and the resulting fragmentation and move towards "pop NLP" has discredited the subject in the eyes of many people.
5. As time has passed, even trainers who teach basic NLP have often been drawn (or perhaps come under competitive pressure) to focus on specific "applications", be it business use, medical use, or personal self-help use. This has also led to modern NLP to be seen not as the "toolbox", but as yet another new age fad.

NLP proponents claim that NLP is eclectic, open frame, and focused on what an individual practitioner feels "works". As such, it tends to be increasingly considered as pseudoscience (Drenth 2003; Lilienfeld et al 2003). Classical, core NLP - models, methodologies and applications which are common across the field, remain scientifically unsupported (Eisner 2000; Lilienfeld et al 2003). NLP is still taught using the claims to holism and eclecticism designed to immunize it from verifiable efficacy (Lilienfeld et al 2003). "New age" or "commercialized" NLP is increasingly targeted for saleability, and may be characterized as a blend of classic NLP, application specific training, possibly including personal theories and/or pseudoscience of the creator's choosing. Many such courses appear to depend more upon charismatic appeal, wish-fulfillment, quick fixes, and lack of critical faculty, than actual quantifiable results, and so are often considered pure pseudoscience. The original fad of NLP has undergone further controvercy and abandonment since the further realization that it is simply a faddy cult, and the divorce of Tony Robbins despite his commercial promotion of "Perfect Marriage" counseling has led to a great deal of disenchantment from his own followers (Salerno 2005).

NLP Applications

NLP has been applied to fields such as sales, therapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, management, business, occult practices, and spiritual development. This is both through the use of existing NLP patterns, and through modeling thought-to-be high performers in fields. NLP has spawned a 'toolbox' of NLP patterns which have been used in various fields in different ways.

Psychotherapy

NLP developers claim that the first "models" for the subject were from family therapy, hypnosis, gestalt therapy and provocative therapy. NLP certification does not require any professional qualifications. Eisner said (2000) exaggerated claims about NLP tend to be generated by unqualified NLP practitioners.

There are claimed to be various patterns (eg, the NLP fast phobia cure) for specific goals. Most of the basic NLP techniques can be self applied, though working with a practitioner is said to be beneficial especially for less basic change work. Qualified NLP practitioners claim to be able to do more complex NLP change work (Eisner 2000).

Self Help and Inspirational Seminars

NLP methods and models are often applied by personal and business coaches, whether for individuals and teams. Many people learn NLP processes as a means of personal development, and do not themselves formally coach or counsel others. Motivational speakers such as Anthony Robbins, promote NLP through books, seminars, and other such information products. (Robbins sought to trademark his own personalized style of NLP when it became a generic term.)

NLP seminars often involve LGAT methods of dissemination, similar to Landmark Forum and and EST seminars. Some of these seminars involve day long, or several day periods of large group awareness activities including the introduction of well known guest speakers and promotion of New Age products.

Coaching and other HR applications

With the raise in populatity of topics such as emotional intelligence and coaching since 1996, many NLP trainers and consultants are now applying NLP techniques in HR application areas.

Energy, Spiritual Experience and New Age Movement

NLP often involves spirituality especially with reference to the Dilt's Neurological levels. Similar to other amoral pseudoscientific psychocults such as Dianetics and EST (Novopashin 2004; Eisner 2000), NLP includes New Age notions of psychic energy.

The foundation for Bandler and Grinder's NLP is based in the New Age (Williams 2000; Swets and Bjork 1990). Although, for so many years people would say NLP didn't have anything to do with spirituality and yet the title of NLP Vol.1 is "The study of the structure of subjective experience", ... well if spiritual is a subjective experience how could it not be part of NLP." (Dilts, 1997).

Some NLP users consider the mind, spirit and physical body as a system; that is, each influences the other (Dilts 1992). Humans communicate by taking in information through the senses, but also by giving out communication as a kind of energy.

Bandler often uses shamanistic anecdotes in his seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999) and Grinder uses terms such as "first attention/second attention" and "stop the world states", terms borrowed from Carlos Castenada's New Age writings (see for example, Grinder & Delozier, 1987). Shaman and philosophers have used metaphor and some NLP proponents believe that every (succesfull) healer must make use of principles that are similar to those used by wichdoctors and shamans (Derks & Hollander 1998). As such, the Spiritual Healing process has been developed by Dilts and McDonald for the Tools of the Spirit program (1992).

According to some NLP proponents, using NLP, energy can be freed up from phobic responses and by using past pleasurable experiences as resources states (Bandler & Grinder, 1975; Bandler & Grinder 1979).

Hall (2001) claims that NLP can be used to “create both positive (+) and negative (-) psychic energy which operate at polar opposites from each other”. Energy can be created by using the “right words” (Lakin 2000), and by using inner commitment (Andreas and Faulkner 1996), and rapport can create an alignment of energy levels in two different individuals regardless of physical state (Valentino, 1999). James and Shephard (2001) claim that energy can be directed outside of the body all the way to the very furthest reaches of the of the universe.

Energy Psychology and the concept of energy is popular subject with NLP trainers and users; some NLP promoters even combine NLP with spiritual beliefs such as Huna and witchcraft (James and Shephard, 2001). Users who apply NLP patterns in spiritual contexts are said to be fully accepting of any religion whether it be Christian, Buddhist, Occultist, Taoist, Rosicrucian, or any other (O'Connor and McDermot, 1996).

Science

Scientific Testing

NLP has been empirically tested over many years, and it has been found to be largely ineffective (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). In 1984, the US National Committee, asked in to judge the various techniques of NLP using available research, and showed that NLP was scientifically unsupported (Heap 1988).

In relating to current understanding of neurology and perception NLP is in error (Bertelsen, 1987), and instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors (Druckman and Swets 1988). There is no evidence to support either NLP assumptions or NLP effectiveness (Druckman, & Swets, 1988).

A single critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) stated that Sharpley's review of NLP (1984) contained methodological errors. However, Sharpley (1987) refuted this and provided further experimental evidence to demonstrate that NLP is ineffective and in error in both method and model.

The 1988 US National Committee report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique" (Druckman & Swets, 1988). In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work" (Squires 1988). NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness (Heap 1989). A personal opinion of NLP by hypnotherapist D. Morgan states that the methods of NLP are "devious, indirect, and dubious" (Morgan 1993).

Where controlled studies have been performed attempting to test NLP hypotheses, such as the proposed relationship between eye movement direction and preferred representational system, the studies have consistently failed to do so (Von Bergen et al 1997), therefore NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny (Von Bergen et al 1997).

Thus, objective and empirical studies and review papers have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analyses have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment (Bertelsen, 1987, Bleimeister, 1988; Heap, 1988; Platt, 2001), and the reiterated statement that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP"'s claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy (Thaler Singer and Lalich 1996; Drenth 2003; Lilienfeld et al 2003; Eisner 2000).

NLP has not attained sufficient scientific support and as such it is considered inappropriate for thorough clinical studies (Eisner 2000), and due to general disillusionment with NLP it’s mention in psychotherapy journals and books is becoming increasingly rare (Efran and Lukens 1990).

There are also scientific explanations for why some people perceive some aspects of NLP to work sometimes. This can be due to the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment, distortion of fact through beliefs change misrepresenting the value in the treatment, and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures (Beyerstein, 1997).

Claims to science

As with other pseudoscientific subjects, NLP associates itself with science in order to raise its own prestige (Beyerstein, 1991). Grinder claims that NLP is both an art and a science (Grinder, 2003) and many NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators "scientists" and to use such terms as "science" to promote ideas, "technology", and "hi-tech psychology" in order to sell NLP (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). Grinder more recently has been promoting the epistemological side of NLP in contrast with its methodological and technological aspects.

NLP advocates attempt to associate NLP with great minds such as Einstein (Grinder & Delozier, 1987), and to imply extraordinary efficacy. Einsteinian thought supports Hume's dictum: "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence", though NLP promoters have failed to provide normal scientific evidence for efficacy or validity.

Psychological modeling distinguishes constructs or factors, it makes considerable effort to measure the existence and strength of the parts of the model, and takes great care to measure the distinct association between each proposed construct (Michie et al, 2005) and this contrasts sharply with NLP as NLP promoters make no attempt to fulfill these requirements. A criticism has been that "NLP modeling" (of patterns of excellence, based on high-performance models) cannot be verified through statistical methods (Carrol, 2003). According to science, without verification through statistical/psychological methods the techniques developed from patterns may have nothing to do with the patterns or their source models (Carroll, 2003).

Levelt a psycholinguist opinion is that "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming. NLP developers are not interested in the question as to how neurological processes take place, or in serious research" (Levelt, 1995).

Therefore, according to the principles of science, NLP promotes methods which are false, inaccurate or ineffective (Bleimeister, 1988; Heap, 1988; Platt, 2001), and develops techniques which may have nothing to do with either the models or the sources of the "models" and makes claims about thinking and perception which do not seem to be supported by neuroscience (Bertelsen, 1987; Druckman & Swets, 1988; Platt, 2001; Carroll, 2003).

Pseudoscience

NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development (Levelt, 1995; Williams et al, 2000; Lilienfeld et al, 2003; Drenth, 2003), who each also put it in the same mould as EST and Dianetics. This is in part due to the fact that the reviews of research on NLP have not supported either the assumptions of NLP or the efficacy (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996), but the NLP community continues to claim that the basic assumptions and methods are powerful, relying only on testimonials and anecdotal evidence to support the claims. NLP proponents are considered similar to proponents of Dianetics and EST. Dianetics and EST are considered pseudoscientific subjects.

Proponents appear to be resistant to subjecting the field of NLP to the scientific method (Levelt 1995).

Pseudoscience is prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of de-validated claims (Winn and Wiggins, 2001).

The characteristics of pseudoscience have been identified in NLP promotion. The characteristics of pseudoscience are (Lilienfeld et al, 2003) :

• The use of obscurantist language and psycho-babble (eg metaprograms, parapragmatics, sub-modalities etc)
• The absence of connectivity (Levelt, 1995)
• Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence (Krugman et al 1999)
• An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses designed to immunize claims from falsification (Singer 1999)
• Emphasis on confirmation rather refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)
• Absence of boundary conditions
• The mantra of holism (Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors(Eisner 2000)
• Evasion of peer review
• Reversed burden of proof (away from those making claim, and towards those testing the claim).

Pseudoscientific arguments tend to contain several or all of these factors, as can be seen in this example that shows ad hoc hypotheses and holistic argument as an attempt to explain away the negative findings, and an emphasis on confirmation and reversed burden of proof etc.

Criticism

The criticism of NLP from psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups, include inconsistency, ethical questions, cult-like characteristics, promotion of unwarranted claims, and ineffectiveness (see science section for pseudoscientific and unscientific information).

The British Psychological Society classes NLP as "quintessential charlatanry" (Parker 1999). Most evidence used by NLP promoters to promote the use of NLP appears to be unsubstantiated, uncorroborated or entirely anecdotal (Platt 2001).

Unethical use

Ethical concerns of manipulation using NLP processes has been raised. NLP processes are intended for change work, and when used as a set of techniques directed towards specific goals, can become mechanistic ("this is how to do that") or manipulative ("this is how to make someone do something").

NLP Processes can be used with or without consideration for the subject (no 'ecology'). In fields such as sales, there is said to be little or no long term focus, and more an effort to get the 'customer' to buy. Similar concerns have been raised over NLP patterns being used in "speed seduction" (see Ross Jeffries and David DeAngelo) and 'optional' concern for the person being 'seduced'.

Therapy and coaching fields usually require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines). The principle of Ecology in NLP covers many ethical considerations - this includes exploring a subject's wishes, and ensuring that any changes do not have a negative effect on a subject's long term wellbeing. However, ecology does not cover all ethical considerations, and few NLP trainings teach a specific code of ethics for the fields a student might apply NLP to (for instance, if you see an NLP practitioner, you may wish to ask them if the session is confidential).

"Ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands" (Beyerstein 1997). NLP claims are as yet unsubstantiated and the efficacy has not been psychologically proven by NLP promoters.

In general, it is unethical to use an NLP process to influence people without considering an individual's outcomes (Seitz and Cohen 1992). Some of the following sections also include ethical concerns.

New age remedies

NLP is often criticised as being a dubious new age therapy. This includes users attempting to model spiritual experiences within and outside of trainings. Also, some people who sell psychic services such as remote viewing or remote seduction, sometimes promote a connection with NLP.

NLP is sometimes sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic (by Richard Bandler) or Huna (by Tad James). Bandler often used anecdotes about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999). Dilts has modeled Jesus of Nazareth. Although NLP has been found to be largely ineffective, the general behavior of NLP advocates is one of wishful thinking and passing the buck which is characteristic of quick fix schemes (Singer & Lalich, 1996).

Cult characteristics

NLP has been associated with modern day cults (Langone, 1993; Tippet, 1994; Singer 2003), it is seen as an intrinsic part of modern ritual mind control tactics (Crabtree, 2002) and NLP has even been monitored by the Cult Awareness Network (Shupe & Darnell, 2000) and appears on some lists of cults (Howell, 2001). NLP is said to promote an "almost evangelical fervour" which makes practitioners unreceptive or even unprepared to countenance scientific reviews of NLP (Platt 2001).

The presuppositions of NLP create a background for reduced resistance in the guise of empowerment for the devotees. The presuppositional beliefs; in no fixed reality, positive intention regardless of negative action, and communication being the result of communication, leads to a fertile ground for manipulation on the part of cult leaders.

NLP has belief systems and social control methods. Certain cults use these in combination with the occult and pseudoscience to claim modern day miracles and induce dependence and compliance on the part of the cult's victims. NLP hypnotic techniques are used by both mild cults and very aggressive cults to induce dependence on the cult, and to further provide conditioning to induce compliance within the cult (Langone, 1993). NLP has resistance reducing mind control aspects. These are only effective in combination with the usual high social pressure, threats, and authority control used within cults or similar social situations, and make the victim passive and controllable. Langone (1993) claims that NLP is attractive to cult leaders due to its strong marketing push towards "the unfair advantage". New Age philosophies are compatible with the occult mindset of cult acolytes and leaders (Barrett 1997), and NLP is said to share these.

NLP training programs used in the business sector have received complaints of undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs, intense confrontational psychological techniques, and coercion through NLP. Aside from complaining that the participants were being put through programs tantamount to a forced religious conversion, employees also objected to specific techniques being used including intense confrontational sessions (Thaler Singer, 1995).

Extraordinary Claims

Numerous extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters.

NLP is often promoted as "the study of the structure of subjective experience" but as yet no specific "structure" has been recognized by science, nor is there a scientific acceptance of what such a structure would look like. Caroll (2003) observes that no formal evidence has been presented in order to support such a structure. A contrary argument is that such a structure must logically exist, since there must be some internal organizing principle in order for human experience to be functional, even if science has not yet investigated, identified or documented it.

In "The Charismatic Kid: Tony Robbins", the authors refer to statements such as "it's not uncommon for the turnaround on a phobia such as heights or spiders to be under 10 minutes" and that you can "make someone fall in love with you in 5 minutes" (Griffin & Goldsmith, 1985, p. 41). Anthony Robbins has also claimed that through neurolinguistic programming (NLP), clinicians can "cure people of tumors and long-standing psychological problems", and that NLP also has allowed him to "make a woman have an orgasm without touching her," and even "bring a person who was brain-dead back to life" (Leikind & McCarthy, 1991). Also, Bandler has claimed that he taught a novice woman martial artist how to beat an experienced martial artist by slowing down her perception of time (Bandler 1993. p105). It should be noted that many such claims are not that exceptional in an of themselves. For example there are clinically reported cases of brief phobia cures, and a range of anecdotal reports of oral induction of orgasm.

Thus in some cases the claim itself is extraordinary, in others the extraordinary element is not that such phenomenae can exist, so much as the implication that these are typical of results which can routinely and regularly be obtained by skilled practitioners, using a predictable and structured methodology.

Buzzwords and trademarks

NLP's existing patterns, processes and jargon are modified and rebranded for promotional purposes, which is considered a pseudoscientific practice. Motivational speaker Anthony Robbins, for example, uses NLP technology under the banner "neuroassociative conditioning" and promotes using gimmicks such as firewalking as explained by the humourist Dave Barry . Some terms or buzzwords, are invented such as anchoring (similar to conditioning), and embedded commands, which are actually more accurately described as hypnotic suggestions. Some terms are used completely out of context from the originally intended areas such as applied psychology and linguistics.

Many trainers and authors still use the generic term NLP (eg: Robert Dilts, Steve Andreas), though several others promote NLP under a different name while still referring to NLP:

• Richard Bandler now teaches DHE (Design Human Engineering)
• John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
• Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associaive Conditioning)
• Michael Hall teaches Neuro Semantics
• Tad James teaches Advanced Neuro Dynamics & Time Line Therapy

"NLP has been marketed to the general public using a broad brush approach to solutions" (Carroll, 2003), and adopts conveniently broad and simple terms, popular psychology, and pseudoscience and myths about the brain to promote its claims (Drenth, 2003). NLP lacks a coherent theory that would explain its terminology and mechanisms of action; it uses anecdotal stories and testimonials as "evidence", while lacks empirical support. NLP is said to have many characteristics of other pseudosciences: scientific-sounding jargon, reliance on anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated claims of rapid cures, absence of a sound theoretical basis, and over-promotion for financial gains (Krugman et al 1985). Nevertheless, the extended addition of pseudoscientific buzzwords and anecdotal promotion suggests that it will continue to operate on a commercial scale, with a disregard for objective proof of its proposed assumptions or claimed effectiveness.

Notes

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References

See Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography for a fuller list of Books and articles not directly referenced on this page.

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• Bandler, R. (1993) Time for a change. . Publisher Cupertino, Calif. : Meta Publications.
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• Barrett, D. (1997) Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions: A World Survey and Sourcebook. Pub Blandford.
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• . ISBN 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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• Beyerstein. B.L. (1997) Why Bogus Therapies Seem to Work. Skeptical Inquirer magazine. September/October 1997
• Beyerstein, B. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70-79.
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• Bradbury, A (1997) NLP for business success. Kogan Page.
• Robert Todd Carroll, Robert T. Carroll (2003) The Skeptic's Dictionary Publisher: Wiley; The Skeptic's Dictionary: neuro-linguistic programming (NLP).
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• Clarkson, P, Mackewn, J SAGE Publications

Fritz Perls (Key Figures in Counselling) (1993)  ? ISBN: 0803984537

• Crabtree, Vexen (2002). Ritual Mind Control Tactics. Retrieved August 28, 2005.
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• Christopher, P. (2004) New Religions: A Guide : New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. Oxford University Press ISBN: 0195220420
• Derks and Hollander (1998) Systemic Voodoo. Isbn 1907388896
• Derks, L. & Goldblatt, R.,(1985) The Feedforward Conception of Consciousness: A Bridge between Therapeutic Practice and Experimental Psychology. The William James Foundation, Amsterdam.
• . ISBN 0-9701540-0-3. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help) Two volumes, 1600 pages of "history, biography & related knowledge the steps to techniques and procedures".
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• Dilts, R. (1998) Modeling With Nlp M E T a Publications ISBN: 0916990419
• . ISBN -. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
• Drenth, J.D. (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science. Studia Psychologica, 2003, 45, 5-13
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  See On-line edition pages 138-149. Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
• Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy / New York : W.W. Norton
• Eisner, D. A. (2000). The death of psychotherapy: From Freud to alien abductions. Westport, CT: Praeger.
• Gallo, F, (2001) Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Norton and Company publishers.
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• Griffin, N., & Goldsmith, L. (1985, March). The charismatic kid: Tony Robbins, 25, gets rich peddling a hot self-help program. Life, 8, 41-46.
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  See
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• Hall, M (2001) The Spirit of NLP. Crown House Publishing ISBN: 1899836047
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• Heap,M. (1989) Neurolinguistic programming: What is the evidence? In D Waxman D. Pederson. I, Wilkie, and P Mellett(Eds) Hypnosis: The fourth european congress at Oxford (pp 118-124) London. Whurr Publishers.
• Howell, Tom (2001). Cults and Small Religions. Retrieved August 29, 2005.
• Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
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• James T, Shephard. D, (2001) Presenting Magically: Transforming Your Stage Presence with NLP Crown House Publishing ISBN: 1899836527
• Joyce, T, (1989) Gnosis no 12, Hubbards Ladder. Pub Chichester.
• Lakin, D. (2000) The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP! (Paperback) Lakin Associates ISBN: 0967916208
• Leikind, B. J., & McCarthy, W. J. (1991). An investigation of firewalking. In K. Frazier (Ed.)., The hundredth monkey and other paradigms of the paranormal (pp.182-193). Buffalo, NY
• Levelt W. (1995) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguistisch Programmeren! Intermediair 17 Nov pp113
• Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr (Eds.) (2003) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press, New York. ISBN: 1-57230-282-1,.
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• Novopashin. A. (2004) "Totalitarian Sects and the Democratic State. "International Conference in Novosibirsk: 9-11 November 2004
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• . ISBN Aquarian Press1855383446. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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Vol. 1, pp. 3-18 (ISSN: 1464-0538)

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• Schacter.D (1997) Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past Publisher: Basic Books; (1997) ISBN: 0465075525
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• Sinclair. J. (1992) An ABC of NLP. Publisher: Self-published (ASPEN) ISBN: 0951366017
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• Tippet, Gary (3 Apr 1994). "Inside the cults of mind control". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help) Retrieved 28 Aug 2005
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Publisher Facts On File New York.

• Winn, C.M , and Wiggins,A.W (2001) QUANTUM LEAPS..in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.

See also

• List of NLP topics
• NLP map
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Communication
• General Semantics
• Hypnosis
• Humanistic psychology
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Linguistics
• Logical Positivism
• Personal development
• Persuasion
• Transformational-Generative Grammar
• Syntax

Developers

• Richard Bandler*
• John Grinder*
• Robert Dilts
• Leslie Cameron-Bandler
• Judith DeLozier
• Stephen Gilligan
• David A. Gordon
• Carmen Bostic St Clair

(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.

Intellectual Antecedents

• Noam Chomsky
• Gregory Bateson
• Milton H. Erickson
• Alan Turing
• George A. Miller
• Bertrand Russell
• George Lakoff
• William Ross Ashby
• Ronald Langacker
• Jay Haley
• Frank Farrelly
• Moshe Feldenkrais

External links

• Official Website of John Grinder; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Richard Bandler; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Robert Dilts
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming Research Database
• Reviews of NLP training and trainers
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP
• Criticism from Skeptic's Dictionary

• NLP
• Human communication